See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/298743732

THE PONTENTIAL OF INTEGRATING GENRE ANALYSIS AND

FOCUSED ATTENTION FOR DEVELOPMENTS IN EFL
WRITING

Article · December 2013

CITATION READS

1 67

1 author:

Eliane Augusto-Navarro
Universidade Federal de São Carlos
7 PUBLICATIONS   22 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Eliane Augusto-Navarro on 17 March 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

THE PONTENTIAL OF INTEGRATING GENRE ANALYSIS AND
FOCUSED ATTENTION FOR DEVELOPMENTS IN EFL WRITING

Eliane Hercules AUGUSTO-NAVARRO

UFSCar – Universidade Federal de São Carlos

RESUMO

Apresentamos neste artigo uma discussão sobre como a integração entre a análise
de gêneros, com foco no nível micro estrutural (escolhas linguísticas), e a atenção
focada (sensibilização), podem ser integradas, com resultados favoráveis, em
atividades pedagógicas de produção escrita em língua inglesa para professores em
formação.

Palavras-chave: Sensibilização; Atenção Focada (grammaring); Análise de

Genêros; Habilidade Escrita; LE

ABSTRACT

This paper presents a discussion of how a micro structural genre analysis combined
with focused attention to language choices can be productively combined in
pedagogical activities aiming at teaching EFL writing to prospective EFL teachers.
Besides favorable results, it points out important variables to be considered in
future research.

Keywords: Awareness; Focused attention (grammaring); Genre analysis; Writing;

EFL

1. Introduction

When we think of language skills, writing tends to be one that

presents learners with enormous challenges, even in first language (L1). One
of the reasons for this difficulty, as pointed by Ferreira (2008, p.76), is that

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 26

there are widespread misleading ideas that writing well is a matter of reading
a lot or, even more questionable, a natural gift. It is also undeniable that
some discursive genres tend to be more difficult to accomplish than others,
which is the case of academic writing, both in first language and in second
or foreign language (L2 and FL, respectively), as evidenced by a large body
of literature about writing in academic settings (Hyland, 2007; Paltridge,
1994, 1995, 2012; Motta-Roth, 2006; Ramos, 2004; Swales, 1983,1990,
1996, 2004, 2012; among many others).
Writing to a discursive community1 (Swales, 1990, p.24) requires
being able to meet its expectations in terms of content and form. Being able
to actively participate in a community, by publishing the results of one’s
studies, for example, is an aim for most researchers all over the world.
However, this empowerment (Freire, 1987) practice has on many occasions
an obstacle, that is, the difficulty faced by researchers when they try to write
or deliver papers in a L2 or FL. At the same time, English has been widely
recognized as the major language of sciences (Swales, 2012; Wood, 2001,
among others). Although there has been a lot of research and publication
about academic writing in L2/FL and also on genre analysis, reflections
about practical pedagogical possibilities are far more scarce, at least in
Brazil, as argued by Ramos (2004).
The aim of this draft is to contribute to this practical perspective by
demonstrating and discussing how we have been productively combining the
aspects of awareness raising, subjacent in the Swalesian genre analysis
pedagogy, in association with this same phenomenon (awareness) in the
theory of grammar(ing) as skill (Larsen-Freeman, 2003) to develop our
students’ (prospective EFL teachers) skills in writing. It comprehends a
twofold agenda, one regarding studying genre characteristics to facilitate the
composition process and another about how to integrate grammar
comprehension (understanding language choices) in communicative
pedagogical units by focusing on specific genres.
As discussed by Larsen-Freeman (2003), even when teachers focus
on form and on communication, grammar and communication practice
remain segregated, when they should be integrated. Both, Batstone (1994)
and Larsen-Freeman (2003) acknowledge that there is a shortage of teaching

1 Swales (1990, p.24) Discouse Community is a key element in Swales’s definition of genre and refers to a group of people with
.
common interests, expertise and specific means of communication. Swales proposes six characteristcs to characterize a
discoursive community: 1) has a broadly agreed set of common public goals; 2) has mechanisms of intercommunication among its
members; 3) uses its participatory mechanisms primarily to provide information and feedback; 4) utilizes and hence possesses one
or more genres in the communicative furtherance of its aims; 5) in addition to owning genres, it has acquired some specific lexis,
and 6) has a threshold level of members with a suitable degree of relevant content and discoursal expertise.

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 27

materials that preview the integration of form and communication in
language teaching and learning. As a consequence, many teachers will have
no clue of how to deal with grammar and retain a focus on meaning at the
same time.
This paper brings illustrations and discussions with potential to bring
some contribution in filling this gap, as it discusses the importance of
helping learners to pay attention to the choices (and their respective reasons)
they have when writing in a given genres.
A first step in this respect is preparing learners to notice, as
persuasively discussed by Schmidt (1990), how language operates in regard
to its conveyed meanings. Noticing is also defended by Batstone (1994) and
Larsen-Freeman (2003, albeit with the name of awareness raising). Schmidt
(2001, p.5) also reminds us that “Even a cursory review of the SLA literature
indicates that the construct of attention appears necessary for understanding
nearly every aspect of second and foreign language learning.”.
Although we are aware that there are different degrees and
understandings of the term awareness, as discussed by Schmidt (1990), in
this paper noticing and awareness are used interchangeably, referring to
paying focused attention to something (language in this case).
Defending the importance of pedagogical developments and
analysis, Svalberg (2012) discusses the importance of investigating how
language awareness (which she calls LA) is developed in a process of
engagement with the language (EWL). In her words:

To have an impact on language learning/teaching, LA research in

the next ten years needs to provide a much richer picture of how
LA is constructed (the EWL process), how it is applied in language
learning classrooms in a wide variety of contexts, and how it
affects language learning. (p.385, originally underlined).

The study reported here derives from observing 16 (Portuguese

speakers) prospective EFL (English as a Foreign Language) teachers in a
discipline on EFL writing from a teacher education undergraduate program
(nationally named Letras) at a public university in Brazil. The aim of the
discipline is developing participants’ writing skills and preparing them to
become informed teachers of writing at the same time. Analysis of their
writing assignments shows that a first challenge for the participants when
writing, especially the academic genre (abstracts in this case), is at the micro
level linguistic choices.

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 28

 This paper brings a contribution exactly regarding the design and
adoption of teaching materials following a LA and engagement perspective.
The pedagogical practice discussed here consists of presenting students with
a sequence of genres from more to less familiar and complex (as detailed in
the methodology section).
Texts belonging to the selected genres are analyzed and produced in
different practical activities. These range from writing a piece of
advertisement for a product that participants have “created” to writing an
academic abstract to submit as a proposal to a conference on language
teaching (for demonstrating a lesson that they have designed). In each case,
participants’ production is preceded by an analysis of language choices in
texts belonging to the same genre that they will be assigned to write.
The rationale for this practice is the fact that a large body of research
in the area of L2/FL has demonstrated that “both attention and awareness
(and hence noticing) facilitate learning” (Svalberg, 2007, p. 289).
The proposed activities have proved fruitful in promoting
participants’ awareness regarding to language choices. The integration of a
micro structural genre analysis and the perspective of noticing (Schmidt and
Frota, 1986 and Schmidt, 1990) grammar(ing) as skill (Batstone, 1994 and
Larsen-Freeman, 2003) is grounded on the fact that both theories propose
learners’ awareness raising as significant to the learning process. This
awareness will also help learners to understand that conveying meaning is a
matter of language choice, that is, there are different ways to convey similar
meanings. We have to understand such difference to choose how we want to
express ourselves. As defended by both, Swales (1990) and Larsen-Freeman
(2003), language and choice are not dissociable, and there are reasons (that
should be considered) behind choices.
Although in our study we have not analyzed the acquisition of any
specific grammatical aspect of the language, our central question was how
the participants would react to the proposition of awareness raising
concerning language options in regard to specific genres. Data analysis
reveals that participants have engaged with the language, and understood
(became aware) the importance of respecting language choices in relation to
the genre of a given text (especially in relation to purpose and target
audience).

2. Genre analysis

In a recent volume of the Journal of Second Language Writing,

devoted to discussing the future of genre (analysis) in second language

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 29

writing, Tardy (2011, p.1) presents a brief history of this theory. She reports,
based on Swales (2009, a memoir), that as a response to needs of his
overseas students (in the late 70’s) in England, whose L1 was other than
English and expected to get their work published in English, Swales (1981)
has proposed his first rhetorical model for introductions of research papers,
initiating a landmark for the genre analysis pedagogy2, as known today.
Swales (1990) proposes genre analysis as a way to facilitate the
teaching and learning of English for Academic Purposes (EAP), especially
the writing of research papers (RP), by speakers of other languages. His
studies reveal that there are patterns more or less prototypical in the texts
and predictable (or desirable) rhetorical choices in each item of a RP.
Genre analysis pedagogy has as its main purpose to bring academic
language users (writers and or presenters) awareness about rhetorical-
organizational (macro-structural) and linguistic (micro-structural) textual
factors regarding each specific discursive genre.
The main focus of this paper is the micro-structure factor, because
our practice as a teacher and teacher educator for years has revealed, and
data discussed in the analysis session of this work demonstrates, that
grammatical aspects/ language choices are a first challenge when writing in
a FL (our working context).
Swales and Feak have developed a series of teaching materials
(2009, 2011 and 2012). The authors propose a pedagogical work focused on
abstracts in one of their 2009 book series. In this volume, the authors focus
on abstracts for: research articles, short communications, conferences, and
Ph.D. dissertations. Besides offering accounts for rhetorical moves, they
also provide some focus on appropriate language choices to meet specific
meaning challenges in the writing of different abstracts. They show, for
example, that there are basically four kinds of introductory sentences to RA
abstracts (Swales and Feak, 2009, p.10), as follows:

Type A: Economists have long been interested in the relationship

between corporate taxation and corporate strategy.
Type B: The aim of this study is to examine the effects of the
recent change in corporate taxation.
Type C: We analyze the corporate taxation return before and after
the introduction of the new tax rules.

2 Swales’ genre analysis pedagogy has originated from ESP (English for Specific Purposes). For further understanding on genre
analysis historical development see: Hyon, S. (1996). Genre in three traditions: Implications for ESL. TESOL Quarterly, 30, 693–
722.

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 30

 Type D: The relationship between corporate taxation and
corporate strategy remain unclear.

In terms of meaning, each of these different choices will determine

which kind of information and/or action the author intends to stress.
Furthermore, for each case there are appropriate language choices. This fact
is not necessarily transparent to language users (many times L2/FL learners)
and to express meaning the way they do want to, writers should be aware of
their possible choices in terms of both, macro and micro language choices.
Hyland (2007, p. 150) also discusses the potential of genre analysis
in the teaching and learning of writing and asserts that:

The introduction of genre pedagogies is also a response to the still

widespread emphasis on a planning-writing-reviewing framework
which focuses learners on strategies for writing rather than on the
linguistic resources they need to express themselves effectively.

The challenges of writing, especially in a language other than L1,

are many and far too complex to being accomplished using any single
method or pedagogical practice. Process writing (Zamel, 1982) has certainly
offered a rich contribution by supporting studies about how language
learners get and develop ideas when they first start to develop the skill of
writing in a L2/FL. Albeit helpful, this kind of practice is not enough to
enable academic writing.
By being taught to reflect about the rhetoric organization and the
possible linguistic choices in regard to their respective meaning, language
learners will be offered possibilities to have more autonomy in deciding how
they want to present and represent their ideas. This is not a curative
prescription, but certainly an additional perspective for generating more
choices in the learning and teaching of writing.

3. Focused Attention

The role of explicit language (especially grammar) teaching has

been largely debated in the last twenty years. The central question continues
to be whether a second or foreign language can and should be acquired only
by exposition and interaction, similarly to what happens with L1, as

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 31

defended by Krashen (1985) and researchers that support his theory or if
focused attention has an important role to play in the process, as reasoned by
Schmidt and Frota (1986), Schmidt (1990), and many other studies recently
developed after these two milestone publications about awareness and
language learning.
This question is important in the area of language teaching and
learning because it has direct pedagogical implications. Schmidt (1995)
argues that doing something incidentally is different from doing it
unconsciously. He recognizes that consciousness is hard to measure, and
even to define (Schmidt, 1995, p.5), but defends that the importance of the
question for the area of language teaching justifies the efforts of further
studies about this question.
Although the question of “if, when and how” to focus on language
form (s) when teaching L2/FL remains controversial, a number of recent
studies have reported concern about the role of grammar in foreign or second
language classes. Nassaji and Fotos (2004), for instance, remind us that
debates about the role of grammar teaching in language teaching have been
carried for 2000 years. The adoption of different teaching methods has
contributed to heterogeneous definitions of grammar, as well as posed some
difficulties in deciding if, and how, form-focused instruction should be part
of the curriculum.
Spada and Lightbown (2008) explain that those adopting a strong
communicative approach interface prefer to disregard a role for grammar
instruction in L2/FL classes. The (rich) input hypothesis (Krashen, 1985) has
certainly contributed to favor advances in the communicative approach, but
has also opened avenues of doubt about possible benefits brought by focus
on language form(s). Krashen’s assertion that what is learned consciously
does not become ready to access in spontaneous use has contributed to a
practice in which many professionals involved with language teaching and
learning disregard any role for grammar in ESL/EFL curricula. On the other
hand, Batstone and Ellis (2009, p.195) advocate that “effective grammar
instruction must complement the processes of L2 acquisition”.
Batstone (1994) states that there is a critical gap between product
(structure focused) and process (communication focused) teaching
perspectives. In his view, the first does not provide opportunities for
proceduralization (automatic language use) and the latter leaves room for
inadequacies in language use. For the author, combining product and process
teaching is desirable with the care of avoiding doing everything for the
learner in the product phase and providing opportunities for learners not only
participating actively, but activating grammar in the process phase. That is
exactly the idea of his proposal for teaching grammar as skill, integrating
focus on meaning with attention to form. Nonetheless, as reasoned by

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 32

Larsen-Freeman (2003), the essence of the question relies on what is meant
by grammar, that is, what concept of grammar one is considering when
discussing a place for grammar(ing) instruction. She defines grammar as
“one of the dynamic linguistic processes of pattern formation in language,
which can be used by humans for making meaning in context-appropriate
ways” (p. 142). The author also proposes a three-dimensional view of
grammar, showing that grammar has to do with form (syntax), meaning
(semantics) and use (pragmatics).
As stated by Nassaji and Fotos (2011, p. 5), traditional grammar-
based approaches departed from the idea that “language consists of a series
of grammatical forms and structures that can be acquired successively”. This
view and its consequent deductive and linear practice of grammar structures
has long proved inadequate in providing language learners with the tools
they need to communicate, precisely because communication involves many
more features, which are far more complex than memorizing grammar rules.
Albeit grammar is not only related to form (structure), the traditional
view that studying grammar means studying and practicing discrete rules
still prevail in the mind of many professionals involved with language
learning and teaching. This fact brings two consequences, both problematic
to our view: 1) many still stick to this sequential discrete practice, and 2) a
great deal have prejudice about a role for grammar in their practice and are
closed to more update views of grammar and its teaching.
In her book Teaching Language: From Grammar to Grammaring,
Larsen-Freeman (2003) proposes that grammar should be seen as a skill.
Grammaring is a term coined by her to refer both to the (synchronic and
diachronic) dynamism of language and also to defend the point of view that
grammaring is the ability to deploy grammar accurately, meaningfully and
appropriately in discourse level (our emphasis), and this ability might be
regard, according to the author of the term, as a fifth skill.
Taking discourse level language use into consideration, combining
genre analysis, especially focusing on linguistic choices that are appropriate
or more common in each genre, and a grammar(ing) pedagogy can create
rich language teaching and learning experiences. Both theories rely on
awareness raising to help language learners to understand reasons behind
language choices.
In a recent paper about the future of genre analysis, Swales (2011, p.
83) states that certain “grammatical elements have useful rhetorical roles to
play in the construction and deconstruction of academic discourse”. Besides
that, he also recognizes that metalinguistic terminology is important in the
development of “useful and applicable genre-analytic skills in graduate-
student writers”.

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 33

 Although we are aware of the importance of avoiding prescription
and imposition in any social segment, it is our understanding that pattern
seeking is different from patter imposing. It is important to be well familiar
with patterns to get started in a(n academic) discursive community, so that
one can have his/her voice heard, even when aiming at criticizing
impositions. As discussed by Larsen-Freeman and Anderson (2011, p. 168):

Learning the unique forms, vocabulary, and norms of different

discourses is empowering. Teachers who embrace this idea will
find themselves examining their teaching practice, choice of texts,
activities, and assessment tools, looking for when and how power
is explicitly or implicitly expressed. In addition, they may decide to
work with students on a sample of language, looking at the
author’s word choices, what grammar structures are used, and
other aspects of language use. This activity might increase
students’ ability to make vocabulary and grammar choices within
the range available to them.

It is important to recognize that the lack of tradition in integrating

focus on form and communication, and the need of further classroom applied
investigation, as proposed by Svalberg (2012), reveals a shortage of
available practical teaching possibilities.
Batstone and Ellis (2009) present some illustrative examples of
pedagogical practice that maintain a primary focus on meaning, but consider
attention to form. The authors defend that there should be three principles
supporting this kind of practice: 1) the given-to-new (departing from what
learners already know to facilitate the building of new relations between
form and meaning); 2) the awareness raising (asserting the importance of
consciousness in language learning), and 3) The real-operating conditions
(necessity to grant learners’ opportunities to experiment the target language
similarly to the ways it operates outside the classroom).
Ellis (2010, p. 198) writes in the conclusion of his paper on second
language acquisition (SLA), teacher education and language pedagogy: “the
purpose of an applied SLA researcher is not to assume the relevance of SLA
to language pedagogy but rather to enquire into its applicability”.
Consequently, those of us involved with the multiplicity roles of being
second/foreign language acquisition classroom researchers, teachers and
teacher educators; need to make our studies, practices and reflections
available, so that such applicability can be considered.

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 34

4. The study: context and methodology

This exploratory study consisted of analyzing how prospective EFL

teachers (participants, hereafter) would react to a pedagogical practice which
combines two theories aiming at learners’ awareness raising to improve their
writing skills in the target language (English). In the class where data was
collected there were 16 participants, whose age ranged from 19 to 24.
The context of data collection is a 60 hour-long course on EFL
writing at an undergraduate teacher education program in a public university
in Brazil. The discipline is offered in the third year (of a 5-year-long
program) and it aims, simultaneously, at improving participants’ (Portuguese
speakers) writing in the target-language and preparing them to reflect about
important aspects in the teaching-learning of (EFL) writing.
The syllabus has been designed to reach the dual goal and especial
attention has been given to awareness raising. Having that agenda in mind,
the theories that support our practice in the course are those of genre analysis
and focused attention to form (in the sense of informed language choices:
grammaring) especially because, as previously discussed, both theories rely
on awareness raising.
Regarding genre analysis, in the beginning of the course we identify,
together with the participants, by eliciting their impression upon text
analysis, three main pillars to determine a genre: form, communicative
purpose(s) and target-audience. As for grammaring, we guide the
participants to analyze what are the possible language choices in each genre
studied and discuss why.
The principle underlying this choice is that, as asserted by Larsen-
Freeman (2003, p. 21) the central role of a teacher should be to teach
students to learn, by cultivating in them an attitude of inquiry.
To reach our goals, the teaching activities are diverse, departing
from genres that the participants are more familiar with and increasing the
challenge as the course develops, arriving at abstracts as a sample of the
academic genre. The selected genres are: advertisements, fables, fairy tales,
comic strips, summaries, conference abstracts and journal abstracts.
There are three main reasons for selecting these genres: 1) they
range from more to less familiar to the participants (contributing to move
from known to new); 2) some grammar features are predictably salient in
respect to each of these specific genres (likely to facilitate awareness), and
3) the possibility to preview/review important language features and choices
in regard to the purpose(s) and target-audience of the text (discourse level
analysis). For example, advertisements for children are different from those

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 35

for adults; a summary to “sell” a book is different from one to reveal
understanding of main points, and so on.
All the activities aim at raising participants’ awareness about
linguistic factors and count on their participation to draw conclusions, so that
they are engaged with the language and also with their learning.
The sequence of the activities proposed at the course can be
summarized as follows:
• discussing the characteristics of (less prototypical)advertisements;
• reading and telling fables and fairy tales, transforming a fable into comic
strips;
• reflecting about changes in form though genre transformation;
• reflecting about what characterizes a summary;
• reading and discussing a theoretical text about genre analysis: Hyland
(2007);
• developing a pedagogical unit (PU), supported by a theory of each
participant’s choice (reading a theoretical text whose original abstract has
been removed);
• studying characteristics of journal abstracts based on Swales and Feak
(2009);
• writing an abstract for the theoretical text each one had read for
developing his/her PU and comparing it to the original abstract of the
text;
• studying characteristics of conference abstracts;
• writing an abstract to submit the presentation of their PU in a conference.

Data has been collected in three different ways: 1) A blog3 was

created to collect participants’ impressions about the proposed pedagogical
practice and development. Some of their comments are analyzed, because
these reveal their gradual comprehension and reactions to the pedagogical
proposes; 2) micro-structural features from participants’ texts written in the
genres studied are analyzed and discussed, as they show practical outcomes,
and 3) upon conclusion of the course the participants have been asked to
answer a brief questionnaire (5 questions)4 about what they had learned in
the course, their comments serve to evaluate their final view of the process.

3
Blog address: gaelmatew2012.blogspot.com
4
The questions were: 1) What do you think you have learnt in this course? 2) Do
you think you have learnt grammar? Please justify your answer. 3) Can you
establish any relations between textual genres and linguistic choices? If affirmative,
which ones? Why? 4) What have you learnt about academic texts? And
specifically about abstracts? 5) Please add any comments or suggestions that you
like.

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 36

 The data analysis, qualitatively discussed in the section 5 of this
paper (practice and results), show how each of these instruments help us to
understand which aspects from the discussed pedagogical practice has
worked well, what needs to be redesigned, and why.

5. Practice and results

The results from the pedagogical practice reported here will be

presented in the order that they occurred in the course. Participants’ texts
and comments are presented and commented along the analysis.

5.1. Advertisements

We have decided to work with advertisements, because they are

highly rich samples to raise awareness about the importance of the
communicative purpose(s) and target-audience in the form of a given genre.
Peculiar ads have been selected (see Figure 1) to make participants aware
that even when a genre resembles something else, its communicative
purpose (s) will help us to classify it appropriately. It also shows that there is
room for more or less flexibility in what is expected from texts belonging to
a given genre, depending on its purpose and audience.

5.2. Fables and fairy tales

We have chosen to work with fables and fairy tales, because of

several reasons: 1) they are popular genres, known by everyone; 2) most
people cannot tell promptly the difference of these genres, and an analysis
would be helpful in enriching awareness raising by participants; 3) there are
some grammatical features that may seem a little problematic for language
learners, such as reported versus direct speech, past perfect and the future in
the past, all which can be analyzed at discourse level within these genres,
and 4) as participants are preparing to be EFL teachers, they may use texts
from these genres in their future classes.
After telling, reading and enjoying firstly fables, and later fairy tales,
participants were asked to analyze their structure, comparing them to each
other, thinking of language choices, purposes and target-audience. Only after

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 37

this activity participants revealed being aware of the fact that fables and fairy
tales may seem alike, but that there are elements in the 3 basic pillars of
genre, one being form (language choices), that make each of them distinct
genres. Upon a first question about which were the characteristics of these
genres, most participants were confused about their difference.

Figure 1: Activity with ad to support awareness about genre characteristics.

5.3. Genre transformation

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 38

 The aim of this practice was to have participants manipulate
language and reflecting about necessary changes when similar ideas are
presented in different genres. Participants chose a fable of their preference
and transformed it into comic strips to present to their colleagues and discuss
necessary changes from one genre to the other.
Some of the participants, simply added pictures to the original
(fable) text and made some verb tense changes in the dialogues Others,
besides these, also changed lexical items (see Figure 2). Two of them, have
changed the plot, keeping the same idea and moral of the source texts, but
bringing more up-to-date subjects in the plot (see Figure 3).

Figure 2: Genre transformation – fable to comics – example 1

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 39

Figure 3: Genre transformation – fable to comics – example 2

Svalberg (2012) discusses the importance of language awareness

(which she calls LA) in developing engagement with the language (EWL)
through consciousness raising tasks. In her words:

It is important to understand why learners engage, or why they do

not. Task design can be expected to play an important role. An LA
approach to language learning/teaching is likely to make use of
what has been called CONSCIOUSNESS RAISING (CR) tasks.
The purpose of a CR task is that the learner should ‘arrive at an
explicit understanding of some linguistic property or properties of
the target language’ by carrying out a task on some L2 data (Ellis,
1997: 160). In other words, CR is one way of generating EWL
(Pages 377-378) (emphasis added).

Based on the results of our study, we defend that genre

transformation activities, such as the one illustrated here, have a rich
potential in getting students engaged with the language, and consequently
more aware of appropriate linguistic choices in accordance with each textual

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 40

genre. While the idea is simple, we would also argue that it is far from
common to find available teaching materials with this characteristic.
Regarding CR (consciousness raising) through EWL (engagement
with the language), one of our participants wrote in her answer to question 3
in the final of the term questionnaire:

Of course, considering different genres, for example, comic strips and tales,
linguistic choices are specific acording to text. I could realize it better by the
activity in transforming a fable to a comic strip.5 (Georgia)

Awareness is not enough, students will need practice and repeated

opportunities to reflect about the quality of their own language production,
as defended by many researchers in the area of language learning, including
Batstone (1994) and Larsen-Freeman (2003). However we believe that
awareness is a first and key condition for intake, as also defended by these
and other applied linguistics, especially after Schmidt (1990).

5.4. Summary

Summary writing is an important practice in the academic life and

surprisingly, every year when trying to elicit what our undergraduate
students know about its characteristics, we have realized that most do not
know the main characteristics of a summary. It has not been different in this
exploratory study, most participants said in class that they had written a few
summaries in high school, but also recognized that they had never been
really taught how to do or analyze it and revealed uncertainty about how it
should be organized.
Participants were assigned the reading and summarizing of
“Cinderella”, the literary version by the Grimm brothers, and later they
should compare their summary to a provided model . This activity was
designed to possibility awareness that only what is in the original text can be
used in a summary (students know different versions of Cinderella and often
wrote things from their minds). We also aimed at offering different language
choice possibilities in summary writing, by discussing, for example the

5
The participants’ texts will be maintained in their original form, without editing of
language mistakes (or errors). Also nicknames will be used instead of the real name
of the participants.

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 41

differences between a summary written to present understanding of main
points and one written to promote a book selling, for instance.
Participants reported their awareness of these facts in the blog
(gaelmatew). Some of the comments were:

I noticed that my summary is very poor in details. If it was a generic

summary about Cinderela's plot or something like that, it would be ok. But
since it was asked to us to do a summary from Grimms version, I think that
mine does not fit very well. There were also some language structure and
vocabulary that didn't fit quite well in the genre. (Nadia)

I've also noticed that the text was narrated as if the reader had a previous
knowledge of the narration, thus missing the goal of presenting the reader
with a complete and intelligible summary of the work in question.
(Samantha)

I understand also that a summary depends of the purpose, for example, the
using of the verbs tenses. It is common that fairy tales are narrated in the
past tense, but as we saw in class, fairy tales can be narrated in the present
tense also, it depends on who tells, what is the purpose etc. However, I think
I can change my summary on some points, for example, do not put
unnecessary information or implied, to attention to the use of appropriate
terms (ex: ladies, instead of "girls" in this case). (Andy)

As participants’ comments show, if educated to analyze their own

production in regard to others, they can notice the necessity of changes on
their own. This is part of educating for awareness (awareness raising) and a
key element in the teaching of genre analysis and grammar(ing) .
About the importance of this kind of outcome in language learning,
Svalberg (2012, p. 378) cites Eckerth:

Referring to Sharwood Smith (1981), Eckerth (2008: 12) explains:

Rather than L2 explicit knowledge per se, it is the potential effect
of such knowledge on input perception, language processing, and
output monitoring which can be conducive to second language
acquisition, an effect which has been referred to as
CONSCIOUSNESS RAISING. (original emphasis)

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 42

 It is also interesting to notice that some participants have chosen to
write their summaries either in the present or using direct speech for the
dialogues, as ways to avoid language structures that they were not
comfortable with. It reveals that they were able to make informed language
choices to have a better performance in their text writing, as seen in the
following examples:

Two stepsisters go, but the stepmother doesn’t allow Cinderella to join.
However, some friends help her and then she goes in secret. In the party (...).
(David’s summary)

The next day the prince went to reach the owner of the shoe, for he had said:
“I will marry the owner”. When he got at Cinderella’s house, the stepsisters
went down to try on the slipper, but their feet did not fit the shoe even after
cutting heels and toes(...). (Nadia’s summary)

Based on comments presented by the participants and on the

summaries that they have (re)written, it is possible to indentify how much
more sensitive to linguistic choices in regard to the genre they became after
performing the proposed activity.

5.5. Reading and discussing a theoretical text about genre analysis and its
pedagogical implications

Participants were also assigned to read the text Genre pedagogy:

Language, literacy and L2 writing instruction by Hyland (2007). They were
asked to write the main points of the text and there was a discussion about
them in class. The idea was to provide participants with a view of
pedagogical implications of genre analysis, which can serve them both, as
language learners and as prospective teachers. The rationale for that is our
evaluation that they should know why they were being introduced to genre
analysis. Understanding the reasons for practices is important, especially for
prospective teachers and they performed relevant discussions from this
opportunity.

5.6. Developing a pedagogical unit (PU)

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 43

 In the discipline where data has been collected, prospective teachers
are required to design a pedagogical unit. Besides being one more
opportunity to practice writing, it helps make participants aware that there
should be principles to design/adapt teaching activities.
They choose the audience and topic, but have to read a theoretical
text in applied linguistics, in accordance to the topic in their PU, to provide
them with some foundation for their work. For this study, the abstract was
removed from the original theoretical text, so that participants could write an
abstract for it after studying characteristics of journal abstracts. They later
had to compare the abstract that they had written to the theoretical text with
the original one, as described in 4.8.
Svalberg (2012, p 384) cites Andrews and McNeill (2005, p. 159) in
their discussion about how important it is to have teachers engaged in
reflecting about language choices:

We have become increasingly convinced that the extent and the

adequacy of language teachers’ engagement with language content
in their professional practice is a crucial variable in determining the
quality and effectiveness of any L2 teacher’s practice.

Designing a pedagogical unit has been highly engaging for the

participants, according to their comments at our blog, we can illustrate that
with the following comment:

During the process of preparing our teaching unit, I tried my best to do

something applicable and something fun. As future teacher and also
students, I believe that we have to prepare something that we would like to
be given to us in the classroom, so, due to this, a dynamics class, connecting
not only the four English skills but also the students’ progress and
production is always the best way to start. Something that Gary, Georgia
and Samantha and others have already said and I totally agree with them, is
that having a foundation text to guide us or even to clear up some ideas to
us, is very important and now that we know what some specific vocabulary
means (such as EFL, ESP – I never thought that ESP is so, so funny to work
it and so applicable and effective!! –,etc) we are able to found it ourselves,
not giving the excuse that the teacher (during our undergrad course) didn’t
help us.(Guido, blog).

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 44

 Guido comments on how good it was to receive some theoretical
support to design his PU, quotes similar impressions from three other
colleagues and reveal engaged with the task, by describing how much
reflection he made to accomplish it.

5.7. Studying characteristics of journal abstracts based on Swales and Feak

(2009)

After studying Swales and Feak’s (2009) chapter on journal

abstracts, participants had to read six abstracts from papers in Applied
Linguistics and classify, mainly linguist information, based on the
possibilities presented on a table containing features raised by Swales and
Feak (see Figure 6)

Figure 6: Summarizing characteristics of abstracts (table designed based on

Swales and Feak’s 2009 list of important characteristics from abstracts)

The idea was to give participants a chance to analyze an academic

genre. Abstracts seem to be appropriate, because they represent the extract
of a full paper, providing a flavor of research goals, methods and results.
Also abstracts are short and not too demanding for learners, in spite of being
challenging.
Participants were amazed by realizing the different choices that
authors can make when writing their abstracts. Some commented in class
that they had never thought of the implication of choices in certain
meanings. For example, verb tenses: if a writer uses the past to report an idea
he may agree with it less than if he cites it in the present, and so on.

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 45

 In the end of the term questionnaire, almost two months after having
studied the characteristics of abstracts, 9 out of the 14 participants who
answered it, mentioned important characteristics of academic texts and their
importance, as follows:

I have learned that academic texts have specific characteristics, such as

time, aspect, voice, sentence order and technical words that make academic
texts more scientific and reliable. I have also learned that it is very
important to read them! (Gary – question 4).

I learned a lot about this textual genre. Even in portuguese, I have never had
contact with this genre, so it was important the writing of this texts. Now I
can even transport what I have learned in English, to the portuguese
language, when I will write an article. For those who want to make their
career on this area (english studies) I think it’s even better, because now we
already know about this genre and its elements. Elements such as: research
topic, number of sentences, number of words, main verb tense, voice and
person, reference to previous studies and metadiscoursal expressions were
shown for us and its importance in the construction of program book
abstracts and article abstracts. (Emily, question 4)

It is possible to notice that participants are learning more than the

target language in this case, they are also learning the importance of
academic texts more generally speaking.

5.8. Writing a paper abstract

Participants were asked to write an abstract for the theoretical text

each one had read for developing his/her PU, and to compare it to the
original abstract of the text. This activity aimed at creating an opportunity
for noticing if they had made similar or different language choices when
writing an abstract and why. Participants point that they have realized what
were some of their problems and they enjoyed the opportunity.

Oh, it's a fact! Certainly I will write more accordingly. Since we are aware
of our mistakes and errors in a text, our mind recaps a great number of
situations in which we have needed to produce a text and we try don't

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 46

commit these problems again in another opportunity. This way comparisons,
analyses and feedbacks are extremely relevant in the building process of the
writing competence in a foreign language. (David, blog)

As Nadia and David said, noticing our own mistakes and errors make us
better, it’s a kind of progress specially when we rewrite the text after
analyzing it. So, the more we practice the best we will be! (Amy, blog)

Although participants had a good performance in terms of grammar

structures (regarding verb tenses, for instance), they have not noticed their
problems in word order in the sentence. They wrote some sentences in a
sequence that resembles Portuguese (L1), as we can observe in the following
examples:

This paper discusses how to facilitate the learning of a language based on a

syllabus which helps to promote conditions for that. English young learners
need an especific method to have a successful leaning, based on conception
of the language as communication. (Georgia, journal abstract).

The growth of Internet influence has been increasing and its use has become
part of the process of teaching and learning a foreign language. This article
presents an explanation about how the use of Internet technology nowadays
can help the development of materials and syllabus design, through the
appointment of many studies about the pedagogical characteristics of this
use and its importance on the construction of the knowledge (Piaget, 1932).
(Emily, journal abstract)

Finally, it talks about the impact of technology on writing pedagogy,

arguing about the importance of having instruction on thechnological tools
and online resources in order to use them in classroom and provide
feedback to the students. (Gary, journal abstract).

Many different aspects should be concerned when working on the production

of course books. Such aspects must be even deeply considered when thinking
about adult course books. (Nadia, journal abstract)

The developments that have been achieved are highlighted then according to
the skill it is related. (Bill, journal abstract)

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 47

 However, interestingly enough, in spite of having some sentence
order problems, they have structured their text more appropriately in their
journal abstract, when they had a source text to prime their writing, than they
did when writing a conference abstract based on the pedagogical unit that
they had designed by themselves, as we can observe in 4.10. These results
have important implications for the teaching of writing and deserve a
detailed study, considering that we cannot perform a comprehensive analysis
here due to space limitation.

5.9. Studying conference abstracts characteristics

Similarly to studying journal abstracts (described in 4.7), this time

participants read several abstracts from TESOL Conference6 2011 and
classified linguist choices based on the model presented in the unit studied in
their previous classroom (based on Swales and Feak, 2009)

5.10. Writing a conference abstract

Writing an abstract to be submitted for presentation of their PU at a

conference was a practice that aimed to provide participants with the chance
to practice a genre that they may need to write in their professional life.
As observed in 4.8, participants wrote in a sentence order more
similar to L1 in this activity, where they did not have a source text to write
an abstract from, but should have their PU as a source. Here are some
examples:

Believing that most of our students would have a pet, we thought that talking
about “how to take care of your puppy”, as the project is named, would be
an opportunity to involve the children in the discussions about it in order to
improve the four skils – speaking, listening, reading and writing-, to promote
familiarity to English language and to stimulate sense of responsibility,
which is important for that age level. (Georgia – conference abstract)

6 It is an important annual conference in the area of teaching English a L2 or FL. TESOL stands for

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 48

(…) Integrating the use of four skills (writing, orally, listening and reading)
and visual literacy, the exercises were prepared in order to call the students
attention to the importance of being aware about the structure of this new
genre and have already in mind the simple elements of the narrative genre
(characters, time, set, plot). (Emily – conference abstract).

Classes are build up with the objective of incentive students to work with
several aspects of the language in order to produce and share their own fan-
fictions.
(Gary – conference abstract)

We chose here to work with screenplays and comic books as an example

making them aware “of the language used there”. (Nadia – conference
abstract)

This article presents the use of an internet-based recent-born genre, the

memes, as a useful resource to help students to understand better the
concept of genre and its branches and also as a credible way to stimulate
and improve their production. (Bill – conference abstract).

As it can be seen from these examples, participants rely on the

structure of Portuguese (L1) to organize the sentence order. In future offers
of the course it should be taken into consideration and preemptive noticing
activities should be designed, focusing sentence order analysis. Naturally
after this intervention, we should analyze the results.
It is also curious that although participants had freedom to choose
any themes or linguistic questions that they wished in the design of their PU,
most of them decided to have some focus on the relations between the
genres they would work with and linguistic choices.

6. Conclusions

In this paper we have discussed how prospective EFL teachers in

Brazil reacted to being instructed through the combination of genre analysis
and focused attention (grammaring) in a discipline on writing. The aim was
to contribute with reflections about pedagogical practices in the teaching-
learning of the skill of writing in EFL. Results show that the integration of
the discussed theories has favorable outcomes in participants’ awareness
regarding language choice possibilities in the genres that they studied. The

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 49

exploratory study reported here has also indicated the necessity of similar
analysis with different foci, as the case of the sentence order (briefly
discussed in 5.8 and 5.10). We would also argue that the practice described
in this work has an important contribution in proposing a reflection about
ways to reach a dual challenge in EFL teacher education programs: to teach
the target-language and to educate the prospective teacher to be an informed
professional at the same time. We recognize that this study is limited in
showing participants’ language improvement (further studies are necessary
with more focused work), but at the same time it certainly shows that the
integration of genre analysis and grammar(ing) has a high potential in
favoring learners’ awareness regarding language choices.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author acknowledges the financial support received from “Fundação de

Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo” (FAPESP) (Proc. 2012/03944-
7). The author also fully appreciates Professor Diane Larsen-Freeman
(University of Michigan) for having received her during her sabbatical leave,
making the development of this study possible and contributing with
insightful discussions.

Recebido em julho de 2014

Aceito em agosto de 2014

REFERENCES

BATSTONE, R. Grammar. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1994.

BATSTONE, R., Ellis, R. Principled grammar teaching. System 37, 2009, P.
194–204
ELLIS, R. Second language acquisition, teacher education and language
pedagogy. Language Teaching 43, (2), 2010, P. 182-201.
FERREIRA, M. M. Constraints to peer scaffolding. Trabalhos em
Linguística Aplicada 47, (1), 2008, P. 9-29.
FREIRE, P. Pedagogia do Oprimido, 17a. Ed., Rio de Janeiro, Paz e Terra,
1987.
HYLAND, K. Hedging in Academic Writing and EAP textbooks, English
for Specific Purposes 13, (2), 1994, P. 239-256.
HYLAND, K. Genre pedagogy: Language, literacy and L2 writing
instruction. Journal of Second Language Writing 16, 2007, P.148-164.

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 50

KRASHEN, S. The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications. London, UK:
Longman, 1985.
LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. Teaching Language: From Grammar to
Grammaring. Michigan: Heinle ELT, 2003.
LARSEN-FREEMAN, D.; ANDERSON, M. Techniques and Principles in
Language Teaching. 3rd. Ed., Oxford University Press, 2011.
MOTTA-ROTH, D. O Ensino De Produção Textual Com Base Em
Atividades Sociais e Gêneros Textuais. Linguagem em (Dis)curso – LemD
6, (3), 2006, P. 495-517.
NASSAJI, H.; FOTOS, S. Teaching Grammar in Second Language
Classrooms: Integrating Form-Focused Instruction in Communicative
Context. New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2011.
NASSAJI, H.; FOTOS, S. Current developments in research on the teaching
of Grammar. In: Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, Cambridge
University Press, nº 24, 2004, p. 125-145.
PALTRIDGE, B. Genre Analysis and the Identification of Textual
Boundaries. Applied Linguistics 11, (3), 1994, P. 288-299.
PALTRIDGE, B. Working with genre: A pragmatic perspective. Journal of
Pragmatics 24, 1995, P. 393-406.
PALTRIDGE, B. Discourse Analysis: An Introduction. , 2nd. Ed., Hong
Kong: Bloomsbury Academic, 2012.
RAMOS, R. C. G. Gêneros Textuais: Uma Proposta de Aplicação Em
Cursos de Inglês Para Fins Específicos. The ESPecialist 25, (2), 2004, 107-
129.
SCHMIDT, R. W. The role of consciousness in second language learning.
Applied Linguistics 11, (2), 1990, P. 129–158.
SCHMIDT, R. Consciousness and foreign language learning: A tutorial on
attention and awareness in learning. In: Schmidt, R. (org.), Attention and
awareness in foreign language learning, Honolulu, HI: University of
Hawaii, National Foreign Language Resource Center, 1995, pp. 1-63.
Schmidt, R. "Attention." In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second
language instruction. Cambridge University Press, 2001, pp. 3-32.
SCHMIDT, R.; FROTA, S. Developing basic conversational ability in a
second language: A case study of an adult learner of Portuguese. In: DAY,
R. R. (org.), Talking to learn: Conversation in second language acquisition.
ROWLEY, M. A.: Newbury House, 1986, pp. 237-326.
SPADA, N.; LIGHTBOWN, P. M. Form-Focused Instruction: Isolated or
Integrated?. In: TESOL Quarterly 42 (2), 2008, pp. 181-207.
SVALBERG, A. M. L. Language awareness and language learning.
Language Teaching 40, (4), 287-308, pp. 2007
SVALBERG, A. M. L. Language awareness in language learning and
teaching: A research agenda. Language Teaching 45, 2012, pp.376-388

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 51

 SWALES, J. M. Aspects of Article Introductions. Aston Research Reports,
n.1, Language Studies Unit. The University of Aston at Birmingham, 1981.
SWALES, J. M. Developing materials for writing scholarly introductions. In
R. R. Jordan (org.) Case Studies in ELT. London: Collins, 1983, pp. 188-
200.
SWALES, J. M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research
Settings, Cambrigde: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Swales, J.M., 1996. Occluded Genres in the Academy: The case of the
submission letter. In E. Ventola and A. Mauranen (eds), Academic Writing:
Intercultural and Textual Issues. Amsterdam. John Benjamins, 1996, pp.45-
58.
SWALES, J. M. Research Genres: Explorations and Applications, New
York: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
SWALES, J. M. Coda: Reflections on the future of genre and L2 writing.
Journal of Second Language Writing 20, 2011, pp. 83–85.
SWALES, J. M.; FEAK, C.B. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: A
Course for Nonnative Speakers of English, Ann Arbor: The University of
Michigan Press, 1994.
SWALES, J. M ; FEAK, C. B. Abstracts and the Writing of Abstracts. Ann
Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2009.
SWALES, J. M ; FEAK, C. B. Creating Contexts. Ann Arbor: The
University of Michigan Press, 2011.
SWALES, J. M; FEAK, C. B. Academic Writing for Graduate Students:
Essential Tasks and Skills. 3rd. Ed., Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan
Press, 2012.
TARDY, C. M. The history and future of genre in second language writing.
Journal of Second Language Writing 20, 2011, pp. 1–5.
WOOD, A. International scientific English: The language of research
scientists around the world. In: FLOWERDEW, J.; PEACOCK, M. (org.),
Research perspectives in English for Academic Purposes. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2001, pp.71-83.
ZAMEL, V. Writing: The Process of Discovering Meaning TESOL
Quarterly 16, (2), 1982, pp. 195-209.

Revista Contexturas, n. 21, p. 26 - 52, 2013. ISSN: 0104-7485 52

View publication stats