Khulna

University
An Assignment on Mathematical
Biology

Course Title: Mathematical Biology

Course No: MATH-4217

Submitted to Submitted by

Dr. Md. Haider Ali Biswas Joy Bakshi

Professor 1. Student ID: 171242

Mathematics Discipline Year: 4th, Term: 1st
Khulna University 2. Mathematics Discipline
Khulna University

Submission Date: 08/10/2020

 dy
1. Graph the isocline of =x+ y .
dx
Solution: The isocline of the ODE is x + y=c. Or, y=c−x.
Matlab Code:
clear all
clc
[x,y]=meshgrid(-4:0.2:4,-4:0.2:4);
m=x+y;
L=sqrt(1+m.^2);
quiver(x,y,1./L,m./L)
axis tight
hold on
x=[-4:0.2:4];
y=[-4:0.2:4];
for c=-4:1:4
y=c-x;
plot(x,y,'r')
end
axis([-4 4 -4 4])
axis tight equal
axis([-4 4 -4 4])

dy
2. =2 x 2− y .
dx
Solution: The isocline of the ODE is 2 x2 − y=c . Or, 2 x2 −c= y
Matlab Code:
clear all
clc
[x,y]=meshgrid(-4:0.2:4,-4:0.2:4);
m=2.*x.^2-y;
L=sqrt(1+m.^2);
quiver(x,y,1./L,m./L)
axis tight

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hold on
x=[-4:0.2:4];
y=[-4:0.2:4];
for c=-4:1:4
y=2.*x.^2-c;
plot(x,y,'r')
end
axis([-4 4 -4 4])
axis tight equal
axis([-4 4 -4 4])

3. Graph the nullclines of the following ordinary differential equations

dx x
dt ( )
=2 x 1− −xy
2
dy 9
dt ( )
= y − y 2 − x2 y
4
Solution:
x
( )
2 x 1− −xy=0
2
9
( )
y − y 2 −x 2 y=0
4

MATLAB Code:
clear all
clc
[x,y]=meshgrid(-4:0.2:4,-4:0.2:4);
m1=2.*x*(1-(x/2))-x*y;
m2=y*((9/4)-y.^2)-x.^2*y;
quiver(x,y,m1,m2)
axis tight
hold on
x=[-4:0.2:4];

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y=[-4:0.2:4];
y=2.*(1-x/2);
plot(x,y)
y=sqrt((9/4)-x.^2);
plot(x,y)
axis([-4 4 -4 4])
axis tight equal
axis([-4 4 -4 4])

4. Draw the graph of the following two isoclines in MATLAB.

dx Lx
=f ( x , y )= A−Bx−
dt (1+ Mx)(1+ Ny )
dy Lx F
=g ( x , y )= −D−
dt (1+ Mx)(1+ Ny) (1+ Hy)
Solution:
MATLAB Code:
clear all
clc
A=2;
B=0.05;
L=0.004;
M=0.004;
N=0.002;
D=0.053;F=0.02;H=0.0004;
f=@(x,y)A-B.*x-L.*x./(1+M.*x).*(1+N.*y);
g=@(x,y)L.*x./(1+M.*x)*(1+N.*y)-D-F./(1+H.*y);
[X,Y]=meshgrid(1:5,1:5);
surf(X,Y,f(X,Y));

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hold on; grid on;
surf(X,Y,g(X,Y));

5. Graph the isoclines of the following ordinary differential equations

dx
=x (−x−3 y +150 )
dt
dy
= y (−2 x− y +100)
dt
Solution:
MATLAB Code:
f=@(x,y)x*(-x-3*y+150);
g=@(x,y)y*(-2*x-y+100);
[X,Y]=meshgrid(1:5,1:5);
surf(X,Y,f(X,Y));
hold on; grid on;
surf(X,Y,g(X,Y));

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 6. Graph the isoclines of the following ordinary differential equations
dx
=x ( 10−x − y )
dt
dy
= y (30−2 x− y )
dt
Solution:
MATLAB Code:
f=@(x,y)x*(10-x-y);
g=@(x,y)y*(30-2*x-y);
[X,Y]=meshgrid(1:5,1:5);
surf(X,Y,f(X,Y));
hold on; grid on;
surf(X,Y,g(X,Y));

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 7. Graph the isoclines of the following ordinary differential equations
dx x
dt ( )
=2 x 1− −xy
2
dy 9
dt ( )
= y − y 2 − x2 y
4
Solution:
MATLAB Code:
f=@(x,y)2*x*(1-x/2)-x*y;
g=@(x,y)y*(9/4-y^2)-x^2*y;
[X,Y]=meshgrid(1:5,1:5);
surf(X,Y,f(X,Y));
hold on; grid on;
surf(X,Y,g(X,Y));

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 8. Graph the isoclines of the following ordinary differential equations
dx
=x (−4 x− y +160 )
dt
dy
= y (−x 2− y 2 +2500)
dt
Solution:
MATLAB Code:
f=@(x,y)x*(-4*x-y+160);
g=@(x,y)y*(-x^2-y^2+2500);
[X,Y]=meshgrid(1:5,1:5);
surf(X,Y,f(X,Y));
hold on; grid on;
surf(X,Y,g(X,Y));

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9. How to linearize a non-linear system?
Solution: Let, an autonomous non-linear system be,
x ' ( t )=F ( x , y )
y ' ( t )=G(x , y)
¿ ¿
Let, the equilibrium point is ( x , y ) which is a fixed point. From multi variable calculus, we know
¿ ¿
that when (x, y) is close to ( x , y ), the non-linear system may be approximate by the system
dx (t) dF ¿ ¿ dF
=F ( x , y ) ≈ F ( x ¿ , y ¿ ) + ( x , y ) ( x−x ¿ ) + ( x ¿ , y ¿ )( y− y ¿ )
dt dx dy
dy (t) dG ¿ ¿ dG
And, =G ( x , y ) ≈G ( x ¿ , y ¿ ) + ( x , y ) ( x−x ¿ ) + ( x ¿ , y ¿ )( y− y ¿ )
dt dx dy
¿ ¿
Since, ( x , y ) is a fixed point so F ( x ¿ , y ¿ ) =G ( x ¿ , y ¿ ) =0. Then we get,
dx (t) dF ¿ ¿ dF
≈ F ( x¿ , y¿) + ( x , y ) ( x−x ¿ ) + ( x ¿ , y ¿ )( y− y ¿ )
dt dx dy
dy (t) dG dG
And, ≈ G ( x ¿ , y ¿) + ( x ¿ , y ¿ ) ( x−x ¿ ) + ( x¿ , y ¿ )( y − y ¿ )
dt dx dy
This is a linear system.
∂ F (x ¿ , y ¿ ) ∂ F ( x ¿ , y ¿ )
∂x ∂y
It’s coefficient matrix is, J=[ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ]
∂G(x , y ) ∂G( x , y )
∂x ∂y
¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
∂ F (x , y ) ∂ F (x , y )

[]
Thus, ' =
x
y
['
∂x
¿ ¿
] ∂y
∂ G(x , y ) ∂ G(x , y ) y − y
∂x ∂y
¿ ¿ [
x −x¿
¿]

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 10. Linearize the non-linear system
x ' ( t )=x 3−x ,
y ' ( t )=−2 y
Solution:
Consider the nonlinear system
x ' ( t )=F ( x , y )=x 3−x ,
y ' ( t )=G ( x , y )=−2 y
The solution is:
❑
dx −1
√
∫ x 3−x =∫ dt=¿ x ( t )=± ( 1−C 1 e2 t )
❑
dy −2 t
∫y ∫ = −2 dt =¿ y ( t ) =C 2 e
The fixed points are the interactions of the nullclines y=0 (the z-axis) with
x=−1 , x=0∧x=1
Stability at Fixed Points
3 x 2−1 0
[
The Jacobian matrix is J ( x , y )= ]
0 −2
with
2 0 −1 0 2 0
[
j (−1,0 ) =
0 −2 ] [
, j ( 0,0 )=
]
0 −2 [ ]
And j ( 1,0 )=
0 −2
Note that around the fixed points (-1,0), (0,0) and (1,0), the nonlinear system should behave like the linear
system:
x' 2 0 x+1 x ' −1 0 x x' 2 0 x−1
[ ][
y'
=
0 −2 y][ ] [ ] [ ,
y'
= ][ ] [ ] [
0 −2 y
And
y'
= ][ ]
0 −2 y
Respectively.
11. What is mathematical modeling?
Solution: A mathematical model is a well-defined mathematical object consisting of a collection of
variables and rules governing their values. The concept of the mathematical model is inspired by the
observation of some real phenomena.

12. What is curve fitting and simulation?

Solution:
Curve Fitting: Many of us has a wrong concept that curve fitting is modeling. Obtaining parameter values
by using data is called curve fitting. It is used for parameter determination.
Simulation: Predicting the behavior of some real scenario by using computer, is called simulation. It
involves computation with an assumed model.
13. What is dimensional analysis?
Solution:

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Dimensional Analysis: Dimensional analysis is a problem solving method that uses the fact that any
number or expression can be multiplied by one without changing it’s value.it is a useful technique.
14. Define Equilibrium point, Stability, Unstability.
Solution:
Equilibrium Point: A point x=x ¿ in the state space is said to be an equilibrium point of f (x) if f ( x ¿ )=0.
That means, if the state of the system starts at x=x ¿, it will remain at x=x ¿ for the future time.
Mathematically,
x ( t 0 ) =x ¿
Or, x (t) ≡ x , for all t ≥ t 0
¿

Stability: An equilibrium point x=0 of the state space is said to be stable if nearby solutions stay nearby for
all future time. Mathematically, the equilibrium point x=0 of x=f (x) is stable if for each ε > 0, there is δ >0
such that
||x ( 0 )||< δ
Or, ||x ( t )||<ε , ∀ t ≥ 0
Unstability: An equilibrium point x=0 of the state space is said to be unstable if nearby solutions does not
stay nearby for all future time. Mathematically, the equilibrium point x=0 of x=f (x) is unstable if for each
ε < 0, there is δ <0 such that
||x ( 0 )||< δ
Or, ||x ( t )||<ε , ∀ t ≥ 0

15. What is Linearization?

Solution: In Dynamical system, linearization is a method for assessing the local stability of an equilibrium
point of a system of non-linear differential equations or discrete dynamical systems. Mathematically, the
linearization of a function f(x) at “a” is L ( x ) =f ( a ) + ( x−a )∗f ' (a)

16. What is local stability and global stability?

Solution:
Local Stability: If we put he system somewhere nearby the point then it will move itself to the equilibrium
point in some time, then it is called the local stability of an equilibrium point.
Global Stability: Global stability means that the system will come to the equilibrium point from any
possible starting point.
17. What is dynamical system?
Solution: If the system changes over time, then it is called dynamical system. It is represented by a finite
number of coupled first order ordinary differential equation.
18. What is coupled differential equations?
Solution: A coupled differential equations is formed of two differential equations with two dependent
variables and an independent variable.
An example –

Page | 11
 

where a, b, c and d are given constants, and both y and x are functions of t.
19. What is explicit and implicit function?
Solution:
Explicit Function: An explicit function is one which is given in terms of the independent variable.
Example: y=x 2−3 x +2
Where, y is dependent variable and x is the independent variable. Here, y is given in terms of x.
Implicit Function: An explicit function is one which is given in terms of the both dependent and
independent variables. Example:
y−x 2 +3 x−2=0
20. What is bounded function?
Solution: If f is real-valued and f ( x ) ≤ A , ∀ xϵX, then the function is said to be bounded above by A.

21. Define Lipschitz continuous.

Solution: A function f is called lipschitz continuous if there is a constant K such that
¿ f ( x )−f ( y )∨≤ K∨x− y ∨¿

22. Define state equation.

Solution: Let us consider, a dynamical system is modeled by a finite number of coupled first order ordinary
differential equation as ẋ=f (t , x , u )
Then the equation is called state equation where, x=state variable and u=input.
23. What is space state model?
Solution: Let, the state equation be, ẋ=f (t , x , u ) and the output equation be y=h (t , x , u ).
These both equations are called together the state-space model or state model.

24. Define unforced state equation.

Solution: We know the state equation as ẋ=f (t , x , u ).
If we put the input as a function of time such as u= y ( t , x ) then we get ẋ=f (t , x ) .this equation is called
unforced state equation.
25. What is autonomous system?
Solution: If a system is time independent, then the system is called autonomous system. Mathematically, a
special case of unforced state equation arises when the function f does not explicitly depend on t, that is,
ẋ=f ( x ) . Then the system is called autonomous system.

26. What is non-autonomous system?

Solution: If a system is time dependent, then the system is called non-autonomous system.
27. Define direction field.
Solution:
Direction Field: The direction field is defined as the collection of small line segments passing through
various points having a slope that will satisfy the given differential equations at that point.

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 28. What is phase diagram?
Solution: Phase diagram is a way to visualize solutions to autonomous ordinary differential equation
dx
=f ( x ).
dt
29. What is qualitative analysis? Write the importance of it.
Solution: Qualitative analysis is a technique that uses mathematical and statistical modeling, measurement
and research to understand behavior. It represents a given reality in terms of a numerical value. It often
includes focus groups, open ended questionaries and surveys.
Importance:
 Qualitative chemical analysis has it’s main application in the medical and criminology fields.
Medical personnel may use qualitative chemical analysis in tests and procedures to treat and
diagnose patients.
 Detection of poisonous substances in the environment.
 Determination of irons present in a chemical substance.
 Determination of the type of gases produced in a chemical reaction.
 Finding the nature and identity of chemical substances.
 Determination of soil pH
 Determination of soil composition,
 Application in industries.

30. Why we linearize a non-linear system?

Solution: In a linear system, by analyzing the stability of a equilibrium point of an ODE we find a behavior
of that equilibrium point. The behavior of the equilibrium point which we find from the linear system and
non-linearity is same. That’s why we linearize a non-linear system.
31. What is null cline or iso-cline?
Solution: Null cline or iso-cline analyze the behavior of graphical representation of a system.
32. Write the advantages of linearization.
Solution:
Advantages: Linearization of a non-linear equation allows the use of linear equations to estimate a point of
a non-linear function, the further from that point the greater the likelihood of error. An iteration of linear
approximations applied to a non-linear functions necessitates choosing a step size, too small a step size will
be slow but more accurate while larger steps will be faster but may lead to instabilities.
For example a well-posed ordinary differential equation can be processed using a finite difference
method and solved using matrix differential equations. A matrix of small simple equations is easier, and
faster, to solve than a matrix of polynomials.
33. What is isolated point?
Solution:
Isolated point: In mathematics, a point x is called an isolated point of a subset S (in a topological space X)
if x is an element of S but there exists a neighborhood of x which does not contain any other points of S.
34. Write the Lyapunov’s method.
Solution: Lyapunov's method has been applied to investigate the stability of nonlinear systems.

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General Idea Consider the continuous-time system
x’ (t) =f (x(t))
with an equilibrium point at x = 0. This is a time-invariant system, since f does not depend explicitly on t.
The stability analysis of the equilibrium point in such a system is a difficult task in general. This is due to
the fact that we cannot write a simple formula relating the trajectory to the initial state. The idea behind
Lyapunov's \direct" method is to establish properties of the equilibrium point (or, more generally, of the
nonlinear system) by studying how certain carefully selected scalar functions of the state evolve as the
system state evolves. (The term \direct" is to contrast this approach with Lyapunov's \indirect" method,
which attempts to establish properties of the equilibrium point by studying the behavior of the linearized
system at that point.)
Consider, for instance, a continuous scalar function V (x) that is 0 at the origin and positive elsewhere in
some ball enclosing the origin, i.e. V(0)=0 and V (x) > 0 for x is not 0 in this ball. Such a V (x) may be
thought of as an \energy" function. Let V (x) denote the time derivative of V (x) along any trajectory of the
system. If this derivative is negative throughout the region (except at the origin), then this implies that the
energy is strictly decreasing over time. In this case, because the energy is lower bounded by 0, the energy
must go to 0, which implies that all trajectories converge to the zero state.

35. What is continuous function?

Solution:
Continuous function: A function f is continuous when, for every value a in its Domain: f(a) is defined, and.
lim f ( x )=f (a)"the limit of f(x) as x approaches a equals f(a)”.
x→ a
How to Determine Whether a Function Is Continuous:
 f(a) must be defined. The function must exist at an x value (a), which means you can't have a hole in
the function (such as a 0 in the denominator).
 The limit of the function as x approaches the value a must exist.
 The function's value at a and the limit as x approaches a must be the same.

Here is a continuous function:

36. What is C 1 , C2 , C ∞ function?

3. Solution:
C function: A function is C 1 if its derivative is continuous.
1

Page | 14
 C 2 function: A C 2 function has both a continuous first derivative and a continuous second derivative.
C ∞ function : A function is C-infinity if derivatives of all order are continuous. The function f is said to be
of class C ∞ or smooth, if it has derivatives of all orders.

37. What is bifurcation?

Solution: In the bifurcation, for a small change of parameter, there will be a significant change in the
structure of the solution of the system. Example: ẋ=f ( x )= x2 +a .

38. What is carrying capacity?

Solution: The carrying capacity of an environment is the maximum population size of a

biological species that can be sustained in that specific environment, given the food, habitat, water, and
other resources available. In population ecology, carrying capacity is defined as the environment's maximal
load, which is different from the concept of population equilibrium, which may be far below an
environment's carrying capacity. The effect of carrying capacity on population dynamics may be modelled
with a logistic function.
39. What is data collection? Define primary and secondary data.
Solution:
Data Collection
Depending on the source, it can classify as primary data or secondary data. Let us take a look at them both.
Primary Data
These are the data that are collected for the first time by an investigator for a specific purpose. Primary data
are ‘pure’ in the sense that no statistical operations have been performed on them and they are original. An
example of primary data is the Census of Bangladesh.
Secondary Data
They are the data that are sourced from some place that has originally collected it. This means that this kind
of data has already been collected by some researchers or investigators in the past and is available either in
published or unpublished form. This information is impure as statistical operations may have been
performed on them already. An example is an information available on the Government of Bangladesh, the
Department of Finance’s website or in other repositories, books, journals, etc.
40. Show the nature of different equilibrium point with figure.
Solution: Let us consider, the system of linear equation
d x1
=a x 1+ b x2
dt
d x2
=c x1 +d x 2
dt
The associated eigenvalues are the roots of the characteristic polynomial
λ 2−( a+d ) λ+ ad−bc=0
Depending on the eigenvalue, the solution has different behavior.
 For two non-zero eigenvalues:
I. The two eigenvalues λ 1∧λ2 are positive. When t →+ ∞, the solution explode tangent
to the straight line solution associated to the eigenvalue λ 1.
In this case, the equilibrium point is a source.
II. The two eigenvalues λ 1∧λ2 are negative. When t →+ ∞, the solutions “die” at the
origin. They tend to the equilibrium point tangent to the straight line solution
associated to the eigenvalue λ 1.

Page | 15
 In this case, the equilibrium point is a sink.

Figure: Sink
III. λ
The two eigenvalues 1 2 have different signs. In this case, the solutions explode
∧λ
whether when t →+ ∞ or t →−∞.
In this case, the equilibrium point is a saddle.

Figure: Saddle
 Complex eigenvalue: Let, the eigenvalues are, λ=α ± iβ.
I. When α <0, the solution tend to the origin, while spiraling. In this case, the equilibrium point is
called a spiral sink.

Page | 16
 Figure: Spiral Sink
II. When α >0, the solution explode or get away from the origin, while spiraling. In this case, the
equilibrium point is called a spiral source.

Figure: Spiral Source

III. When α =0, the solutions are periodic. This means that the trajectories are closed curves or
cycles. In this case, the equilibrium point is called center.

Figure: Center

Page | 17
 d2 x ( 2 dx
41. Let, the Van der Pol equation be, 2 = 1−x ) + x=0 . Show the nature of the solution of this
dt dt
equation.
d2 x ( 2 dx
Solution: Let, the Van der Pol equation be, 2
= 1−x ) + x=0 … … … … (1)
dt dt
dx
Let, y= . Then from (1), we get,
dt
x ' ( t )= y
y ' ( t )=−x + ( 1−x2 ) y
dx
The x-nullcline is given by, = y=0 . So, this is the x-axis.
dt
dy 2 x
The y-nullcline is given by, =−x+ ( 1−x ) y . So, this is the curve y= 2 .
dt ( 1−x )
Thus, ( x ¿ , y ¿ )=(0,0) is the only fixed point. The Jacobian matrix is,
0 1
J ( x , y )=[ ]
−1−2 xy 1−x 2
0 1
Or, J ( 0,0 )=[ ]
−1 1
So the linear system close to the original non-linear system around the fixed point (0,0) is, x ' ( t )= y
y ' ( t )=−x + y
x'
Or, [][ y ' =
0 1 [x]
−1 1 y]
1± i√ 3
The eigenvalues of the system are . Since, the real part is positive, the solution of the linear
2
system spiral away from the origin.
42. Define nullcline and isocline.
Solution:
dy
Nullcline: The nullcline is the set of points in the direction field so that =0. Geometrically, these
dx
are the points where the vectors are horizontal. Algebraically, we find the nullcline by solving, f(x,
y)=0.
Isocline: An isocline is the set of points in the direction field for which there is a constant c with
dy
=c at these points. Geometrically, the direction field arrows at the points of the isocline all have
dx
the same slope. Algebraically, we find the isocline for a constant c by solving f(x, y)=c.
4.

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