Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2

From the Editor-in-Chief

Prof. Dr. Ugur DEMIRAY………………….……..…………………………………………..……..……….3-8

Articles
Building a Synchronous Virtual Classroom in a Distance English
Language Teacher Training (DELTT) Program in Turkey
Belgin AYDIN and T. Volkan YUZER…………………….………………………………………………9-20

INTERNET USE ADOPTION AMONG ACADEMICIANS:

Comparing Innovative Adopters and Other Adopter Types
Norazah BTE MOHD SUKI and Norbayah BTE MOHD SUKI..……………………………………21-31

How Istanbul HSBC Bank Operators Use Lotus Notes

Within Electronic Performance Support Systems
Servet BAYRAM………………...…………………………………………………………………………..32-45

Comparison of student perceptions of classroom instruction:

Traditional, hybrid, and distance education
Mary Jo Garcia BIGGS…………………………………………………………………………………….46-51

Contemporary Spheres for The

Teaching Education: Freire's Principles
Margarita Victoria GOMEZ................................................................................................52-65

Online Collaborative Learning Enhancement Through the Delphi Method

Murray TUROFF, Zheng LI, Yuanqiong WANG, Hee-Kyung CHO.…………………………….66-79

Teaching Chemistry
at Indira Gandhi National Open University
Bharat I. FOZDAR and Lalita S KUMAR.…………………………………………………………….80-89

Running head: ONLINE AND TRADITIONAL STUDENT DIFFERENCES

Differences between online and traditional students:
A study of motivational orientation, self-efficacy, and attitudes
Dr. Tara STEVENS.……………………………………………………………………………………….90-100

The Use of WebCt in Distance Learning

Course in University of Manchester
Rosman AHMAD, Rodger EDWARDS and Bland TOMKINSON.……………….…………….101-108

Introduction to Complexation and Masking

Within a Computer-Enriched Module for Analytical Chemistry
Inci MORGIL, John H. PENN, Nilgun SECKEN, Ozge Ozyalcin OSKAY……………….……109-123

1
The Relationship Between Gender and Students’ Attitude
And Experience of Using A Mathematical Software Program (MATLAP)
Mehmet A. OCAK………………….……………………………………………………………………124-129

Quality And Processes of Bangladesh Open University

Course Materials Development
Tofazzal ISLAM, Morshedur RAHMAN and K. M. Rezanur RAHMAN…...……………..…..130-138

Economic Thought About Private Sector Education:

Policy Implications for Management Of Universities In Africa
Joel B. BABALOLA, Ademola S. TAYO, A. OKERDIRAN
A. O. AYENI and S. O. ADEDEJI………………..……………………………………………………139-152

PDAs: Revolutionizing The Way We Learn and Teach

Kimberly McDONOUGH and Zane L. BERGE..……………………………………………………153-159

A Novice Instructional Designer’s Principles for Internet Supported Learning:

An Example from Testing and Evaluation Course
Aysel BAHCE………………..……………………………………………………………………………160-171

Reviews
ON-LINE EDUCATION: An Emancipating Vision
Reviewed by Ricardo Romo TORRES………………………………………………………………172-175

Trends and Issues in Distance Education:

International Perspectives
Reviewed by Dr. Erhan EROGU.....…….…………………………………………………………...176-178

Teaching With Educational Technology in the 21st Century:

The Case of the Asian-Pasific Region
Reviewed by Dr. Abdullah KUZU……………………………………………………………………179-180

2
 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2 From the Editor

Greetings Dear readers of TOJDE,

I am pleased to inform you that in the 7th year of TOJDE is appeared on your screen now as
Volume 7, Number: 1. Very much thanks to all of you once more that we met with you
22nd time, since January 2000.

In this issue we published 15 articles like before issue, three book reviews, news and
announcements for our readers. And also, we cancelled for the Call for Papers to the 4th
Special Issue of The Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education (Volume: 7, Number: 2)
which would be delivered in April 2006, instead of this issue, for the reason that have not
enough quality papers for publishing on special theme.

36 authors from eight different countries are pleaced in this issue. These published articles
are from Bangaldesh, Brasil, Canada, India, Malaysia, Nigeria, Turkey, UK and USA

In this issue two articles are dealt with English Language Teacher Training (DELTT)
Program application in Turkey, by Anadolu University. I gave a place to them as the fist
and the last article.

The first article of this issue is coming from The Anadolu University, which is written by
Belgin AYDIN and T. Volkan YUZER. They are assistant professor at Anadolu’s Education
and Open Education Faculty. Their article titled as “Building a Synchronous Virtual
Classroom in a Distance English Language Teacher Training (DELTT) Program in Turkey”.
Their paper reports a synchronous project, “the virtual classroom” prepared for the
Distance English Language Teacher Training (DELTT) Program. The process of developing
the synchronous project and the interface with its specific components were reported with
examples and supported by theoretical background from the related literature. The
evaluation of the project concludes that the virtual classroom facilitated increased
authentic interaction and encouraged learners to become more autonomous.

Second article is dealt with internet use adoption among academicians which is written as
joint article by Norazah BTE MOHD SUKI and Norbayah BTE MOHD SUKI from Malaysia. In
their study which entitled as “INTERNET USE ADOPTION AMONG ACADEMICIANS:
Comparing Innovative Adopters and Other Adopter Types”, mentioned that how Internet
use differs between academicians who are innovative adopters and other types of
adopters. Data were collected from 301 respondents. Results provide new perspective on
innovative adopters among Malaysian academicians; they have less experience than other
adopters in shopping for products online, make fewer purchases online and pay small
amount of money in shopping for products online than other adopters. Directions for
future research are also discussed.

And than third article is “How Istanbul HSBC Bank Operators Use Lotus Notes within
Electronic Performance Support Systems” which is written by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Servet
BAYRAM. He is from Computer Education & Instructional Technologies Department at
Marmara University, TURKEY. His paper explores that use the Electronic Performance
Support Systems (EPSS) efficiently is important in developing web-based applications. In
this way, the aim of the study is proving the idea that Lotus Notes is a convenient tool for
creating a powerful EPSS within the HSBC Bank example in Istanbul. For this reason, EPSS
Domain Features Checklist is developed to assess the study group’s perceptions at the

3
bank. The participants of the present study group consisted of 104 expert Lotus Notes (LN)
users from the Bank Executive Management Center in Istanbul. It could be said that Lotus
Notes is a helpful tool to show and to explain how EPSS activities are doing in what
manner at the Istanbul HSBC Bank.

The fourth article is from Texas State University, USA. It is dealt with student perceptions of
classroom instruction which is titled “Comparison of student perceptions of classroom
instruction: Traditional, hybrid, and distance education”, written by Mary Jo Garcia BIGGS.
Her article reports the results of a project that examined student perceptions of the
psychosocial learning environment in a distance education classroom. The study utilized a
survey instrument, Distance Education Learning Environments Survey (DELES) that was
distributed as a pre-test/post-test to three sections of the same course taught in three
distinct formats: traditional classroom instruction, distance learning, and hybrid (partially
on-line/partially face-to-face).

The fifth article came from Brasil, written by Profa. Dra. Margarita V. GOMEZ. Her subject is
entitled as “Contemporary Spheres for the Teaching Education: Freire's principles”. She
focuses on Freire's cogitation on Information Technology (IT), resources for education have
been known since the decade of the 50s. Within the internet context, the proposal implies a
digital writing and reading ability that is based on communication and dialogue skills and, as
fundamental strategies for reading the world, the real/virtual world, the knowledge of the
daily speech, of writing and reading within a multi-diversification of digitally generated texts.
She stated that long distance education through the internet from Freire's prospective is
supported by the principles of popular education, that is: critical proximity to reality,
radicalism (there is no neutral education), announcement, political organization, text-context
relation, dialogical methodology without disowning the culture of silence that operates in the
internet and this what it generates. I hope it is very interesting article to learn about Freire's
principles for Tojde readers

The sixth article which is jointly written by Prof. Murray TUROFF, Prof. Starr Roxanne HILTZ,
Xiang YAO Information Systems Department, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Zheng LI
from Pace University, Dr Yuanqiong WANG from Towson University and Dr. Hee-Kyung CHO
from Fairleigh Dickinson University, USA. Their article is titled “Online Collaborative Learning
Enhancement Through the Delphi Method”. Their paper pointed out an overview of these
studies and then focuses on a recent case study in the fall of 2003 that demonstrated the
ability of a computer mediated asynchronous Delphi process as a tool to scaffold
collaborative idea generation and evaluation in both face to face and distance courses. The
use in this case of comprehensive, broad, one level interaction menu, and context visibility
to provide the submenu choices, are clearly two of the approaches that make an impact on
reducing cognitive overhead so the participants may concentrate on the discussion and not
the mechanics of the interface.

The seventh article which is also joint study which is written by Dr. Bharat I. FOZDAR and Dr.
Lalita S KUMAR, from School of Sciences, IGNOU, India. Their paper entitled as “Teaching
Chemistry at Indira Gandhi National Open University”. In this paper authors are try to define
intending to establish the credibility and authenticity of the B.Sc. (major) in chemistry
programme by giving a brief comparative account of IGNOU and conventional university
courses. It discusses the delivery aspects of this programme highlighting the existing
delivery mechanism, analyses the weaknesses in the present system substantiated by a
survey study and also suggests some new approaches to make chemistry courses more
effective from learner’s learning point of view. The survey study has been helpful also in
suggesting appropriate technologies for the effective delivery of Chemistry courses.

4
The eight article arrived us again from USA. The article which is entitled " Running head:
Online And Traditional Student Differences?" This title is discussed point of a study of
motivational orientation, self-efficacy, and attitudes, differences between online and
traditional students view. It is written by Dr. Tara STEVENS, Texas Tech University and
Assistant Professor Carrie SWITZER from University of Illinois at Springfield-USA. The paper
is aimed that to evaluate the differences in demographic characteristics, motivational
orientation, self-efficacy, and attitudes about technology between students who enrolled in
a course offered in the traditional setting and those enrolled in the same course online. The
two groups, each comprised of 27 students, were administered self-report measures to
evaluate their levels of technological self-efficacy, attitude toward technology, and
motivational orientation. Participants also reported their age, number of online courses
taken, and gender. Results indicated that the two groups did not differ in terms of their
attitudes about and feelings of self-efficacy toward technology. Despite many similarities in
motivational orientation, online students did report higher levels of interest, curiosity, and
intrinsic motivation, suggesting that students in online courses may prefer autonomy in the
course design. Further research is necessary to determine whether students seek out online
courses because they possess motivation or if online courses create motivation.

Next and he nineth article was sent to TOJDE by Rosman AHMAD, Rodger EDWARDS and
Bland TOMKINSON from School of Mechanical Aerospace and Civil Engineering (MACE)
University of Manchester, UNITED KINGDOM, Their paper is titled as “The Use Of WebCt In
Distance Learning Course In University of Manchester”. They mention in their paper that the
use of Internet was seen as an important issue in the development of an understanding of
the complex process of instilling knowledge to post graduates students. Well-established
universities are re-examining their missions and looking for different ways of providing
lifelong education. There was a clear agreement between both staff views and students’
views regarding the effectiveness of using WebCT within the MACE projects as well as the
other two WebCT programmes run in University of Manchester.

The tenth article which is jointly written by Inci MORGIL from Hacettepe University, John H.
PENN West Virginia University Department of Chemistry, USA; Nilgun SECKENand Ozge
OZYALCIN OSKAY from Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education, Department of
Chemistry Education, Ankara, TURKEY. Their subject is about “Introduction to Complexation
and Masking Within a Computer-Enriched Module for Analytical Chemistry”. Their paper
pointed out a web-based course was developed in order to improve pre-service teachers’
knowledge concerning complexation and masking in analytical chemistry. So, the effects of
web-based learning modules on the achievement and learning levels of students were
examined in this study on the subjects of complexation and masking. The result is that the
application of computer-assisted learning modules in chemistry education was found to have
a positive effect on the students’ achievement and learning levels.

The eleventh article reached to TOJDE from a young researcher from USA which is written by
Mehmet A. OCAK. He is PhD Candidate at the Department of Educational Theory and
Practice, State University of New York, Albany. His paper title is “The Relationship Between
Gender And Students’ Attitude And Experience Of Using A Mathematical Software Program
(MATLAB)”. His paper concerns correlation study examined the relationship between gender
and the students’ attitude and prior knowledge of using one of the mathematical software
programs (MATLAB). He concluded that the results of the study indicate that there is
positive correlation between students’ attitude toward the program and students’ prior
knowledge of using the program. Thus, it is clear that students’ familiarity and experience
on the use of MATLAB clearly affects students’ motivation. Teachers should use such

5
programs according to students’ expertise on the program and develop new strategies that
might catch interest, curiosity and enthusiasm. It seemed clear that effective use of such
programs like MATLAB in mathematics classrooms would be expected from all students who
have positive attitude and high experience on the program. Therefore, more research on
gender, attitude, and experience in such programs is needed to understand how students
work with mathematical software programs and use them as learning tool in the class
environment.

Next article is from Bangladesh Open University, BANGALDESH, which written by Md.
Tofazzal ISLAM from School of Agriculture and Rural Development, Morshedur RAHMAN and
K. M. Rezanur RAHMAN from School of Science and Technology, Bangladesh Open
University, which is titled as Quality And Processes Of Bangladesh Open University Course
Materials Development“. Their paper, attempt to describe the processes and quality of BOU
course materials development taking into account the strengths and weaknesses as well as
possible ways of improvement. It is mentioned in their article that as a new member of the
mega-Universities, Bangladesh Open University (BOU) introduced with an example a course
team approach for developing effective course materials for distance students. BOU teaching
media includes such as printed course books, study guides, radio and television broadcasts,
audiocassettes and occasional face-to-face tutorials. Each course team comprises specialist
course writer(s), editor, trained style editor, graphic designer, illustrator, audio-visual
producer and anonymous referees. An editorial board or preview committee is responsible
for the final approval for publishing or broadcasting materials for learners. This approach
has been proved to be effective, but appeared to be complicated and time-consuming. This
report focuses on the quality and processes of BOU course materials development taking
into account the strengths and weaknesses of the current approach.

The thirteenth one about is “Economic Thought About Private Sector Education: Policy
Implications for Management of Universities in Africa”, written by Joel B. BABALOLA from
University of Ibadan, Ademola S. TAYO from Babcock University, A. OKERDIRAN from
University of Ibadan, A. O. AYENI and S. O. ADEDEJI University of Ibadan, Nigeria and
Centre for Comparative Education Research University of Nottingham, UK. According to
them; this study provides relevant economic ideas that can assist Nigeria and other African
countries in making innovative policies at privatizing university education. A review of the
education market scene on the continent provides an imperfect market with adverse
consequences occasioned by inadequate information and unbridled competition. Advocating
a joint role for sharing the costs and benefits of university education between government
and private sectors, the study suggests a four-policy option for adoption by Nigeria and
other African countries. This paper demonstrates the positive managerial influence of a
competitive and complementary system of private university. Nevertheless, to forestall
market failure, this study rounds off by pointing out the reformatory, regulatory and
redemptive roles of government in the management of private universities in Nigeria and
other African countries.

PDAs: Revolutionizing The Way We Learn and Teach” is the fourteenth article which written
by Kimberly McDONOUGH and Zane L. BERGE. Their paper is outlining the current uses of
PDA devices and m-learning in the higher education environment, including the technology
behind PDA’s, benefits and limitations, applications for learning, instructional design
methods, and the future of m-learning. PDAs (personal digital assistants) also commonly
referred to as handheld devices or mini PCs. Computers are a common household necessity
and children are being exposed to the digital world at a very young age. Video games and
toys aggressively simulate real life images and scenarios. PDA’s are just one of the many
technology devices being used to make connectivity, communication, organization and
learning occur anytime, anywhere. Using PDA’s for learning is also referred to as m-learning,

6
short for mobile or on the go learning. This paper will outline the current uses of PDA
devices and m-learning in the higher education environment, including the technology
behind PDA’s, benefits and limitations, applications for learning, instructional design
methods, and the future of m-learning.

And, fifteenth as the latest article which is mentioned by me above from Anadolu University,
Eskisehir, Turkey on DELTT subject again which was titled as “A Novice Instructional
Designer’s Principles for Internet Supported Learning: An Example from Testing and
Evaluation Course”, written By Aysel BAHCE PhD. She is also, Vice Director of School of
Foreign Languages Anadolu University. Developing Internet support materials and being an
instructional designer is a real challenge for someone coming from face-to-face education
culture. This definitely requires a new interpretation of teaching and a change in culture and
expectation. However, both in face-to-face education and distance education the teachers’
responsibility is the same: guiding students’ learning. This responsibility, theoretical
knowledge and classroom experience—knowing student nature and teaching the same
course in face-to face education—played important roles in the development of educational
scenarios. To help students to read-to-learn, reading models are used. By stating the
objectives explicitly, students are guided to set their own agenda for learning. Different
types of pre-reading activities aimed at tuning students in the reading so that they would
not start reading with an empty mind. By the help of these activities either their background
knowledge is activated or they are leaded to set expectations. The during reading tasks
aimed at helping them to shift from “learning-to-read” to “reading-to-learn” by highlighting
the important information in the texts and the text organization. Highlighting the important
information is essential as students have a tendency to read and to try to understand every
detail in the text. By the help of these activities, students learn the major points and minor
points. So, in her paper, the principles that govern the development of the instructional
strategies of Testing and Evaluation in English course of Distance English Language Teacher
Training (DELTT) Program are presented. Firstly, the program and the course are described
briefly. Then the major underlying principles are presented with reference to the related
literature and examples from the course are provided.

Three book reviews are published in this issue which entitled as “ON-LINE EDUCATION: An
Emancipating Vision”, edited by Written by Margarita Victoria Gomez and, published by
Cortez Editora, São Paulo, Brazil, in July 2004. Sthe second one is “Trends and Issues in
Distance Education: International Perspectives”, edited by Yusra Laila Visser, Lya Visser,
Michael Simonsın, & Ray Amirault, 2005, USA, Information Age Publishing. The last and third
one is entitled “Teaching With Educational Technology in the 21st Century: The Case of The
Asian-Pasific Region”, edited by Yukiko Inoue & Suzanne Belland and published by
Information Science Publishing in 2006.

The first book “ON-LINE EDUCATION: An Emancipating Vision” is reviewed by Ricardo Romo
TORRES. He is from Manuel Moreno Castaneda, Maria del Sol Orozco Aguirre, Universidad de
Guadalajara Virtual, MEXICO. Reviewer Dr. Torres indicates in his review that “"On-line
Education" is a book that meets the challenge to present itself as an unfinished text. In
addition to demanding an active participation of the reader, it requires a predisposition to
complete it through an also inconclusive dialogue. Among its goals we can find the search
for education networks that remain under constant reconstruction, maintaining the
emancipative vision as an imperative for the reconfiguration, as a constituted tissue for the
scaffolding of subjects who impress, imagine, think and have a will”.

Second book, is “Trends and Issues in Distance Education: International Perspectives”.

Edited by Yusra L. Visser, Lya Visser, Michael Simonsın, Ray Amirault, 2005, Information Age
Publishing, USA. Reviewed by Dr. Erhan EROGLU, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, TURKEY. In

7
this book, the terms of “distance education” has been discussed from different perspectives.
The term “distance education” conjures up in many minds the image of modern, computer-
enabled technology that has blossomed in only the last twenty years. Many of the lessons
learned over the last century of distance education research and practice have been
implemented in a wide variety of distance education programs worldwide, from higher
education online learning programs in the United States to rural, radio-based instructional
programs in developing countries. Distance education is truly international discipline. While
it is true that the term “distance education” has a universal definiton, local distance ducation
experiences are often quite idiosyncratic. This idiosyncratic nature emerges from the need to
integrate distance education within the constraints, oppurtunities, and realities of spesific
cultural and geographic contexts. From these local distance education experiences,
educators are developing new understandings of the broader field of distance education,
including the trends and issues present in the field.

The third book is entitled “Teaching With Educational Technology in the 21st Century: The
Case of The Asian-Pasific Region”, edited by Yukiko Inoue & Suzanne Belland and published
by Information Science Publishing in 2006. Book is reviewed by Dr. Abdullah KUZU, Anadolu
University, Eskisehir, TURKEY. The book describes the opportunities, challenges and
strategies of the technology-enhanced learning in the regional base, namely Asia-Pacific.
The main goal of the book is to examine educational technology, learning theories, human
learning and cognition; to provide successful experiences in higher education and
educational technology; to explain the technology integration into teaching in
geographically remote regions such as Guam and Micronesia; to support faculty members in
technology use and achieve the reluctance, and to discuss the future trends in educational
technology.

In the other sections are again in the same format as usual as TOJDE’s presenting style.
News and some announcements are placed in this issue too.

Dear readers, you can reach us online either directly at http://tojde.anadolu.edu.tr or by

visiting Anadolu University homepage at http://www.anadolu.edu.tr from English version,
clicking on Scientific Research button and than go to the Referred Journals.

To receive further information and to send your recommendations and remarks, or to submit
articles for consideration, please contact TOJDE Secretariat at the below address or e-mail
us to [email protected]

Hope to stay in touch and to meet in our next Issue, in July 2006.

Cordially,
31st March 2006

Prof. Dr. Ugur Demiray

Editor-in-Chief
Anadolu University Yunusemre Campus 26470-Eskisehir TURKEY
Tel: +90 222 335 0581 ext. 2521 or Direct: +90 222 249 0576
GSM: +90 542 232 21 167
Fax: +90 222 320 4520 or +90 222 249 0576
Emails: [email protected] or [email protected]
URL: http://home.anadolu.edu.tr/~udemiray
URL: http://tojde.anadolu.edu.tr

8
 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2 Article: 1

Building a Synchronous Virtual Classroom in a Distance English

Language Teacher Training (DELTT) Program in Turkey
Belgin AYDIN, Ph.D.
Anadolu University
Education Faculty
Eskisehir, TURKEY

T. Volkan YUZER, Ph.D.

Anadolu University
Open Education Faculty
Eskisehir, TURKEY

ABSTRACT

This paper reports a synchronous project, “the virtual classroom” prepared for the Distance
English Language Teacher Training (DELTT) Program. The process of developing the
synchronous project and the interface with its specific components were reported with
examples and supported by theoretical background from the related literature. The
evaluation of the project concludes that the virtual classroom facilitated increased authentic
interaction and encouraged learners to become more autonomous. When the group of
students who prefer the traditional classroom, however, was considered a blended approach
which consists of both virtual classroom and traditional face-to-face classroom was
suggested as the most efficient way for Turkish EFL learners.

Keywords: Virtual classroom, blended approach, synchronous project, distance education

INTRODUCTION

Training language teachers has been the responsibility of Education Faculties in Turkey since
1982. The insufficient number of the graduates, however, compared to the number of the
students trying to learn English increased the demand for new projects for training English
language teachers. Especially the changes in the national curriculum of primary education in
1997-1998 academic years, and the insertion of language lessons for the 4th and 5th grade
students increased this demand dramatically. English Language Teacher Training Project
singed with the cooperation of Ministry of Education and Anadolu University, Open Education
Faculty in 28 February 2000 was the result of this demand. The curriculum of the program is
accepted almost as the same as the ones applied in all the Education faculties which have a
face-to-face education system in the country. According to the proposed project, however, a
blended model which included face-to-face lessons during the first two years and distant
education during the 3rd and 4th years was agreed on, with some minor changes in the
overall curriculum. As a result, this blended program called Distance English Language
Teacher Training (DELTT) started to be implemented as a unique teacher training program in
the world.

Face-to-face component which included the first two years included skills courses such as
reading, writing, speaking etc., and aimed at increasing teacher trainees’ language
proficiency. The distant education component, on the other hand, had the content courses
such as linguistics, methodology, teaching English to young learners, etc aiming to give
students both theoretical and practical knowledge about their profession, supplemented

9
with online facilities. Approximately 10.000 students have been attending the program for 5
years, since 2000-2001 academic years, and 619 of them graduated successfully during the
last two years.Various synchronous and asynchronous projects have been developed in order
to improve the program, to enrich educational experiences, and especially to reach the 3rd
and 4th grade students who are distant language learners. The primary aim of this paper is
to report the synchronous project, called the virtual classroom which is prepared as a pilot
project for teaching second year advanced reading course. The virtual classroom project has
been spanning for two academic years.

THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPING THE SYNCHRONOUS CLASSROOM PROJECT

The term virtual classroom covers the different infrastructures using different technologies
to create it. It can range from a closed-circuit interactive television system among different
schools in a region or different regions, as explained by Hobbs and Christianson (1997), to
the insertion of the internet applications. The infrastructure of the Internet-based
synchronous virtual classroom should have some specifications. First of all, all the
participants must definitely be included in the broadcasted program on the Internet.
Broadcast information might include the audio and the video of the instructor, or some other
information sources like animations, presentation slides, texts, stable or motion pictures.
Secondly, the learners as well as the instructor can ask and answer questions or give
comments during the class. These questions, answers, or comments should be shared by all
the participants immediately. As stated by Pinar and Campo (1998) the effectiveness of any
kind of virtual classroom depends on the infrastructure used in it.

After reaching the administrative decision to an internet-based infrastructure, a number of

companies capable of supplying technical equipment and the necessary facilities we desire
were contacted. After the negotiating processes, one of the companies was agreed on, and
the faculty and the company started the project with forming their teams who would be
responsible from the Project. Team members included both technical and educational people
from both sides, and they started negotiations on the requirements, possibilities and
facilities. During this period, in-service training was also supplied for the team members of
the both groups in order to help them use a shared language and understand each other
reciprocally.

Lehman (1999: 49) explains that the instructors should feel themselves very comfortable
with the new technology and the new medium for focusing on the instruction only. He
suggests using the following three activities would help them feel comfortable;

Knowing the components of the new environment.

Discovering the differences between the traditional classroom and the new
interactive environment.

Practicing with the new tools.

Therefore, in order to help instructors to become comfortable with the new medium, a series
of in-service training sessions were held. These in-service training sessions aimed at
encouraging the technical team for gaining basic pedagogic terminology knowledge, as well
as facilitating technological competencies of the educational team. As a result, in order to
make the synchronous project both pedagogically and technically as effective as possible,
team members from both groups were exposed to a series of meetings.

After reaching a consensus, a series of synchronous lessons were prepared and tested in the
computer lab in order to prevent any possible technological problems before starting the
real application.

10
The aim and the characteristics of the program were explained to the students at the
beginning of the application through face-to-face meetings. During these orientation
meetings, personal information regarding students’ prior online experience, their attitudes
towards using computer for their education, motivation and facilities they privately have at
home was shared. Some introductory exercises which were prepared beforehand were also
used in order to create a sense of excitement for the virtual class, to encourage students to
become familiar with basic terminology and technology. And also, to practice the technology
and the computer facilities they were using, shortly to help them in becoming techno-
comfortable. Among all, the most important reason was to help students to set the right
frame of mind for the synchronous classes which would be a completely new experience for
both the students and the teacher.

Finally, the Project was started officially and the students had synchronous lessons in the
computer lab one week and face-to face lessons in a traditional classroom the following
week. A technical team also existed in the laboratories during the lessons to give the
necessary support both to the teacher and the students. This technical team had the
opportunity to get online help from a more professional team from the company in another
city during the lessons when they needed to do so. A native speaker teacher also
participated in the Project as a guest online lecturer especially while teaching students new
vocabulary items related to the text they were going to read.

The following section will explain the virtual classroom in terms of the infrastructure used
throughout the pilot project. Each component of the infrastructure will be explained
focusing on their functions and usage with specific examples.

THE VIRTUAL CLASSROOM

VisiClass program which aims to create a synchronous virtual learning environment by

bringing students and teachers from different places together was used in the Distance
English Language Teacher Training Program. The program VisiClass has six main parts:

The content provider interface

The learner interface

The instructor interface

The management interface

The recorded lesson interface

The database

The Content Provider Interface

The content provider is the most important aspect of delivering an Internet-based virtual
lesson. Mantyla and Gividen (1997) argue that the success of an online course is measured
by the degree of enjoyment the learners get by the content, and the method of its delivery,
rather than the technology used in it. Therefore, the content and the audio-visual materials
are the vital elements of an online course.

Pitt and Clark (1997) point out that since learners have different learning styles and
preferences, online educators need to address to differences by preparing various activity
types. Using multiple instructional strategies is the best way to accomplish this while
designing an online course. Designing the content provider of the program is the first step of
delivering a lesson in the Internet-based virtual classrooms. The content parts are classified
below:

11
 Presentation slides
The slides are prepared with a different program like Power point and content provider helps
the instructor to make this presentation a content part. Generally, virtual classroom
programs allow the instructors either using two or more slides in one content part (the
instructor passes from one slide to another in the same content part) or creating different
content parts for each slide.

White board
This content part acts as a classic blackboard in the classroom and creates an opportunity
both for the students and the learners to share their ideas or products. While the instructor
can write or draw something on the whiteboard, and share it with the learners, he/she can
also ask and allow a learner to use the whiteboard. Moreover, a previously prepared board
might be used during the presentation. The program also allows recording a board which
wants to be stored for the future usages.

Questions
Various types of questions can be prepared using the program; multiple-choice, gap filling,
true/false, matching, ordering and jumbled-sentences can be given as examples of different
question formats prepared during the project. There can be one content part for one
question, or different kinds of questions can be prepared easily in a content part as a test or
survey.

Motion video
Motion videos related to the topic of the reading text were inserted to the content. The main
aim of using video extracts, mostly taken from original CNN news, was to build schemata to
help students to understand the text. That is why, they were provided before students read
the text as a pre-reading activity during the class. In their study, Sakar and Ercetin (2005)
found that intermediate level EFL students found visual information, especially video and
graphics very useful to help them understand the text, and they expressed positive attitudes
towards reading on the computer. The negative correlation between the overall annotation
use and reading comprehension, however suggested negative effects of multimedia
annotations. They believe that audio recordings and videos especially might have distracted
learners and interfered with their reading comprehension. In this study, therefore, learners
were asked to watch the video with the guidance of the teacher, having a different purpose
each time they watch. As a result, including motion video for this project served four
different purposes in the lesson;

schemata necessary for understand the reading text was built,

curiosity and motivation of the students for reading the text were increased,

the other skills such as listening and speaking were integrated into the lesson,

different learning styles were addressed.

The image
The images (photographs, pictures, graphics, etc.) were used as content parts in the virtual
classrooms. Besides, it was possible to support images with the written explanations when
needed. Images were especially used in teaching unknown words students would meet in
the reading texts.

The web page director

This content part helps the instructor to direct the learners to the web pages easily. When
this content part is chosen, it automatically directs the instructor and the learners to the
web page address defined before.

12
Group working
Considering the importance of interaction in a language learning environment, group work
activities were designed in the project. During the lesson, the instructor may want to divide
the learners into groups and want from them to work in these groups. Number of the
students of the groups depends on the instructor and the activity type. The members of a
group could communicate via using the microphones and speakers or a chat room. Group
members can speak among themselves and their speech is not heard by the other groups.
Teacher can talk to all the groups at the same time, follow the groups separately, and can
interact with the groups and manipulate their study if s/he wishes. Each group has its own
board, chat room, and web and discussion board. Teacher can redesign the groups whenever
s/he wants to do so. Groups can share their production with the others at the end of the
group work.

As a conclusion, including the visual aspect like presentation slides, motion video and the
images to the content aimed at helping the learners understand the course material easily,
and improving their reading proficiency as a result. As Lehman (1999) states, well-designed,
appropriate, and meaningful visual presentations facilitate learners’ comprehension.
Depending on the type and purpose of the lesson delivered, different content parts and
different applications might be designed to create an efficient learning environment.

The Learner Interface

The learners in the project had the synchronous interaction. As pointed out by Payne (1999),
learner interaction means receiving the instructions, evaluating performance and
achievement of learning outcomes and objectives, evaluating instruction, evaluating
individual personal traits and mutual learning. As soon as the learners come into the
computer lab, they install the learner interface facility to their individual computers to be
able to join the synchronous virtual course. Once they install this facility and join the lesson,
the interface resembles the one shown in picture: 1

3 5
5
The hand raise button
4 3
4 6
1
1 2
The Learner Interface

2
1) Active window 4) Tool box
2) Chat box 5) Tabs of the presentation screen
3) Live screen 6) Presentation screen

Picture: 1 The learner interface

13
Active window is one of the main parts of the learner interface. Four different parts, that is
participants, lecture flow, evaluation and file sharing are included in the active window. The
participant tab shows the names of all the participants allowing the instructor and the
learners to monitor who is attending the course. Lecture flow tab shows the content parts of
the lesson step by step. The learners can only see the list of the content parts in this
window; they are not allowed to activate any of the steps, the instructor has all the control.
The learners are also allowed to evaluate the lesson or the instructor’s performance by using
the evaluation tab at the end of the lesson. This facility helps the instructor and the content
providers to have an overall evaluation of the lesson and find the best way of reaching their
learners. And finally, file sharing tab helps the learners to share their files on their
computers with the instructor and the other learners easily.

The hand raise button above the active window allows learners to send a signal meaning
they want to participate in the lesson orally. They might want to answer the instructor’s
question, ask their own questions or make a comment about a topic. Both the instructor and
the other learners hear the learner who is given the floor. More than one student’s
microphone might be activated at the same time. Therefore, two-way audio allows live
conversations between all the participants. The second main part is the chat box. “Internet
Relay Chat” is the widely used conversational forum in which any user can open a channel
and attract guests to it, all of whom speak to each other as if in the same room (Turkle,
1997). In other words, the learners easily adopt chat box component and encourage the
others to use it. They might all become actively engaged in the lesson. Both the learners and
the instructor can use the chat box as a way of communicating with each other. In some
conditions, this facility may be very useful. One of the biggest advantages for the teacher is
getting feedback from all of the students simultaneously, something which is almost
impossible to do in a traditional face-to-face classroom.

Live screen is the third main part of the learner interface. The visual communication is
unidirectional; the learners watch their instructor’s live image on their screen, but the
instructor can only have the voice connection with the learners. However, it is possible to
provide a bidirectional visual communication between the teacher and the students when all
the learners are equipped with a webCam. Especially when the learners participating in the
online course are from different places, or cities, this becomes a very important facility. The
fourth part is the tool box which functions as the classical board in a traditional classroom.
The instructor uses this part to draw or write something on the whiteboard. S/he might also
allow one of the learners to use this toolbox. Everything, written or drawn on the board
appears on the others’ whiteboards.

The tabs of the presentation screen are another part. These are chat tab, whiteboard tab,
presentation tab, web tour tab, and video tab. As this is a synchronous lesson, sometimes
something happens differently from the content parts prepared before. For instance, a
learner can ask a question which requires being used a white board by the teacher. In these
circumstances, the instructor uses these tabs to reach the different facilities of the
presentation screen. When the instructor chooses a tab, the learners’ presentation screens
show this tab immediately. A learner recognizes what the presentation screen shows with
checking the tabs. The sixth and the last main part is the presentation screen. This screen
shows the chosen content parts or the chosen tabs above it. They are chosen by the
instructor. If the instructor allows a learner, this learner’s choices appear on the instructor’s
and the other learners’ presentation screens. Learners also have the opportunity to send
and receive attachments. Sometimes, the instructor may want learners to produce longer
texts, as in writing a letter to the author of the text explaining their ideas about what they

14
read. In these cases, learners are asked to open a word file, write their answers and then
send it to the teacher and the other students as an attachment.

The Instructor Interface

The instructor directs the virtual classroom through the instructor interface. Like the learner
interface, this interface has to be installed to the computer before the lesson.

Radio buttons to open or close the chat box

Active window with Active window with

participants lecture flow
Picture: 2 The instructor interface.

The instructor interface has active window, chat box, live screen, tool box, presentation
screen tabs, and the presentation screen. The locations of them are the same with the
locations of the learner interface. However, there are some differences in some facilities
(Picture: 2).

There is no hand raise button at the top of the active window. The radio buttons are placed
this part to turn on or off the chat communication of all the learners of the virtual classroom.
Sometimes the instructor might prefer to turn the chat box off to have the maximum
attention of the classroom and to prevent the learners distract each other by chatting about
unrelated topics. Also, the content parts on the active window are under the control of the
instructor. If the instructor chooses a content part, this content part appears on the
presentation screens of the instructor and all the learners.

When a voice signal comes from one or more learners to warn the instructor about raising
hand or hands, or when the instructor wants to talk with one or more learners about the
lesson, s/he opens the participant part of the active window. The instructor can control the
raising hands or the names of the learners on this part. Besides, the instructor opens one or
more learners’ voice to speak. Also, s/he can give permission to a learner to draw or write
something on the white board. S/he uses boxes near the names to give these permissions.

Toolbox for drawing or writing something on the whiteboard, and the presentation screen
tabs are always active on the instructor interface. If something is drawn, written, or a
presentation screen tab is chosen, the changes appear on the interfaces of the learners at
the same time.

15
The Management Interface
This interface is used by the system operators of the virtual classroom software. Its
capabilities are mainly divided into three parts. First, the name, the days, and the times of a
course or lesson are prepared from this part. Second, an instructor for a lesson is clarified.
There is a username, a password, and a real name of an instructor in the program. All of
these are loaded the program from the management interface. When the instructor wants to
access the virtual classroom program, first username and password are asked. After filling
these parts, the instructors reach their courses and start to use the program. Third, the
learners and their lessons are clarified to the program. A learner has a real name, a
username, and a password like an instructor in the program, and this learner fallows the
same steps of the instructor.

People use internet for different purposes. Searching for different purposes is one of these
facilities. (Howard, Raine and Jones, 2003) There is a chance to attract people in the
Internet environment to join a course who deal with the contents in this course. A course
starts in three ways. First, it may start with only accepting the learners who are responsible
from this course. Second, it may start with accepting the whole learners enrolled the system.
Third, it may start with accepting who wants to join the lesson. Starting the lesson one of
these ways depends on the management and the instructor and these preparations are made
from the management interface. Especially the third method can attract the persons to the
courses.

The Recorded Lesson Interface

All the lessons can be archived and students are able to review an archived lesson whenever
they want to do so. Sometimes a learner participating in the lesson or the other learners
taking the same course may want to review a recorded lesson because of some various
reasons as not understanding or missing some parts of it. Or in order to review the
strategies or the vocabulary items covered during the lesson. The recorded lesson interface
helps the learners in these situations. When a learner accesses a recorded lesson, he/she
may watch the whole lesson, or only the parts which they want to review.

The Database
All of the instructors and the learners’ data, and the recorded lessons are stored in the
database. Moreover, the attendance of the learners to the lessons can be checked from the
database. Besides, the survey, the test or question results of a learner which has done in the
virtual classroom program are stored. Records for each student showing how much they
have participated both orally and written, which questions they answered correctly, how
much and when they initiated a topic, etc. might also be obtained for academic, pedagogical
or research results.

EVALUATION OF THE VIRTUAL CLASSROOM PROJECT

Language learning requires active learning individuals who are responsible from their own
learning, who can motivate themselves, who are aware of their weaknesses and strengths
and who can use the appropriate strategies for facilitating their learning and overcoming the
obstacles. When we consider that these learners are the nominees of training the next
generations, becoming autonomous becomes much more important for them in training their
own learners to become autonomous, because as Kumaravadivelu (2002) points out,
autonomous learners deserve autonomous teachers. Therefore, it can be concluded that one
of the biggest advantages of the virtual classroom is the opportunity it gives to the students
in encouraging them to become autonomous.

16
By encouraging individual learning and fostering learners to become independent of the
teacher, by letting them use and become familiar with various educational tools and
interactive learning environments such as the Internet, video, CD-ROM, it helps future
language teachers in gaining a wider vision of education.

One of the key factors of a good system, as pointed out by Moore and Kearsley (2005), is
monitoring and evaluating every part of the system frequently and routinely. The review of
the related literature reveals that students’ emotional reactions towards the inversion of
computer into education are not clear. Especially for the teacher trainees being aware of
their emotional reactions becomes much more important in raising their consciousness level
of the learning and teaching processes. In order to get feedbacks from the students both for
evaluation. Evaluation of the program from the learners’ perspective and to increase their
consciousness level of their learning process, the students participating in the project were
asked to keep diaries and write their reflections both about the synchronous application and
the traditional face-to-face classes. These diaries were analyzed and the common positive
and the negative points students reflected were discussed in face-to-face meetings during
the application. These positive and negative points were also used as the starting point for
developing the synchronous program continuously through the implementation process.
Therefore, students could see the effect of their comments immediately during the process.

Students’ reflections, confirming the study results mentioned in the literature (Moore and
Kearsley, 2005), revealed that although numerous problems were experienced, especially
regarding technical problems, overwhelming majority of the students preferred virtual
classrooms over traditional classes and wished to have all their classes with their computers.
They all enjoyed being in the virtual classroom, they stated feeling excited of having such an
opportunity, and as a result, they were all motivated and expressed their satisfaction during
the 3-hour class period. They especially expressed their appreciation for having the visual
support during the virtual classes. They also made positive comments about the
methodology and positive attitude of the teacher and appreciated support and enthusiasm of
the technical team.

When the student reactions were considered as a whole, it is possible to conclude that the
majority of the students expressed their positive ideas towards the e-class application, yet,
there is a group of students who expressed their preferences for the old-fashioned
traditional way. They believe they learn better in a face-to-face classroom interacting with
the teacher and the other students directly. As a result, considering different learning styles,
the blended model combining both virtual and traditional components seems to be the most
effective way for Turkish teacher learners.

According to Moore and Kearsley (2005), with an unseen instructor students are generally
more defensive than they would be in a traditional class, but they are unlikely to express this
anxiety. When the negative effects of anxiety on learning a language is considered, it was
thought that identifying the negative feelings students might have related to both learning a
language. And also, using computer would be the first necessary step in finding out solutions
for the problems students express and only after that dealing with the sources making
students anxious would be possible.

As a result, considering the importance of identifying the anxiety element in the learning
process in eliminating its negative effects, the students in the project were given the Foreign
Language Classroom Anxiety Scale and the Computer Anxiety Scale both at the beginning
and at the end of the application in order to identify if both language and computer anxiety
had any effects on the success and the attitude of the students towards the e-class
application. Since the aim of this paper is to report the synchronous project and the

17
infrastructures developed and used, the results of these scales, their relationship with each
other and the effects of anxiety students experienced will be discussed in another paper.

Moore and Kearsley (2005) believe that students generally find inter-learner interaction
which is fostered by virtual group work activities to be stimulating and motivating. While
doing group work activities students develop their collaboration, organization and team
building skills as well as exploring their own thinking and as a result increasing their
motivation for learning (Fisher, Thompson and Silverberg, 2005). Similarly, students in
Muilenburg and Berge’s (2005) study associated social interaction with online learning
enjoyment and effectiveness. They, therefore suggest improving social interaction for
increasing educational benefits. Students participating in this study also confirm these ideas.
Learners reported that when they do not see each other interaction gains more importance
in creating a positive and friendly learning environment. They stated their pleasure in having
learner-to-learner interaction and working with their classmates.

Similarly, based on their findings, Chou and Liu (2005) conclude in their study that students
learning in a technology based virtual learning environment have better learning
effectiveness than their counterparts in traditional classrooms. They also have better
performances, have higher computer self efficacy because of having higher control on their
learning, are more willing to join the class interaction with the other students and the
instructor.

As a result, it can be concluded that the virtual classroom application facilitated increased
authentic interaction, and allowed greater learner autonomy. Especially shy students stated
that they could participate in the lesson much easily when they did not feel spot-lighted as
in a traditional classroom. When the number of answers given to the teachers’ questions
was considered, the positive effect of virtual classroom can be understood easily in engaging
the learners to the lesson actively.

CONCLUSION

Beyth-Marom, Saporta and Caspi (2005) strongly argue that students should not be
perceived as a homogenous group, but as different individuals with different learning habits,
learning styles, preferences and needs. While some students prefer to be autonomous and
control their own learning fully, others may need more guidance of the teachers. Therefore,
while designing courses we have to find out their preferences, and as they state, we have to
be more creative in responding to various styles. While no single instructional method or
educational technology can be effective for all types of students, advances in technologies
can help us in providing variety in our instruction.

If the degree of enjoyment the learners get by the content and the method of delivery is
considered as the criterion of evaluating the success of the program, as argued by Mantyla
and Gividen (1997), virtual classroom could be regarded as an effective and successful
online course.

When the learners’ different learning styles and preferences are considered, however, it
would be advisable to include a face-to-face component in order to address to the group of
students who prefer it.

Disregarding their concerns even if they are not the majority would mean decreasing the
educational effectiveness of any type of an online course. As a result, preparing a blended
program including both the traditional face-to-face courses and the internet-based virtual
courses seem to be the most efficient way of addressing to both types of learner groups.

18
BIODATA and CONTACT ADDRESSES of AUTHORS

Belgin AYDIN, Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor in ELT Department at

Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey. She has been teaching various
courses including critical reading, teaching English to young learners,
methodology and individual differences in language learning, both at the
BA and MA levels. She has participated in several projects related to pre-
service and in-service teacher training, distance learning and virtual
classroom. Her research interests also focus on language anxiety, teaching
reading, individual differences and teaching young learners.

Belgin AYDIN, Ph.D.

Anadolu University,
Education Faculty
26470 Eskisehir, Turkey
Email: [email protected]

T. Volkan YUZER, Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor in the Department of

Distance Education, Open Education Faculty, Anadolu University, Turkey.
His research interests are new communicating technologies,
synchronous online communications and interactive communication
milieus in distance education.

He has participated in projects related to distance learning, online

synchronous learning, virtual classroom. He has been teaching courses in
distance learning, communication and information technologies.

T. Volkan YUZER, Ph.D.

Anadolu University,
Open Education Faculty
26470 Eskisehir, Turkey
Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Beyth-Marom, R. Saporta, K. & Caspi, A. (2005) Synchronous vs. Asynchronous Tutorials:

Factors Affecting Students’ Preferences and Choices. Journal of Research on Technology in
Education.V:37, N: 3, pp. 245-262.

Chou, S. H. & Liu, C. H. (2005) Learning Effectiveness in a web-based Virtual Learning

Environment: A Learner Control Perspective. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. V: 21,
pp. 65-76.

Fisher, M., Thompson, G. S. & Silverberg, D. A. (2005) Effective Group Dynamics in E-

Learning: Case Study. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, V: 33, N: 3, pp. 205-222.

Hobbs, Vicki M. & Christianson, J. Scott (1997) Virtual Classrooms: Educational Opportunity
through Two-Way Interactive Television, Technomic Publication, Lancaster.
Howard, E. N., Raine, L. & Jones, S. (2003) “Days and Nights on the Internet”, The Internet
in Everyday Life, B. Wellman & C. Haythornthwaite (Eds), Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.

19
Lehman, R. (1999) “Distance Education Principles and Best Practices”, Interactive Learning
Exercises that Really Work, Ed: Karen Mantyla, ASTD Publication, Alexandria.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2002) “Toward a Postmethod Pedagogy” TESOL Quarterly, V: 35, No:
4/1, pp. 537-560.

Mantyla, K. & Gividen, J. R. (1997) Distance Learning: A Step-by-Step Guide for Trainers,
ASTD Publication, Alexandria.

Moore, M. & Kearsley, G. (2005) Distance Education A Systems View. Thomson Wadsworth,
Belmont.

Muilenburg, L. Y. & Berge, Z. L. (2005) Student Barriers to Online Learning: A Factor Analysis
Study. Distance Education. V: 26, No: 1, pp. 29, 48.

Payne, H. (1999) “Discovering the Difference Between On-Site and Distance Learning
Interaction”, Interactive Learning Exercises that Really Work, Ed: Karen Mantyla, ASTD
Publication, Alexandria.”

Pinar, F.J.R., Campo, A.F.D., (1998) “Multimedia Systems Based on Satellite Technology”,
Computer Networks and ISDN Systems, V: 30, pp: 1543-1549.

Pitt, T. J., Clark, A. (1997) Creating Powerful Online Courses Using Multiple Instructional
Strategies. Available at: leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu.org/tcc_con97/pres/pitt.html.

Sakar, A, Ercetin, G. (2004) Effectiveness of Hypermedia Annotations for Foreign Language

Reading. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, V:21. pp:28-38.

Turkle, S. (1997) Life on the Screen, Touchstone, New York.

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 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2 Article: 2

INTERNET USE ADOPTION AMONG ACADEMICIANS:

Comparing Innovative Adopters and Other Adopter Types
Norazah BTE MOHD SUKI
Lecturer
College of Business Management and Accounting
Universiti Tenaga Nasional,
MALAYSIA

Norbayah BTE MOHD SUKI

Doctoral student
Faculty of Creative Multimedia
Multimedia University
MALAYSIA

ABSTRACT

Online shopping represents an innovation to be adopted or rejected by online consumers

globally. Previous experiences and knowledge of innovation are the main factors affecting
people’s willingness to adopt a new innovation. We explore how Internet use differs
between academicians who are innovative adopters and other types of adopters.
Academicians who are innovative adopters are hypothesized to:

have more years of experience on online shopping,

have greater frequency of purchase, and

pay a higher price for items purchased online.

Data were collected from 301 respondents. Results provide new perspective on innovative
adopters among Malaysian academicians; they have less experience than other adopters in
shopping for products online, make fewer purchases online and pay small amount of
money in shopping for products online than other adopters. Directions for future research
are also discussed.

Keywords: Internet, using Internet, online shopping, Malaysia.

INTRODUCTION

Online shopping is a form of retailing online available in the digital age and therefore,
represents an innovation to be adopted or rejected by online consumers globally. Online
shopping has been available for 10 or so years and has made considerable progress in that
time. Even people who have not shopped online are likely to be familiar with what is
entailed in doing so. Rogers (1995) defines innovation as an idea, practice, or object that
is perceived as new by an individual. Online shopping is an advanced form of traditional
home shopping requiring some changes in behavioral patterns - in particular machine-
interactivity such as searches and online forms (Hoffman and Novak, 1996).

Online shopping combines new technologies and new behavioral patterns into new way of
product purchase or adoption (i.e. innovativeness) that allows companies to provide

21
product information and offer direct sales to their customers through an electronic channel
or a new retail form: virtual stores.

This is a storefront in cyberspace, a place where customers can shop from their home
computers and where merchants can offer merchandise and services for a fraction of the
overhead required in a physical storefront (Yesil, 1997). Previous experiences and
knowledge of an innovation are the main factors affecting people’s willingness to adopt a
new innovation such as online shopping.

A research study by Jupiter Research (2004) reports that the online retail sales in US was
USD65 billion in 2004 and is likely to reach USD117 billion in 2008. In addition, 30% of
Internet users in the US are buying online in 2004 and their average online spending is
estimated at USD585. As for Malaysia, total Information & Communication Technology
(ICT) spending in 2004 is estimated to be USD2.5 billion (RM9.5 billion), expanding at a
compound annual growth rate of 8.3%, faster than global average of 6.2%.

As of second quarter of 2004, Malaysia had 9.4 million Internet users, nearly 175,000
broadband subscribers and more than 12.4 million cellular subscribers. According to
International Data Corporation (IDC), Malaysia's ICT market is expected to reach a value
of USD10.49 billion (nearly RM40 billion) in 2007 (Matrade, 2004). Online shopping has
proved that there is remarkable growth of online users which has led to dramatic shifts in
the way of conducting purchase activities and transactions.

What type of products do consumers purchase online? eMarketer (2002) reports that 34%
of Internet users in Spain purchased music online in the first half of 2002. This is according
to a Consumer Link/Delvico Bates survey (2002). Event tickets were the second most
popular item bought online during the first six months of 2002 with 30% of Spanish Net
users saying they purchased them.

A quarter of Internet users in the country bought financial products online, while 24%
purchased gifts. Computer hardware and software were also popular purchases among
Spanish Internet users, as were apparel and beverages (Matrade, 2004). Norazah (2003)
conducted a study among Malaysian Internet shoppers and found that Internet shoppers
who own a credit card enjoyed purchasing books/journals/magazines through the
Internet, especially books at the price of less than RM100 per item.

Respondents also reported a higher level of satisfaction with items purchased online,
compared to purchases made in traditional stores. In most cases, delivery was made
within seven days from the date of order and settled their online payments using credit
card. Also, they intended to conduct repeat purchases in the near future with a maximum
amount of RM 500 per transaction. They also reported they enjoyed browsing the Internet
for "less than three hours a day" for personal purchasing reasons.

Consumers differ in their readiness to adopt Internet shopping. Depending on the time
taken to adopt online shopping, these consumers can be classified into five types of
adopters (Innovators, Early Adopters, Early Majority, Late Majority, and Laggards) by
applying Rogers (1995) adopter classification. Innovators are experimentalists who latch
onto new ideas as soon as they appear. An innovator's interest lies primarily in the
innovation itself, rather than with its application to significant problems. Early Adopters
are visionaries who blend an interest in innovation with a concern for significant
applications.

22
They look for breakthrough in instructional methods of learning effectiveness that new
innovations for technology enable. Early Majority are pragmatists who represent the first
half of the mainstream. They adopt a “wait-and-see” attitude toward new applications of
innovation, and require solid references and examples of successes before adopting. Late
Majority are the conservative or skeptical latter half of the mainstream. They accept
innovation late in the game, once the change has already become well-established among
the majority.

Laggards are the last group of potential adopters and most likely never adopt innovation at
all. It is unlikely for them to employ innovations, and they may also be antagonistic to their
uses by others (Geoghegan, 1994). The current study aims to find an answer to the
research question: “how does Internet use differ between academicians who are
innovative adopters and other adopter types”.

In particular, we focus on three measures of Internet use:

years of experience on online shopping,

frequency of purchase, and

price spent on items purchased online by specifically focusing on Malaysian
Internet users' online buying behavior.

Thus, this study concentrates on Business to Consumer (B2C) market.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This study uses self-administered questionnaire approach for the data collection and
applies a stratified random sampling technique; technique that divided population into
subpopulation and then respondents are selected by a random procedure, as a sampling
method. 301 (60% from overall response rate) academicians from the Faculty of
Management in Higher Learning Institutions located in Kuala Lumpur, Johor Bahru, and
Penang states of Malaysia were respondents of the study.

Given the nature of the study, only those who had experience in browsing or purchasing
through Internet were selected to participate. Moreover, subjects were chosen because
the bulk of previous surveys showed that young people who were well-educated,
academicians for instance, tend to be the adopters of online shopping.

A demographic profile of the respondents, summarized in Table 1, indicates that 41.2% of

the respondents were 26-35 years of age. There were more female than male: 53% vs.
47%, respectively. The monthly income indicated by the respondents was RM 3001 to RM
5000 for over 44% of the respondents.

This is followed by less than RM 3000 for 36% of the respondents. 65% of the
respondents were married. The results show that 69.4% of the respondents were Malay.
Overall, the education level of the respondents was high. More than 48% indicated
master’s degree with business administration background. The most frequently reported
occupational category was lecturer (107, 35.5%) followed by senior lecturer, (134,
44.5%). More than 45% of the lecturers teach degree level. 25.2% lectures in the area of
management followed by marketing, 16.3%.
They mostly (37.9%) have served in the Higher Learning Institution for one to four years
of service with full time type of employment and work in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (see
Table: 1).

23
 Table: 1
Internet Users' General Demographic

Characteristics of
Respondents Results
Frequenc %
y
Gender
Male 159 52.8
Female 142 47.2
Age
< 25 54 17.9
26-35 124 41.2
36-45 83 27.6
46-55 34 11.3
> 56 6 2.0
Ethnicity
Malay 209 69.4
Chinese 54 17.9
Indian 29 9.6
Others 9 3.0
Marital Status
Married 197 65.4
Unmarried 71 104
Highest Education Level
Bachelor's Degree 88 29.2
Master's Degree 147 48.8
Doctoral Degree (PhD) 66 21.9

Educational

Background
Computer Science 50 16.6
Business Administration 111 36.9
Social Science 76 25.2
Management Information 2.3 1.0
System
Accounting & Finance 57 18.9

Monthly Income (RM)

< 3000 107 35.5
3001-5000 134 44.5
5001-7000 41 13.6
7001-9000 11 3.7
9001-11000 5 1.7
> 11000 3 1.0

24
 Table: 1 cont…
Internet Users' General Demographic

Characteristics of
Respondents Results
Frequency %
Occupation
Lecturer 216 71.8
Senior Lecturer 54 17.9
Principal Lecturer 8 2.7
Deputy Dean 3 1.0
Head Of Department 8 2.7

Grade Level Teach

Diploma 99 32.9
Degree 138 45.8
Master 50 16.6
PhD 14 4.7

Subject Area Teach

Marketing 49 16.3
Management 76 25.2
Accounting 24 44
Finance 30 10.0
Economic 19 25
Entrepreneur 11 3.7
Development
Other 54 27
Number of Years have
been Teaching
< 1 year 45 15.0
1 - 4 years 114 37.9
4 - 8 years 57 18.9
8 - 12 years 44 14.6
12 - 16 years 14 4.7
> 16 years 27 9.0

Term of Employment
Full Time 251 83.4
Part Time 25 8.3
Contract 25 8.3

Workplace
Johor Bharu 38 12.6
Kuala Lumpur 122 40.5
Penang 49 16.3
Kedah 23 7.6
Other 69 22.9

25
Innovativeness Scale
The Innovativeness Scale was developed as a reliable and valid self-report scale for
measuring the degree to which an individual is relatively earlier in adopting an
innovation in relation to others in the social system (Hurt, Joseph, & Cook, 1997). It is
composed of 12 positively and 8 negatively worded items presented in a seven-point
Likert response format as presented in Appendix 1. Scores for the Innovativeness Scale
are determined by summing items on the scale. The Innovativeness Scale will be used
to classify the adopter of online shopping among academicians by applying Rogers
(1995) adopter classification, who identifies the top 16% of respondents as innovators
and early adopters. The bottom 16% of respondents is classified as laggards, with the
remaining 68% of the respondents representing the early and late majority of adopters.
Further analyses related to adopter classifications are described in Table: 1.

RESEARCH FINDINGS

Innovators are often characterized as venturesome, a term which refers to the

willingness to take risks with respect to the adoption of new idea (Robertson, 1971). In
consumer studies research, early adopters have been found to show more favorable
attitude towards science and technology than later adopters (Robertson, 1971; Rogers,
1995). In educational technology, early adopters are characterized as those searching
for breakthrough in instructional methods that new applications for technology enable
(Geoghegan, 1994). Hoffman and Novak (1997) find that experienced users are more
likely to buy things over the Internet; therefore, the following hypotheses were
proposed:

Hypothesis: 1 Academicians who are innovative adopters are hypothesized to have

more years of experience on online shopping than other adopter types.
Table 2a: Frequency of experience level of online shopping
and adopter type mean comparison

adopters groups
Mean N Std. Deviation
< 6 months 2.1081 37 .51552
6-12 months 1.9091 33 .45851
1-2 years 2.1000 40 .49614
2-3 years 2.0000 50 .34993
3-4 years 1.9643 28 .33134
> 4 years 1.8333 12 .57735
never purchase 1.9802 101 .74807
Total 2.0000 301 .56569

Table 2b: Frequency of experience level of online shopping and adopter type
analysis of variance

Sum of Mean
Squares df Square F Sig.
Experience level Between Groups 1.514 6 .252 .785 .582
of online Within Groups 94.486 294 .321
shopping Total 96.000 300

The mean comparison of years of experience on online shopping and adopter type is
presented in Table 2a. Most of the respondents have less than six months experience in
online shopping. From this comparison, it appears that all adopter types differ with

26
respect to the number of years of experience on online shopping. An analysis of
variance was conducted to test the hypothesis, and the difference in the mean was
found to be insignificant, F (6, 294) = 0.785, p > 0.01. Results of the ANOVA are
presented in Table 2b. Therefore, the hypothesis was not supported and it was
concluded that innovative adopters have less number of years of experience on online
shopping than other adopter types.

Robertson (1971) claims that changes in an individual’s attitude toward a product

directly relates to subsequent behavioral change towards its usage. Academicians who
have more years of experience on online shopping tend to be more innovative; for
instance, they frequently purchase online journals, books and magazines and research
materials through the Internet. This behavior is influenced by the personality of early
adopters: more venturesome, greater empathy, less dogmatic, more intelligent, higher
aspirations in regard to education and occupations, and more favorable attitude toward
science and technology than later adopters (Rogers, 1995: Robertson, 1971).

Given the fact that online innovators tend to exhibit a higher level of self-confidence
(Goldsmith, 2000), it is likely that these shoppers will believe that they possess a higher
level of knowledge about shopping and buying online and will purchase more products
on the Internet. Goldsmith (2000) found that innovative online buyers bought more
online. Therefore, the following are hypothesized:

Hypothesis 2: Academicians who are innovative adopters are hypothesized to have a

greater frequency of purchase on online shopping than other adopter types.
Table 3a: Frequency of purchase on online shopping and
adopter type mean comparison

adopters groups
Mean N Std. Deviation
once a year 2.0833 108 .43503
< 3 times a year 2.0492 61 .49753
once a month 1.8966 29 .48879
< 3 times a month 2.0000 8 .53452
once a day 2.0000 1 .
> 3 times a day 2.0000 2 .00000
n/a 1.9022 92 .74214
Total 2.0000 301 .56569

Table 3b: Frequency of purchase on online shopping and adopter type analysis of
variance

Sum of Mean
Squares df Square F Sig.
Frequency of Between Groups 2.088 6 .348 1.090 .369
purchase online Within Groups 93.912 294 .319
Total 96.000 300

In the mean comparison of frequency of purchasing products online and adopter type,
presented in Table 3a, all adopter types (i.e. laggard, majority, and innovator) appear to
differ with respect to academicians’ frequency of purchasing products and services
online. Most of the academicians have made at least one purchase of products through
the Internet in a year. An analysis of variance was conducted to test the hypothesis, and
the difference in mean was insignificant, F (6, 294)=1.090, p> 0.01. Therefore, the
hypothesis was not supported and it was concluded that innovative adopters have
fewer number of frequency of purchase products on the Internet than other adopter

27
types. Results of the ANOVA are presented in Table 3b and it was divergent to
Goldsmith (2000) study.

Innovation adopters possess a higher level of knowledge, have more social

participation, maintain extensive interpersonal networks, and have contact with people
not only within the social system but also outside it. They have greater exposure to both
mass media communication channels and interpersonal communication channels and
also current updates through this networking. Moreover, innovation adopters are active
information-seekers and thus possess more knowledge of the innovation regarding new
products and services available or offered online. They could influence other people’s
decision-making process rather than being influenced by others to frequently purchase
products and services online. All these lead innovation adopters to purchase fewer
products through new form of retailing: online shopping. Goldsmith and Newell (1997)
found shopping innovators to be less price sensitive than later buyers, whereas
Korgaonkar and Smith (1986) reported no associations between non-store shopping
and price consciousness. However, Korgaonkar (1984) had concluded that non-store
shopping would be most appealing to price oriented individuals. Online shopping
innovators may simply enjoy the process of shopping and buying more than those who
are less innovative because they less particular about the price offered on the Internet.
As such, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 3: Academicians who are innovative adopters will pay a higher price for
items purchased online than other adopter types.

Table 4a: Frequency of price of item purchased per transaction

(RM) and adopter type mean comparison

adopters groups
Mean N Std. Deviation
< 50 2.0233 43 .40757
50-100 1.9808 52 .46401
100-300 2.1333 60 .50310
300-500 2.0233 43 .40757
> 500 1.9333 15 .59362
n/a 1.9091 88 .75256
Total 2.0000 301 .56569

Table 4b: Frequency of price of item purchased per transaction (RM) and adopter
type analysis of variance

Sum of Mean
Squares df Square F Sig.
Price of item Between Groups 1.926 5 .385 1.208 .305
purchased per Within Groups 94.074 295 .319
transaction (RM) Total 96.000 300

The mean comparisons for money spent on items purchased online and adopter type are
presented in Table 4a and it appears that all adopter types differ with respect to the
price of the items purchased online. Majority of the academicians have spent between
RM 100 to RM 300 on items purchased per transaction. An analysis of variance was
conducted to test the hypothesis. The difference in mean was found to be insignificant,
F (5, 295) = 1.208, p > 0.01 (Table 4b). Therefore, the hypothesis was discarded. It was
discovered that academicians who are innovative adopters pay a lower price for items
purchased online than other adopter types. Innovators are more receptive to new ideas

28
particularly to the new medium of retailing (i.e. online shopping) than other types of
adopters. They are willing to take risks when shopping online but they spend small
amount of money purchasing products and services through the Internet. Indeed, they
are innovative/early adopters and are more experienced online shoppers and know how
to, for example, comparison shop between sites or use shopping bots. Therefore, they
should, all other things being equal, spend less than the other groups. Furthermore, the
accessibility of wider information, provision of search mechanisms, possibility of price
and products comparisons, and online product trial have reduced their uncertainty in
their purchase decision.

CONCLUSION

In short, there are 3 significant differences that can be identified when comparing the
use of Internet for shopping between academicians who are innovative. They are as
follows:

innovative adopters have less years of experience than other adopters in

shopping for products online

innovative adopters purchase less than other adopters, perhaps indicating some
“novelty” effect in shopping for products online

innovative adopters pay less, on average, than other adopters in shopping for
products online

This finding provides new perspective on innovative adopters among Malaysian

academicians but it is contrary to prior study by Lohse, Bellman and Johnson (2000)
whom reported that length of time as an Internet user as well as frequency and amount
of time using the Internet per visit were positively related to consumer’s intention when
buying things online. Longer-term Internet usage, a higher frequency of Internet visits,
and longer time spent per visit could be indirect indications that a consumer has had
more chances to visit and explore retail sites. A larger degree of such exposure can
enhance a person's (i.e. academicians) familiarity and knowledge about what is
involved in purchasing through the Internet, which in turn can reduce uncertainty in
evaluating e-shopping.

Future study should carry out more in depth research on the characteristics of
innovators and early adopters of online shopping adoption and use new statistical
technique for data analysis such as Structural Equation Modeling. Therefore, an
innovative online marketer and online retailer could benefit the research finding by
directing and segmenting their marketing efforts and strategy toward these valuable
and profitable customers since these group of customers tend to be relatively younger,
better educated, and higher in income than later adopters and non-adopters. They are
more receptive to unfamiliar things, rely more on their own values and judgment, and
are more willing to take risks by purchasing products and services through the Internet.
They are fewer brands loyal and more likely to take advantage of special promotions.

BIODATA and CONTACT ADDRESSES of AUTHORS

Norazah Mohd SUKI is Lecturer in the College of Business

Management and Accounting at Universiti Tenaga Nasional,
Malaysia. Her research interest is in the area of Multimedia
Marketing, Electronic Commerce, Consumer Behavior.

Norazah Bte Mohd SukiSultan Haji Ahmad Shah Campus,

26700 Bandar Muadzam Shah, Pahang, MALAYSIA.
Tel: 609-455 2039 Fax: 609-455 2000
E-mail: [email protected]

29
 Norbayah Mohd SUKI is Doctoral student in the Faculty of Creative
Multimedia, Multimedia University, Malaysia.

Norbayah Mohd Suki

Doctoral student
Faculty of Creative Multimedia
Multimedia University
MALAYSIA

REFERENCES
eMarketer (2002). “Higher Online Spending Recorded in 2002”, accessed 25 March
2004.http://www.matrade.gov.my/ecommerce/news-archive/2003/ecom-012003.htm

Geoghegan, W. H. (1994). “What ever happened to instructional technology?” Paper

presented at the 22nd Annual Conference of the International Business Schools
Computing Association. Baltimore, Maryland.

Goldsmith, R.E. (2000). “How innovativeness differentiates online buyers”, Quarterly

Journal of Electronic Commerce, Vol. 1 No. 4, pp. 323-33.

Goldsmith, Ronald E., Newell, Stephen J. (1997). “Innovativeness and price sensitivity:
managerial, theoretical and methodological issues”, The Journal of Product and Brand
Management. Santa Barbara:. Vol. 6, Iss. 3; p. 163.

Hoffman, D. L. & Novak, T. P. (1996). “Marketing in hypermedia computer-mediated

environments: Conceptual foundations,” Journal of Marketing, volume 60, issue July,
pp. 50-68.

Hurt, H. T., Joseph, K., & Cook, C. D. (1977). “Scales for the measurement of
innovativeness,” Human Communication Research, volume 4, number 1, pp. 58-65.

“Jupiter Research Market Forecast: U.S. Retail 2004-2008”, accessed 5 March 2005.
At http:// www.jupitermedia.com/corporate/release/04.01.20-newjupresearch.html

Korgaonkar, P.K. (1984) “Consumer shopping orientation, non-store retailers, and

consumers' patronage intentions: a multivariate investigation”, Journal of the Academy
of Marketing Science, Vol. 12, Winter, pp. 11-12.

Korgaonkar, P.K. and Smith, A. E. (1986). “Psychographic and demographic correlates of

electronic in-home shopping and banking service”, in Shimp, T.A., John, G., Lingren,
J.H., Gardner, M.P., Sharma, S., Quelch, J.A., Dillon, W. and Dyer, R.E., (Eds), 1986
American Marketing Association Educator's Proceedings, American Marketing
Association, Chicago, IL, pp. 67-9.

Lohse, G., Bellman, S. and Johnson, E.J. (2000). “Consumer Buying on the Internet:
Findings from Panel Data”, Journal of Interactive Marketing, volume 14, pp. 15-29.

“Moving the MSC Towards Becoming a World-Class Technology Hub,” accessed 8 April
2005, athttp://www.matrade.gov.my/ecommerce/news-archive/2004/ecom-
132004.htm,In PM's Opening Remarks at the Launch of 8th IAP Meeting, 2 September
2004, Putrajaya Convention Centre.

30
Norazah M. S. (2003). “Internet Users’ Behaviour and Adoption in Purchasing Products
and Services via Virtual Storefront,” Malaysian Journal of Consumer & Family
Economics, volume 6, September.

Robertson, T. S. (1971). Innovative behavior and communication. New York : Holt,

Reinhart, and Winston.

Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffusion of Innovations. 4th edition. New York, NY : The Free
Press.

Yesil, M. (1997). Creating the Virtual Store: Taking your Web Site from Browsing to
Buying. Wiley. 364p.

Appendix: 1
Measures of Innovativeness

Somewhat agree
Strongly agree

Somewhat

Disagree

Disagree
disagree

Strongly
Neutral
Agree
1.1 I am generally cautious about accepting new ideas 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.2 My peers often ask me for advice or information 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1.3 I enjoy trying out new ideas 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1.4 I seek out new ways to do things 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1.5 I frequently improve methods for solving problems when an answer is

not apparent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.6 I am suspicious of new inventions and new ways of thinking
1.7 I rarely trust new ideas until I can see whether the vast majority of
people around me accept them 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.8 I feel that I am influential member of my peer group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.9 I consider myself to be creative and original in my thinking and behavior 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.10 I am aware that I am usually one of the last people in my group to accept
something new 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.11 I am an inventive kind of person 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.12 I enjoy taking part in the leadership responsibilities of the groups I belong to 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.13 I am reluctant about adopting new ways of doing things until I see them working
for people around me 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.14 I find it stimulating to be original in my thinking and behavior 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1.15 I tend to feel that the old way of living and doing things as the best way 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.16 I am challenged by ambiguities and unresolved problems 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.17 I must see people using new innovations before I will consider them 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.18 I am receptive to new ideas 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.19 I am challenged by unanswered questions 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1.20 I often find myself skeptical of new ideas 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

31
 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2 Article: 3

How Istanbul HSBC Bank Operators Use Lotus Notes within

Electronic Performance Support Systems
Prof. Dr. Servet BAYRAM
Computer Education & Instructional Technologies
Marmara University, TURKEY

ABSTRACT

From the educational and training point of view, to understand and use the Electronic
Performance Support Systems (EPSS) efficiently is important in developing web-based
applications. In this way, the aim of the study is proving the idea that Lotus Notes is a
convenient tool for creating a powerful EPSS within the HSBC Bank example in Istanbul.
For this reason, EPSS Domain Features Checklist is developed to assess the study group’s
perceptions at the bank. The participants of the present study group consisted of 104
expert Lotus Notes (LN) users from the Bank Executive Management Center in Istanbul.
The study group was asked online to rank the LN program for the bank applications
within the EPSS Domain Features Checklist. Based on the checklist data, the experts’
(HSBC Bank operators’) perceptions on the LN were calculated within the EPSS features.
The study showed that LN is a suitable tool for creating powerful EPSS activities within
the HSBC Bank example.

Keywords: EPSS, Domains, Features, Lotus Notes, HSBC Bank, Training and Education

INTRODUCTION

An Electronic Performance Support System (EPSS) is not a software system that contains
a specific set of features and functions. Rather, it is the matter of modifying and
developing software to measurability improve human performance. These improvements
can be achieved with a variety of software development and enhancement strategies
(Collis & Verwijs, 1995). EPSS as computer-based systems contains functions for
collaboration, coordination, and communication of group in an organization. EPSS is most
effective when supporting routine standardized tasks that can be accurately documented
and that require standardized actions. The importancy of EPSS applications for
educational and training activities are very wide (Chandler, 2000; Marioni, 2002;
Coffey et al. 2003). Some advantages of EPSS are listed by Seels & Glasgow (1998) as
follow:

Standardizing training and performance throughout the organization. When the

work force is using the same tools, references, and training materials, consistency
is maximized.

Reducing the amount of time spent on off-line training, because workers learn on
the job.

Updating information on an immediate and consistent basis.

Reducing errors, because all workers have immediate and constant access to
expert support. (p.117)

In this view, Magliocca et al., (1993) and Marion (2000) expressed that EPSS has the
following educational impacts for organizations:

32

increased participant awareness and openness,

changes in professional and paraprofessional practices,

increase integration,

increased coordination, communication and collaboration,

changes due to parent participant and

consistent user satisfaction and proficiency.

The growth of EPSS has been a marketing phenomenon of amazing breath and depth and
will remain so for many years to come. To understand and use the EPSS efficiently is
important in developing web based training/educational applications. For these reasons
Bayram (2004) explained the theoretical framework of EPSS within software application
examples. From the educational and training point of view he described a pentagon model
for the interrelated domains of the theoretical framework of EPSS. He also listed some of
the theoretical concepts (i.e., performance support, decision making, case studies, user-
acceptance, and so on) supporting to the EPSS related features and showing how such
concepts sharing same features with the example software programs such as Lotus Notes
6 and Domino 6, Oracle 9i Collaboration Suite, Cleaver Path Collaboration Option. The
early studies (Bayram et al, 1996; Bayram & Crossman, 1997) presents the general
practical domains and their features, they are not enough to explain all the EPSS process
from the educational point of view.

Sophistication in EPSS technology may lead to a deeper understanding of the technology-

user interface. Also, a thorough knowledge of human performance may lead to the
development of a framework capable of assessing the learning or training processes, of
on/in the job setting activities. Meanwhile, we do not have a conceptual basis for
understanding how and why they occur. In this view, Bayram (2005) presents a set of
conceptual construct that provide power for explanation of EPSS and its features for
instructional activities. Also, he promotes the idea that IBM Lotus Notes (LN) is a
convenient tool for creating a powerful EPSS in general.

Like similar software programs (such as CleaverPath Collaboration Option or Oracle 9i

Collaboration Suite), LN has many features that could be put to service for implementing
EPSS, but technology itself does not provide support it. Someone needs to develop an
organization that empowers users (employees, bank operators or trainees) with EPSS
design information systems that provide appropriate support, and manage learners in a
way that they use EPSS. Meanwhile, there is no concrete evaluation study performed in
order to prove the efficiency of EPSS conceptual frameworks on the one hand and the
usability of their applications in a concrete performance support system example. From
this point of view, the paper aims at proving the idea that LN is a convenient tool for
creating a powerful EPSS within the HSBC Bank example in Istanbul. Based on the
researcher’s technical expertise, LN specific environment is chosen as an example tool for
creating a powerful EPSS. It is possible to do similar studies by the way of Microsoft
Share Point Portal, Mac OS XV 10.2 and the other types of collaborative software systems.

LOTUS NOTES

IBM Lotus Notes system provides integrated on-demand acess to information, advice,
learning experiences, and tools to enable a high level of job performance with a minimum
of support from the other people. As an integrated collaborative environment, the Lotus
Notes client server combine enterprise-class messaging and calendaring & scheduling
capabilities with a robust platform for collaborative applications.

Lotus Notes allows users to take advantage of advanced functionality, reliable

performance and rich security features - and help reduce their total cost of ownership in
the process. (IBM Lotus Notes, 2005).

A lot of studies (such as Lee et al., 1989; Ciolfi, 1992; Baird, et al., 1991; Reyes, 1992;
Borthwick, 1993; Lee, 1992) focused the educational implications of the Lotus Notes in

33
practice. It provides for a wide variety of views of information; these views are excellent
management tools not available with most database management systems.

This software also seems to offer a natural fit for the work of information professionals -
it allows the integration and organization of internal and external information such as e-
mail, calendar, downloaded text, reports, address book, news, to do list and the other
internal documents as seen on the Figure: 1.

Figure: 1 Lotus Notes Opening Window.

The Figure: 1 shows an example of Lotus Notes Opening Window. Lotus Notes 7 and
Domino Messaging Management Ecosystem provides a security-rich messaging and
collaboration platform for sharing data and connecting the employees and extended
communities.

Collaboration, e-mail management, e-mail hygiene, data management, mobile and unified
messaging are the important 3rd party solutions of the system.

Lotus Notes 6 (LN6) has a number of general features for educational purposes such as
text handing, reports, news, information integration, standard database interface,
simultaneous user access to flexible databases, multi site access to identical data, and
integrated electronic mail (Borthwick, 1993; Liberman & Rich, 1993; Tung, et. al, 2000;
Marion, 2002; Haxel, 2002).

Applications of LN6 include tracking application, broadcast applications, reference

applications, and discussion applications (Perez & Rojas, 2000).

Several people or users (learners) in the separate locations (i.e., computer labs or bank
branches) can work on a single document by the way of LN domino applications. Figure 2
shows an example web browser application at the Istanbul HSBC Bank.

34
 Figure: 2 HSBC Bank Lotus Notes Web Page

Lotus Notes groupware products may have an even greater impact on how we deal with
text and images within an organization, and librarians and information professionals can
play a key role. In summary, Lotus Notes development environment is very flexible and a
document library, reference database, or full-text electronic publication is a very straight
forward design that an information specialist can easily develop. The following Figure 3 is
an example of database features of Lotus Notes 6 in Istanbul HSBC Bank.

Figur: 3 Example Database of the Lotus Notes 6

35
As Gery (1991) pointed out that EPSS have different kinds of databases such as text,
visual, and audio. Text databases have online reference, contains content in various
structural forms such as procedures, policy and product information, concepts, glossaries,
and stored images of text.

Visual databases have libraries of pictures, schematics, diagrams, graphics, maps, and
full-motion video. Audio databases have libraries of sounds, voice sequences, music.

All these databases will be technically stored and organized using hypertext tools, online
documentation software, database management systems, and so on.

In this view, LN6’ online collaborative environment of the Istanbul HSBC Bank provides
all kinds of databases (text, audio or visual) to the user (students) for educational and
training activities.

On the other hand, environments for all learners need to be emotionally secure and
physically safe. Magliocca and others (1993) pointed out that

secure relationships enhance collaborative online learning, and training

accurate, understandable information enhances the learning environment, and

autonomy and decision making abilities via online performance support
increased learning.

During the LN6 applications, the mature personal relationships and accurate,
understandable online information can also enhance the feeling of safety in this kinds of
learning and training environments (Computer Security, 1996).

Within this type of secure learning environment, there is an opportunity to learn from
each other with LN discussion applications (IBM Lotus Software, 2005). With online
collaboration, learners “feel more empowered”. They are daring and confrontational
regarding the expression of ideas (Kubala, 1998, p.73).

On the other hand, successful instructional management strategies (i.e., the combination
of learner control, self regulation, and motivation) are necessary for the effective use and
design of instruction, the effective utilization and preparation of instruction in a service
provide learners with great benefits in managing online instruction.

Such management strategies is also important to develop self-management and learner

control skills in a training or learning environment like as LN6.

Because of its structural nature, LN6 (or EPSS) environment provides a vehicle for
understanding how knowledge is transformed by the social relationships (or by the way
of chat, e-mail, teleconference, videoconference activities) and conflicts within the
evolving team (Haxel, 2002).

Cognitive changes emerge out of the dynamics of teamwork that represent "new
learning." the result of the process of collaboration and sharing in the interdisciplinary
team.

The following Figure: 4, showing an example Lotus Notes e-mail inbox at the Istanbul
HSBC Bank.

36
 Figure: 4 Lotus Notes Inbox

In the Lotus systems, design issues are structuring development and integration. Data
communication networks, mass storage devices, and new software development
technologies are giving birth to new mind-sets (IBM Lotus Software, 2003). With the
mass customization and intelligent workstations, the ability to tailor products and
services to individual users' expectations and needs in a time frame is virtually immediate
within EPSS (Gery, 1991; 1995).

From this point of view, the HSBC Bank LN6 inbox environments combine these training
issues for interactive electronic learning, performance support; and performance
empowerment.

Educators concerned about the empowerment of learners have seen that a restructuring
of schools may be necessary if empowerment of learners is to be realized (Heinich, 1973;
Reigeluth, 1993). Learner should be seen as producers of knowledge and teachers as
managers of learning experiences (Murphy, 1991; Watkins & Lusi, 1989). In this view,
learners should be at the heart of restructured educational processes. These processes
help all learners (LN6 users) learn how to learn and should empower learners now and for
the rest of their lives (Bereiter, 1995).

However, how the learners (users) become empowered? How do they learn how to
respond to the challenges of their lives in a manner to maximize performance? In order
for them to become empowered, educators have to intervene. Educators should
understand the development process of learners and know how to be established an EPSS
learning environment that will maximize a learner’s (or bank operator’s) capabilities.

37
RESEARCH METHOD

As a qualitative research type, scanning model is used in this descriptive study. The aim of
the study is to prove the efficiency of conceptual framework on the hand and the usability
of its application in a concrete performance support system. In this view, determining
Istanbul HSBC Bank operators’ perceptions on Lotus Notes has been emphasized from
EPSS point of view. For this reason the utilization of Lotus Notes 6 attitudes bounded with
EPSS features has been examined in 11 different domains. The practical features of the
domains are listed as follow.

1) Performance Support: Under performance support, a number of features such as

Performance information, Support mechanism, Improvement-productivity,
Independence- flexibility, Token gifts and Empowering have been taken into
consideration.

2) Problem Solving: Under problem solving, a number of features such as Conflict-

dilemma-resolution, Decision making, Evaluate skills, Troubleshooting, Alternative
solutions and Performance appraisal have been taken into consideration.

3) Work Practice: Under problem solving, a number of features such as Groupwork,

Virtual teams, Training exercises- demonstrations, Fun experience, Integrated
units, and Role playing have been taken into consideration.

4) Guidance: Under problem solving, a number of features such as Online help, Peer
dialogue, Sharing of mind, work, questions and discussion, Mail list, newsgroup,
forum mechanisms, Search engine, Expert system and Advisory system have been
taken into consideration.

5) Collaboration- Cooperation: Under problem solving, a number of features such as

Effective communication, Chat, e-mail, whiteboard, screen sharing, Social context,
Team work, Interactivity- peer dialogue and Audio-video conferencing have been
taken into consideration.

6) Learning Environment: Under problem solving, a number of features such as

Situated learning,-Anchor instruction, Brainstorming, Feedback, Achieving
objectives,Joy of learning and Human memory have been taken into consideration.

7) Management System: Under problem solving, a number of features such as

Instructional-learning environment, Databases, Knowledge skills, Acquisition,
Negotiation and Privacy, security, safety have been taken into consideration.

8) Motivation: Under problem solving, a number of features such as User satisfaction,

Self-efficiency-Learner control, Perception, Navigation, Intrinsic motivation-
enjoyment and Extrinsic motivation- usefulness have been taken into
consideration.

9) Case Studies-Examples: Under problem solving, a number of features such as

Modeling- Role taking, Real world examples, Case demonstrations, Alternative
solutions, Practicing and Online collaborative supports have been taken into
consideration.

10) User-Acceptance: Under problem solving, a number of features such as, Easy Self
regulation, User-centered, Perceived usefulness, Perceptions, Beliefs and been
taken into consideration.

11) Cost-Effective: Under problem solving, a number of features such as, Easy to use
and learn, Time consuming, Reduce training cost, Reduce travel cost, Reduce
communication cost and Reduce lost time have been taken into consideration.

38
Under above general domains and their practical features, Lotus Notes Perceptions of
Istanbul HSBC Bank operators were tired to be measured within EPSS conceptual
framework.

WORKGROUP

HSBC Bank is one of the famous banks in the world and Turkey. It is also one of the best
Lotus Notes system users in Turkey. There are 159 HSBC Bank Branches in different cities
of Turkey. In all the branches 4048 persons are working in Turkish HSBC Banks. Among
them 1929 persons are working in the General Executive Management Center at the
Maslak Plaza in Istanbul.

Among them a total 104 expert Lotus Notes users working ATM Operation Department
and Credit Card Post Support Department were chosen to participate in this study at the
Maslak Plaza. The study group is expert on the use of Lotus Notes 6 for the Bank system
applications.

SCALE AND APPLICATIONS

Within the accompaniment of the information obtained from literature, EPSS practical and
theoretical concepts/features criteria has been reached.

Taking such criteria that is richly explained in the previous studies (e.g., Bayram, 2004
and 2005) as a starting point, the EPSS Domains Scale had been prepared as a draft. This
draft was examined by an expert group who were experienced on EPSS and Lotus Notes.

On the axis of the information obtained, the scale has been revised and designed by the
researcher. Within the developed scale validity and reliability study, the Cronbach alfa
inter-consistency coefficient was calculated as 0, 82.

The EPSS Domain Features Checklist is used to assess the Lotus Notes users’ perceptions
within the EPSS Conceptual Framework.

The assessment scale mentioned which contains, 11 general domains each has seven
different practical features, consists of a total 77 items.

The last feature of each domain is namely “other” (please specify). Since the preference
percentage- ratio of the last item is not high it has been excused from the judgment list.
The final analysis is concluded with 66 items.

At the beginning of the study, the necessary information about the research is given to
the Lotus users at the Maslak Plaza, Istanbul. Then they were asked online to rank the
Lotus Notes 6 within the EPSS Domain Features Checklist. Based on their own
experiences, feelings and perceptions the users put a check all the appropriate items on
the list. The percentages and ratios were calculated for each domain and the features.

RESULTS

The following Table: 1 summarizes the results of HSBC Bank Lotus Notes users’
preferences within the EPSS point of view.

39
 Table: 1
General Domains of EPSS and their Features in
Lotus Notes Practice at the HSBC Bank

General Domains Practical Features Practical % General

%

Performance Performance information 39.71 31.19

Support Support mechanism 31.16
Improvement- Productivity 40.42
Independence - Flexibility 29.90
Token gifts 11.16
Empowering 34.77
Problem Solving Conflict/dilemma-resolution 42.03 29.42
Decision making 28.63
Evaluate skills 29.90
Troubleshooting 24.42
Alternative solutions 25.29
Performance appraisal 26.29
Work Practice Group work 42.12 32.08
Virtual teams 35.51
Training exercises – 45.71
Demonstrations
Fun experience 18.69
Integrated units 20.56
Role playing 29.90
Guidance Online help 35.41 30.92
Peer dialogue, sharing of mind, 55.13
work, questions and discussion
Mail list, newsgroup, forum 38.97
mechanisms
Search engine 11.21
Expert system 20.56
Advisory system 24.23
Collaboration- Effective communication 45.92 3752
Cooperation Chat, e-mail, whiteboard, screen 49.31
sharing
Social context 34.29
Team work 37.38
Interactivity- Peer relationships 47.05
Audio-video conferencing 11.20
Learning Situated learning -Anchor 24.01 26.46
Enviroment instruction
Brainstorming 31.77
Feedback 34.71
Achieving objectives 19.69
Joy of learning 21.49
Human memory 27.10
Management Instructional-learning 34.57 31.72
System environment
Databases 49.38
Knowledge skills 24.29
Acquisition 16.82
Negotiation 14.95
Privacy, security and safety 50.31
Motivation User satisfaction 39.51 29.15

40
 Self-efficiency - Learner control 41.92
Orientation 14.90
Navigation 11.28
Intrinsic motivation- Enjoyment 29.90
Extrinsic motivation- Usefulness 37.38
Case-Studies- Modeling - Role taking 33.49 26.34
Examples Real world examples 22.42
Case demonstrations 23.39
Alternative solutions 20.56
Practicing 29.97
Online collaborative supports 28.23
User-Acceptance Easy self-regulation 41.12 28.72
User-centered 53.47
Perceived usefulness 17.81
Attitudes – Perceptions 13.08
Provide beliefs 14.09
Satisfy needs 32.77
Cost-Effectiveness Easy to use and learn 67.20 38.22
Time consuming 47.16
Reduce training cost 14.01
Reduce travel cost 19.15
Reduce communication cost 40.71
Reduce lost time 41.12

From the analyzed results of Performance Support domain items, it has been observed
that improvement & productivity (40.42 %) is the most and token gifts (11.62%) are the
last emphasized feature. Under the domain of Problem Solving, conflict/dilemma
resolution (42.03%) is the most and troubleshooting (24.42) is the last emphasized
feature. Under the domain of Work Practice, training exercises- demonstrations (45.71%)
is the most and fun experience (18.69%) is the lest emphasized feature.

Under the domain of Guidance, Peer dialogue, sharing of mind, work, questions and
discussion (55.13%) is the most and search engine (11.21%) is the last emphasized
feature. Under the domain of Collaboration-cooperation, Chat, e-mail, whiteboard, screen
sharing training (49.31%) is the most and audio-video conferencing (11.20%) is the last
emphasized feature. Under the domain of Learning Environment, feedback (34.71%) is
the most and achieving objectives (19.69%) is the last emphasized feature. Under the
domain of Learning Environment, feedback (34.71%) is the most and achieving
objectives (19.69%) is the last emphasized feature. Under the domain of Management
System, privacy, security and safety (50.31%) is the most and negotiation (14.95%) is
the last emphasized feature.

Under the domain of Motivation, self-efficiency- learner-control feedback (41.92%) is the

most and navigation (11.28%) is the last emphasized feature. Under the domain of Case-
Studies Examples, modeling-role taking (33.49%) is the most and alternative solutions
(20.56%) is the last emphasized feature.

Under the domain of User-Acceptance, user-centered (53.47%) is the most and

alternative solutions (20.56%) is the last emphasized feature. Under the domain of Cost-
Effectiveness, easy to use and learn (67.20%) is the most and reduce training cost
(19.69%) is the last emphasized feature.

Cost-effectiveness, collaboration-cooperation, work-practice, management system and

performance support are the most powerful domains. The domains of learning
environment and example case studies are scored as the lowest preferences. The scores
are based on the Table: 1, the average score of the total 66 items is 31.06.

41
The items scored lower than the average need to be improved for powerful EPSS activities
at the Istanbul HSBC Bank. From this point of view the following Table 2 shows the top
ten most preferred and the buttom ten less preferred items and their percentages.

Table: 2
The most and the less preferred items

The most preferred Percentages The less preferred Percentages

Easy to use & learning 67.20 Token gifts 11.16
User-centered 53.47 Audio-video conferencing 11.20
Privacy, security, safety 50.31 Search Enginee 11.21
Databases 49.38 Navigation 11.28
Chat, e-mail, sharing 49.31 Attitudes- perceptions 13.08
Time consuming 47.16 Reduce training cost 14.01
Interactivity 47.05 Provides beliefs 14.09
Effective communication 45.92 Orientation 14.90
Exercises, 45.71 Negotiation 14.95
Demonstrations
Groupwork 42.12 Acquisition 16.82

Based on the data on the The Tables 1 and 2, it could be said that if the less preferred
items are developed the effectiveness and efficiency of the task oriented EPSS activities
would be increased at the Istanbul HSBC Bank.

CONCLUSION

It is now possible to organize globally while working locally: Information technologies

such as e-mail, the Internet, and video conferencing to the desktop permit tight
coordination of geographically dispersed workers across time zones and cultures. Entire
parts of organizations can disappear: Inventory, and the warehouses to store it, can be
eliminated as suppliers tie into the firm’s computer systems and deliver just what is
needed and just in time (Loudon & Loudon, 2005). From this point of view, EPSS provides
electronic support to the officers in achieving a performance objective; a feature in which
makes it universally and consistently available on demand any time, any place, regardless
of situation, without unnecessary intermediaries involved in the process. The system can
include a range of support mechanisms and software tools, including advisory systems to
help in structuring tasks and decision- making, and other interactive capabilities with the
alternative support mechanism systems.

Also, it can be said that designing the strategies and methods also provide effective
training in the LN6 program environments. They permit automated, interactive design
and representation of complex data, complex and interrelated processes, and the link to
entities (functions, users, departments, etc.) via a set of structural design representation
and sophisticated cost effective programs (Lohrke, et al., 1999).

In this view, presented a concrete EPSS example for a specific subject group (i.e., HSBC
Bank operators) in Lotus Notes practice is an important issue. In fact, experience in
applying the conceptual framework methods for EPSS analysis is needed for validation.
For this reason, EPSS Domain Features Checklist is developed to assess the HSBC Bank
operators’ perceptions at the job setting. Within the Checklist data the study showed that
LN is an effective tool to deliver instruction to personnel in highly computerized work
environments with online references, automated decision support, and just-in-time
training. In fact, with their technical, informational and motivational opportunities, LN6
electronic information environments can provide performance empowerment and on-line
collaborative support in education and training. The potential utility of an EPSS within LN
situation will depend upon the characteristics of both user population and the learning
tasks that are to be performed within the learning or training applications.

42
Thus, the users need to achieve high levels of proficiency very rapidly. Similarly in the
context of task characteristics, situations (Lotus Notes 6 or 7) in which the use of an EPSS
can be advantageous include: infrequently performed tasks; tasks involving large amount
of information; tasks involving multiple steps; applications or procedures that involve
extensive functionality, and tasks requiring diverse knowledge. Finally, the study is
shown that LN is a suitable tool for creating a powerful EPSS activities within the HSBC
Bank example.

From this point of view, it could be said that Lotus Notes is a helpful tool to show and to
explain how EPSS activities are doing in what manner at the Istanbul HSBC Bank.
Continued research is needed on the EPSS for assessing the impact of different subject
groups at the different settings.

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESES of AUTHOR

Dr. Servet BAYRAM is graduate of the Program in Instructional

Design & Technology at the University of Pittsburgh, PA, and
completed post-doctoral study in Instructional Systems
Technology at the Indiana University, Bloomingtoon, IN.

At the Turkish Air Force Academy, he studied and worked on the

EPSS educational implications for pilot training.

Currently, he serves as Chairman of Department of Computer

Education & Instructional Technologies at the Marmara University,
Istanbul. He became professor in 2006.

Prof. Dr. Servet Bayram

Marmara Üniversitesi,
Bilgisayar ve Öğretim Teknolojileri
Goztepe, Karıyoy Iskanbul, TURKEY
Email: [email protected]

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 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2 Article: 4

Comparison of student perceptions of classroom instruction:

Traditional, hybrid, and distance education
Mary Jo Garcia BIGGS
Texas State University
San Marcos, USA
ABSTRACT

This article reports the results of a project that examined student perceptions of the
psychosocial learning environment in a distance education classroom. The study utilized
a survey instrument, Distance Education Learning Environments Survey (DELES) that was
distributed as a pre-test/post-test to three sections of the same course taught in three
distinct formats: traditional classroom instruction, distance learning, and hybrid (partially
on-line/partially face-to-face). The DELES survey is a web-based tool specifically
designed to assess the learning environment using a standardized, validated instrument.
At the beginning of the project, the DELES-Preferred was administered to the three pilot
groups. It measures the perception of the “actual” environment, perceptions of the
preferred environment, or the “ideal” learning environment of the students.

In addition, a brief overview of the DELES instrument is described as well as the

implications of the research project findings. Project results, based on the DELES
administration, indicate that Instructor Support was rated highest by the students
enrolled in the course taught in the traditional manner (4.68 mean) closely followed by
the Hybrid course (4.66 mean) while the course taught totally at a distance averaged a
3.62 mean. However, Student Interaction and Collaboration averaged higher scores in the
course taught in the Hybrid manner (4.23) followed by the traditional course (3.97) and
then the distance course (3.12). Specific scales of Personal Relevance, Authentic
Learning, Active Learning, Student Autonomy and Satisfaction (scale of affect) are further
addressed in the article.

Keywords: On-line, student perceptions, distance learning, DELES.

INTRODUCTION OF RESEARCH PROJECT

The distance education program in the School of Social Work provides an excellent
opportunity to explore how students actually perceive “psychosocial environmental”
dynamics of three formats of university instruction: Traditional, Hybrid and Distance
learning. In the study, the term Psychosocial refers to peoples interactions with their
environment. In distance education, less than three-quarters of studies focus on learning,
only about one-third of those are research based (Murphy & Cifuentes, 2001).

The study will provide additional research based practices to add to the field. The goals of
the project were to explore the following:

What are the learning environment preferences of graduate level social work
students enrolled in the Master of Social Work program?

What are the actual perceptions of the learning environment of those students
regarding classroom instruction?

The study utilized the Distance Education Learning Environments Survey (DELES), a
validated instrument for post-secondary distance education. The DELES is the “the first
instrument of its kind and significant for utilization on a global scale. It is also a useful
tool for distance education researchers and those desiring to conduct action research or
evaluation of their own distance education courses or programs (Walker, 2005, pg. 10).”

46
Additional information regarding the development and results of analysis performed on
DELES during field-testing and Item Analysis can be obtained from
http://insight.southcentralrtec.org/ilib/delesa/delesainfo.html. By administering the
DELES-Preferred and DELES-Actual, comparisons could be made based on what the
students perceive should be in place for instruction and the actual perceptions after
instruction occurred. In addition, the researcher sought to determine if a notable
difference in perceptions occurred among the three differing forms of instructional
settings. Utilization of student perceptions of the learning environment will help
instructors in the designing of courses presented.

Twenty-six students enrolled in the MSW program at Texas State University-San Marcos
were administered DELES-Preferred at the beginning of the project start (January 2005).
More specifically, students were enrolled in Social Work Practice III: Interviewing and
Counseling. The content of the course lends to students developing interpersonal and
communication skills with clients and other professionals. The topics of discussion focus
on interviewing, assessment, and planning skills. Those students enrolled in traditional,
distance and hybrid instruction courses were included in the sample. All three cohorts
were receiving instruction by the same professor. However, the content was presented in
three different modes: traditional, distance and hybrid.

The DELES-Preferred measures perceptions of the ideal learning environment by

students. The web-based, 34 statement, survey about student perceptions of distance
learning using Likert format selections (1-never, 2-seldom, 3-sometimes, 4-often & 5-
always) was collected by INSIGHT, the South Central RTC instrument Library and Data
Repository. After completion of the course (May 2005), students were administered the
DELES-Actual. The DELES-Actual measures students’ perception of the learning
environment, as they perceive it is. Raw data of the DELES-Actual was collected by
INSIGHT and is housed in the Instrument Library. The researcher requested a summary
report and scoring of the DELES that was provided through electronic copies of
spreadsheets. The researcher, to measure the means of each instructional setting, then
conducted statistical analysis.

STUDY FINDINGS

Data was collected and analyzed on the 34 web- based statements in which students
responded. Results of a comparison of the three groups using the posttest only (DELES-
Actual) indicated that Instructor Support was rated highest by the students enrolled in
the course taught in the traditional manner (4.68 mean) closely followed by the hybrid
course (4.66 mean) while the course taught totally at a distance averaged a 3.62 mean.
Instructor Support is defined as “the extent to which the instructor is approachable and
responds quickly with feedback” (Walker, 2001, pg. 2). Items measured in this scale, as
well as the comparisons are as follows:

The instructor provides me positive and negative feedback on my work.

(Traditional=5.00, Hybrid=4.66, Distance=3.71)

The instructor adequately addresses my questions. (Traditional=5.00, Hybrid=4.83,
Distance=3.57)

The instructor encourages my participation. (Traditional=5.00, Hybrid=4.66,
Distance=4.14)

If I have an inquiry, the instructor finds time to respond. (Traditional=4.80,
Hybrid=4.66, Distance=3.71)

The instructor helps me identify problem areas in my study. (Traditional=4.00,
Hybrid=4.66, Distance=3.29)

The instructor responds promptly to my questions. (Traditional=4.40, Hybrid=4.66,
Distance=3.71)

The instructor gives me valuable feedback on my assignments. (Traditional=4.80,
Hybrid=4.83, Distance=3.57)

It is easy to contact the instructor. (Traditional=4.40, Hybrid=4.33, Distance=3.29)

47
Student Interaction and Collaboration
Averaged higher scores in the course taught in the hybrid manner (Hybrid=4.23) followed
by the traditional course (Traditional=3.97) and the distance course (Distance=3.12).
Student Interaction and Collaboration is defined as the opportunity to interact with each
other, exchange information, and engage in collaboration (Walker, 2001). Items
measured and comparisons in this scale included:

Group work is part of my activities. (Hybrid=4.40, Traditional=3.40, Distance=2.57)

I relate my work to other’s work. (Hybrid=4.50, Traditional=4.00, Distance=3.00)

I share information with other students. (Hybrid=4.00, Traditional=3.60,
Distance=3.43)

I work with others. (Traditional=4.60, Hybrid=3.29, Distance=4.50)

I discuss my ideas with other students. (Traditional=4.00, Hybrid=4.00, Distance=3.29)

I collaborate with other students in the class. (Traditional=4.20, Hybrid=4.00,
Distance=3.14)

Personal Relevance
In measuring Personal Relevance, results indicated that Personal Relevance had equal
means in both the traditional and hybrid course (Traditional=4.03, Hybrid=4.03,
Distance=3.84). Personal relevance is the “connection between students’ out-of-school
experiences” (Walker, 2001, pg. 2). Statements measured in this scale included:

I can relate what I learn to my life outside of university. (Traditional=4.20,

Hybrid=3.71, Distance=4.20)

I link class work to my life outside of university. (Traditional=4.00, Hybrid=3.86,
Distance=4.00)

I learn things about the world outside of university. (Traditional=4.20, Hybrid=3.86,
Distance=4.20)

I am able to pursue topics that interest me. (Traditional=4.00, Hybrid=4.20,
Distance=3.71)

I can connect my studies to my activities outside of class. (Traditional=4.00,
Hybrid=3.60, Distance=3.86)

I apply my everyday experiences in class. (Traditional=3.80, Hybrid=4.00,
Distance=4.14)

I apply my out-of-class experience. (Traditional=4.00, Hybrid=4.00, Distance=3.86)

Authentic Learning
Authentic Learning was highest in the course taught in the traditional manner followed by
the hybrid course and then the distance course. (Traditional=4.24, Hybrid=3.60,
Distance=4.12).

Authentic learning is the “extent to which students have the opportunity to solve real-
world problems that are authentic” (Walker, 2001, pg. 2). Statements found in the
Authentic Learning scales included:

I work on assignments that deal with real-world information. (Traditional=4.40,

Hybrid=4.20, Distance=3.57)

I work with real examples. (Traditional=4.40, Hybrid=4.20, Distance=3.57)

I enter the real world of the topic of study. (Traditional=4.20, Hybrid=4.00,
Distance=3.71)

I study real cases related to the class. (Traditional=4.00, Hybrid=4.00, Distance=3.75)

I use real facts in class activities. (Traditional=4.20, Hybrid=4.20, Distance=3.57)

Active Learning
The scale Active Learning was also measured. Results are as follows: Active Learning was
rated highest in the traditional course followed by the distance course.
(Traditional=4.33, Hybrid=3.73, Distance=3.76). Active Learning is the “extent to which
students have the opportunity to take an active role in their learning” (Walker, 2001,
pg.2). Specific examples found within this scale are as follows:

48

I explore my own strategies for learning. (Traditional=4.40, Hybrid=3.40,
Distance=3.86)

I seek my own answers. (Traditional=4.40, Hybrid=4.00, Distance=3.80)

I solve my own problems. (Traditional=4.20, Hybrid=3.43, Distance=4.00)

Overall averages in, Student Autonomy the traditional course was highest followed by the
hybrid course. (Traditional=4.48, Hybrid=4.16, Distance=3.97).

Student Autonomy
Student Autonomy is defined as “students have opportunities to initiate ideas, make their
own learning decisions, and the locus of control is student oriented” (Walker, 2001, pg.
2). Items measured include:

I make decisions about my learning. (Traditional=4.40, Hybrid=4.00, Distance=3.71)

I play an important role in my learning. (Traditional=4.60, Hybrid=4.00,
Distance=4.29)

I approach learning in my own way. (Traditional=4.80, Hybrid=4.66, Distance=3.57)

I work during times I find convenient. (Traditional=4.20, Hybrid=4.66, Distance=4.43)

5. I am in control of my learning. (Traditional=4.20, Hybrid=3.50, Distance=3.86)

Satisfaction
In addition, a scale of Satisfaction was added as an affect scale of enjoyment of distance
learning. Overall, the hybrid course scored highest means, followed by the traditional
course. (Traditional=3.95, Hybrid=4.21, Distance=3.59). The scale of Satisfaction
included items such as:

I prefer Distance Education. (Traditional=4.00, Hybrid=4.33, Distance=3.57)

Distance Education is exciting. (Traditional=3.20, Hybrid=4.00, Distance=3.29)

Distance Education is worth my time. (Traditional=4.20, Hybrid=4.33, Distance=4.00)

I enjoy studying by distance. (Traditional=4.20, Hybrid=4.33, Distance=3.71)

I would enjoy my education is all my classes were by distance. (Traditional=4.00,
Hybrid=4.00, Distance=3.43)

In utilizing the instrument, it is hoped that the students’ preferred form of a class is met
and the actual form should represent that their preferences were met or exceeded. The
instructor should have an awareness of what students prefer and actually meet their
preferences (Walker, 2001). When examining the data from the course taught in the
traditional fashion, students indicated that they received more instructor support than
they perceived themselves requiring (Preferred=4.66, Actual=4.68). Additional
information obtained from the traditional course is as follows:

Student Interaction and Collaboration (Preferred=3.73, Actual=3.97) Students actually

received more student interaction and collaboration than they had perceived as needing.

Personal Relevance (Preferred=4.22, Actual=4.03) Students did not receive as much

opportunity to interact with one another, exchange information and engage in
collaboration as they would have preferred.

Authentic Learning (Preferred=4.25, Actual=4.24) Students had the opportunity to solve

real -world problems that were authentic as the scores for the preferred and actual were
similar.

Active Learning (Preferred=4.21, Actual=4.33) Students received more opportunity for

active learning then they perceived themselves as needing.

Student Autonomy (Preferred=4.38, Actual=4.48) Students had more opportunity to

initiate ideas and make their own learning decisions than they had perceived as needing.

49
Satisfaction (Preferred=3.57, Actual=3.95) Students seemed to enjoy learning in a
distance education learning environment.

Analyzed data obtained from those surveys completed by students enrolled in the hybrid
course indicated the following:

Instructor Support (Preferred=4.52, Actual=4.66) Students received more instructor

support than they had indicated as a preference.

Student Interaction and Collaboration (Preferred=3.71, Actual=4.23) Students received

more student interaction and collaboration than they had indicated as a preference.

Personal Relevance (Preferred=4.21, Actual=4.03) Students did not receive as much

opportunity to connect between their out-of-school experiences as they would have
preferred.

Authentic Learning (Preferred=4.29, Actual=4.12) Students did not receive as much

opportunity to solve real-world problems as they would have preferred.

Active Learning (Preferred=3.81, Actual=3.73) Students did not receive as much

opportunity to take an active role in their learning as they would have preferred.

Student Autonomy (Preferred=4.01, Actual=4.16) Students received more opportunity to

initiate ideas and make their own learning decisions than they had indicated as a
preference.

Satisfaction (Preferred=3.72, Actual=4.21) Students actually enjoyed learning in a

distance education environment more than they had originally perceived.

Lastly, those students participating in the survey enrolled in the Distance Learning class
indicated the following responses:

Instructor Support (Preferred=3.94, Actual=3.62). In this cohort students indicated a

higher preference for instructor support then they actually received. The instructor often
did not meet student preferences and students appear to have understood was expected
of them.

Student Interaction and Collaboration (Preferred=3.27, Actual=3.12) Students actually

received less student interaction and collaboration than they had perceived as needing.

Personal Relevance (Preferred=3.81, Actual=3.84) Students received slightly more

opportunities to connect between their out-of-school experiences as they would have
preferred.

Authentic Learning (Preferred=3.63, Actual=3.60) Students actually received less student

opportunity to solve real world problems that are authentic than they had perceived as
needing.

Active Learning (Preferred=3.82, Actual=3.76) Students would have preferred to receive

more opportunity to take an active role in their learning.
Student Autonomy (Preferred=3.89, Actual=3.97) Students had more opportunity to
initiate ideas and make their own learning decisions than they had indicated as a
preference early in the semester.

Satisfaction (Preferred=3.89, Actual=3.59) Students did not enjoy learning in a distance

education environment as much as they had perceived it would be in the beginning of the
semester.

50
Results of the study will contribute to the knowledge base of social work by providing
valuable information on the role that psychosocial influences play in distance education
environments. The study will also contribute to the knowledge base of distance education
research and higher education by explaining how distance education is effective in
training social workers, especially in isolated rural communities. For the DELES survey to
offer additional benefits to instructors, administration can be given at mid semester and
data analyzed. Collected data can then be used by the instructor as a self-evaluation tool
and provide opportunities to restructure the course to better meet student needs
(Walker, 2005b). This invaluable information can assist instructors in being proactive in
ensuring higher faculty evaluations at the end of the semester as well as providing
optimal instruction for students.

BIODATA and CONTACT ADDRESSES of AUTHOR

Mary Jo Garcia BIGGS is an Assistant Professor in the department of

Social Work at Texas State University-San Marcos. Her course load
primarily consists of policy practice, human behavior in the social
environment and graduate level field practicum.
Her research interests include distance education, adult education, and
gerontology. Dr. Garcia Biggs received her a B.S.W. at Texas State
University-San Marcos, M.S.W. from Our Lady of the Lake University,
San Antonio, Texas and her Ph.D. from Texas A&M University, College
Station.

Mary Jo Garcia Biggs

Texas State University 601 University Drive, San Marcos, Texas 78666, USA
Phone: 512-245-2586 Fax 512-245-8097
Email: [email protected]

AUTHOR’s Note: Financial Support; A University Research Enhancement Grant provided

funds to conduct the project aforementioned, as well as a continued project involving
focus groups and instructor perceptions of the MSW Distance Education Program.

Acknowledgements: The researcher would like to acknowledge Dr. Scott Walker (Texas
State University-San Marcos) for his contribution of the development of the DELES scales,
and Dr. Cynthia Simpson (Sam Houston State University) for her continued support of the
project.

REFERENCES

INSIGHT, The south central RTEC instrument library and data repository. Retrieved
December 1, 2005, from http://insight.southcentralrtec.org/instruments/

Murphy, L. L., & Cifuentes, L. (2001). Using web tools, collaboration, and learning
online. Distance Education, 22, 285-305.

Walker, S. L. (2001). Online learning environments research. Sixth annual teaching in the
community colleges online conference, Kapi’olani Community College & University of
Hawaii, from http://education.ollusa.edu/tcc2001 Retrieved December 1, 2005.

Walker, S. L. (2005). Development of the Distance Education Learning Environments

Survey(DELES) for Higher Education. The Texas Journal of Distance Learning, 2(1), 1-6.

Walker, S. L. (2005b). Modifying formative evaluation techniques for distance education

class evaluation. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE, 6 (4), 1-4.

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 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2 Article: 5

CONTEMPORARY SPHERES FOR THE TEACHING EDUCATION:

FREIRE'S PRINCIPLES

Profa. Dra.
Margarita Victoria GOMEZ

Valley of the Green River University

(Universidade Vale do Rio Verde)
Three Hearts (Três Corações)
Unicor, BRAZIL
ABSTRACT

Freire's cogitation on Information Technology (IT), resources for education have been
known since the decade of the 50s. And now, within the current context, this analysis
outlines the literacy problem as an issue of gnosis and anthropology while existing in a
virtual dimension. Based on research/experiences that also were carried out in Brazil, it
can be noted that the literacy that is being discussed includes the skill in handling a
mouse, selecting, dragging, cutting, pasting, CTRL C+CTRL V, writing a text and searching
the internet, but although it seems "obvious", public education policy has not given
sufficient thought nor assumed a pedagogical position on these issues.

This discussed cogitation considers contributions of the Freire pedagogy, in the attempt to
attain, through this type of literacy, the unprecedented accomplishment of something
viable–that what teachers realize as unprecedented, due to the fact that nobody has
accomplished it before, however viable, because all of the conditions to make it happen are
there, including a critical preparation of the educators. Within the internet context, the
proposal implies a digital writing and reading ability that is based on communication and
dialogue skills and, as fundamental strategies for reading the world, the real/virtual world,
the knowledge of the daily speech, of writing and reading within a multi-diversification of
digitally generated texts.

Keywords: Digital education; Freire's Pedagogy; Cultural circles; Education for adolescents
and adults.

INTRODUCTION

The IT culture, or cyberculture, which is generated through an ever present information, as

well as interactive and interconnected documents, and reciprocal and asynchronous
telecommunication, is built and updated intra/between groups, and distinguished by not
having a fixed center or directive.

By not being neutral in cyberspace, the interconnections refer to cultural differences,

which are updated at every interchange and thus, the hereby generated correlation form
webs, in the Freire sense, and by being reorganized and updated with specific purposes,
they lead us to think of this act as something universally new, since it incorporates all of
the contents connected to their semantic loads.

It is also worth noting that with this dynamic reality that is rich in symbolic links coexist
some 15 million of illiterate people, 13% of the Brazilian population, according to the data
of the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE). On a world-wide level,
however, there remains over 875 million people with no ability to read or write, of which a
high percentage of this number are women.

52
This illiteracy situation has worsened with the introduction of information technology,
which enlarges the distance from the education/preparation of people, creating the so-
called "digital gap". In this sense the UNO has recently called for "digital education" and
for "technological balance". Through this call an attempt is being made to use information
technology as an instrument of civil, economic and social progress through a more solitary
partition of technology. We are being challenged to respond to this call with a proposal of
literacy as the right to express the word, and not as a gift to be donated by rich countries
that seem to think that they have to "eradicate" illiteracy as if it were a weed that has to
be eradicated at the roots.

What can be done, however, to invert those problems that arise by favoring the Education
of Adolescents and Adults that have been and are now being deprived of the possibility of
education? In order to develop the preparation of educators by making them work in favor
of the excluded population, beginning with teaching to read and write as an undeniable
right of all human kind, all possible resources were used for an alternative proposal for
Education, with personal presence or utilizing online methods, through which diverse
social levels, educators and educatees could be reached during this educational process.

In view of this situation, the preparation of educators of adolescents and adults, with
specific educational strategies, is being taken over through governmental or private
agreements by several institutions that are traditional in this area. However, there are
those who consider it insufficient in front of the growing demand and the Brazilian reality.
For this reason, one of the purposes of the online Education of Educators for Adolescents
and Adults would be to help overcome the illiteracy situation in Brazil or in countries with
similar conditions, contributing with a public policy of teaching to read and write that
includes more complex ways of reading and writing.

The concern with this work of preparing the educator through long distance education is
not limited to the educator for adolescents and adults; it involves all educators and
educatees.

TEACHING TO READ AND WRITE VERSUS TEACHING DIGITAL READING

AND WRITING? (LITERACY VERSUS DIGITAL LITERACY?)

Would Paulo Freire, as a dialogical educator, be concerned with digital reading and
writing education? Would he have thought his Method in the IT and "knowledge"
era? Of one thing we can be certain: Paulo Freire loved to write letters: "Cartas a
Guinée Bissau", "Quatro cartas aos animadores e às animadoras culturais",
"Professora sim, tia não: Cartas para quem ousa ensinar", "Cartas a Cristina, "Carta
aos amigos Cipriano, Elói, José e Neidoson", "Pedagogia da indignação: cartas
pedagógicas e outros escritos". All of these letters are unfinished, as for Freire
writing represented a political act where he was committed to his knowledge, his
ethics, and his lovingness.

What would Paulo Freire do with e-mail? In one of his works he refers to his experience
with the internet. He said that the social production of the language and technological
instruments that "reduce" space and time, as well as with those where human beings
interact better in the world announce what technology would be.

"A short time ago, my grandson Alejandro Dowbor called me, telling me that on his
Internet connected computer "fell" a message of a German scholar asking for my address.
He answered and added the number of my fax. Fifteen minutes later I was already
speaking with the German teacher. Thanks to technology. If my mother, who died in 1978,
would have come back to Earth and heard my dialogue with Alejandro, she would never
have understood anything."(1)

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Paulo Freire (1994b:155) has already raised the question of technology for the reading and
writing education of adults from the first cultural circles held in Pernambuco:

These were circles formed within beneficial societies, soccer clubs, district associations,
and in churches. The educators were in charge of preparing the creation of a circle, visiting
the congregation club or the parochial church or the district association and talking about
the idea of a pedagogical work. Once the proposal was accepted, a large promotion effort
was done in the area, using popular resources (...). When two or three circles had been
created, the educators made a thematic survey among the participants, which was studied
by us, in a team, at the home office of the action group. Once the themes had been
"treated", they were organized in a program to be discussed with the participants of the
circle (...). We prepared the material for the discussions, taking into consideration the
available resources (...). I wonder what we could have done with the technological
resources available today...

Questions like these allow us to think and develop an educational proposal in a digital web
in order to prepare educators for teaching adolescents and adults in Latin America, based
on the central idea of Freire's popular education principles. While saying this it must not be
forgotton, as already mentioned, the enormous differences that not only the exclusion of
basic education but also the technology are causing.

This awareness comes from the responsiveness and demystification of access and usage of
technology, in order to understand education as a process that begins and has to be
developed through the entire life of the individual and his group. It implies a progressive
incorporation of more sophisticated communication elements that are generated by a more
complex reading and writing culture and behavior.

In the same way that reading and writing represented a technological and therefore
cultural progress–magnified and generalized by the print media – digital education is also
based on a technological and cultural action. The generalized usage of the computer
network and the culture that was created around it originates relationships of an immense
social, economic and political impact on both local and global levels.

Digital education or literacy, within the context of Freire's education, refers to both the
recognition of basic knowledge and the learning of information technology skills, such as
the operation of network connected computers and the critical understanding of reality.
Thus, independent from the education or basic preparation of a person, a critical
understanding of the knowledge embedded in the digital world is indispensable.

The skill of using, understanding and transforming information in multiple formats

within an extensive range of digital texts presented by computers allows us to
approach the concept of digital literacy. This concept goes far beyond the simple
ability to read, it means providing a meaning to the act of reading, giving
signification and understanding, and this is to give a meaning. It becomes an act of
reading and writing, of knowledge of what is seen on the screen, of what is heard in
the sound files, of what is perceived in the simulations and animations, of what is
build along with others in the search of useful texts for daily activities.

If we consider that the production of reading and writing is a social and historical process,
contemporary man will carry out this practice creating new abilities, abilities which are
necessary for obtaining and expressing knowledge vocally or by writing. One needs this
knowledge for the understanding of texts and a creative usage of the computer and
networks. Therefore some universal concepts and practices of the digital world, the same
which show a certain homogeneity, favor, from the cultural point of view, the integration
of local groups among themselves and with the virtual educational community. Certain
operative systems, where the utilized symbols and icons and the manner of interchanging
texts are almost standardized, may serve as an example.

54
It is also important to mention that the cultural values of a virtual educative community
raise from the collective production of reading and writing by correctly using electronic
mail, and principally from the cultural repertoire that allows the asking of questions to
others, and to participate with opinions and studies in discussion / decision groups in the
internet. This proceeding provides identity to a group and in a certain way it helps to
construct subjectivity.

A process of inter and transculturation is admitted to the new knowledge through allowing
the socialization of an accumulation of experiences and maintaining some universal values.
The production of knowledge in the sphere of internet is constructed through several
visions of the world, cultures and disciplines that exceed a specific scientific reference.

To think of the transcultural construction of knowledge in the range of the internet means
to assume intercultural education as a possibility in this new territory, as it allows a
specific dimension of the subject, its educative achievements and paths, which, on the
other hand, grant a certain identity and subjectivity. This also implies in thinking of the
construction of knowledge within the socio-historical web of the cultural processes in
Freire's intercultural education, during the search for an emancipating education of the
human being some potentials of transculturation on the communication level, dialogue,
where some alteration of the participant and others can be found.

Thus, within the virtual sphere, the preparation proposal of educators for adolescents and
adults, as well as for general educators, takes advantage of the theoretical and practical
nature of these dimensions, investigating the universe of students and teachers as a
fundamental field of theoretical construction, which allows them to search for other
realities and to obtain new theoretical constructions, or of reading and writing.

The dimension of socialization of knowledge is based on thinking "of a literacy where man,
since they are not its patient [of the system], its object, are allowed to develop impatience,
or vivaciousness, the characteristic of the states of search, creativeness, demand."(2)

And in the internet sphere, this could only be possible if the citizen were able to use and
understand the processes of creating messages and forward them, in other words, to
declare his word, "to write to the world". Once this can be achieved, the practices of digital
literacy would provide the maximum benefit to the individual and the community of
adolescents and adults.

By considering the gnostic question, where the attempt is made to understand the creative
process of knowledge within the digital sphere in its multidimensional aspect, it has to be
established what knowing means in this context, what we can get to know and in what it
implies to know what is known. And all this without neglecting the particular relation
subject/object, i.e., who knows and what is known, and through which real/virtual actions
of the subject, and which are the actions on the three-dimensional objects that allow one
to know.

This getting to know is "interweaved" to a fundamentally ethical question, which is the

democratization of access to the internet and the permanence of the educators within the
creative knowledge process. Thus, it turns out to be impossible to deny the methodological
dimension of digital literacy within the context of education as being a political, gnostic
and aesthetical act, which considers the subject in multiple relationships and in a
multitude of dimensions. And by considering these elements, the pedagogical planning
assumes the necessary autonomy for working with people.

FREIRE'S EDUCATIONAL PROPOSAL WITHIN THE VIRTUAL SPACE

In both the National Plan for Literacy of MEC – Ministry of Education and Culture, Brazil,
1963, and in the MOVA_SP, Brazil – Literacy Movement for Adolescents and Adults of the
City of São Paulo, 1989, led by Paulo Freire, there were two principles which were

55
fundamental for the processes to succeed: the indispensable political goodwill allowing
this unprecedented viability that is critical literacy to take place, and the beginning of the
process being based on the "content" and knowledge of the students to be taught, a
"content" and knowledge donated and shared during the act of learning.

Once this is established, the digital literacy hereto referred will be committed to
those principles. But would it be possible to work with the Paulo Freire Method in a
virtual space? In spite of the fact that there is no answer to this question, we must
consider the principles of higher education and the fundamental aspects of the
Method in this new cultural sphere, which are potentially liberating from human
relationships through dialogic usage of the new information and communication
techniques.

Some of the principles and elements of Freire's pedagogy are especially highlighted in
order to deliberate just how these meetings in virtual space could become educational.

The Culture circle would be the learning space and also the methodology. A teacher
instigating to dialogue and inviting the students to participate in the current debate
should coordinate it; this culture circle could include up to twenty-five students. The
goal would be to get the participants' word and texts to circulate, and to attain the
theme that gives origin to the text that will later on be queried. During the debate the
intention is to disclose, investigate; expose situations, practices, dynamics and
experiences that allow the collective construction of the knowledge of the debated
situation. The Circle indicates a stop "in motion" for the cogitation and the action, it
has not only a mirror effect.

With the Paulo Freire Method everybody learns and teaches: as this is a proposal where
the object is to share the teaching and learning, the communication and the dialogue
are of fundamental importance in the relationship established in the Internet. By
allowing the interpenetration of the basic elements of trust, humility, respect,
lovingness, and hope, they allow a certain autonomy in the process of teaching /
learning. The emphasis of this process lies in that what we learn in relation to and
mediated by the world, and we can say that entering the internet implies a meeting
with the others, but more than that, with oneself, by questioning our autonomy for
both learning and teaching. There is no holder of wisdom, but a learning community
where everybody learns / teaches and where together they get to increase knowledge.
The characteristics of the online courses provide a distinctive relationship between
teaching and learning, constituting what Moacir Gadotti recognized as a "learning
society".

The relationship educator/educatee: is established on respect, ethics and the

acknowledgement of each other's knowledge. In this relationship the task of the
educator and the educatee will be to perform the authorship of the reading and the
writing within the means of communication. The "reading of the world" offers
strategies for critical discovery, encoding/decoding, and exploring the text previously
written and saved in the computer memory, (which allows evaluating the teaching
ability of the educator in this century). The responsibility of the teacher will be that of
mediating between the educatee and the computer, i.e. the entire complex information
network, "setting queries for the educatees on the content that mediates them"(3),
while maintaining the critical debate in order to avoid to creating amateurs on the web.

The political character of the teaching act: understanding today, in a global context,
that power cannot be owned, but that power is wield, making us aware of the multiple
interpenetrations undergone by the educative web. On the other hand, it is this web
that will allow educators to exercise the power of liberating themselves from their own
practices, as long as it is generated from accomplished activities and assumed
conflicts/problems, thus constituting the true practice of civic behavior.

56
We can say that the computer network offers the possibility of a solidary conjugation
between students, community and "school" for an educational movement and this
connection allows visualizing the political character of the educational meetings on the
internet sphere. Thus, what makes a network powerful is the intention, the vision, the
position taken by who produces within the web. The Paulo Freire Institute, for example,
having a prospect of transformation and dialogic relationship, is able to take advantage of
this technology and can further an educational practice distinguished by its emancipating
dimension.

It sounds like an utopia, but despite the fact that everything happens very fast nowadays,
and that the world is becoming smaller, those who hold information also form a small
group in this "capitalismo mixuruca" [insignificant capitalism], as Paulo Freire used to say.
And as alternative minorities are becoming constantly larger, there may be a greater
possibility on the solidary web, also in the digital world.

This principle of political character implies the preparation of the reading and writing
teacher/educator for the critical usage of more sophisticated communication elements.
Within the Freire context, the teaching abilities are reading and writing, as well as
knowing how to face the complex daily tasks in conjunction with the human
communication, using for this the writing, dialogue and communication in telematic
networks. It is understood that the work favors conceptual literacy and policy, as long as it
serves to disclose, to take apart and to recreate complex acts of reading and writing based
on a odd feeling about what is obvious.

The educator, a Being of relationships and the dialogue aspect of the educational act
are elements that cannot be separed: the dialogue is "the meeting of men that have
been mediated by the world in order to give the world a name."(4)

According to Freire, man is a "being of relationships", "connective", which distinguishes

his process of dialogic education. From the anthropological point of view, we can say
that education is "communication, it is dialogue, and it is not the transfer of
knowledge, but a meeting of interlocutor subjects searching the significance of
meanings."(5)

From this prospective, of intending "to be more", the action of the educator searches for
the unprecedented viable thing. The concept of the "unprecedented viable" was marked by
Paulo Freire, "it is actually an unprecedented thing, however not clearly known or
experienced, but felt, and when it becomes something "distinguishably perceived" by
those who think in an utopic way, they then know that the issue is no longer a dream, that
it can become a reality."(6) When we realize that in truth there are possibilities to build
alternatives that we did not perceive until this moment, which have not appeared yet but
are viable, in other words, that there are concrete conditions to do them, they have to be
accomplished. This is an ethical and political question, if we want to build a critical
education. Thus, the actions in virtual space become relevant as soon as, in this
unprecedented viable accomplishment, the subjects are allowed "to be more" and
therefore develop the level of awareness of reality. Paulo Freire would say that the real
subject is the one who wants to be, and this concept of the "unprecedented viable" gets us
also closer to the virtuality.

The inclusion in virtuality is presented as a movement of "becoming someone else" and

expresses a search for homogenization. The dialectic of the real/current in a different
dimension, expressing the being and staying in the new world invented by culture.

The process of understanding this reality may be enriched with the three moments
proposed by Paulo Freire: a) A semi-intransitive consciousness, which is characterized by
being centralized around the vegetative forms of life, where the subjects "adhere" to the
objective reality, being "submerged" in it, dependent and submitted to it. This hinders
their critical approach to reality; b) A naive transitive consciousness, where the subject

57
makes a simple interpretation of the problems, widening his ability of interpreting reality,
and breaks the silence in relation to his context. He is aware of the phenomena, but he
does not know how to keep a certain distance in order to analyze them, and his spoken
word is manipulated by others; and c) The critical transitive consciousness through which
the subject is enabled to understand certain reasons that explain the way man "are being"
in the world. Through this awareness he understands that reality is a process under
constant construction, and therefore reality is not something stated once and for all, nor
can it be defined according to the categories of those who hold socioeconomic power. The
educator–educatees, the social subjects with their actions and projects, contribute with
creative thinking in this process, based on the epistemological curiosity that is restless,
dialogic and creative.

This process of "being now" and the permanent "occurrence" introduce another concept in
this educational proposal that is education as a possibility: this concept is supported by a
general utopia conceived as an anticipation of a better society than we have today, of
mutual respect, autonomy and solidarity. The difference to a utilitarian education aimed at
total quality, efficiency, effectiveness per se, and a good deal in business as basis. Within
this coexistence, the cooperation, sharing, communication, the dialectic relationship,
cultural assets, information, technique, diversity, autonomy, solidarity, freedom and
human consciousness are distinguished in Freire's proposal of a solidary education web.

We understand that social relations occur through the correlation of power, which are in
permanent motion, while the subject is under a construction process. Thus, the fact of
knowing that we are unfinished and under permanent development establishes that we
are always becoming something, or that we are under continuous movement, that which
turns into something new. The communication, the dialogue and the meeting occur
between the subjects that arrive with their questions more than with their certainties, and
this delineates a cultural, present/virtual space, so that education, in this sense of
possibility, can happen.

The fact that we know that we are unfinished, that our humanity is ungergoing a
permanent construction process, jeopardizes the severity and the lovingness of the
educational act and moves us towards an education as art. Therefore the playfulness, the
epistemological curiosity in working border situations, the simulations, the multiple
languages, the history, the diversity and the graphic/formal harmony in the presentation
of the digitized information is present in liberating education.

The up-to-dateness of the Paulo Freire Method, within the context of his pedagogical
proposal for virtual space, offers elements and concepts, devices that allow thinking of
them within the information and communication era as being a gnostic and
anthropological process. The investigations done by a group of educational communicators
in Latin America have also shown that the studies on education and communication in this
region are weaved around Paulo Freire's pedagogy.

The dimension of the Method and the strategies used for the development of the project of
preparing the educators through the internet allows for reading of the world from the web,
obtaining the theme or the generating context forming the theme and the query, while the
difference, otherness and updating of these educators make the transforming action of the
practice itself possible.

Recognizing the moments of the Method, as they were imagined for the virtual sphere,
may be of help for this cogitation:

Reading of the world within an actual and virtual web: "The reading of the world
precedes the reading of the word, and that is the reason why the posterior reading
of the second cannot dispense the continuity of the reading of the first."(7). The
available strategies of reading the world from a web, within the internet context,
are based on communication and dialogue, as the daily life of each educatee has

58
 been recognized through a manner of speaking, writing and in the diversity of texts
that circulate in the web. The real/virtual acquires potentials that interpenetrate in
order to give way to the "real" that we know.

Thematic investigation in the web of literacy teachers: the educator declares

himself responsible for mediating between the educatee and the web weaved by
subjects, information, knowledge, skills, and orienting within the virtual space so
that the practice in presence will be effective. The scheme of the text that was
produced through this interactivity will be socialized in the web, allowing the
creation of a hypertext space based on the theme, text, and the generating web of
educators and educatees.

Forming the theme in the web: carried out by the educators/educatees themselves,
the theme is related to literacy, and is formed by daily situations; during its query
process, a consciousness-raising can occur, arising from the same wish to produce
changes in their reality.

Query in the web: intends to get over that first moment of awareness where the
subjects find themselves adhered to the reality of this border-situation. Knowing
that the preparation of literacy teachers still has to be developed and perceiving
that the digital literacy makes the situation worse, results in putting their
anguishes and problems in the web, but also their knowledge and skills. A
demystification process and a new construction are necessary.

Difference, otherness and updating in the web of literacy teachers: the recognition
of the social differences between educators, of the vocabulary universe, the border-
situation, the observation of the real/virtual space and the reading they perform
involves a syntax language and semantics, linguistic and semiotic elements that
reveal aspects of the education culture of the educators, which is significant when
updated to distinguished experiences of each participant. Also when the web allows
admitting the otherness, generating a friendly reception to the other dialoguer

Co-participation of the subjects in the preparation of Educators: the vision of the

Brazilian Paulo Freire Institute is that a proposal for the preparation of Educators
within a socioconstructivist prospective would prepare the educatees of literacy for
the critical exercise of their civic behavior, be it in favor of their integration or
reintegration in the job market or for their participation in professional updating
programs that are offered by several governmental institutions and by the civil
society. This preparation includes basically the following goals: a) reading and
writing based on a dialogical and cousciousness-raising methodology; b)
developing a pedagogical practice that allow the educators to offer to students the
acquisition of reading, writing, calculation and complex manners of reading and
writing in a digital universe; c) developing the sensitivity and creativity for other
languages; d) cogitation about elements of the educational practice that allow the
development of the critical and auxiliary consciousness in the preparation of a new
ethic in the relationship of human beings, among themselves and with respect to
nature.

In this sense it is important to develop the content through dialogical learning strategies
and a continuous evaluation process. Thus, it can be attained that the relationship
educator-educatees would allow a pedagogical dialectic practice between theory-praxis
and a permanent movement of action-cogitation-action on the performed work. But
presently the use of information technology and distinguished ways of knowing have to be
made available to educatees/educators, allowing them to work with multiple languages
and technologies that meet critically the requirements of the modern world, thus
contributing with the complete preparation of the human being.

59
It may be important to recall some words from Paulo Freire, heard in some conference,
which can be found in the site of the Paulo Freire Institute. Reading is not to stroll through
the words, reading is having the deep and aesthetical conviction of what is being read. If
this country would take the exercise of reading seriously, of the word being associated to
reading the world, with all its aesthetical implications of "beautifulness" and liberty to
create, then to teach reading and writing, with such a prospective, would be part of
pedagogy, of democracy.

Understanding this process of reading/writing in terms of contents to be developed, it can

be considered as: a) Reference for the reading of the World; b) Theme and generating
context: c) Concepts of traditional and on web Education; d) The Paulo Freire Method and
its up-to-dateness in the digital context; e) Contributions of the Linguistics and semiotics
to the literacy teaching through the internet; f) working with projects and generating
contexts in a socioconstructivist prospective.

Paulo Freire's methodological principles that sustain this proposal of preparation in

the web include meetings in presence and at distance, each one with a
distinguished treatment. Today we can see that the online mode shows a wide
response in the social, economic and political life, and therefore it is necessary to
understand and critically update the conditions of life, of work of the educators.
Giving a new meaning to the educational practice, the new elements, strategies and
resources of the electronics and the telecommunication would allow that the
educational space could be dimensioned in a new way.

Thus, through the liberating education in the web, the proposal is that the orienting
teacher, in addition to presenting queries to the educatees, also motivates them to take a
position and participate as active subjects in the process of knowledge.

Some tools and specific strategies of the online universe that were made available through
the internet and by a course generating program, such as: chats, forum, use of e-mail,
videoconference, notebook and web-page may contribute significantly with this process,
as long as these are used in a correct and critical way. They also can serve as spaces for
the construction of new identities and subjectivity.

We confirm here that for both, the moments in presence and the virtual moments, the
dialogue with the participants, the participation in workshops – real and virtual – as well
as the socialization of the activities to a collective work are fundamental. The proposed
activities for the evaluation should not only compromise the interactivity, but also the
development in processes through the dialogue between educator and educatees, related
to both the operating manner and the cogitation on practice. The evaluation implies a
permanent follow-up of all the elements that, directly or indirectly, may be of influence in
the development of the educational and pedagogical work. For this purpose, intra and
extra school factors will be considered, as well as institutional and non-institutional
factors, and the evaluation of students and teachers. During the activities, the educatees
may elaborate his project with the orientation of the educator, within the interdisciplinary
possibility, handing it over at the end of the meetings as an integration work.

At this point the question of the traditional educational structure related to place, time
schedule and environment of online education comes up. These have to be negotiated,
taking into consideration the activities of the participants, the time zone and the activity of
the institution, which is the home office for the activities. There is also to be considered
that the legislation and ministerial dispositions are inflexible for these preparation courses
online and are not exceedingly committed to the progress of the teacher and his group in
this type of course.

In case of existing official institutional agreements, the participation can be certified by

educational institutions that are not concerned with the bureaucracy of the act, but with
the adequate processing in the practice of the literacy teacher.

60
CONTEMPORARY SPHERES FOR THE PREPARATION OF TEACHERS

The software First Class Collaborative Classroom, version Fc5.506 (Spanish), Fc5.611
(Portuguese) and Fc5.623 Fc6.011 (English)- FCCC of the Metalink company, has been
utilized as a platform for the creation of courses in the Virtual Campus of CLACSO (Consejo
Latinoamericano de Ciências Sociales). In 1999/2000 the Paulo Freire Institute performed
works in conjunction with CLACSO and offered a course for educators in Latin America,
with the support of the Work Group on Education and Society. At this occasion, 50
scholarships were offered to teachers of Latin America that showed interest in
participating in the online course: "Crossing Borders: initiation to the work of Paulo
Freire".

CLACSO's Intranet and the methodology proposed by the teachers of the Paulo Freire
Institute represented a democratic progress of the internet usage, because it made
possible that educators from over tem countries could make studies and investigation in
the web, which is Freire's educational proposal, constituting a true educational
community.

The course was developed in Spanish and Portuguese, and was oriented by a dialogical
methodology, taking advantage of the contribution devices of the Virtual Campus. The
material (bibliography and programs) were sent to each participant in a kit in CD-ROM.1

The Virtual Campus exists within a registered domain of a server (CLACSO or IPF). Through
software, it operates with the concept client/server, with the HyperText Transference
Protocol (HTTP) for web applications and with HyperText Markup Language (HTML), which
is the most utilized language for homepages.
The Virtual Campus is the real space where an educational institution is located in the
virtual sphere (CLACSO or IPF, for instance), conferring its own identity through pages
published in the internet. The access is granted with the identification and the password of
the user, as the domain has a determined memory capacity for operation.

The organization of a Virtual Campus may be oriented to do the same as it is done in a

traditional institution, or yet it can take advantage of the space, utilizing a new
organizational culture through meetings, relationships, subscription, space, class times,
etc.

Through the Virtual Campus the educators can connect at the same time, in an easy and
effective way; only a few orientations are necessary for the installation and the usage of
FirstClass, as its interface is graphic and intuitive, and utilizes Windows and Macintosh
operational systems (multiplatform). The user-friendly aspects of the program favors the
teacher-student relationship, the individual/ collective work, and allow the sharing of
knowledge and skills through conference rooms, e-mail, files and a permanent forum.

The access of the participants is done by e-mail, through a navigator of the internet,
allowing a complete visualization of the conferences, messages, and agendas. For the
telework, the program offers options with specific icons, such as: favorites, selection of
message types, agenda / diary, notification of messages, fax/e-mail, webradio,
videoconferences and connection time (logg) to the campus.

For the first course, specific rooms have been created for each meeting: "Freire's
proposal", "Paulo Freire Method", Pedagogical Praxis", "Education Legacy", Freire's Coffee
Shop" (an informal meeting room), and "Freire's Coordination", this one only for teachers
and administrators, in which administrative information circulated with the coordination
between teachers of the Paulo Freire Institute, allowing that all the messages with
observations and comments reach the students at the same time.

In 2002 the courses on Paulo Freire resulted in the production of a book in the web:
"Lessons of Paulo Freire crossing borders: completing experiences":

61
http://www.clacso.org/wwwclacso/espanol/html/libros/freire/freire.html, with works
written by Latin-American educators through the internet. This book was launched at the
World Social Forum. It is the result of a collective work carried out by educators and
researchers from various countries, includes texts in Portuguese/Spanish and is part of the
bibliography of the current course.

PREPARATION OF EDUCATORS THROUGH THE INTERNET

In this methodological proposal the preparation of educators in the web intends to

improve the professional performance, allowing the creation/elaboration of specific texts
and the socialization of relevant information, without withdrawing them from their
activities. The information functions in favor of the literacy teaching practice and of the
educational institutions, as long as updated and critical learning spheres are created. In
this digital sphere, the educators reorientate critically their daily activities, giving them a
new meaning.

Education through the Web is a relatively new phenomenon in the Latin-American

scenario. In most of the cases, the usage of the Web continues to support a traditional
model of education, or a neo-behaviorism. In order to avoid remaining with this concept,
perpetrating the error of reinforcing old educational models through the internet, it is
intended to articulate education and civic behavior.

Unfolding Freire's pedagogy, the proposal for education through the web establishes the
following goals:

amplifying the opportunities for education with "social quality";

generating a dialogue and critical cogitation space on the educational practice,
attempting a new theoretical construction of this practice;

furthering alternative experiences of teaching/learning through the IT
telecommunication;

inciting a new look at the multi, inter and transculturation that is present in the
different educational practices, which should lead to a solidary construction of
knowledge;

Propitiating means that contribute to the constitution of a new sociability, of social
practices based on ethics, solidarity, collaboration, dialogue and otherness.

IN CONCLUSION:
THE EDUCATION RELATED TO A NEW ORGANIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE

We are involved in a culture that organizes the knowledge based on the IT usage,
requiring a new atlas that situates man in the globalized world and allows him to circulate.
Michel Authier and Pierre Levy (8) understand that this particular organization rests upon
the possibility of a dynamic representation and administration of knowledge. The
philosophy of implication, "Cosmopedia" as they called it, involves us in the mobile form of
an image that is materialized through relative positions, proximity, colors and light.
Through the navigation and in the immanent level of knowledge, people construct their
object of knowledge and involve themselves in it, in order to confer existence to it.
Opposed to the fixed image of the text in the encyclopedia, the Cosmopedia allows a
variety of expressions in the virtual reality, taking advantage of the plurality of enunciation
of discourse that arise in the internet.

Paulo Freire said: first we do, and then we give it a name. In these first years of the new
century we begin to walk through this rift of information with all the risks involved.

We recognize in the internet the great narrative of this century, a space of knowledge
where the educators, at an immanent level, reconstitute the beings, the signs and the
things, finding again a dynamic relation of mutual participation. According to this principle,
the universe has the form of a labyrinth, from where the mirror and the retracing do not

62
readily allow the exit for this world to be noticed, however, it is our mission to discover it.
Jorge Luis Borges suggested that the reality is not only appearance, but also feeling and
imagination and that the world is not chaos, but a labyrinth, a cosmos that conceals itself,
and we have the task to discover it.(9) In this cultural universe the greatest oddity for the
master/teacher is to maintain his epistemological curiosity integrated into a collective
work, being aware of the forces that had put him near to exclusion, challenging him to fall
out when his protagonism is no longer creative and original. This makes the process
perverse and generates new paradox situations.

These pedagogical experiences in the virtual space forward to a dimension of the

relationship educator-educatees. The external memory and the internal feeling acquire are
a new value. The quickness, the transparence, the swiftness, and the capacity for
circulation, transformation and reposition of information are some of the elements that
incorporate into the vocabulary and cultural repertoire. The "simple" doing by liberating
the own memory has turned the educators dependent on the web, but free to think for
themselves in relation to the other. A new educational culture is being generated in
relation to the surrounding technology, perhaps a new language and culture, where
semantic and semiotic, linguistic and non-linguistic elements coexist. Activities such as
selecting, classifying, interpreting, inserting, responding, reproducing, copying, pasting,
representing, creating, digitizing, synthesize, encapsulating, drawing, hiding, visualizing,
saving, deleting, simulating, globalizing, plastic money, magnetic card, password, login,
encryption and writing in cryptography integrate this cultural universe that implies this
gnostic dimension.

In the reinventing of culture there are few certainties, but the educator can free himself
from ostracism by exploring and exposing himself in cyberspace, setting his production in
motion and relating it to the themes of common concern, reintegrating it into a basis of
knowledge that stays under permanent updating.

As with Paulo Freire, we continue to be radical in being concerned in teaching with the
materials of our time, and we even then we are called obsolete, as he was, when we
propose to educate to a point where technology does not present problem, i.e., to educate
for human solidarity. The prospective is the preparation of educators for adolescents and
adults that are beyond technology and that, despite knowing it, put it under discussion.

Therefore we can state that long distance education through the internet from Freire's
prospective is supported by the principles of popular education, that is: critical proximity
to reality, radicalism (there is no neutral education), announcement, political organization,
text-context relation, dialogical methodology without disowning the culture of silence that
operates in the internet and this what it generates.

In this prospective, the literacy and the internet are not incompatible, nor do they disturb
or obstruct the preparation for the performance of skills of a more complex reading and
writing in the digital sphere, by understanding the latter as a place, object and strategy of
knowledge. We understand that the anthropological dimension of the occurrence takes us
through paths we never had suspected of, where we remain eternal hikers searching for
ourselves, the other and the world. And in this respectful opening to others and in the
virtual space, where we recognize that there is no individual "I think", but as a collective
act there is a "we think", which is one of the fundamental principles of this proposal that
has its accomplishment in a "web" that connects already lived experiences with others that
are being lived now.

Equal to our Master, we understand that education takes place in other locations than the
"school". Today we can conceive that Freire's proposal contributes to a better
understanding of education in the digital sphere, as long as it is considered as a device to
learn well, as well as a knowledge sphere of new relationships, identities and subjectivity.

63
BIODATO and CONTACT ADDRESSES of AUTHOR

MARGARITA VICTORIA GOMEZ is Research Fellow, Department of

Education-Memory and teacher identity and teacher education. And
Net- education. University of Valley on the Green River. Her Doctor of
Education is from São Paulo University, Brazil, 2002.

Also, Master of Communication. São Paulo University, Brazil, 1991.

Bachelor of Education Science, University of Rosario, Argentina, 1990.

Her employment is professor, masters in education , University of Valley on the Green

River, 2003 -present. Research and Training Teacher education. Co-investigator on Paulo
Freire Group. And Coordinator of research: Net education: an emancipating vision.

Her publications appeared as books and articles in the country and the outside. Some of
them are here:

Educación en red: una visión emancipadora para la formación. Guadalajara: UdG Virtual,
2005. v. 1000. 220 p.
Educação em rede: uma visão emancipadora. São Paulo: Cortez, 2004. v.2000. 214 p.
Alerta, cuatro computadoras en la escuela: maestros abriendo caminos desde la brecha.
Rosario: Artemisa, 1998. v. 1000. 113 p.
Memória, formação e identidade do professor: os egressos do curso de Pedagogia da
UNINCOR, Minas Gerais. In: Ferreira, V. de Sousa; Tavares, A. M. B. do Nascimento.
(Org.). Formação continuada, pesquisa e saberes docentes. João Pessoa, 2005, v. 1, p.
190-191.
Projeto bibliotecário e pedagógico. In: Macedo, Neusa Dias de, org. (Org.).Biblioteca
escolar brasileira em debate: da memória profissional a um fórum virtual. São Paulo,
2005, v.1, p. 248-254.
Distances And Distances : Watched From The Distance Education And Free Lecture In
Latin American Context:
http://www.unifr.ch/ipg/ecodoc/conferences/DocuPDF_Conf_Inter/gomez.pdf

MARGARITA VICTORIA GOMEZ, Ph.D

P.O. Box - R. Min. Adauto Lúcio Cardoso, 205
J Bonfiglioli - CEP 05589000 São Paulo Brasil
University Valley of the Green River
(Universidade Vale do Rio Verde)
Minas Gerais, Brazil
Telephone: 0055-11 37354636
Fax: 0055113235 2513
Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

1. Freire, Paulo. A la sombra de este árbol. Barcelona: El Roure, 1997, p. 101.

2. Freire, Paulo. Educação como prática da liberdade. 23ed. São Paulo : Paz e
Terra, 1999, pág. 112
3 Cf.: Freire, P. Extensão ou comunicação. Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra, 1977 p.81
4 Freire, P. Pedagogia do oprimido, p.107
5 Idem ant. p. 67: 69.
6 Freire, P. Pedagogia da esperança. 1992, pág.207
7 Cf.: Freire, O. Alfabetização: leitura do mundo, leitura da palavra. Rio de
Janeiro: Paz e Terra, 1990.
8 Cf.: Lévy, Pierre. A inteligência coletiva. São Paulo : Loyola, 1998, p.181
9 Cf.: "O pensamento vivo de Borges". São Paulo, 1987.

64
BIBLIOGRAPHY

FREIRE, Paulo. Comunicação ou extensão. Rio de Janeiro : Paz e Terra, 1977.

FREIRE, Paulo; GUIMARÃES, Sergio. Sobre educação (Diálogos). 2.ed. São Paulo :
Paz e Terra, 1984. V.2 Discussão sobre Meios de comunicação de massa, a
informática, o processo educativo e seu substrato político e ideológico.

FREIRE, Paulo. Á sombra desta mangueira. São Paulo : Olho de d’Água, 1995.

FREIRE, Paulo. Conversando com educadores. Montevideo : Roca Viva, 1990.

FREIRE, Paulo. Educação como prática da liberdade. Rio de Janeiro : Paz e Terra,
1986.

FREIRE, Paulo. A importância do ato de ler. São Paulo : Cortez, 1986.

FREIRE, Paulo. Educação e Mudança. 14o. ed., Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra, 1979.

FREIRE, Paulo. Pedagogia do Oprimido. Rio de Janeiro : Paz e Terra, 1987.

FREIRE, O. Alfabetização: leitura do mundo, leitura da palavra. Rio de Janeiro: Paz

e Terra, 1990.

GOMEZ, Margarita V. Releitura de Paulo Freire para uma teoria da informática na

educação. In: CONTATO. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE COMUNICAÇÃO, ARTE E
EDUCAÇÃO Livre Pensar. Brasília/DFAno 1, nº 2,jan./mar.1999.

GOMEZ, Margarita V. Alfabetização digital e educação em rede. Caderno de

Educação em rede São Paulo, IPF, 2001. Série "Educação em Rede", nº 3.

GOMEZ, Margarita V. educação em rede: processo de criação de um curso web.

(Tese Doutorado) São Paulo: Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Educação,
2002.

LÉVY, Pierre. A inteligência coletiva. São Paulo: Loyola, 1998.

SERRES, Michel. Atlas. Madrid: Cátedra, 1995.

65
 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2 Article: 6

Online Collaborative Learning Enhancement

Through the Delphi Method
Prof. Murray TUROFF
Prof. Starr Roxanne HILTZ
Xiang YAO
Information Systems Department
New Jersey Institute of Technology
Newark NJ, USA

Dr Zheng LI
Department of Information Systems
Pace University
New York, USA

Dr Yuanqiong WANG
Department of Computer
and Information Sciences
Towson University
Maryland, USA

Dr. Hee-Kyung CHO

Department of Information Systems
and Decision Sciences
Silberman College of Business
Fairleigh Dickinson University
Teaneck NJ, USA

ABSTRACT

A variety of field trials have been conducted at NJIT in the past few years to demonstrate
the utility of a Delphi-like approach to promoting asynchronous class wide collaboration.
These utilized the Social Decision Support System (SDSS) originally developed as a
Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) system for large group decision support. This
paper provides an overview of these studies and then focuses on a recent case study in
the fall of 2003 that demonstrated the ability of a computer mediated asynchronous
Delphi process as a tool to scaffold collaborative idea generation and evaluation in both
face to face and distance courses.

Keywords: GDSS, GSS, CMC, SDSS, Delphi, eLearning, ALN, collaborative learning,
Knowledge systems, system security, distance learning, online learning, and
idea generation

INTRODUCTION

The National Center for Education Statistics (2003) estimates that there are currently
over 2 million students in the US alone taking online courses, and there are millions more
in other countries. A growing unknown number of students are now using CMC systems
to augment regular face to face courses by extended discussion outside of the classroom
(Hiltz and Goldman, 2004). Discourse, a form of collaborative learning (Vygotsky 1980),
is central to learning in this environment. The threaded discussion is the prevailing mode
of organizing collaborative discourse, but it tends to become disorganized and confusing
when large groups of students work on a complex issue over a period of weeks. More
robust methods of scaffolding such collaborative discourse are necessary. This paper

66
describes the use of a variation of the Delphi method to scaffold complex discussions in
Asynchronous Learning Networks (ALNs, see http://www.alnresearch.org). The
objectives of the cases reported here are idea generation and evaluation. The most
prominent source for recent work in this area is idea generation in Group Decision
Support Systems (GDSS).

In previous GDSS research (Dennis, 1993, Gallupe, et. al 1992), the effectiveness of group
idea generation was evaluated mostly in a decision room environment in which group
members generated ideas with computer technology support. These idea generation
processes were synchronous in terms of time and place and the contributions of group
members were made by a combination of verbal and text modes. However, this stream of
research did not make clear whether the effectiveness of idea generation was due to the
effect of technology itself or the modified structure given by technology (Pinsonneault,
Barki, Gallupe, and Hoppen 1999). In recent studies, the focus of research was shifted
from these traditional comparative studies between GDSS and face-to-face groups into
the evaluation of specific idea generation techniques (Santanen, Briggs, and Vreede,
2004, Garfield, Taylor, Dennis, and Satzinger 2001). Our own work at NJIT has focused on
asynchronous oriented GDSS and recently on computerized forms of the Delphi Method
(Linstone and Turoff, 1975). This orientation is towards larger size groups (e.g. class size)
and knowledgeable participants–traditionally experts, but in this case students who have
been immersed in learning the topic.

The Delphi Method was created in the 1950’s at the RAND Corporation to allow large
groups of experts to contribute collectively to the examination of complex problems
(Linstone and Turoff 1975). In fact, the first Delphi application was the replacement of a
computer simulation by a process of subjective estimations by large groups of experts
(Dalkey and Helmer, 1951). Since it was often used for predicting the future occurrence
of technological breakthroughs it acquired the name of Delphi (after the Greek oracle at
Delphi). However, the general concept of the technique (Linstone and Turoff, 1975) is:

Delphi is a process of structuring a written, asynchronous communication

process among a large problem solving group so that it is tailored to the
nature of the problem, the characteristics of the group, and the objectives
of the problem solving exercise.

The Delphi process uses phases of a collaborative problem solving process such as
exploration, understanding, and evaluation to structure the communication process.
Computer based versions allow participants to participate in any phase at any time and
eliminates sequential constraints for each individual.

It allows large groups of students to engage in the process and for each individual to
focus on what they wish to deal with at any time of their choosing. The results of this
can:

Improve idea generation

Self organize the contributed content

Facilitate equal participation of all students

Reduce information overload problems for large classes

Facilitate collaborative problem solving

Utilizing voting to focus discussion on areas of disagreement and uncertainty

Facilitate understanding by enhanced visualization through the use of scaling
methods

Expose disagreements for focusing the discussion

Facilitate comprehensive idea evaluation

Allow exchange of tacit knowledge among professionals.

67
BACKGROUND

In 2003 two Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS) Ph.D. thesis efforts (Li 2003; Wang
2003) involved creating and evaluating through experimentation with a Delphi-like
(Linstone and Turoff 1975; Turoff and Hiltz 1995) software system we refer to as a Social
Decision Support System (SDSS) (Turoff, Hiltz, Cho, Li and Wang 2002). This CMC system
was designed to allow large groups of people (e.g. hundreds) to address complex issues
such as the relative value of any group of related items (e.g. tasks, goals, budget
allocations, criteria, etc.).
Common to almost any type of problem situation is the initial step of compiling one or
more lists of contributions of a given type. For example, in a typical decision problem the
types of lists that are usually needed are (Turoff 1990):

Table: 1
Examples of typical list types

Type of List Voting Scales Examples

Objectives Importance, Getting a college education,
Measurability Goals of an organization
Criteria Importance, For a presidential candidate, Buying a
Measurability house, Choosing a college
Solutions, Actions, Components of a national medical drug
Decisions, Policy Desirability program Potential products for a
Resolutions Feasibility company
Consequences, Impacts, Likelihood, Long term impacts of modern terrorism
Inferences, Events Significance on U.S. Society
Observations, Viewpoints, Validity, Reasons for the U.S. Civil War, Scenarios
Pro/Con Arguments, Importance of any type, Rationales
Rationales
Interpretations, role Validity, How would a selection of ex-presidents
playing Significance reflect on a current political issue?

The possible types of list generation that one can treat as a Delphi process are completely
open ended. Once these lists have been created the natural extension is to consider
interactions between lists such as the relationship of the decision choices that can
influence the entries in a list of consequences. Typically this is done through a matrix or
multidimensional type interaction structure (e.g. payoff matrices). However, for the scope
of this short introduction we will only focus on the creation of a list, the various possible
types of lists, and the typical voting scales used to assess each list. This is summarized in
table 1. Note that the usual form of the scale is an ordered categorical scale but may in
some applications be rank order, interval, or ratio scales. The most general formulation of
this problem is found under the subject of “multi-criteria decision problems.” These are
problems involving pragmatic knowledge and ultimately subjective tradeoffs or
compromises for reaching decisions.

EVALUATING COURSE OBJECTIVES

For example, the system has been used in a field study mode in five different graduate
courses to allow students to propose the important things they have learned in a course
and to rank order them (Wang, Li, Turoff, and Hiltz 2003). The resulting rank order rated
by each student can be combined in one scale using Thurstone’s Law of Comparative
Judgment to translate rank orders to a single group interval scale for the group as a
whole (Li, Cheng, Wang, Hiltz, and Turoff, 2001; Thurstone 1927).

The example voting results in Figure 1 show the top ten items (out of 28 proposed) rated
in one of the courses (CIS 679, Management of Information Systems). Each student was
asked to suggest only the most important item he or she learned in this course provided it

68
was different than the other items already entered by the other students. Note that the
top rated item is more than two times the scale strength of the second item (16.5:6.78)
and the next three items are essentially at the same scaling point, showing an equal
rating for the group as a whole for all three items. This demonstrates the power of a good
scaling method to provide significant visualization results that aid the group to interpret
and understand what their votes mean. The usual determination of the simple group
ranks is shown in the first column. This rank loses all the additional insight (degrees of
consensus and disagreement) provided by the Thurstone scaling of the results. In all the
case studies of this type the results were surprising to the faculty, as the results often did
not correspond to their expectations. Understanding the results often required reviewing
the comments made in the discussion of the items by the students. Of course the user has
to be taught the meaning of an interval scale and some might claim that makes it less
easy to use. Various clustering methods and multidimensional scaling also provide higher
dimensional visualizations (Carroll and Wish, 1975).

Figure: 1
Voting Result for top ten items out of 28 for CIS 679

The faculty involved in the cases of this type felt that this method of evaluating the
outcome of a course is far more informative for improving a course than the standard
university “student satisfaction” type survey that is now commonly used. In the above
case (Figure:1) the faculty member finally realized from the discussion that, while the
topic of runaways had only an hour’s lecture in the whole course, many of the students
were using it as a framework to organize the other material in the course. This led to
moving the topic up to an earlier part of the course, pointing out some of the
relationships to later topics, and referring back to it when discussing other topics in the
course. Participation in these exercises was totally voluntary, 28 out of 38 students
participated in suggesting items, and 24 completed the voting process of ranking all 29
items. The exercise was over a two week period at the very end of the semester,
including the last week of the course and the week of finals.

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PRODUCT IDEA GENERATION

In a recent thesis experiment (Cho 2003, 2004), a plain CMC system (i.e. WebBoard) was
used in a two by two factorial experiment: with or without a Delphi structure in typical
CMC system, and with small (5-7 people) or medium sized groups (11-14 people). The
Delphi feedback feature was added by the use of Survey Tracker™ to provide rapid
feedback on voting positions at the start, during the process and at the end. Each student
group was asked to act as a consulting group to recommend product ideas for a new pill-
sized device that can store and emit data when triggered by a signal. This was an open
ended brainstorming task with no real effective limit on the number of ideas. They had
approximately two weeks to work on the task through the asynchronous CMC system.
The results are very significant with respect to the positive impact of the Delphi structure
as can be seen in the following table.

Table: 2
Distribution of total Raw, Unique, and Rare Ideas
(Rare ideas are defined as occurring in no more than 3 of the 44 groups)

Structure X Group Small Medium Total

Size
Delphi: Raw 157 247 404
Unique 67 111 132
Rare 40 56.5 96.5
Unstructured: Raw 108 192 300
52 86 110
Unique
Rare 18.5 48 66.5
Total Raw 265 439 704
Unique 94 145 188
Rare 58.5 104.5 163

The statistically significant results (Cho 2004) of this experiment were that the Delphi
structure is more effective (statistically significant at .05 or less) in producing more total
raw, unique and rare ideas. The findings of the experiment indicate that the Delphi
structure helps asynchronous CMC groups to generate more unique ideas per person. The
finding on the dimension of group size indicates that having more people in an
asynchronous CMC group does produce more total unique ideas but not on a per person
basis. However, small groups produce more ideas per person in the Delphi condition than
in the unstructured condition. For this particular open ended problem the medium sized
group did make statistically significant more contributions and did not run out of ideas.

The results indicate that brainstorming groups can be quite large and there are Delphi
studies that have involved hundreds of respondents. Typically the rule of thumb used is to
determine how many different areas of knowledge can contribute to the subject of the
inquiry and multiply that number by both 3 and 5 to determine the lower and upper limit
for a Delphi group. For objectives like developing a new product concept in a company,
this easily can involve 50 to 100 individuals.

EVALUATION OF PREVENTIVE SECURITY MEASURES

In the evaluation of online learning in distance or in blended face to face plus online
classes, collaborative learning is the pedagogical methodology that makes online learning
as effective or even more effective than the standard face to face class (Hiltz and Turoff
2002; Turoff and Hiltz 1995; http://www.aln.research. org). This case study, completed
in December 2003, is the latest in a series of three-round Delphi exercises designed to
scaffold online learning experiences. We conducted a three week exercise involving two
classes and a group of 20 students who were willing to participate in the last three weeks

70
of the semester. They used the same SDSS system used for the evaluation of course
outcomes discussed previously.

CIS 681 Information Systems Security Auditing

(blended face to face section with CMC support)
CIS 679 Management of Information Systems (distance online section)
The task was to examine, discuss, and rate different preventive measures for Information
Systems Security. Any participant in the exercise could at any time:

1. Propose new items for the list of items

2. Propose alternative wording of an existing item and vote yes or no to accept an
alternative wording
3. Comment on any single item with replies that are classified as Pro, Con, or Neutral
4. Vote on the relative value of all the items using the chosen voting method
5. Continue to discuss with pro, con, and neutral items using the current voting
results to focus the discussion
6. Change one’s vote at any time as motivated by the discussion.

A dozen different types of voting processes may be employed in the current software for
any list of items. We are now adding numeric input for estimating variables like budgets,
degree of risk, and probabilities of success. For the “security” application we utilized the
following ordered nominal voting scale:

CI Critically Important (e.g. an organization must do this)

VI Very Important (e.g. must be done given the right conditions)
I Important (e.g. useful if one has the funds to expend)
SI Slightly Important (e.g. rare situations when useful)
UI Unimportant (e.g. not useful at all and may be counterproductive)

Since it has been estimated that over 50% of security problems are brought about by an
organization’s employees we included both human and technical preventive measures.
Most textbooks explain security measures but give very little guidance on how critical
each one is. More measures can be employed than most organizations can afford and this
was the dimension the students were asked to deal with by the above voting scale.

Results
An initial 60 preventive measures were supplied from standard text books that never
really deal with the problem of how much a specific organization can afford to do. The
students contributed 13 new ones and proposed 25 modifications to the existing ones.
Approximately half were Masters and half were Ph.D. students. About half were working
students and half were full time. Two students reported some prior work experience in
security. The activity that occurred in a three week period is summarized below in
Table:3.
Table: 3
Distribution of Contributions

Preventive Measures 72 Total Words (approx.) 25,000

Comments on 433 Average comment size 480
(words)
Pro comments 200 Contributors 20
Con comments 104 Voters 27
Neutral Comments 129 Contributions/person 23
Modifications 25 Contributions/day 25
Total of all items 530 Comments/Measure 6

It should be clear that maintaining involvement in the equivalent of 72 separate

discussion threads that are continuously active for three weeks would normally be an

71
information overload situation. If a participant was on every day this would be 25 new
items a day to consider and this does not factor in the task of voting on those items. This
particular case study was one with an intense level of activity (Table 3).

The end result is all 72 items with the final votes in the order of the weighted average of
the voting scale. This gives only the title of the item and definitions appear in the text of
the items. In Figure 2 we show the seven items rated the most important (at the top of
the list) and the seven items rate at the bottom of the list to be least important. The
system provides the full list to everyone.
Figure: 2
Voting results for first and last seven items

The voting results show that there was a high degree of differentiation among the
preventive measure items by the students. At least half of the vote changes recorded are
by those who took an initial “no judgment” position on many of the items. No one could
see the vote result until they had voted. They were advised not to vote on an item, if they
had no confidence in their choice. This is a typical Delphi instruction even when done
with expert groups.

Most educators assume that collaborative learning means you break the class into small
teams. A different hypothesis that many of us who utilize class-wide collaboration as a
learning tool have is that the discussions are a significant learning experience. In this
case we observed that knowledge was being conveyed from those students with relevant
experience to those without it, and that the level of vote changes was significant.

A very significant factor in the design of this system is the use of voting to focus
discussion on the items that exhibit disagreement or uncertainty. We had students in
many of the trials of the software initially express the view that they thought voting was
a one time thing with respect to any specific vote, which shows a learning curve for the
use of dynamic voting.

The use of a continuous voting process (dynamic voting) is a dramatic difference made
possible by moving the Delphi method from the paper and pencil environment to the
online environment. What this also allows is the ability of the members of the group to
choose what phase of the Delphi process and what specific content items they want to
deal with at any time in the whole process. This is viewed as a “reciprocal” group process

72
since a change by one member with respect to adding comments or changing votes may
cause or influence others to reciprocate (Hiltz and Turoff, 1993). There is no longer any
need to impose a sequential group process on the procedure. Every member of the Delphi
process is free to engage in individual cognitive problem solving process with little no
constraints imposed by the group process.

Discussion Examples
The concepts of using voting initially to focus discussion, and scaling methods to promote
understanding, are key elements of the Delphi process that leads to collaborative efforts
that would otherwise degenerate due to information overload in CMC systems (Hiltz and
Turoff, 1985).

Given the varied mix of students with respect to actual work experience and a few with
some experience in security concerns in their companies, we observe a significant flow of
information from those with such pragmatic knowledge to those without it, and this in
turn influenced the occurrence of vote changes. The termination of a Delphi exercise of
this type results from the frequency of vote changes decreasing to essentially zero. The
following is an excerpt from the discussion about just one of the 72 items. Student
names have been removed.

Root Item: Audit Trails

By: Student One (03:05PM, 11/24/2003)
Audit trails should be implemented within the organization. The audit trails would
allow review of activities leading up to a particular event. Standard logging such
as provided by web server logs should also be augmented with application logs. All
applications should be required to implement audit trails and have that
functionality turned on. This would allow for accountability. Note that this is not a
preventive security measure. Security measures are classified as preventive,
detective, or corrective.

Neutral: Audit trails

By: Student Two (12:57PM, 11/25/2003)
I am neutral on this, because as Student One said this is not a preventive measure,
but falls into detective category. Logs could be expensive in terms of storage and
performance. So the state of the budget would probably influence this measure to
be employed in a company.

Pro: This can be a good idea with some constraints...

By: Student Three (07:56PM, 12/03/2003)
This type of logging can prove to be very useful in the event of an attack.
However, left unchecked it can also be a huge burden to the system. A good
method to make this practical would be to dump all the logs off the host system
onto a tape backup at the end of each week. A three-week rotation can be used
before the first week’s logs get overwritten. This would provide a three week trail
of logs leading up to any attack, and would also minimize the overhead involved
with data storage, and at most keep a weeks worth of logs on the host system (to
prevent bogging it down)

Pro: If the resource and space is available then it is

By: Student Four (08:40AM, 12/08/2003)
This can help in problem determination. There should be security measures in
place that should prevent any sort of attack from happening in the first place. But
since human ingenuity will find a way around anything, there is no such thing as
total 100% security. So in that case this would be a nice thing to have, but in no
way should this be considered more important than the security measures that can
prevent attacks. If resources of people, space and time were available then
implementation of this would be very useful if there is an attack.

73
 Pro: Given Student three’s Suggestion I would work
By: Student Two (11:09PM, 12/03/2003)
Student three’s suggestion definitely gives a workable solution for this measure. I
guess I just turned pro for this one. But would still probably keep it as 'important'
measure, not the VI or CI.

Neutral: I agree the importance, but have to be neutral....

By: Student Five (12:10AM, 12/04/2003)
There are many reasons to use full audit trails. Like the federal code on clinical
trials that all clinical data points must be audit trailed with date time stamp and
user identity. But implementing in any fields of data in the system is no way to
accomplish that requirement. There will be a secured fortress but a performance
bear.

The discussion transcript makes it very clear why items moved to the top or bottom of the
list. One surprise was the low rating of the preventive measure on “biometric
authentication,” but the following discussion entry was very typical of what a lot of
students said and why the resulting item went to the bottom of the list.

Neutral: Biometrics is not a panacea for all problems

By: XXXXXXXXXXX (11/25/2003)
While Biometrics has a lot of promise, it is still not yet here. Most of the biometric
systems installed during the biometric hype days after 9/11 are begin de-installed.
People thought biometric systems would do everything; hence they installed face
recognition systems on airports to spot terrorists, systems on the sport grounds to
spot hooligans, etc. Two years later not a single culprit has been nailed by this
system. So while I am a big fan of Biometrics, there is need for caution. Each of
the authentication methods like token, knowledge and biometrics systems have
areas where they are strong and other areas where they are weak. It is up to you
as the manger to decide after consultation on the appropriate choice and
remember you have to justify your actions.

It is also clear when one looks at the discussion, that a number of students chose a
neutral classification for comments which were perhaps more on the “con” side and this
might have been due to the lack of anonymity on the discussion and also not to be
confrontational. The actual software allows anonymity to be set for all participants but
we did not use that feature in this exercise. This case allowed a group of 20 students to
carry out the equivalent of a three round Delphi process in three weeks to generate and
evaluate preventive measures to ensure system security.

This involved creating and modifying a list of items as well as being able to vote and
revote dynamically on the relative importance of the items while carrying on a continuous
discussion of the merits of the items. Attempting to do this with any of the standard
commercial software for online education would easily result in information overload
before such a result could be obtained.

INTERACTION DESIGN

The initial screen (Figure 3) provides at the top all the strategic commands (navigation
menu) that immediately take the user to an action screen such as creating items, viewing
or inputting votes, etc. This is a completely broad menu and it provides complete
comprehension early on. The lower left column scroll provides immediate information on
what is new and a status table of the different types of items. By clicking on any cell in
the status table the user calls up a list of those items into this column (current list
summary). The column on the right is the primary working page.

By clicking on a root item on the left, one can get the complete discussion thread; or by
“viewing all” choice from the navigation menu all items may be called up and displayed in

74
detail. The navigation menu and the “Root Items” status table are always visible to the
user.

Using the context to provide reactive commands beyond the navigation menu above is
what makes the system very easy to learn. The user may choose to modify, edit, mark
read, or propose alternatives to the item they are looking at in the linear menu that
appears above the given item.

Figure: 3
Main interaction (Strategic) screen

The different types of items were distinguished by highlighting color, indentation

structure, and labels. Anywhere in the interface, clicking on the counts of items brings up
a display of the full text of the items. When the user chooses the strategic action to vote
(or revote), the following screen (Figure 4) is provided in the working area in the right
scroll. The user is shown current votes and allowed to change them at anytime.

Figure: 4
Voting Screen

75
The system provides the ability to bring up a complete transcript of the total discussion,
which can be scrolled or printed. We feel this is an important feature for those who want
to make a printout and/or comparatively examine material that is associated with
different root items. Email approaches which force users to look at only one item at a
time, or some CMC systems that restrict the user to only viewing one discussion thread, in
effect inhibit the evolution of complex discussions and group activity by breaking up short
term memory with too many interaction operations.
In all our studies the typical student was using WebBoard® or WebCT® for courses at the
same time that the Delphi Discussion software was used. We have observed no lowering
of satisfaction measures for the system compared to use of these other CMC systems (Li
2003; Wang 2003). Since it is more typical to get a lowering of satisfaction for the first
use of a new system, we interpret this as a positive factor in the design of the interface.
With respect to the preventive measures Delphi it was quite clear that the students had a
serious interest in the subject and that it was one of real current concern in their
organizations.

SUMMARY

Our contributions are a methodology and a software structure to scaffold complex CMC
discussions by large groups of students learning together online. The field trials and
experiment reported demonstrate that Delphi-like structures can support large groups
engaged in complex collaborative problem solving discussions.

More work is needed on the content analysis of these types of discussions to obtain
quantitative measures of the amount and effectiveness of knowledge transfer and
learning. Content analysis relating discussion entries to changes in voting would give us
further insight into the hypothesized relationship. Another area of investigation is to
attempt much larger groups than the 20-40 range we currently have been working with.
We are also planning use of the SDSS system with professional groups on similar topics
related to systems security, since it is obviously also a collaborative knowledge gathering
tool. This will certainly involve larger groups.

This particular software design was implemented as a specific structure to allow very
large groups to agree on a list or a number of lists of specific items and rate their relative
value. There are literally hundreds of possible designs (Linstone and Turoff, 1975; Turoff
and Hiltz 1995). The next step with this structure is to allow semantic links between
items in different lists. For example, a decision alternative in one list may be linked to the
specific consequences it has in a separate list of consequences. This would be a first step
in moving to a collaborative structural modelling system.

The design structures developed in this approach create the ability for large groups, with
facilitation guidance, to exchange knowledge on a continuous basis as a regular ongoing
activity. In the case of complex large group collaboration it is critically important to
minimize cognitive overhead and to provide the ability for participants to handle very
large transcripts of material. The use in this case of

comprehensive, broad, one level interaction menu, and

context visibility to provide the submenu choices,

are clearly two of the approaches that make an impact on reducing cognitive overhead so
the participants may concentrate on the discussion and not the mechanics of the
interface.

As online applications become more encompassing of all human intellectual activities, the
natural evolution of HCI has been one of sweeping application domains into the
interaction design challenge. Nowhere is there a greater challenge than when dealing
with alternative CMC group communication structures.

76
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES of AUTHORS
Prof. Murray Turoff
Information Systems Department
New Jersey Institute of Technology
Newark NJ, USA
Email: [email protected],

Prof. Starr Roxanne Hiltz

Information Systems Department
New Jersey Institute of Technology
Newark NJ, USA
Email: [email protected],

Xiang Yao
Information Systems Department
New Jersey Institute of Technology
Newark NJ, USA
Email: [email protected]:

Dr Zheng Li
Department of Information Systems
Pace University
New York, USA
Email: [email protected]

Dr Yuanqiong Wang
Department of Computer and Information Sciences
Towson University
Maryland, USA
Email: [email protected]

Dr. Hee-Kyung Cho

Department of Information Systems and Decision Sciences
Silberman College of Business
Fairleigh Dickinson University
Teaneck NJ, USA
Email: [email protected]

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was partially supported by the New Jersey Center for Pervasive Information
Technology through a grant from the New Jersey Commission on Science and Technology,
and the National Science Foundation (under CISE –ITO 9732354 and grant #9818309),
and the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. The opinions expressed in this paper are solely those
of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the sponsors.

COPYRIGHT
Murray Turoff, Starr Roxanne Hiltz, Zheng Li, Yuanqiong Wang, Hee-Kyung Cho, Xiang
Yao © 2004. The authors assign to OZCHI and educational and non-profit institutions a
non-exclusive licence to use this document for personal use and in courses of instruction
provided that the article is used in full and this copyright statement is reproduced. The
authors also grant a non-exclusive licence to OZCHI to publish this document in full in the
Conference Papers and Proceedings. Those documents may be published on the World
Wide Web, CD-ROM, in printed form, and on mirror sites on the World Wide Web. Any
other usage is prohibited without the express permission of the authors.

79
 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2 Article: 7

Teaching Chemistry
at Indira Gandhi National Open University
Dr. Bharat I. FOZDAR
Dr. Lalita S KUMAR
School of Sciences, IGNOU
Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-INDIA

ABSTRACT

The Open Distance Learning (ODL) concept is fast becoming popular all over the world and
it has a lot of relevance for a highly populated country like India. However, the most
important aspect of this type of teaching-learning process is establishment of the
credibility especially when the laboratory based science programmes are delivered from
such institutions. The apprehensions arise because teaching laboratory based science
related subjects at a distance is difficult due to students’ compulsory presence for the
experimental work and also the cost involvement.

Through this paper we intend to establish the credibility and authenticity of the B.Sc.
(major) in chemistry programme by giving a brief comparative account of IGNOU and
conventional university courses. It discusses the delivery aspects of this programme
highlighting the existing delivery mechanism, analyses the weaknesses in the present
system substantiated by a survey study and also suggests some new approaches to make
chemistry courses more effective from learner’s learning point of view.

The survey study has been helpful also in suggesting appropriate technologies for the
effective delivery of Chemistry courses.

Keywords: Open distance learning (ODL); laboratory courses; chemistry teaching;

multimedia; interactive radio counseling; teleconferencing and web based
counseling, face-to face counseling.

INTRODUCTION

The concept and practice of Open Distance Learning (ODL) system in the field of education,
especially for post secondary stage is catching up in a tremendous manner in India. Before
1970 there were few conventional universities with distance education programmes and
courses. As on date, there are 104 ODL units in conventional Universities and deemed
Universities and eleven Open Universities (DEC website). Among all these ODL institutions,
Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) has emerged as a trendsetter in providing
a wide range of programmes and courses through distance mode in India and even abroad.

As of today, the ODL institutions are providing education to nearly 22% of the total
number of students in the higher education system of the country. IGNOU alone caters to
education needs of nearly half of this and the projected growth is to double this number by
the end of the 10th plan (IGNOU Annual Report 2003, Dikshit 2003, VC’s Report 2004).

IGNOU is not only providing learner centric quality education to a large number of learners
with a target of fulfilling their needs and requirements but also accomplishing major
responsibility of determining and maintaining standards and promoting the ODL systems in
the country through Distance Education Council (DEC).

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Flexibility, innovation, use of new technologies, cost effectiveness and quality education
materials are mainly responsible for the popularity of IGNOU programmes amongst masses
(Ansari 2002).

Science and Technology has always been viewed as an effort to systematise knowledge
and inculcate a logical approach in the study of any subject. And laboratory work is an
important and integral component of Science and Technology based programmes in order
to understand the basic concepts associated. It has been always a concern of educators to
deliver laboratory-based science programmes and courses through distance mode also.
However, establishment of a laboratory with an involvement of expenditure is inevitable to
accomplish this and at times it becomes a difficult task.

The main factors, which discourage laboratory based science programmes, are cost of
equipments, chemicals etc. and safety issues. Because of this only a few post secondary
institutions that offer distance education programmes have been reported to offer a
substantial number of laboratory based science courses or complete science programmes
(Holmberg and Bakshi, 1982). As on date in India, out of eleven Open Universities five are
offering Bachelor’s degree programme in sciences and only one, Madhya Pradesh Bhoj
Open University (MPBOU) is providing education at the level of Masters in laboratory based
science disciplines. Needless to say that IGNOU is one amongst the five mentioned offering
laboratory based Science and Technology programmes.

On the other hand ODL units of conventional system are hardly having laboratory based
science programmes (DEC website).

Besides a number of laboratory- based programmes like B.Sc. (N) (Post Basic Bachelor of
Science in Nursing), CPLT (Certificate Programme in Laboratory Techniques), BTC
(Bachelor of Technology in Civil), IGNOU offers a Bachelor’s degree in various science
disciplines. Chemistry is one such discipline.

The main objective of IGNOU’s B.Sc. programme is to provide opportunities for higher
science education to those who missed a regular education (working persons, those living
in rural or remote areas, housewives and also for economic and opportunity reasons) and
to create scientific attitude towards life. So far more than thousand learners have
successfully completed the B.Sc. programme. They have been received well and many of
them have got admission in postgraduate programmes in premier institutions of India and
abroad.

However, there is always a feeling of ambiguity in everybody’s mind as far as the delivery
of the lab based Science Programmes through distance mode is concerned. Through this
paper an effort has been made to realise that distance chemistry learners in B.Sc.
programme of IGNOU are not any way getting a lesser amount of knowledge, skills and
information for their theory and lab courses compared to their counterparts in
conventional Universities and colleges.

A survey study was also carried out to know the background and profile of IGNOU
chemistry learners and identify the problems associated with the present delivery strategy
followed. The study substantiates the suggestion made at the end of this paper in order to
improve teaching-learning process.

CHEMISTRY TEACHING and CHEMISTRY COURSES at IGNOU

For completing B.Sc. programme either as general or major in any of the science
disciplines: Chemistry, Physics, Maths, Botany and Zoology from IGNOU learner has to earn
96 credits worth of courses. In IGNOU system one credit is equivalent to 30 hours of
learning activity. Out of 96 credits, 24 credits are devoted to foundation courses and 8 to
16 credits to application oriented courses the remaining 40 or 48 are subject specific
credits.

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For getting major degree in chemistry the learner is required to complete minimum 40
credits worth of chemistry elective courses. As on date, in chemistry, there are 7 theory
courses and 5 laboratory courses worth 40 credits (see Table: 1)

Table:1
Chemistry Elective Courses in B.Sc. Programme of IGNOU

Sl. No. Course Code & Table Credits

1 CHE-1: Atoms and Molecules 2

2 CHE-2: Inorganic Chemistry 4

3 CHE-3(L): Chemistry Lab I* 2

4 CHE-4: Physical Chemistry 4

5 CHE-5: Organic Chemistry 4

6 CHE-6: Reaction Mechanism 4

7 CHE-7(L): Chemistry Lab II* 2

8 CHE-8(L): Chemistry Lab III* 2

9 CHE-9: Biochemistry 4

10 CHE-10: Spectroscopy 4

11 CHE-11 (L): Chemistry Lab IV* 4

12 CHE-12 (L) Chemistry Lab V* 4

Total 40
* These depict laboratory courses

Environmental Chemistry (AEC-01) worth 8 credits has been put to offer from July 2005 in
Application Oriented Course category and another course, ‘Advanced Inorganic Chemistry’
worth 4 credits as an elective course will be on offer in another year’s time.

DELIVERY OF COURSES

The methodology of instruction of IGNOU is different from that followed in the

conventional system. Most of the instructions are imparted through distance rather than
face-to-face communication as is true of any distance education institution. However the
system at IGNOU is more learners oriented and the student is an active participant in the
teaching-learning process.

A multimedia approach is followed for instruction. Besides the self instructional printed
materials both for theory and practical courses, other means of imparting education are
audio and video cassettes/CDs (these are available at study centres only), audio-video
programmes transmitted through the National Network of Doordarshan and All India Radio
(selected station), face-to-face counseling at study centres by academic counsellors,
assignments, laboratory work, teleconferencing, interactive radio counseling and video
programmes through National and Gyan Darshan Channels.

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Recently, EDUSAT a satellite dedicated to education purposes has also been made available
to IGNOU. Chemistry faculty is presently using EDUSAT for the tele-counseling.

With the increased availability of new educational technologies, distance educators have
got the opportunity to design laboratory based science courses which could provide their
students with a wider range of learning aids such as radio and TV channels, internet,
computer-aided learning, local area networking and computer simulation to support
teaching in laboratories (Kennepohl, 2001 and A. Kahveci, 2003).

Never the less, face to face counseling sessions are very important tools for the guidance
and problem solving in the overall teaching learning process. However, it is not compulsory
for IGNOU students to attend the counseling sessions.

In our view good laboratory component is essential to the overall success and credibility of
any chemistry programme or in general any science programme. Distance education
institutions are offering laboratory courses by three modes. In first mode the laboratory is
conducted at home using home-study kits (Bennett 1995, Kennepohl 1996).

In second mode experiments are conducted on weekends throughout the year and in the
third mode lab courses are conducted in concentrated laboratory session for a weeklong.
These practices are followed by a number of distance education institutions (Kennepohl &
Last 2000, Koshy et al 1994, Chandra etal 1995). At IGNOU we are following both
weeklong and in some cases weekend approaches.

The laboratory courses are conducted at study centres scattered all over India during
summer and autumn vacations, so that in-service persons can attend laboratory courses
without difficulty. The laboratory component is delivered through innovatively designed
laboratory courses. These courses are worth 2 or 4 credits. A 2 credit laboratory course
requires full-time presence of the learner at the study centre for 7 days continuously.
During this time a learner has to work for around 60 hrs. Around 40 hours are spent on
experimental practical work and remaining time is used for doing calculations, preparation
of records, viewing or listening to the video/audio programmes. Unlike theory counseling
attendance in the laboratory courses is compulsory.

Every experiment is evaluated daily and 70% weightage is given to this continues
assessment; this is unlike the theory courses where weightage is only 30%. For theory
courses term end examination carries 70% weightage in the final result. For laboratory
courses, assigned experiment, which is unguided, is like a term end exam in case of theory
courses and carries 30% weightage. In order to optimise the time available for laboratory
work well designed laboratory manuals, counsellor’s manuals and in some cases video
programmes are provided. Lab manuals contain complete details of experiments and
methods of taking observations and calculations. Counsellor’s manual provides details of
activities to be performed by counsellors with respect to conduct of a laboratory course.

As per the instructions of counsellor’s manual the counsellor carries out pre-lab
preparations before the start of lab session, so that she /he is left with sufficient time to
guide learners through the lab sessions. As mentioned earlier some laboratory courses are
well supplemented with video programmes. These programmes further reduce the
demonstration time of the counsellors. It has been observed from the students’
examination records that their performance in the laboratory courses of IGNOU is very
good. This may be attributed to the following :

the laboratory courses are performed under direct guidance of the counsellors
in face to face situation, and

preparation prior to attending lab sessions and instant feedback (Pankaj et al.
2003).

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In our view besides these factors, other factors, which also have a role to play in the good
performance of learners in laboratory courses, are well-designed laboratory manuals,
counsellor’s manual, and more weight age of continuous assessment (70%).

CONVENTIONAL CHEMISTRY COURSES VS IGNOU COURSES

A comparison between courses offered for B.Sc. (major) in Chemistry from IGNOU and
B.Sc. (Honours) in Chemistry from University of Delhi has been made. Delhi University is
the premiere Central University of India and is known for very high educational standards.
List of chemistry courses, which are presently on offer by IGNOU are given in Table 1. As
mentioned before beside these courses learner has to take 24 credits worth from the
category of Foundation Courses.

These courses provide a broad base knowledge in the area of Science and Technology and
Humanities and Social Sciences. To improve the communication skills, two language
courses are also part of this category. Another category of courses is Application Oriented
Courses. These courses are developed to equip learners in some area of their choice, which
requires application of skills.

Option of these courses is available in 3rd year only. At present there are eighteen such
courses on offer, few examples of Application Oriented Courses are Human Environment,
Environmental Chemistry, Feature Writing in English and Hindi, Translation, Operational
Research, etc. Thus IGNOU is providing a broad base education along with specialisation in
Chemistry. On the other hand in Delhi University more emphasis on specialisation only.
There is only one language course in English and two optional courses viz.

Computers and Application to Chemistry and Entrepreneurship and Small Business

The discipline based theory courses include inorganic, organic and physical chemistry
courses are thought throughout the three years of the programme. Some courses like
environmental science, industrial chemistry and computers in chemistry were introduced
only last few years. On the contrary chemistry programme from IGNOU offers an
interdisciplinary course, Biochemistry (CHE-09) along with the three main area of
chemistry.

This course (CHE-09) provides background knowledge to those learners who are interested
in taking up higher studies in emerging areas of Biotechnology and Bio-informatics. Two
specialised and advanced courses in Organic Reaction Mechanism (CHE-06) and
Spectroscopy (CHE-10) are also being part of Chemistry programme of IGNOU. Although
present Inorganic Chemistry course (CHE-02) has no coverage on topics like bioinorganic,
reaction kinetics and mechanism and inorganic polymers but soon an Advanced Inorganic
Chemistry course (CHE 13) would be on offer, which will cover these topics.

IGNOU laboratory courses in chemistry are listed in Table 1. These courses are 2 to 4 credit
courses, which are stand alone in nature. Many experiments of these courses are at par
with those of Delhi University Chemistry honours programme. For example, experiments
on titrimetric analysis, inorganic and organic preparations, physical chemistry,
identification of functional groups of organic compounds and inorganic qualitative
analysis.

There are few innovative experiments which are the part of Chemistry programme of
IGNOU and are not covered in laboratory component of DU. For example experiments on
separation techniques like solvent extraction, paper chromatography, column
chromatography; analysis of oil & fats; preparation of face cream; preparation of Nylon 66;
preparation of aspirin and analysis of a commercial sample of aspirin etc.

The students of Chemistry programme of IGNOU spend around 420 hours to complete all
five courses. While designing the curriculum for laboratory courses of chemistry,
importance has been given to utility of an experiment with respect to real life experience,

84
development of experimented skills and industrial applications. Repetition of experiment is
avoided and emphasis on wide range of experimental techniques is given. Use of
instruments is also emphasised. IGNOU provided low cost instruments like, pH meter,
conductometer and colorimeter in the initial stages to some study centres.

USE OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Survey Study
The B.Sc. Chemistry programme at the IGNOU has been on offer for the last twelve years
and revision of various Chemistry courses is being initiated now. Not many new
technologies are used right now for the delivery of chemistry programme. A few video
programmes are supplemented and modes like interactive radio and video counseling are
used minimal. It is a well-established fact that modern educational technologies have
provided powerful tools to enrich learning environment (Kahveci 2003).

But before using any new technology we should keep in mind the suitability to our
learners. To find this, a survey was conducted to collect information regarding learner’s
back ground, profile, reason for joining B.Sc. programme through distance mode, reason
for doing B.Sc. major in chemistry, availability of computer at home or office, effectiveness
of present mode of counseling sessions and the views regarding web based counseling.

A sample of 200 learners was randomly selected for those who had taken Biochemistry
course as elective. This course is generally optioed by the students who are aspiring to do
major in Chemistry. The questionnaires were administered by post to learners. 56
Responses (28%) were received out of the 200 sent.

The sample (n=56) comprised of 70% (n=40) males and 30% (n=16) females. The mean
age of the sample was 21 years at the time of joining IGNOU’s B.Sc. programme.
Regarding residential background, 31% (n=18) were rural living in rural 6.8% (n=04)
rural living in urban, 48.2% (n=28) urban living in urban, 3.4% (n=2) urban working in
rural and 6.8% (n=04) working with arm forces (See table 2). From the sample 70%
employed and 30% are unemployed (see Table: 3).

This finding shows that IGNOU’s B.Sc. programme is fulfilling its one of significant
objectives of providing higher education to employed persons. In response to the reasons
for joining B.Sc. programme of IGNOU, the two most common reasons given by students
are improvement in job prospects (57.14%) and to get a Bachelor’s degree (57.14%)
(Table: 3, bearing in mind that the questionnaires allowed students to select more than
one reason). In response to the reasons of studying B.Sc. (Major in Chemistry), majority of
learners gave two reasons;

keen interest in subject (46.43%) and

(ii) to pursue higher studies in the area of Chemistry (46.43%) (Table: 5).

Table: 2
Residential background of Chemistry Learners

Rural living in rural 32.14%

Rural living in urban 7.14%
Urban living in urban 50%
Urban living in rural 3.58%
Any other (arm forces) 7.14%
Total 100%

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 Table: 3
Employment Status of the Chemistry Learners

Unemployed 28.57%

Employed 71.43%

Total 100%

Table: 4
Reason for joining B.Sc. Programme of IGNOU

Reasons Percentage*

To improve job prospects 57.14

To get a degree
Because of family constraints 57.14
Employed
Lack of time 17.26
Did not get admission 21.43
14.29
07.14
*bearing in mind the questionnaire allowed students
to select more than one reason

Table: 5
Reason for Studying B.Sc. (Major in Chemistry)

Reasons Percentage*

Interest in Subject 46.43

To purse higher Studies 46.43
Better employment prospects 42.86
Family pressure 03.57

* bearing in mind the questionnaires allow students to select more than one reason

Face-to-face counseling by the counsellor as mentioned before is a one of the important

components of the programme delivery (Tait 2004).

The main purpose of this is to clarify doubts and motivate and encourage learners to
progress in studies and complete programme successfully. This aspect was also included
in the survey study. Of the total number of respondents 60.72% did not receive any
intimation regarding the conduct of counseling session and only 39.28% received the
intimation. Only 39.28% attended counseling session and 60.72% did not attend.

Regarding the reason for not attending counseling sessions majority of learners have given
three most common reasons;

not receipt of counseling schedule (32.14%),

distance of study centre form their residence (25%) and time constraint (21.43%)
(Table: 6).

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 Table: 6
Reason for not attending the Counseling Session

Reasons Percentage*

Distance of Study Centre 25.00

Time Constraint 21.43
Employed 17.86
Non receipt of counseling 32.14
schedules

Responses are given by mostly those students who have not attended counseling session.

Majority of student attended counseling sessions between four-five. For this course
maximum numbers of counseling sessions are five and one counseling session is of two
and half hours duration.

Most of the respondents have asked for more counseling sessions (85.71%). Learners
(n=48) have shown interest in web based counseling. From 56 respondents (60.71%)
(n=34) have computer facility and 39.29% (n=22) do not have computer at home or at
work place. This study suggested that there is great scope of improving the counseling and
one way could be using computer-aided learning. As majority of our learners are working
(71.43%), therefore they have difficulty in attending face-to-face counseling. On the other
hand most of the learners (60.71.5%) have computer facility either at home or workplace.

This suggested that along with present face-to-face counseling the web based counseling
would be a better alternative. Web based counseling would help our learners to remove
their doubt about the course related problems. Though IGNOU have the facility of
Interactive Radio Counseling and video counseling, but there are some problems
associated with these modes ( Rao & Zeba 1998, Chouwdhry and Bansal 2000 ).

If we can take care of the mentioned hindrances these can also be other educational
modes, which can also be used for chemistry learners to improve there learning
environment. We can also think of sending multimedia CD ROMs along with course
material, which is used, else also very effective mode of teaching also used else where
(Patterson 2000).

CONCLUSION

The survey analysis clearly indicated the following:

Most of the learners find it difficult to attend the face-to-face counseling

sessions because of the reasons stated.

Most of the learner’s are employed and it’s difficult for them to have a physical
presence for face-to-face counseling.

Maximum numbers of learners have computer facility either at home or at
workplace.

Most of them did not have any hindrances as far as using web based counseling
is concerned.

All the above observations indicate that modern educational technologies can really play
an impotent role in imparting Chemistry education to the B.Sc. students. In fact those
students who are employed preferred having a web based counseling instead of face-to-

87
face or video teleconferencing. Further using computer simulations difficult concepts of
chemistry could be explained.

The computer-simulated experiments could be used in place of demonstration. This will

not necessarily impart skills but definitely would be able to give an exposure of the
technique and method used (Yu et al 2005).

This would also save demonstration time of counsellor. ‘Distance” between teacher and
learner can be reduced by using innovative methods of teaching using modern
technologies.

BIODATA and CONTACT ADDRESSES of AUTHORS

Dr. Bharat Inder FOZDAR is a Reader in Chemistry in the School of School, Indira Gandhi
National Open University (IGNOU), New Delhi, India. He obtained his Ph.D degree in
Chemistry from Aligarh Muslim University, India. He joined IGNOU in 1988. He received
extensive training on designing and development of self-instructional course metrical and
multimedia package for distance and open learning courses and programmes. He had
played a significant role in course development of Bachelor degree program in Sciences
(B.Sc.) and Certificate Programme in laboratory Techniques (CPLT). He participated in
national and international conferences, and published several research articles in reputed
journals.

Dr. Bharat Inder Fozdar

School of Sciences, IGNOU, Maidan Garhi,
New Delhi 110068, India
E-mail [email protected], [email protected],

Dr. Lalita S KUMAR, is a Reader in Chemistry, in the School of Sciences, Indira Gandhi
National Open University, New Delhi, India. She had Ph.D degree in Chemistry from Delhi
University and had two decades of experience in designing development of self-
instructional course metrical and multimedia package for distance and open learning
system. She has several publications and a book to her credit.

Dr. Lalita S Kumar

School of Sciences, IGNOU, Maidan Garhi,
New Delhi 110068, India
E-mail [email protected],

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Ansari, M.M. (2002). Best Practices in Open and Distance Learning Systems in India: An
Assessment, Indan Journal of Open Learning, 11(2), 219-228.

Bennett, S (1995). Opening up Science: the Teaching of Science at the Open University,
UK. Paper presented at the 17th ICDE Conference, Birmingham, UK.

Chandra, S. and Wong, T. M. (1995). Practical in Science and Technology Courses in the
Open Learning Institute of Hong Kong-an Institutional Report. Presented at the post-AAOU
Satellite Round Table meeting, New Delhi.

Chaudhary, S. S. and Bansal, K. (2000). Interactive Radio Counseling in Indira, Gandhi

National Open University: A study, Journal of Distance Education 15(2)

DEC website: http://www.ignou.ac.in/dec/index.htm

Dikshit H.P. (2003). Growth of open and flexible learning in India: Emerging Challenges
and Prospects, Indian Journal of open Learning 12(1,2), 7-15.

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Holmbers, R.G., & Bakshi, T.S. (1982). Laboratory work in Distance Education, Distance
Education, 3(2), 198-206.

IGNOU Annual Report (2002-2003). Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi.

Kahveci, A (2003). Chemistry at a Distance: Instructional Strategies and the Internet

Component of the Course – A Chronological Review of the Literature. Turkish Online
Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE, 4(3)

Kannepolh, D (2001). Using Computer Simulation to Supplement Teaching Laboratories in

Chemistry for Distance Delivery, Journal of Distance Education, 16(2), 58-65

Kennepohl, D & Last, A. (2000). Teaching Chemistry at Canada Open University, Distance
Education 21(1), 183-197.

Kenneponi. D. (1996). Home Study Micro labs, Journal of Chemical Education, Vol. 75, 938-
39

Khare, P, Sexena, A, and Garg, S (2003). Knowledge Discoveries on Performance of IGNOU

Graduates Through Data Mining, Indian Journal of Open Learning, 12(1), 29-45.

Koshy, K, Bonato, J, and Faasalanina T. (1994). Chemistry Through Distance Teaching: A

South Pacific Experiment, Distance Education, 15(2), 291-299.

Mahajan, S.L. (2002). Information Communication Technology in Distance Education in

India: A Challenge, Indian Journal of Open Learning, 11(2), 269-277.

Patterson, M. J. (2000). Developing an Internet-Based Chemistry Class, Journal of

Chemical Education, 77(5), 554-555).

Rama Rao and Zeba Khan (1998). Satellite-based Interactive Learning System at IGNOU,
Retrospect & Prospects, International Conference on Collaborative Networked Learning,
IGNOU, New Delhi, 229-234.

Tait, Jo (2004). The Tutor/facilitator Role in Student Retention, Open Learning, 19(1).

Vice Chancellor’s Report (2004). 14th Convocation, Indira Gandhi National Open University,
New Delhi.

Yu, Jian Qing, Brown, David J. and Billet, Ellen E (2005). Development of a Virtual
Laboratory Experiment for Biology, European J. of Open, Distance and E-learning, 2005/II
(http://www.eurodl.org/materials/contrib/2005/Jian_Quing_Yu.htm)

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 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2 Article: 8

Running head:
ONLINE AND TRADITIONAL STUDENT DIFFERENCES
Differences between online and traditional students:
A study of motivational orientation, self-efficacy, and attitudes

Dr. Tara STEVENS

Texas Tech University-USA

Assistant Professor Carrie SWITZER

University of Illinois at Springfield-USA

ABSTRACT

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the differences in demographic
characteristics, motivational orientation, self-efficacy, and attitudes about technology
between students who enrolled in a course offered in the traditional setting and those
enrolled in the same course online. The two groups, each comprised of 27 students, were
administered self-report measures to evaluate their levels of technological self-efficacy,
attitude toward technology, and motivational orientation. Participants also reported their
age, number of online courses taken, and gender. Results indicated that the two groups
did not differ in terms of their attitudes about and feelings of self-efficacy toward
technology. Despite many similarities in motivational orientation, online students did
report higher levels of interest, curiosity, and intrinsic motivation, suggesting that
students in online courses may prefer autonomy in the course design. Further research is
necessary to determine whether students seek out online courses because they possess
motivation or if online courses create motivation.

Keywords: Motivational orientation, online learning, self-efficacy.

INTRODUCTION

When developing a course, most instructors begin with describing the specific learning
goals that are to be attained by students. In constructing learning goals, it is important to
consider the motivation, self-efficacy, and attitudes of the students in the class, which
can be a difficult task. Course development is becoming even more challenging as the
popularity of distance education increases. Instructors developing online courses are
faced with the question of whether the students in these classes are fundamentally
different from students in traditional courses. If there are differences between the types
of students who enroll in online versus traditional classes, instructors would need to be
mindful of the differences when designing various aspects of the course.

In their review of distance education research, Tallent-Runnels et al. (in press) found that
there were some demographic differences between students in online and traditional
courses. In terms of age and racial differences the majority of students enrolling in online
courses were non-traditional and Anglo-American. Qureshi, Morton, and Antosz (2002)
described the typical student enrolled in distance education courses as a female between
the ages of 18 and 40 who did not possess the time to attend on-campus classes due to
family and work commitments. Dutton, Dutton, and Perry (2002) also described online
students as older and more greatly committed to responsibilities such as work and
children. In addition, Dutton et al. (2002) found that students enrolled in distance
education courses were less likely to be seeking traditional undergraduate degrees.

90
Although most agree that online learners tend to be nontraditional and constrained by
adult responsibilities, the motivational style that these students bring to the classroom is
not well understood. Qureshi et al. (2002) noted that distance education students were
less motivated than their on-campus peers. Others have expressed concern that online
learners experience motivational problems as evidenced by high dropout rates (Cheng-
Yuan 2000). However, Dutton et al. (2002) found that online students were likely to have
the same level of motivation to complete a course as traditional undergraduate students.
In addition, Roblyer (1999) found that online students prefer the autonomy associated
with the self-paced online learning process suggesting that online students may be more
highly self-regulated and autonomous in comparison to their on-campus counterparts
who prefer face-to-face interaction with the instructor. Clearly, more evidence is needed
to determine whether students in online courses are more or less motivated than
students in traditional courses.

Understanding whether there are differences in motivation levels between students in

online and traditional courses would be helpful in guiding course design. However, it is
also important to determine if online versus traditional students possess different types
of motivation. Motivational orientation refers to the reasons that individuals ascribe to
their engagement in a specific task (Brophy 1998). For example, if students perceive that
they are completing a homework assignment because they are forced to do so by their
instructor to achieve a specific grade, they are extrinsically motivated. In other words,
their motivation comes from outside of themselves. However, other students may
perceive their engagement in the same task as an opportunity to simply know more about
a topic that they find interesting. These students are intrinsically motivated, or are
learning simply for the sake of learning.

Although both intrinsically motivated and extrinsically motivated students can enjoy
academic success (Lepper and Henderlong 2000), many believe that intrinsically
motivated students have the advantage (Stipek 1992). Researchers have documented
that intrinsically oriented students tend to be more creative (Amabile 1983; Amabile,
Hennessey, and Grossman 1986), experience greater conceptual gains in understanding
(Grolnick and Ryan 1987; Stipek et al. 1998), and are more likely to remain interested in
learning (Ryan and Deci 2000). These benefits are a result of an agenda for learning and
the excitement associated with simply learning something new. Students with an intrinsic
orientation are guided by the desire to learn, not the benefits of pleasing the instructor.
In addition, these students are less likely to perform only to the level required to achieve
a certain grade. If in fact, online students value the autonomy of online learning
environments (Roblyer 1999) this could be an indication that they are also more
intrinsically motivated than students in traditional courses. As a result, course learning
goals and assignments for online classes would need to be designed with the
characteristics of intrinsically motivated students in mind.

While understanding motivational differences between students in online and traditional

classes is important, it is also imperative to understand if there are differences in prior
technological experience. Clearly, the types of learning goals and course assignments
designed by an instructor need to match the technological abilities of his or her students.
Dutton et al. (2002) found that students enrolled in distance education courses were
more likely to have greater experience working with computers. In addition, Qureshi et
al. (2002) found that students who enrolled in online classes possessed higher degrees of
proficiency with the Internet and e-mail than those taking traditional courses. Therefore,
instructors of online courses may be correct in having higher expectations for their
students in terms of using technology.

For online students, a benefit of using technology may be greater feelings of self-efficacy
toward technology. When investigating what factors influenced students to continue their
enrollment in online courses, Richards and Ridley (1997) found that students wanted
more training in basic computer skills. Qureshi et al. (2002) posited that through the
enrollment in online courses, students gain technological experience that serves as a

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motivator for their enrollment in future online classes. This reasoning is consistent with
Bandura’s (1986) suggestion that self-efficacy develops based, in part, on one’s prior
mastery experiences in a specific domain. Self-efficacy refers to individuals’ confidence in
their ability to successfully utilize their skills and knowledge (Bandura 1986). As self-
efficacy increases, students’ performance in academic domains increases (Bandura 1993;
Pajares and Graham 1999; Pajares and Kranzler 1995). Students who believe they have
the ability to utilize their skills and knowledge to accomplish a task successfully will
continue to work on the activity despite its challenges. Furthermore, when making
decisions concerning what challenges to attempt, those high in self-efficacy will be more
likely to estimate that they can succeed in more difficult tasks. As a result, online
instructors may be able to design more demanding learning tasks because online students
with high self-efficacy would be more confident in their abilities and persistent when
faced with obstacles.

Numerous studies have found a relationship between college students using computer
technology and having more positive attitudes about the technology (Anderson and
Hornby 1996; Milbrath and Kinzie 2000; Parish and Necessary 1996). Parish and
Necessary (1996) found that college students were less anxious about using a computer,
had more confidence in their abilities, and reported liking computers more if they owned
or voluntarily used a computer. Attitudes about computer technology may also be
influenced by requiring technology use as part of undergraduate coursework. Milbrath
and Kinzie (2000) examined the attitudes toward computer technology of college
students in a teacher education program that required enrollment in technology courses.
The students reported significantly less anxiety about using computer technology over
time. In addition, the students had significantly more positive attitudes about the
usefulness of computer technology over time (Milbrath and Kinzie 2000). In Dutton et al.
(2002) distance education students were more likely to have experience using computers,
so it may be the case that online students possess more positive attitudes about
computer technology.

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the differences in demographic
characteristics, motivational orientation, self-efficacy, and attitudes about technology
across two groups of students, those taking a course online and those taking the same
course on campus. It was hypothesized that the students in the online section would be
older and predominantly female. In terms of motivational orientation, it was
hypothesized that the online students would possess greater intrinsic motivation.
Although we did not evaluate whether online students’ feelings of technological self-
efficacy and attitudes toward technology increased as a result of their online experiences,
we did measure students’ technological self-efficacy and attitude to first evaluate if
online students were more self-efficacious and felt more positively toward technology in
this domain. In addition, we wanted to ensure that any differences in motivational
orientation could not be better accounted for by variations in technological self-efficacy
and attitudes toward technology. In other words, we were interested in the feelings of
mastery, or motivational orientation, associated with the course as a whole, not students’
experience with technology. It was also hypothesized that students in the online section
would report higher levels of self-efficacy and more positive attitudes about technology.

METHOD

Participants
Two class sections of Exceptional Child, a required psychology course for students
entering the teaching profession at a small, Midwestern university were conveniently
sampled for the present study. The selected university is the smallest campus of a large
university system that tends to serve nontraditional students, or students who are older
and who commute to campus in an attempt to negotiate the demands of family and work.
Although one section was taught online and the other in the traditional classroom setting,
the courses were similar in that the instructors required the same textbook, held similar
teaching philosophies, and earned similar course evaluation ratings. All students enrolled

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in both classes were invited to participate in the study, with 27 students volunteering
from each class section for a total of 54 students. Only one student declined participation
from the online section, and all students participated from the traditional section.
Participants were overwhelmingly female (n = 44) and Caucasian (n = 52). The remaining
two students described their ethnicity as Asian. The average age of participants was
28.69 (SD = 9.17).

Measures
Motivational orientation was assessed using Harter’s (1980) Scale of Intrinsic Versus
Extrinsic Orientation in the Classroom, which was slightly altered to include the term
instructor rather than teacher. The scale is comprised of five subscales that have been
supported through factor analysis, which in turn form two higher order factors. Harter
(1981) described the first cluster consisting of subscales of a Preference for Challenge
versus Preference for Easy Work Assigned, Curiosity/ Interest versus Teacher Approval,
and Independent Mastery versus Dependence on the Teacher. The second cluster of
subscales was defined by Independent judgment versus Reliance on Teacher’s judgment
and Internal versus External Criteria for Success/ Failure. Harter (1981) interpreted the
first higher order factor as representing whether or not one is motivated to engage in the
mastery process and the second higher order factor as explaining more cognitive-
informational structures, or how much the student has learned about the manner in
which school works.

Participants were presented with 30 items comprised of two short statements describing
students. The participants were first asked to decide which description was most like
them, and then asked whether this statement was only sort of true or really true for
them. Several items were recoded at the direction of the scoring key prior to calculating
totals. Total scores were derived by summing the values selected by the students. Each
item was scored on a scale from 1 to 4, with the lowest score indicating maximum
extrinsic orientation and the highest score suggesting maximum intrinsic orientation.
Internal consistency estimates reported in the test manual were derived using the Kuder-

Richardson Formula 20 and yielded reliabilities ranging from .78 to .84, .68 to .82, .70 to
.78, .72 to .81, and .75 to .83, for the subscales of Challenge, Independent Mastery,
Curiosity, Judgment, and Criteria, respectively. A reliability estimate for the total score
was not reported as the author reported that the use of the total score was not intended.
Cronbach alpha coefficients for Challenge, Independent Mastery, Curiosity, Judgment,
and Criteria for the present sample were .66, .65, .76, .78, and .77, respectively.

Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the two higher order factors, mastery and cognitive-
informational structures were .86 and .89, respectively.

Self-Efficacy with Computer Technologies

Self-efficacy was assessed using the Self-Efficacy for Computer Technologies (SCT)
instrument (Delcourt and Kinzie 1993). The measure was designed to assess individuals’
confidence in using specific aspects of technology, including word processing, e-mail, and
CD-ROM databases. Participants were asked to rate the degree of their confidence in
using specific components of each technology using a 4-point, Likert-type scale, ranging
from strongly disagree to strongly agree.

Delcourt and Kinzie (1993) using principal component analysis found that the 25 item
instrument was comprised of a simple three factor structure related to the specific areas
of technology addressed. The authors reported high internal consistency estimates
(r≥.97) for each subscale representing the three factors. Because the SCT was created
close to a decade ago and students’ experience with technology has likely steadily
increased, we included three additional domains; spreadsheets, statistical packages, and
presentation software; to assess technological self-efficacy. An internal consistency
estimate for the total scale was .96 for the present sample.

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Attitudes Toward Computer Technologies
Participants’ attitudes toward technologies were evaluated using the Attitudes Toward
Computer Technologies (ACT) instrument (Delcourt and Kinzie 1993). The measure
consists of 19 items, with 11 items assessing the degree to which participants believe
technology to be useful and the remaining items assessing the degree of comfort/ anxiety
participants feel toward technology. Participants were presented with statements
concerning computer technology (e.g., the thought of using computer technologies
frightens me) and asked to rate the degree to which the statements described them using
a 4-point, Likert-type scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Delcourt and
Kinzie (1993) using principal component analysis found that the 19 item instrument was
comprised of a simple three factor structure. The first factor was labeled
“anxiety/comfort”, whereas the second and third factors were labeled “usefulness”, with
the second factor items positively stated and the third factor items negatively stated. The
authors, using Cronbach’s alpha, reported a high internal consistency estimate for the
ACT (r = .89). Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the present sample was .78.

Online Course Experience

Participants were asked to write in the number of online courses they had taken.

Procedures
Participants were asked to complete a questionnaire to assist the researchers in learning
more about the characteristics of students who use computers in learning. Students in the
traditional course section were approached during a class session and completed the
questionnaire in that setting. Those students enrolled in the online section were mailed
the information with a postage paid envelope included for the information’s return. All
questionnaires were completed anonymously.

RESULTS

Demographic Comparisons
The overwhelming majority of participants in both groups were female students. In fact,
both course sections were comprised of 22 female and five male students, a ratio that is
not unusual for psychology and education courses at the selected institution. As a result,
no differences in gender proportion were found between the two groups.

The mean age of participants enrolled in the online section (M = 30.26, SD = 10.11) was
higher than that of participants enrolled in the traditional section (M = 27.11, SD = 8.00).
However, an independent measures t test did not reveal the presence of a statistically
significant difference (t(52) = -1.27, p > .05). As a result, we attributed the difference to
chance. Evaluation of an estimate of effect size (η η p2 = .03) supported this conclusion,
suggesting that little association between age and group existed for this sample.

Online Courses
When asked the number of online courses taken in the past, participants enrolled in the
traditional course section reported a mean of .30 (SD = 1.03), whereas those participants
enrolled in the online course section reported a mean of 1.44 (SD = 2.83). Considerably
greater variation in number was observed in the online group, which ranged from one
student’s report of taking 10 prior courses online and 20 students’ report of no prior
experience with online courses. The traditional group ranged from a high of 5 prior
courses taken online reported by one student to a low of no prior courses taken online
reported by 24 students. An independent measures t test corrected for inequality of
variances did not reveal the presence of a statistically significant difference between the
prior online course experience of participants enrolled in an online course and those
enrolled in the traditional section (t(52) = -1.98, p> .05). Evaluation of an estimate of
effect size (ηη p2 = .07) supported this conclusion, suggesting that little association
between the number of online courses taken and group existed for this sample.

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 Table: 1
Motivation Means, Standard Deviations, and t-tests
_______________________________________________________________________
Mean SD t-value
p level
_______________________________________________________________________
__
Challenge v. Easy Work -1.95 .06
Traditional 16.17 3.13
Online 17.96 3.27

Curiosity/Interest v. Teacher Approval -2.42 .02

Traditional 15.44 2.54
Online 17.39 3.03

Independent Mastery v. Dependence -1.94 .06

Traditional 15.26 2.62
Online 17.35 4.53

Independent Judgment v. Teacher Judgment -.81 .42

Traditional 16.52 1.62
Online 17.04 2.70

Internal v. External Criteria for Success -1.27 .21

Traditional 17.04 3.64
Online 18.32 3.34

Mastery (Higher Order Factor) -2.65 .01

Traditional 46.87 7.33
Online 52.69 7.99

Cognitive-Informational Structures -1.11 .27

Traditional 33.57 4.57
Online 35.21 5.53

Self-Efficacy and Attitudes

Participants in the traditional course section (M= 146.82, SD= 24.31) reported slightly
higher feelings of self-efficacy with computer technology than the online participants (M
= 144.32, SD = 28.21). Again, an independent measures t test did not reveal a
statistically significant difference between the two groups (t(50) = .342, p > .05). An
estimate of effect size (η η p2 = .002) further suggested little association between these
variables for the sample. In addition, participants in the traditional course section (M =
61.15, SD = 6.71) reported a slightly more positive attitude toward the use of technology
than their online counterparts (M = 60.48, SD = 7.26). Even so, an independent measures
t test did not reveal a statistically significant difference between the two groups (t(52) =
.35, p > .05). An estimate of effect size (η η p2 = .002) also suggested little association
between these variables for the sample.

Motivational Orientation
An analysis of covariance was utilized to evaluate mean differences in levels of
motivational orientation, or mastery, between the online students and those enrolled in
the traditional course. With both attitudes toward technology and technological self-
efficacy utilized as covariates, a significant difference was found between the two groups
(F(1) = 6.77, p <.05) with those enrolled in the online section reporting higher levels of
mastery than those in the traditional section. An estimate of effect size ((η η p2 = .11)
indicates that the association between mastery and group is small. An independent
measures t-test also suggested a significant difference between the groups, indicating

95
that attitude and self-efficacy were not needed as covariates as they failed to account for
variance between the groups. Those participants enrolled in the online section reported
higher levels of overall mastery than those enrolled in the traditional section (t(47) = -
η p2 = .11) suggests that the association
2.65, p < .05). Again, an estimate of effect size (η
between mastery and group is small.

Differences in motivational orientation were also evaluated across the five subscales as
well as the second higher order factor (see Table 1). Only one difference was found in the
subscale Curiosity/Interest versus Pleasing the Teacher/Getting Grades. Participants
enrolled in the online course section reported higher levels of interest than their
η p2 = .13)
traditional counterparts (t(47) = -2.42, p < .05). An estimate of effect size (η
suggests that the association between interest and group is small.

DISCUSSION

We evaluated the differences in demographic characteristics, motivational orientation,

self-efficacy, and attitudes toward technology between students enrolled in an on-
campus course and students enrolled in the same course offered online. Although we
were unable to design a study that utilized random assignment to the two groups, we
were able to evaluate students enrolled in the same course who did not significantly
differ in their age, gender, or the number of previous online courses taken. Because the
majority of participants in the present study were nontraditional students, which reflects
the selected university’s student population, gender and age differences that emerged in
several prior studies (e.g., Dutton, Dutton, and Perry 2002; Qureshi, Morton, and Antosz
2002) were not observed. Female and older students might have preferred the online
section; however at this particular university the majority of students were older and
female. As a result, the participants in each group were likely quite homogeneous, as
evidenced by the comparisons.

Interestingly, students in the online and traditional classes did not differ in terms of their
attitudes about and feelings of self-efficacy toward technology. Students in both types of
courses had relatively positive attitudes regarding technology and felt moderately self-
efficacious about using technology. It is important for instructors designing both types of
courses to know that if students have previous experience using technology, instructors
may be able to assign work that is technologically challenging. Also, instructors should
recognize that attitudes and efficacy may not influence students’ decisions to enroll in
online courses. This suggests that students may be choosing online courses because of
their convenience and not considering their technology skills and attitudes.

In accordance with Dutton et al. (2002), who found that online and on-campus students
had the same level of motivation to complete a course, students in the present study who
were in the online and traditional courses were similar in many ways in terms of their
motivational orientation. Neither group of students reported differences in preferring
challenging work to easy work, independent mastery to dependence on the teacher,
independent judgement to reliance on the teacher’s judgement, or having an internal
criteria for success rather than an external criteria. In addition, both groups of students
were similar in terms of understanding how school works. These findings contradict
Qureshi et al. (2002) who found the distance education students in their sample to be less
motivated than the on-campus students. It is helpful for instructors to know that in many
ways the motivational orientation of online students may not differ significantly from
traditional students. Therefore, the way that a course is structured and the types of
assignments that are given in a traditional class may work equally as well in terms of
maintaining motivation in an online class.

Despite their similarities in motivational orientation, online students did report some
significant differences in the ways in which they are motivated compared to traditional
students. In the present study, online students reported higher levels of interest or

96
curiosity as opposed to a need for the teacher’s approval compared to the traditional
students. In addition, the online students indicated that they were more motivated to
engage in the mastery process that is based on intrinsic motivational factors (i.e.
preferring challenging work, being curious and interested, and working toward
independent mastery). These findings support the proposition of Roblyer (1999) that
online students may possess high levels of motivation because they are more
autonomous. The findings also lend support for our hypothesis that online students are
more intrinsically motivated than traditional students.

A possible explanation for the differences in the motivational orientation of students in

the present study is that students who already possess an intrinsic orientation are more
likely to seek out learning environments that are more autonomous in an attempt to learn
more. Furthermore, students may realize that to be successful in an online course they
must have a greater ability to set goals and self-regulate, traits commonly associated
with intrinsic orientations. Thus, students who are intrinsically motivated may recognize
that they can meet these demands and choose to enroll, whereas those who are
extrinsically motivated may understand their limitations and choose to not enroll.

The higher levels of intrinsic motivation found in the online students in the present study
have important implications for instructors in terms of course design. Despite the
advantages afforded to those possessing intrinsic motivation, many students in both
online and traditional classes find themselves enrolling in required courses, seeking
grades to meet predetermined cutoffs for admission to or continuation of an academic
program, and trying to please instructors who hold great power over assessment and
recommendation. Unfortunately, course designs often reflect an extrinsic motivational
orientation with clear emphases on deadlines and grading policies as the norm.
Interestingly, those intrinsically motivated students who enter such courses that do not
encourage or support autonomy will tend to become extrinsic in their orientation,
therefore losing the advantages that they were once in line to receive (Ryan and Deci
2000). Therefore, it is essential for online instructors to capitalize on the autonomy that
online courses create to encourage and maintain the intrinsic motivation of their
students.

Roblyer (1999) found that many students who choose to enter the online educational
environment do so due to the autonomy that it supports. Similarly, the online students in
the present study indicated that they were more motivated to engage in the mastery
process, one component of which includes working toward independent mastery. Online
students are able to work at their own pace, within certain guidelines, and are not
exposed to the instructor in a face-to-face context. Online instructors should note that
this latter attribute may allow students to focus on their own learning as well as
interaction with peers rather than focus on pleasing the instructor. In addition, the online
environment may be perceived as autonomy supportive to students as their control is
enhanced and they can take greater time formulating and crafting responses that can
often be posted at their desired frequency. Because autonomy supportive environments
have been found to encourage intrinsic motivation in students (Valas and Slovik 1993), it
is possible that the online learning environment itself could promote a more positive
motivation for learning in its students.

Due to the limitations in the present study’s design, such as the small sample size and
lack of random selection and assignment, the aforementioned discussion should be
further evaluated through continued research. Although generalization of the current
results is questionable, researchers and instructors considering or using the online
environment for teaching should be aware of the possibility that online students possess
higher levels of intrinsic motivation compared to their traditional classroom peers.
Therefore, online instructors would need to be particularly mindful of constructing
learning goals and assignments that foster curiosity and independent mastery.

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BIODATA and CONTACT ADDRESSES of AUTHORS

Dr. Tara STEVENS, is an assistant professor in the Department of Educational

Psychology and Leadership, Texas Tech University. Her research interests
include the development of self-perceptions and the relationship between
self-perceptions and adjustment as well as academic variables. She is
currently engaged in projects related to the manipulation of interest,
motivation, and self-efficacy using online teaching techniques.

Tara Stevens, Ed.D.

Department of Educational Psychology and Leadership
Box 41071, Texas Tech University,
Lubbock, TX 79409-1071,
Phone: (806) 742-1997, x 253,
Fax: (806) 742-2179
E-mail: [email protected]

Dr. Carrie SWITZER is an associate professor and program chair in the

Psychology Program at the University of Illinois at Springfield. Her areas
of specialization include educational/Developmental Psychology and
Volunteerism. She also develops and teaches online courses related to
human development, exceptional children, and educational psychology.
Dr. Switzer’s current research interests include the development of
attitudes about and self-efficacy related to computer technology.

Carrie L. Switzer, Ph.D.

Associate Professor & Chair
Psychology Department, UH-3124
One University Plaza, Springfield, Illinois 62703-5407
Phone: (217) 206-7229 (217) 206-6696 (Main Office)
E-mail: [email protected]

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 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2 Article: 9

THE USE OF WEBCT IN DISTANCE LEARNING COURSE

IN UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER
Rosman AHMAD
Rodger EDWARDS
Bland TOMKINSON

School of Mechanical
Aerospace and Civil Engineering (MACE)
University of Manchester
UNITED KINGDOM
ABSTRACT

The World Wide Web impacted the educational model and became part of distance
education in this early century. There were many changes taking place in higher
education for political, economic and educational reasons. New goals and educational
objectives are being set within educational institutions. There were particular emphases
to produce a more effective delivery of learning methods for distance learning students.
The use of Internet was seen as an important issue in the development of an
understanding of the complex process of instilling knowledge to post graduates students.
Well-established universities are re-examining their missions and looking for different
ways of providing lifelong education.

The Building Division of the MACE was particularly keen to increase the use of web-based
learning in its courses, which will increase the amount of students enrolled into these
programmes, help them learn in a flexible and workable manner. This paper describes the
outline for the design and development of a distance-learning module. Some benefits and
setbacks will be discussed and recommendation for future improvement explained.

Keywords: Distance Education, Evaluation Methodologies, Postgraduates Programme, e-

Learning, Teaching/Learning Strategies.

INTRODUCTION

Advances in IT and telecommunication have allowed web-based courses to replicate more

seamlessly the features of face-to-face instruction through the use of audio, video and
high speed Internet connection which facilitate synchronous and asynchronous
communication chat groups. Traditional instructional activities such as lecture
presentation and delivery, student participation, discussion, feedback and evaluation can
be easily translated to the web environment. In order to do this universities are moving
from their traditional emphasis on classroom instruction to an environment where
learning can be pursued through any media of instruction (Aggarwal, 2000).

There is a trend for universities to allow programmes to be studied part-time, and even at
a distance. Because an increasing number of postgraduate students are expected to be
working in a profession of some sort, the knowledge that is taught may often be more
practical and tends to be more multi-disciplinary.

In the informational-networked economy, many postgraduate students are expected to

be part-time students, their research work-based and partly funded by their employers.

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e-Learning EDUCATION

Dearing (1977) asked the higher education establishment to provide a more flexible and
open learning to a wider range and diversity of students, which includes lifelong learning.
The use of IC&T and in particular the World Wide Web is now being recognised to play an
important role in this aim. Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) include built-in features
that aim to provide higher education users with the opportunity and benefits of teaching
and supports access and flexibility they require while enhancing interactive educational
environments over the web. This feature was seen to be suitable for this research project.
The intention to improve the style and delivery of education as set by Dearing, (1997) has
lead to change in University of Manchester. Rogers (1969) suggested that the shift of the
spotlight from teacher to individual learners. He also advocates delineation of
accountability so that teacher and learner become jointly responsible for a positive
outcome.

In the Construction and Civil Engineering discipline, there exist some evidence of
mismatch between learning style and teaching style. Ford (1985) said that if learning
progress is to be made then the questions of relating such styles with teaching styles
must be resolved. Whereas, Felder (1993) suggested that mismatches, between the
prevailing teaching styles in may science courses and the learning style of the students,
have serious consequences. The good thing about distance learning is that students need
not have to attend classes at a particular time or place. Student also need not follow
subject according to lecturer’s choice or pace.

To encourage interaction, discussion and revision amongst the part-time student, a social
event is planned. To help the part-time student, a self–assessment exercise is given to
them. The purpose of this is to let the student assess themselves during the course of
studies. Networking is another feature of the part-time programme to help them interact
between their peer as well as those from another company who are doing the same
course. The uses of email, chat room and board are some examples of media to assist
them.
Newby (2000) described alternative means of postgraduate studies over the Internet,
which could possibly be sponsored by the student’s employer. He also suggested that
most of the redundant subjects be removed to from the curricula so that the postgraduate
programme would suit directly during the student’s lifetime career.

THE E-LEARNING PROGRAMME in MACE

MACE caters for five full-time courses and four part-time distance-learning programmes.
It has been necessary to narrow down the scope of the research. Three programmes were
chosen for the pilot test.

The main objective of this e-Learning unit is to design a web-based module using the
Virtual Learning Environment used in University of Manchester – WebCT by focusing on a
particular Unit selected by the programme director which takes up only 10 hours of the
student’s time.

Using WebCT
Essaka (2001) said that there are over 100 packages available in the markets that have
been developed by universities or commercial companies and she argued that WebCT was
found to be suitable for use in University of Manchester. There would only be small
differences in distinguishing one product to another. It would then be far better to rely on
a side-by-side comparative study of features (www.edutools.info) in making a selection.
It would be wise to look at all the features of the entire product before engaging in
compatibility exercise to those of the trainers needs.

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The emphasis of the work was on the method of delivery of the distance learning courses
to produce solutions to enhance the effectiveness of the postgraduate course. Distance
learning courses had been produced with little attempt to assess the success of these
programmes or to seek students’ views on the effectiveness of the distance learning
programmes. A study of their effectiveness would have provided an opportunity to
develop and improve them for successive years. According to Essaka (2003) the use of
WebCT was useful to enable: Monitoring of students, restrict and control access to the
environment, track users and participation, and request other course statistics.
Facilitating communication and collaboration between and among tutors and students,
including threaded conferences, calendar, email, chat and whiteboards. Production of
web pages are import digital course material such as web pages and PDF files.

Evaluation of students learning (assignments and tests) and the learning process in
general. The students can manage their own learning in their own time and at their own
pace and interact with one another through chats and group discussions. WebCT also
allow the students to contact their tutors view the content of the course and take quizzes
and self-assessment questions as part of their own personal assessment.

Development of the WebCT unit

WebCT allowed files such as Adobe Acrobat and document files such as Microsoft Word to
be incorporated in the web page. WebCT pages were created using HTML and plain text
copied and paste from current module files.

The use of web editor allows text, HTML, graphics and hyperlinks to be organized into
table of content within the WebCT type structure. Individual web pages can also be
created using other software and uploaded into WebCT environment. Because WebCT is a
password-protected web-based system it allows control to accessibility, privacy and
personal assessment.

Assessment of the WebCT unit

The on-line unit will be assessed on a formative and summative method based on the
objectives listed in Objective (a), (b) and (d) will be done in a formative manner, as it will
be an ongoing process whereas the rest of the other objectives will be assessed on a
summative method. These will be carried out in the following approach:

Online tests

Self Assessment Question (SAQ)

Email – tutorial

Coursework

Assignment and

Include submission date.

Exam questions could be given through live session–synchronous and students could
attend any collaborated libraries (either public or university owned) to take them.
Assessment will be e-mailed (important to make sure the date and time on the computers
used are accurate as the email sent will have proof of date and time).

There will be external constraints such as the time is limited and given to each of the unit
task. The participants will not have a problem regarding the accessibility to the module
and unit.

The resources to help participant are in the form of on-line lecture notes, and links to
other helpful web sites. The entire task will be posted via email. Group work could be part
of the assessment, as the tutor would know the extent of work (through discussion
forum/chat session) any member of the group has done.

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EVALUATION of THE UNIT

An appropriate source of information for this research will be from students, staff as well
as relevant documents and the methods of collecting evidence. A variety of methods will
be used so that findings from one source could substantiate others.

One characteristic of evaluation methodologies is the types and range of data that are
collected. Subjective information such as attitudes and perception are best-collected
using questionnaires and interviews. The performance of students, which is affected by
the change of style of learning, could be recorded by video logs and from their test
results. To have more concrete evidence a survey was carried out between the students
and staff on MACE. The data obtained from the survey allowed comparisons to be made
between these different forms of delivery. One set of questionnaire ask how well the
student did the unit using the paper based mode and the other set ask how ell the student
performed with the WebCT version.

Gathering of Data
The time intensity in data gathering will depend on which methodology was adopted. The
analysis between open-ended questions such as those in interview could give another
problem during analysing process. Close-ended questions used in questionnaire on the
contrary, will ease analysis even if there is a few open-ended questions in it. It is
important to collect as much information as appropriate as long as it does not exceed the
resource available. The methodology to be adapted will be chosen for the suitability of
data collection, and how these data can be analysed. In the selection of a methodology
each style represents a different approach to evaluation.

The fact that there are so many approaches in common use simply means that there is no
single method, which is the best. The one method might be suitable for a certain task
while the same is not for another task. It is important to be clear in what the question
would want. With a clear question in mind, it is possible to start to work out which
methodology is suitable. A good starting point is to decide how descriptive the study
needs to be.

A ‘what’ question is highly exploratory in it the evaluator has little knowledge about the
factors which will influence learning. These need to be discovered in the course of the
study.

In the ‘which’ question, the factors have already been discovered and offers less
investigation but a mere decision. Open qualitative methodologies such as interviews,
observations and concepts (mind) maps tend to be best at explorative studies whilst
checklists and experiments require framework for questions to be fixed in advance (Oliver
and Conole, 1998).

The number of people who will be involved in the study will have an impact on the
approach will be chosen. In general, the methodologies that a research best suited to
large groups will limit the amount of qualitative data to be gathered. Just as it is
important to be clear what sort of question need to be asked, it is also pertinent to be
clear what will be counted as evidence. During the design of questions, students’
performance, attitudes and their perceptions were asked. These criterions are separated
into sections.

Limitations
The research findings need not satisfy all the needs but it would at least try to explain
what the research have encountered and discovered within the evaluation. The limitation
of time and research funding has limits the scope of the research but nevertheless, it has
achieved its goal within the specific scope and timeframe. Some of the questions, which
need to be answered, are:

104

What type of information is most important to meet the goals and
objectives?

What information will help to convince key groups of the value of the
research work? What area of the research, should be examined more
closely?

Performing an evaluation will provide a good opportunity to stand back and appraise it. A
well structured and design question, which covers the broad area, will draw all of these
concerns and provide an overall picture.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The survey concerning the paper-based mode and the WebCT modules established which
of the two was favoured most. There were three sections in the survey. The first section
was concerned with students’ satisfaction. The second section was to established skills
that were developed and the third was a measurement of opinions after completing each
modes.

There was a clear agreement between both staff views and students’ views regarding the
effectiveness of using WebCT within the MACE projects as well as the other two WebCT
programmes run in University of Manchester. These results (although not all) had been
substantiated with a significant level of p value = 0.05 using the t-test.

The findings above not only give some predictions on what can be expected in the near
future with regards to on-line learning, but it also tell us whether the students are ready
to accept eLearning as an alternative to the paper-based mode.

Overall, WebCT had performed well than expected based on the students’ satisfaction.
Performing triangulation between the three different cohorts, question such as ‘Learning
at own pace’ showed positive response throughout all three programmes surveyed. This
validate that WebCT was effective to make the students learn at their own (Essaka, 2003,
French 1999).

The survey also showed that the students and staff were keen in using the email facilities
as a means of communication. This was validated when similar questions was posed in
Section B of the questionnaires which also points to same response.

Most of the findings in this research were to do with skills development. Three cohorts in
MACE showed positive responses towards almost all the skills asked of in the
questionnaire. These are the components which employers are seeking according to
CORTCO and these are the skills that are being developed by the students during the
WebCT learning.

Generally, the findings in this research agree with the findings of other investigators
reported in the literature. For example the definition from Rowntree (1981) suggested
that learning is a change in knowledge, attitude and skills as a result of experience. This
is generally confirmed by the findings of the above results that claimed the students
favoured WebCT more effective than the paper-based mode. These skills are ‘sharing the
knowledge and experience’, ‘ability to select pertinent data’ and ‘the development of
reading and writing skills’.

The students recognised that WebCT could help them practise inter-personal skills and
this is shown by their responses to the surveys conducted not only within MACE but in
other discipline as well. The inclusion of two other disciplines was to establish a
correlation and also act as a triangulation towards the survey.

105
The agreement of some of the aspects found would validate the survey. The responses
from the students also indicated that the students perceived WebCT projects to be more
effective in developing personal skills. This is in agreement with the findings of Rockler
(1989) that traditional modes of teaching limit the development of these skills.

The last section of the survey found that there was a significant attitude from the
students towards WebCT. The pattern indicates that students were found to have more
time to discuss with their college via email.

This also shows that the students are better in front of the computer as recommended by
Dearing and the white paper.

One important finding shared by all projects was that experience in administering the
WebCT gave some reflection towards the effect of the responses of the students. This can
be seen in the case of one of the project where the students did not give a positive
response towards the WebCT almost in all questions surveyed as the students were the
first ones encountered problem login to the WebCT system.

Another finding was that the WebCT frameworks made the students access the WebCT
with ease once they had login the WebCT.

To conclude, WebCT provide not only the opportunity to learn in students’ time and pace
but also helps students to develop personal skills. Furthermore staff has also agreed that
they would actual spend lesser time managing the students and more time structuring for
a new WebCT unit.

BIODATA and ADDRESSES of AUTHORS

Rosman AHMAD is an Associate Professor in Building Construction

and Education in UiTM. He serves the Shah Alam campus as well as
the Perak branch. He has been working with ITM and UiTM for the
past 14 years. He is currently pursuing his PhD in Building Education
at the University of Manchester. He holds a BSc Building (distinction)
in 1989 and won a grant from the Department of Trade and Industry
(DTI) UK which enables him to lecture as well as research in University of Glamorgan
Wales for two years in 1990. He obtained an MPhil degree from the same university in
1991.

Rosman AHMAD
School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering (MACE)
Room G 16, Pariser Building
University of Manchester, PO Box 88, Manchester,
M60 1QD, UNITED KINGDOM
Telephone +44 (0)161 306 4645
Fax +44 (0)161 306 4252
Emaisl: [email protected]

Rodger EDWARDS
School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering (MACE)
Room G 16, Pariser Building
University of Manchester, PO Box 88, Manchester,
M60 1QD, UNITED KINGDOM
Telephone +44 (0)161 306 4250
Fax +44 (0)161 306 4252
Email: [email protected]

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Rodger EDWARDS obtained a BSc (Honours), in Metallurgy and Materials Technology,
University of Manchester in 1979, an MSc by Research in Metallurgy, UMIST in 1980 and
PhD in Metallurgy, UMIST, 1986. He is a member of the International Society of
Pharmaceutical Engineers, September 1993. He is also a member of the Chartered
Institution of Building Services Engineers, November 1996 and a Chartered Engineer from
April 1997. He is currently a Senior Lecturer in the School of Mechanical, Aerospace and
Civil Engineering, University of Manchester.

Bland TOMKINSON is the University Advisor for Pedagogic Development.

He obtained BSc (Manchester) 1969 Honours in Management Sciences
(Behavioural Sciences and Operational Research).

BA (Open) 1976 Credits in Technology Foundation, Systems

Management, Public Administration, Urban Development MEd (Sheffield)
1997 Distinction in both taught element and dissertation.

His responsibilities include:

Collaborating with the Teaching and Learning Support Unit at the Victoria
University of Manchester in a joint innovation programme;

Co-ordinating bids to attract external funds for research and development in the
area of teaching and learning;

Assisting the Educational Standards Committee with the development and
implementation of quality assurance procedures;

Working with departments to assure academic quality;

Management of the Teaching and Learning Support Centre;

Managing a Teaching Development Fund;

Assisting the Academic Studies Committee with the monitoring, maintaining and
developing the UMIST Teaching and Learning Strategy;

Assisting the Deans and ASC with policy development in areas relating to teaching
and learning;

Promoting the dissemination of best practice in teaching and learning across UMIST

Promotion of ILT membership;

With other key players, initiating and developing quality enhancement activities
including educational development, curriculum development and academic staff
development

Honorary Lecturer on the Academic Practice Programme.

Brand TOMKINSON
University Advisor for Pedagogic Development
The University of Manchester, P.O. Box 88,
Manchester M60 1QD, PO Box 88, Manchester,
M60 1QD, UNITED KINGDOM
Email: Bland.Tomkinson@University of Manchester.ac.uk

REFERENCES

Aggarwal, A. (2000) Web Based Learning and Teaching Technologies: Opportunities and
Challenges, Idea Group Publishing.

Bloom, B. S. (ed.) (1956) Taxonomy of Education Objectives, Vol. I, Cognitive Domain,

New York: McKay.

Dearing R. (1997) National Committee of Inquiry into Higher education (Dearing Report).
Higher education in the Learning Society, Report of the National Committee, Norwich:
HMSO.

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Dunlap, J. (1997) Preparing Students for lifelong Learning: A Review of Instructional
Methodologies.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the AECT, Albuquerque, NM.

Essaka (2001) Choosing an appropriate Virtual learning Environment (VLE) for University
of Manchester, Information System Department, University of Manchester.

Essaka (2003) A practical Guide to using WebCT at University of Manchester, E-Learning

Section Information Systems Department, University of Manchester, 21 May 2003.

Felder, R. (1993) Reaching the second Tier, Learning and Teaching Styles in College
Science Education, Journal College Science Teaching, Vol. 23 (5) pp. 286-290.

Ford, N. (1985) “Learning Styles and Strategies of Postgraduate Students.” British Journal
of Educational Technology 16(1): pp. 65-79.

French, D., Hale, C. et. al (ed) (1999) Internet (based) Learning, An Introduction and
Framework for Higher Education and Business, Kogan Page.

Inglis A., (2001) Selecting an integrated electronic learning environment in Innovation in

Open and Distance Learning, Successful Development of online and Web-based Learning,
Kogan Page.

Manwaring, G. (1988) Directing your Evaluation, Learning Technology Dissemination

Initiative, Institute for Computer Based Learning, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh. U.K.

Newby, H. (2000) The impact of globalisation and new technologies on higher education.
Higher Education Futures, Design Council, pp. 41-43.

Oliver M., Conole G., (1988) Selecting a Methodology, Learning Technology Dissemination
Initiative, Institute for Computer Based Learning, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh. U.K.

Rogers, C. R. (1969) Freedom to Learn: A View of What Education might Become,

Columbus OH: Merrill.

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 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2 Article: 10

Introduction to Complexation and Masking

Within a Computer-Enriched Module for Analytical Chemistry
Inci MORGIL

Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education

Department of Chemistry Education Ankara-TURKEY

John H. PENN
West Virginia University
Department of Chemistry, USA

Nilgun SECKEN

Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education

Department of Chemistry Education Ankara-TURKEY

Ozge Ozyalcin OSKAY

Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education

Department of Chemistry Education Ankara-TURKEY

ABSTRACT

A web-based course was developed in order to improve pre-service teachers’ knowledge

concerning complexation and masking in analytical chemistry. This course was designed
to enhance students’ achievement by promoting individual and student-centered learning
through the use of a series of web-based modules in the subject area. A chemistry
achievement test of 10 questions was developed and administered as a pre-test to assess
student knowledge in the general area of complexation and masking. Eighty-four
students were randomly divided into two groups. One group, referred to hereafter as the
experimental group, learned about the specified material within the Web-based course
that was developed for this study. The control group was traditionally taught using a
lecture format. The increase in the achievement of the control and experimental groups
was then assessed through the administration of the chemistry achievement test of 10
questions which was used as a post-test. Significant differences in group achievement
scores, favoring the experimental group, were observed between the post-test
achievement averages of the control group and the treatment group.

Keywords: Web-based modules, complexation and masking, student achievement,

chemistry achievement test, pre-tests, post-tests, and control-experiment
group design.

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, there has been an increase in computer applications for teaching
chemistry. The use of Web-based materials by students in chemical education has been
increasing rapidly [1]. In organic chemistry education, a modular approach has been used
together with self-testing in a system termed the Web-based Enhanced Learning and
Resource Network [i.e., the “WE_LEARN” system] [2]. The use of WebCT has led to an
increase in students’ learning within first-year chemistry courses in chemistry education
[3]. Brooks developed a software system related to Web-based classes that aims to
evaluate homework and examinations automatically [4]. Robinson investigated the
possible effects of using computer simulations on Scientific Discovery Learning [5]. The

109
workload of educators could decrease if the above-mentioned applications were included
in the chemistry curriculum [6]. LUCID, which was developed for the “Introduction to
Chemistry” and “General Chemistry” classes for two semesters, is a program that
promotes cooperative learning [7]. All of the above-mentioned applications have been
postulated to offer more positive influences on students’ learning than the traditional
teaching methods. Interactive multimedia packages are beginning to take their place in
the chemical education community.

The Internet accessibility of these multimedia packages makes them accessible to a wider
community, as opposed to the limited and constant teaching tools available only in
textbooks. Among the other advantages of these packages, students could access these
materials easily in libraries or their homes from anywhere in the world and learn about
scientific changes and developments simultaneously [8]. In a study by Carpi, a website
was built that consisted of explanations of scientific concepts, explanatory animations
and related links for science classes in a high school. Most of the modules included
interactive activities where the students could learn by doing. Each module contained
connections to the other links. In this study, the website of the lesson and the details of
its pedagogical design were explained, followed by a comparison of the exam results
before and after the site was constructed [9]. Daniel and Saat in Malaysia developed a
web-based modular approach where the resources were acquired through the Internet.
An exam consisting of three parts was administered to the students and they were asked
to search through the website on the current subject [10]. Windelspecht designed a
technology-based lesson consisting of modules in his study on the integration of
technology into education [11].

Godrick and Hartman created a joint laboratory class for the departments of biology and
chemistry at Boston University. The subjects of the laboratory were distributed into
modules called resources of energy for life, indication of ascorbic acid, reaction dynamics,
indication of macromolecules and manipulation [12]. All of these computer-based
methods contrast strongly with traditional teaching methods. In traditional teaching
methodology, a lecturer presents a lesson through an oral presentation. This method is
specific with “interpretative”, “informative” and “illustrative” characteristics.

The advantages of this method include the fact that it is useful for the presentation of the
beginning of a lesson and for transferring knowledge to large groups. To date, a single
lecturer has been easier and more economical, accounting for the usage of traditional
methods from the very beginning of one’s chemistry education and then throughout one’s
entire chemistry career. However, teachers need to know the characteristics of the
method clearly to obtain maximum effectiveness. Long and boring presentations can
cause incomplete communication, where the students enter a passive learning mode in
which they do not ask questions [13].

The major purpose of the current study was to evaluate the level of knowledge
that college students might gain as a result of learning by a module prepared by
the author at Hacettepe University. The subjects of the modules were
“complexation and masking” and were applied by way of an Internet-based
computer-assisted method. This study also aimed to make the study of
“complexation and masking” to be fun and interesting for students, eliminate the
monotony caused by traditional teaching methods, save time by spreading the
usage of computer-based learning modules that have been developed elsewhere,
and enable teaching to go beyond the boundaries of the school building by using
the Internet.

We report here our results concerning our efforts to test the level of knowledge gained by
a group of students using Web-based modules as compared to the level of knowledge
gained using traditional teaching methods. The level of knowledge gained was measured
using standard pre- and post-test methodology, as described below. In this study, the

110
web-based modules were found to be a more effective teaching device than were
traditional teaching methods.

EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY

Participants and Division into Groups

This study was carried out with the involvement of 84 3rd-year university students (54
females and 30 males), who were attending the Internet Class of Chemistry Education at
Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education, Department of Chemistry Education and who
were attending courses in Chemistry Education and Chemistry Education Seminar
Lessons. All of the students have previously taken and passed the course “Introduction to
General Chemistry”. These students were randomly divided into an experiment group and
a control group of 42 students each.

Pre- and Post-Testing

The data to be evaluated were gathered by applying a pre- and a post-test concerning the
material to be learned in these modules. We have defined this test as a "Chemistry
Achievement Test (CAT)". The test consisted of 10 open-ended questions, which are listed
in Appendix I. These questions were based on concepts in the subject area of
"complexation and masking", which is the same area as the web-based modules that
were used in this study. The inner validity of the Chemistry Achievement Test was
achieved by consulting with outside experts in the field of knowledge. Both the
experimental group and the control group took the CAT as a pre-test prior to any
instruction on the subject matter.

Subject Matter That Was Taught

Table: 1
Content of the web-based modules teaching “complexation and masking”

Concepts Taught Demonstration Experiment

1. Eliminating water hardness with - (a) Determination of water hardness with
complex formation EDTA
(see Fig.I)
2. Determination reactions based on -(b) Determination of Aluminum with
complex formation Alizarin S (see FigII)
- (c) Masking of Sn (IV) solution with
oxalat ion [see FigIII]
- (d) Determination of nitrate. (see FigIV)
- (e)Determination of Ammoniac with
Nessler Reactive (see FigV)
- (f) Formation of Potassium 18-crown-6-
3. Separation reactions based on complex ether complexes (see FigVI)
formation - (g) Separation of Nickel and Cobalt (see
FigVII)
- (h) Separation of Copper and Cadmium
(see FigVIII)
- (i)Determination of Copper [II] ion (see
4. Crystallization and color change FigIX)
reactions based on complex formation - (j) Micro determination of Silver [II] ion
(see FigX)
. -(k) Masking of Al3+ salts with Fluoride
5. Masking reactions based on complex (see Fig.XI)
formation -(l) Masking of Sn[IV] solution with
Oxalate (see Fig.XII)

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Whether using the conventional methods or the web-based modules, the same basic
concepts were presented to the students. A rough outline of the concepts, and how these
concepts were explained is shown in Table: 1.

It is known that, in analytical chemistry, some metal cations form coordination

compounds with atoms, molecules or ions that are called ligands and have unpaired
electron pairs. These compounds are complex and have an important part in analytical
chemistry. In the determination of cations and anions together and in quantitative
determination, the complex formation of these compounds are used. In complexometric
titrations, EDTA is used because of its being multidentate. But Ph affects the stability and
formation of a complex agent. In these applications, a complexation agent is used as a
masking agent. Masking is based on the stable complex formation of cation or anion in
the mixture with masking agent.

In the module, it was aimed to teach the basic concepts such as eliminating water
hardness with complex formation, determination reactions based on complex formation,
separation reactions based on complex formation, crystallization and color change
reactions based on complex formation, masking reactions based on a complex formation.
Above these, in the first topic taught was about the masking of ions by using complex
formation between anions and cations. By using the masking of ions, analytical
determination and qualitative determination of ions can be made. With this aim, in the
module that we prepared, the complex formation of cyanide ions with metal cations,
masking of TinIV ions with oxalate and masking of aluminum salts with florid were
chosen. The second subtitle in the module was the explanation of determination reactions
based on complex formation to the students. As an example, Determination of Ammoniac
with Nessler Reactive was chosen. In the applications, Ligands that form complexes and
multidentate ligands such as EDTA were used.

Application of Traditional Methods Instructional Methodology

The control group was taught about the subject of “complexation and masking” by
traditional methods of instruction. The content of the subject matter is exactly the same
as is taught by the web-based modules. However, the chemical equations were discussed
using a blackboard as the medium. The only educational materials were the textbook,
blackboard.

Web-Based Modules Instructional Methodology

Web-based modules were used as the primary teaching method. These modules have
been published on the Internet as a portion of Creative Chemistry on the Internet [CCI,
http://www.cci.ethz.ch/], and were prepared by the Chemistry Contact Network [CCN,
http://www.ccn.ethz.ch/], which is a project of Prof. Nesper at the department of
Inorganic Chemistry of the ETH Zurich. Experiments about the subjects of “Complexation
and Masking” within the CCI on the ETH website can be watched by using Real Player
[14, 15]. During the display of experiments, instructions are shown on the screen. In
addition to this, students watched detailed information about the experiments and the
reactions at the time of the viewing the module. For each of the experiments, students of
the experimental group were provided with color pictures, graphics, diagrams, tables,
animations and short educational films in order to enable them to see and learn about the
chemicals that were in the module, results of the experiments, obligatory safety
measures, and color changes.

We emphasize that all of these materials, especially, the color pictures, animations and
short films, were presented via Internet methodologies that the students could use and
reuse at their own pace. Significant data related to each experiment and reactions were
presented to the students in subtitles. While working on the modules that involve
experiments such as the precipitation of alkaline earth salts, pH-dependant precipitation
of phosphates, precipitation and dissolution of sulfides from the H2S group, and
precipitation and dissolution of silver [Ag+] and Pb[II] salts, students were given the
opportunity to view images related to experiments through step-by-step film slides on a

112
full screen. Examples of these materials are given in Appendix 2. By presenting important
theoretical information and the chemical reactions just below the images, the correlation
between the practical and the theoretical aspects of the subjects is easily illustrated. In
order to minimize defective and false learning of students during the use of computer-
assisted learning modules, students were allowed the opportunity to repeat experiments.
More details of these modules are given in Appendix 2

FINDINGS

The Chemistry Achievement Test (CAT) was administered as a post-test one week after
each group began their study methodology. The students were notified one day in
advance that the CAT post-test exam was to be given.

The results of these post-test evaluations are shown in Table: 2. When analyzing this
data, it is immediately obvious that the group that used Internet-assisted learning
modules showed a significantly higher average on the post-test compared to the control
group, which was taught using the traditional methodology.

Table: 2
Statistical evaluation of the results obtained by the different study methodologies

Pre-Test Post-Test

N x x s t p
Experimental
42 18.76 83.76
Group 14.119 -6.262 0.000
Control Group 42 20.50 70.11
N: Number of students
x: average
s: Standard deviation
t: t-Test coefficient
p: significance

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The effects of web-based learning modules on the achievement and learning levels of
students were examined in this study on the subjects of complexation and masking. After
the students were distributed into control and experiment groups, the students in the
control group were taught the subject of complexation and masking together with basic
concepts and important features using the traditional methods of lecture and blackboard
with an emphasis on related reactions. No student-centered teaching methodologies or
technologies were used within this group. In contrast, students in the experiment group
were provided learning modules that were prepared on the general subjects of
complexation and masking as they are generally taught within the area of general
chemistry.

These modules consisted of the basic concepts and Internet links to demonstration
experiments in order to facilitate the understanding of the subject matter. The students
were provided with photos relating to the subject matter, short movies, tables, graphics
and animations of experiments, essential concepts, color changes and reactions. The
possible misconceptions and misunderstandings were overcome through providing
replays when necessary. The modules, with their Internet links, enabled not only the
students to learn at their own pace, but also allowed for the educational processes to be
extended beyond the physical boundaries of the school environment. A significant
difference in the performance on the achievement test, favoring the experiment group,
was observed when the post-test results were evaluated. The students with high levels of
comprehension and memorization skills in both control and treatment groups were

113
successful in the pre-test. The traditional method used in the teaching of the control
group was less effective in the achievement levels when compared to that of the
treatment group. The students of the experimental group, who were taught using the
computer-assisted learning modules, or, in other words, who learned by seeing and
experiencing the subject matter, had more positive attitudes towards chemistry [16].
Freeing the students from the monotonous traditional teaching methods and making the
chemistry classes more interesting and enjoyable positively affect academic achievement.
The data acquired by the evaluation of the post-test were also the indicators of this issue.
Similar studies have also shown that web-based materials acquired via the Internet were
effective in increasing the achievement levels in chemistry education [16, 17].

In summary, the application of computer-assisted learning modules in chemistry

education was found to have a positive effect on the students’ achievement and learning
levels.

BIODATA and CONTACT ADDRESSES of AUTHORS

Prof. Dr. Inci Morgil

She was born in Istanbul at 18.09.1942 and graduated Faculty of
Pharmacy from Istanbul University.

Become Assoc. Pro. at 1976 , and become professor at 1982. She is a

chair of Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Education, at Hacettepe
Universiy, since 1987.

Prof. Dr. Inci MORGIL

Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education,
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Education,
06800 Beytepe/Ankara, Turkey
Tel: 0 312 297 86 18 Fax: 0 312 230 58 63
Email: [email protected]

Assist. Prof. Dr. Nilgün Seçken

She was born in Ankara at 17.01.1965 and graduated Department of
Chemistry, Faculty of Education, at Hacettepe Universiy at 1987.

She is working at the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Education,

at Hacettepe Universiy, since 1987.

Assist. Prof. Dr. Aysem Seda Yücel

She was born in Ankara at 12.09.1969 and graduated Department of

Chemistry, Faculty of Education, at Hacettepe Universiy at 1991.

She is working at the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Education, at

Hacettepe Universiy, since 1994.

114
 Res. Asst. Ozge Ozyalçın Oskay
She was born in Ankara at 01.06.1977 and graduated Department of
Chemistry, Faculty of Education, at Hacettepe Universiy at 2001.

She is working at the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Education, at

Hacettepe Universiy, since 2002 as research asistant.

Res. Asst. Soner Yavuz

He was born in Kdz. Eregli, Zonguldak at 29.04.1977 and graduated

Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Education, at Hacettepe Universiy
at 2000.
He is working at the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Education, at
Hacettepe Universiy, since 2001 as research asistant.

Res. Asst. Evrim Ural

She was born in Bursa at 20.06.1980 and graduated Department of
Chemistry, Faculty of Education, at Hacettepe Universiy at 2004.

She is working at the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Education, at

Hacettepe Universiy, since 2005 as research asistant.

Dr. Penn has a long history of being dedicated to serving the

profession of chemistry and the community in which he lives. This
tradition began with his time in graduate school, where he
simultaneously earned his Ph.D. at the University of Wisconsin-
Madison and was heavily involved in both the service side a nd the
administrative side of Briarpatch, an organization dedicated to
assisting troubled teenagers. Currently, in addition to his normal
service load to the profession of chemistry, as exemplified by his
membership on the Committee on Computers in Chemical Education,

Dr. Penn serves as the Exalted Ruler of the Morgantown Lodge 411 of the Benevolent and
Protective Order of Elks, a non-profit charitable organization dedicated to serving the
needs of the community and our country. Other services activities can be viewed by
following the links on this page

John H. PENN
West Virginia University,
Department of Chemistry,
Morgantown,
WV 26506-6045 USA,
Email: [email protected]

115
FOOTNOTES

1. Donovan, W.J., Nakhleh, M.B., 2001, Students’ Use of Web-Based Tutorial Materials
and Their Understanding of Chemistry Concepts, Journal of Chemical Education, v78,
n7, 975-980.

2. Penn, J.H., Nedeff, V.M., Gozdzik, G., 2000, Organic Chemistry and the Internet: A
Web-based Approach to Homework and Testing Using the WE-LEARN System, Journal
of Chemical Education , v77, n2, 227-231.

3. Charlesworth, P., Vician, C., 2003,Leveraging Technology for Chemical Sciences

Education: An Early Assessment of WebCT Usage in First-Year Chemistry Courses,
Journal of Chemical Education , v80, n11, 1333-1337.

4. Brooks, D.W, Brooks, H.B., Abuloum, A., Crippen, K.J., Markwell, J. A., 2003. System
for Delivering Web-based Courses Emphasizing Automatic Assessment, Using
Computer in Chemical Education,
http://www.eclipse.net/~pankuch/Newsletter/Pages_NewsF03/ F2003_News.html

5. Robinson, W., 2000, A View of the Science Education Research Literature: Scientific
Discovery Learning with Computer Simulations, Journal of Chemical Education, v77,
n1, 17-18.

6. Drew, S.M., 1996, Integration of National Instruments’ LabVIEW Software into the
Chemistry Curriculum, Journal of Chemical Education, v73, n12, 1107-1111.

7. Wolfskill, T., Hanson, D., 2001, LUCID: A New Model for Computer-Assisted Learning,
Journal of Chemical Education, Vol. 78, n10, 1417-1424.

8. Olsen, F., 2000, Looks at how the web can improve classroom instruction, Chronicle of
Higher Education, Apr. 7, pA47.

9. Carpi, A., 2001, Improvements in Undergraduate Science Education Using Web-Based

Instructional Modules: The Natural Science Pages, Journal of Chemical Education, v78,
n12, 1709-1712.

10. Daniel, E.G.S., Saat, R.M., 2001, Elemental Education, Science Teacher, v68, n9, 50-53.

11. Windelspecht, M., 2001,Technology in the Freshman Biology Classroom: Breaking the
Dual Learning Curve, The American Biology Teacher, v63, n2, 96-101.

12. Godrick, E., Hartman, S., 1999-2000, Integrating Introductory Biology and General
Chemistry Laboratories, Journal of College Science Teaching, v29, n3, 184-186.

13. Ozcan, F., 2000, Problems of chemistry teaching in high schools according to student
and teacher perceptions and the problems in the laboratory and suggestions,
Hacettepe University, Science Institute, Master Thesis, [Supervisor: Dr. Inci Morgil].

14. CCI-Project [Creative Chemistry on the Web]/ETH [Eidgenossische Technische

Hochschule Zurich] [http://www.cci.ethz.ch]

15. CCN [Chemistry Contact Network] http://www.ccn.ethz.ch]

16. Morgil, İ., Arda, S., Seçken, N., Yavuz, S., Özyalçın Oskay, Ö., 2004a,The Influences of
the Computer-Assisted Education on the Environmental Knowledge and Environmental
Awareness, CERP, vol.5, no.2, 99-110

116
17. Morgil, İ., Erokten, S., Yavuz, S., Ozyalçın Oskay, o., , 2004b, Computerized
Applications on Complexation in Chemical Education, TOJET, October, vol.3, Issue 4,
Article 1

APPENDIX: 1
THE CHEMISTRY ACHIEVEMENT TEST [CAT]

The Chemistry Achievement Test consists of the following open-ended questions.

1. There are how many parts of EDTA that can form complexes?
2. Masking reagents can also make complexes. What is the reason of using
masking reagents?
3. How can you identify Cd and Ca ions with EDTA?
4. What is a ligand?
5. What is the complexation ratio of EDTA with Fe +3, Ni+2, Cr+3, Na+ ions?
6. What is a coordination number?
7. Identification of hardness of water can be made with EDTA. What is the
reason behind hardness of water?
8. Ammonium is a weak base. Which substances can be used for its
complexometric identification?
9. Which qualifications should a compound have in order to be in a complex
structure?
10. Is PH important for complexometric identifications? If your answer is yes.
Explain its reason.

APPENDIX: 2
OVERVIEW OF THE WEB-BASED MATERIALS

Ca2+ + Na2H2Y  CaY2- + 2 H+ + 2 Na+

Na2H2Y = Na2[EDTA]

Figure: I
Determination of Water Hardness With EDTA

117
 Alizarin S
(yellow)

Aluminum Alizarin S (Acid Form)

form (yellow)

Aluminum
colorful (red)

Figure: II
Determination of Aluminum With Alizarin S

No react.

Figure: III
Masking of Sn [IV] solution With Oxalat Ion

118
 6 FeSO4 + 2 HNO3 + 3 H2SO4 
3 Fe2[SO4]3 + 2 NO + 4 H2O

[Fe[H2O]6]SO4 + NO 
[Fe[H2O]5NO]SO4 + H2O

Figure: IV
Determination of Nitrate

Orangebrown

Figure: V
Determination of Ammoniac With Nessler Reactive

119
 18 crone 6

Figure: VI
Formation of Pottasium 18-Crone-6-Ether Complex

Dark blue
Light Liquid Dark blue
red phase Organic
Liquid phase
phase

Figure: VII
Separation of Nickel and Cobalt

120
 Yellow
Blue

No Farb

Figure: VIII
Separation of Copper and Cadmium

Figure: IX
Micro Determination of Copper [II] Ion

121
 White Crystals

Blue Crystals

Figure: X
Micro Determination of Silver [II] Ion

Figure: XI
Masking of Al3+ Salts With Florid

122
 No react

Figure: XII
Masking of Sn[IV] Solution With Oxalat

123
 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2 Article: 11

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENDER AND STUDENTS’

ATTITUDE AND EXPERIENCE of USING A MATHEMATICAL
SOFTWARE PROGRAM (MATLAB)

PhD Candidate Mehmet A. OCAK

Department of Educational Theory and Practice
State University of New York
Albany, USA
ABSTRACT

This correlation study examined the relationship between gender and the students’
attitude and prior knowledge of using one of the mathematical software programs
(MATLAB). Participants were selected from one community college, one state university
and one private college. Students were volunteers from three Calculus I classrooms (one
class from each school) in which MATLAB was used extensively. A survey regarding
students’ attitude and experience on using the MATLAB program was administered to
classes. The findings of the study indicated that gender differences are not related to
students’ attitude and experience on the program.

The results revealed slightly positive correlation between and students’ attitude and
experience on the program. The implications of this study shows that teachers who use
MATLAB in their instruction and classroom practices must pay attention on how much
students use it, the obstacles students had to overcome to succeed in its use, and their
general issues and concerns regarding MATLAB use.

Keywords: MATLAB, gender, attitude, prior experience.

INTRODUCTION

Research has shown that many mathematics teachers, today, began to integrate high-
level mathematical software programs such as MATLAB into their curriculum and classes.
The use of such programs showed that they include both a computer algebra system and
the ability to provide visualization (Schlatter, 1999). Such flexibility provided more
opportunities and different ways to approach to mathematical topics. On the other hand,
however, some researchers (e.g., Hennessy et al., 2001) argued that over-reliance on
such programs can be a problem for the students. Computer-aided software programs can
be used mechanically, and student’ understanding might prove superficial in even simple
mathematical domains. In addition to this disadvantages, there is little research on how
gender, student’ attitude, and experience regarding the use of such programs effect
achievement and performance in mathematic classes.

Thus, it is becoming important for educators and teachers to know students’ perceptions
and ability to use the program, if they want students to be more successful in
mathematical classes. The purpose of the study is to investigate the relationships
between gender differences and students’ attitude and experience on MATLAB software
program.

LITERATURE REVIEW

With increasing use of computer technology in schools, many mathematical software

programs began to appear in the classrooms and people favored to use them for the
students. Studies focused on students’ attitudes towards computer-aided programs
report very positive effects. For example, Ponidi & Alhadi (1999) argued that computer-

124
aided software programs are useful in solving, comparing, and visualizing the solutions.
They argued that MATLAB was the most effective program in this matter and found that
students received more academic atmosphere in mathematical software programs. In
addition, Schlatter (1999) developed, by using MATLAB, some graphical user interfaces
which provided students more benefits on problem solution process. Similarly, Cretchley,
Harman, Ellerton, &Fogarty (2004) found, in their survey research with undergraduate
students, that students expressed positive feelings about the use of the MATLAB. They
argued that the use of MATLAB has strong educational impact on student’ learning of
mathematics. They showed that with the use of MATLAB, students were able to compare,
classify, analyze errors, and support the students who struggled with solving problems.
The study proved that MATLAB improved students’ attitude and confidence in
mathematics.

Although most studies favored software programs like MATLAB for students, they rarely
look at the role of the gender and students’ prior experience of using the programs.
Research on students’ attitude and experience indicated there is a relationship between
positive experience and future interest in software programs. For example, Mark
&Hanson (1992) argued that students’ attitudes toward the software program are
significantly affected by experience. He mentioned that high experience reduces attitude
differences between male and female students’ abilities with the software program.
Additionally, Bauer& Kenton (2005) expressed some concerns regarding the use of the
software programs and recommended that teachers must give more attention on student
skill levels and their dependency on using the software programs. Many teachers may
feel that students become too dependent on the program and are consequently unable to
master basic topics so crucial to the course of study.

Nathan& Baron (1995), regarding gender differences, investigated students’ choice of

software programs. The study found no differences between boys and girls’ choices and
recommended that software content was the major reason for the choice. However, in
contrast to Nathan & Baron (1995), Sheldon (2004) found that male students are more
likely to engage with software programs than females students do. Results of the study
indicated that gender role stereotyping is still strong and present in students’ use of
software programs.

Interestingly, some studies clearly showed we need more research to find out what kind
of factors have more affect on student’ use of software programs. Based on previous
research, it is clear that students using mathematical software programs like MATLAB do
better than students who do not have such access on tasks that requires symbolization
(Horton, Storm, & Leonard, 2004). However, students have to have enough knowledge on
using MATLAB and instructor must know the complexity of the program and use it flexibly
(Schlatter, 1999). This may explain the lack of use of such programs among college
teachers (Cooney &Wilson, 1996).

Research does not tell exactly the type of the programs that improves students’ ability
and attitude most, in mathematical classrooms. Moreover, this study is not arguing that
the MATLAB is the only technology that can be integrated to teach mathematics because
research clearly shows that different technologies (e.g., graphing calculators,
presentation packages, visual spreadsheets) can be combined to give students the
opportunity to investigate and understand mathematical topics. However, based on
previous research, the study argues that there might be relationship between student’s
attitude and prior knowledge of using the MATLAB and students’ gender. In this sense, for
example, Sherman, Divine, and Johnson (1985) found that gender did not make a
difference in students’ preference to use the certain programs. However, the study clearly
showed that students mostly preferred to use problem-solving problems rather than drill-
and- practice programs.

What is missing in most studies dealing with the use of mathematical software programs
that they do not provide important information about what role such programs play in the

125
class environment? They rarely looked at the use of such programs as external tool that
students are exposed to a new and cutting-edge technology without giving proper
instruction. The students’ attitudes, familiarity and flexibility on understanding of such
programs were mostly ignored.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The purpose of the present study was to further examine the relationships between
gender differences and attitude and experience while using the MATLAB software
program. More specifically, the following research questions were addressed by this
study: (a) what kind of models emerge between gender and student’s attitude and
experience on software MATLAB? (b) Do gender differences play an important role while
students use the MATLAB software program?

METHOD

Participants
A total of 70 students (total 3 classes) at three different colleges in Upper State of New
York participated in the study. Three Calculus I classes were drawn from one community
college, one state university and one private college. The sample was purposive since
each class was using MATLAB in the class environment. Total, 23 female and 37 male
students participated to study and females occupied 32% of the classes (Table 1).

Table: 1
Gender and Classes

Class Male Female N

Community 15 7 22
State 22 6 28
Private 10 10 20
Total 47(%77) 23(%32) 70

In order to diversify range of students, the researcher chose classes with differing ability
of using MATLAB program. Secondly, it was essential to keep the course level consistent
across the classrooms (Calculus I) and to give students the survey.

Instruments
A survey developed by researcher was administered to students in order to find students’
attitudes and prior use of MATLAB software program. The first section is (attitude) of the
survey included Likert scaling based on the 5 point scales measuring student’ attitudes
toward MATLAB. The attitude survey included 23 questions. The second part (prior
knowledge) was a closed-ended response format concerning MATLAB use. Prior
knowledge survey was a set of 8 statements that were intended to find students’
prior/initial knowledge and expertise of MATLAB. The second part consisted of four
yes/no items, two Likert Scale items, one application question, and one qualitative
question. Two experts in mathematics education independently reviewed the instrument
and indicated that, in their opinion, it had content and construct validity.

Survey was analyzed for reliability, by using SPPS program. Since a reliability coefficient
of .80 or higher is considered as "acceptable" in most Social Science applications, the
survey reliability was shown to be okay using all items(in the survey) because alpha was
.8090.

126
RESULTS

The Pearson correlation coefficients are presented in Table 2 for relationship between
gender and attitude toward MATLAB and between gender and prior knowledge
(experience) on MATLAB program. Table 1 clearly shows that relationships between
gender and attitude and gender and experience are unsteady. The coefficients of
correlations which ranged from -.55 to +.-17 showed that about %2 to 30% of the
variation gender to attitude and gender to experience can be explained by a negative
relationship.

Table: 2
Correlations for gender/attitude and gender/experience

Class N r r
(gender/attitude) (gender/experience)
Community 22 -.551(**) -.478(*)
State 28 -.175 -.201
Private 20 -.192 .346

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Although relationship between gender and experience in Private college class seems
slightly positive relationship, scatter-plot analysis of the data showed that there is no
evidence that gender plays an important role for attitude and experience on using the
software program. Relationship between gender and experience seems to follow a
directional way (from – to +) from community college and state university class to private
college class (-.47<-.20<.34) (Table 2).

The relationship between attitude and experience was explored separately for the
classes. The correlation coefficients were statically positive and especially for community
college class, relationship was significant. It can be concluded from the data that the
students who had positive attitude toward the mathematical software program seemed to
have high experience on using the program. The coefficients of the correlations ranged
from .14 to .57 showed that about 1% to %32 of the variation in attitude scores can be
explained by a linear relationship with experience scores.

Table: 3
Correlations for attitude and experience

Class N r
(Attitude/experience)
Community 22 .574(**)
State 28 .142
Private 20 .355

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Since there is a lack of either linear or non-linear relationship between gender and
attitude and between gender and experience, the researcher looked at descriptive
analysis of the data. Table 4 shows classes’ mean scores and standard deviations on
gender, attitude and experience. The results of mean scores indicated that there were not
big differences between male students’ attitude and experience score and female
students’ attitude and experience score. There is clear evidence that male students in
three classes scored almost same on attitude and experience. Same trend was found in

127
female students’ attitude score. The only difference appeared in female students’
experience in community college class. This group scored quite low than the other female
students’ experience scores. Descriptive analysis of gender differences in attitude and
experience supports the correlation analysis; because the differences in means and
standard deviation were not found to be statistically significant.

Table: 4
Descriptive Statistics

Class N Mean (SD)

Male Female
Attitude experience Attitude experience

Community 22 58.33(7.29) 10.5(5.61) 50.42(4.07) 4.57(4.58)

State 28 57.72(8.53) 11.18(4.15) 54.16(8.47) 9.08(5.13)
Private 20 58.9(7.44) 11.65(3.77) 56.7(4.52) 13.5(1.35)

DISCUSSION

The findings of this study regarding correlations between gender and attitude and
experience support the previous findings. Results of such studies (e.g., Nathan& Baron
(1995)) showed that students prefer to use mathematical software programs, regardless
of gender. Additionally, the results of this research suggest that software programs like
MATLAB should be used according to students’ attitude toward the program and
experience on using the program. The descriptive results in the study clearly shows that
gender does not make big difference in students’ use of the program. Rather, what level
students are on the software program, and how strong their knowledge and their
familiarity with features of the software program seem makes difference. Thus, it is
essential that teachers should become more aware of motivational factors that might
affect students’ enthusiasm and curiosity. Moreover, teachers must focus on developing
students’ experience with software program through class activities.

The results of the study indicate that there is positive correlation between students’
attitude toward the program and students’ prior knowledge of using the program. Thus, it
is clear that students’ familiarity and experience on the use of MATLAB clearly affects
students’ motivation. Teachers should use such programs according to students’ expertise
on the program and develop new strategies that might catch interest, curiosity and
enthusiasm. It seemed clear that effective use of such programs like MATLAB in
mathematics classrooms would be expected from all students who have positive attitude
and high experience on the program. Therefore, more research on gender, attitude, and
experience in such programs is needed to understand how students work with
mathematical software programs and use them as learning tool in the class environment.

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES of AUTHORS

Mehmet A. OCAK is a graduate assistant and PhD candidate in the

Department of Educational Theory and Practice at the State
University of New York at Albany. He earned his B.S. in
mathematics at Ankara University at Turkey, and his M. S. in
Curriculum, Development an Instructional Technology at the State
University of New York at Albany. His research area concerns
integration of computing technology in mathematics education, the
design of educational materials in mathematic and the use of the representations in the
classrooms. He was involved in developing some online courses, by using Blackboard and
WebCT, for graduate level Calculus classes. He also taught mathematics in grades 10-12.

128
REFERENCES

Bauer J., & Kenton J. (2005). Toward technology integration in the schools: why it isn't
happening. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 13(4), 519-547.

Cooney, T.J., & Wilson, M. R. (1993). Teachers’ Thinking about Functions:Historical and
Research Perspectives. In Romberg, T. A., Fennema, E. & Carpenter, T.P. (Eds.).
Integrating Research on the Graphical Representation of Functions. (pp.131-158).
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Cretchley P., Harman C., Ellerton N., &Fogarty G. (2004). Computation, Exploration,
Visualization: Reaction to MATLAB in First-Year Mathematics. Toowoomba, QL, Australia:
In Proceedings of Delta ’99 Symposium on Undergraduate Mathematics (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED477688).

Hennessy S., Fung P., & Scanlon, E. (2001). The Role of the Graphic Calculator in
Mediating Graphing Activity. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science
and Technology, 32(2), 267-290.

Horton, R. M., Storm, J., & Leonard, W.H. (2004).The graphing calculators as aid to
teaching algebra. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 4(2), 152-
162.

Mark J., &Hanson K. (1992). Beyond Equal Access: Gender Equity in Learning with
Computers. Office of Educational Research and Improvement(ED), Washington, DC. (ERIC
Report No. ED 370879).

Nathan R., & Baron L. (1995). The Effects of gender, program type, and content on
Elementary Children’s’ Software Preferences. Journal of Research on Computing in
Education, 27(3), 348-361.

Schlatter,M.D.(1999). Using Matlab in a Multivariable Calculus Course. San Francisco, CA:

the Annual International Conference on Technology in Collegiate Mathematics. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED460005)

Sheldon J.P. (2004). Gender Stereotypes in Educational Software for Young Children. Sex
Roles, 51,433-444.

Sherman, J., Divine, K.P. & Johnson, B. (1985). An analysis of computer game preferences
of preschool children. Educational Technology, 25(5), 39-41.

Ponidi, Alhadi, B. (1999). Students’ Lab Assignments in PDE Course with Maple. (ERIC
Report No. ED.443 687).

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 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2 Article: 12

QUALITY AND PROCESSES OF BANGLADESH OPEN UNIVERSITY

COURSE MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT

Md. Tofazzal ISLAM

School of Agriculture and Rural Development
Bangladesh Open University
Gazipur-1705, BANGLADESH

Md. Morshedur RAHMAN

School of Agriculture and Rural Development
Bangladesh Open University
Gazipur-1705, BANGLADESH

K. M. Rezanur RAHMAN
School of Science and Technology
Bangladesh Open University
Gazipur-1705, BANGLADESH
ABSTRACT

A new member of the mega-Universities, Bangladesh Open University (BOU) introduced a

course team approach for developing effective course materials for distance students.
BOU teaching media includes printed course books, study guides, radio and television
broadcasts, audiocassettes and occasional face-to-face tutorials. Each course team
comprises specialist course writer(s), editor, trained style editor, graphic designer,
illustrator, audio-visual producer and anonymous referees. An editorial board or preview
committee is responsible for the final approval for publishing or broadcasting materials
for learners. This approach has been proved to be effective, but appeared to be
complicated and time-consuming. This report focuses on the quality and processes of BOU
course materials development taking into account the strengths and weaknesses of the
current approach.

Keywords: Course team, Bangladesh Open University, Quality of course materials.

INTRODUCTION

The Bangladesh Open University (BOU), a public sector university, has emerged in 1992
as the first university to introduce higher education through distance mode. It exploits
various teaching media to teach students, especially those who are unable to enroll in
traditional institutions (Ali et al, 1997). The BOU has set up 12 regional resource centers
(RRCs), 80 coordinating offices (COs) and more than 800 tutorial centers (TCs)
geographically distributed throughout the country. It has so far introduced 21 formal
academic programs and, a number of non-formal programs on primary health care,
nutrition, agriculture, poultry, livestock, energy, and environment (Islam and Rahman,
1997; Islam et al., 2004). Current enrolment of BOU is approximately 600 thousands
which is much higher than the total enrolment of all traditional universities in
the country.

In distance learning, materials are to take over the teachers’ responsibility. The success
and failure of distance education depends on the quality of its course materials. BOU has
been started to develop a standard process for developing course materials to satisfy the
demands of its students. By sharing with the experiences of other distance education
institutions and also using own experiences, BOU introduced course team approach for
developing its course material (Islam and Rahman, 1997; Faruque, 1998). Though BOU’s
course materials are well accepted by the students (Kabir, 1995; Anonymous, 2002), yet

130
there exists a demand for further research on the course materials developing process to
satisfy the growing demands of learners’. Although BOU has successfully introduced some
important media traditionally used in distance education in less developed countries, it
may add some new and feasible e-learning systems considering the recent expansion of
information and communication technologies (ICTs) in the country. There is no report
published so far on the processes and quality of BOU course materials development. This
paper, therefore, attempts to describe the processes and quality of BOU course materials
development taking into account the strengths and weaknesses as well as possible ways
of improvement.

PROCESSES of SELECTING ACADEMIC PROGRAMS AND DEVELOPMENT OF CURRICULA

After establishment in 1992, BOU first conducted a nation-wide Need Assessment Survey
(NAS) to identify the potential target people that the university might serve, and their
needs for BOU programs (Ali et al., 1997). According to NAS, 21 formal academic
programs were listed and prioritized. Then the academic planning committee of BOU
approved the programs and advised respective schools to launch the relevant academic
programs. BOU has 7 academic schools namely: School of Agriculture and Rural
Development, School of Science and Technology, School of Social Science, Humanities
and Language, School of Education, School of Business, School of Law and Open School
(Islam et al., 2004). Every school has one or more curriculum committee to develop a
detail curriculum for a certain academic program.

Curriculum committee consists of leading academicians and media experts from the in-
house faculties as well as from outside the BOU. For each individual course, there is a
syllabus committee to frame the detailed syllabus following the content of curriculum.
The proposed curriculum goes to the Academic Council through the school for
consideration and final approval. When the curriculum accepts by the academic council,
the respective school takes responsibility for developing the course materials. The quality
of BOU curricula was compared to formal system, and reported by the Asian
Development Bank (ADB) as shown in the Figs. 1, 2 and 3 (Anonymous, 2002). It appears
from the ADB and other reports that BOU curricula are equivalent or slightly lower
standard to the curricula of formal system in Bangladesh. It is surprising to note that
curricula of both formal system and BOU are less relevant to the job requirements in
Bangladesh.

Comparable quality

Percent (%) 54.4 Slightly lower quality

60 Much lower quality
Not comparable
50

40 26.2
30
13.4
20 6
10

0
Extent of relevance

Fig. 1. Tutors' perceptions about the quality of BOU's curricula compared to

those of the formal system

131
 Percent (%)
50 Graduates from BOU
40 Graduates from Formal System
30
20
10
0
Highly Moderately Partly Not
Relevant Relevant Relevant Relevant
Extent of Relevance
Fig. 2. Graduates perception of the relevance of their curricula
to job requirements

Percent (%)
Public sector employers
60
private sector employers
50
40
30
20
10
0
Highly Moderately Partly Not Relevant
Relevant Relevant Relevant

Extent of Relevance

Fig. 3. Employers' perceptions about the relevance of BOU's

curricula to job requirements

DELIVERY MEDIA OF BOU COURSES

Global Distance Education (DE) has progressed very rapidly during the last few decades.
Now DE is defined as learners being able to communicate with voice, video and data, real
time with teacher and other learners using modern ICTs.

But due to economic and infrastructural constraints, most of the universities in the
developing countries like BOU are still far behind to adopt all modern technologies to
teach their distance learners. They are adopted, such technologies those are easily
accessible to their distance learners. BOU is using print, television, radio, audiocassettes
and occasional face-to-face tuition to teach its learners (Islam et al., 2004).

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It is not yet adopted computing media and technologies for teaching, for obvious reasons
of cost and poor access but it has adopted a spectrum of four of the five media and
makes use of four technologies (Rumble, 1995).

DEVELOPMENT PROCESS OF BOU COURSE MATERIALS

Process of BOU course materials development is relatively lengthy and complicated. Print
is still a powerful medium in many open universities in the developing as well as the
developed countries (Gaba and Dash, 2004). To supplement the printed materials radio
and television broadcasts and audio cassettes are being used in BOU. All materials are
produced in a strict and systematic process as depicted in Fig. 4. As print is the core
medium of BOU course materials, the process of course book development is discussed in
detail.

Print
BOU’s print materials include self-study course book, study guide, and student guide.
Course book at BOU is developed by a team called ‘course development team’ (Islam and
Rahman, 1997). Each course team consists of specialist course writer(s), editor(s), style
editor, graphic designer, illustrator, and a course coordinator. Two anonymous referees
are responsible for the validation of each course book before publication.

School offers draft Curriculum

For approval
Curriculum Committee

If
Writer correction
Draft manuscript is needed

Course Coordinator

Editor
After reviewing
& checking
Style Editor & Graphic Designer

For composing
DTP Cell

Not accepted
Reviewer
Accepted
Cover Designer

Editorial Board

Printing & Publishing

After printing
Course Book

Supplied to Learners

Figure: 4 Schematic diagram of BOU course book production process

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In order to maintain a high standard of education, BOU closely scrutinizes the writer’s
expertise on the subject as well as on writing skills. Writers are selected from both in-
house faculties and also from the leading academics of the country. All writers except
BOU faculties are invited to attend a training workshop, and are offered a Handbook
(style guide) and some sample copies from similar courses. Similar approaches are also
practiced in other Distance and Open Learning (DOL) institutions (Hedberg, 1987).

When the writers are oriented to the content of the course and distance education,
detailed syllabus of the respective course is given to him after signing up a contract form
regarding copyright and others. The course coordinator briefly checks the submitted
manuscript by the course-writer and then forward it to the style editor, editor, illustrator
and graphic designer. The style editor checks all features related to self-learning.

The Desktop Publishing activities are going on with style editing. The editor concentrates
on the standard of writing to see whether it is user friendly, whether language is
appropriate, and also the read ability of the course book. He also finds the ambiguous
statements to be clarified by the writer; identifies vocabulary and syntax items that may
increase the difficulty of the texts; and enumerates inaccuracies, which commonly occur
in writing. The graphic designer prepares a significant and attractive cover design and the
illustrator prepares different types of illustrations to make the subject matter easy to
understand.

When all the above mentioned processes are completed, the manuscript is fully edited
and corrected, the manuscript is then sent to two the anonymous referees for review.
After the review, the course coordinator sends it to the Editorial Board for final approval
for publication. Finally, a tracing copy is send to the Printing Publication and Distribution
Division for printing the course book in due time.

In some higher academic programs like BELT (Bachelor of English Language Teaching),
BOU adopted some course books from other university or general textbooks directly. In
such cases, a study guide is provided to the student to make the adopted book as user
friendly. The in-house faculty member, who expertise in the respective subject as well as
instructional design prepares the study guide.

Production of audio and audio-video materials

Like course book production, BOU follows standard principle for audio and audio-visual
productions. Considering the difficulty level and efficiency of media, every school selects
topics from different courses for audio and audio-visual production. Presenter is selected
from in-house faculty member and/or reputed academics from outside. The selected
presenter prepares a script on the basis of topic. The school checks the quality of the
script and then sends to the respective producer of Media Division. The producer
arranges recording and edit the materials with a media editor, and then presents in
front of a preview committee. The preview committee consists of subject specialist,
faculty member and media specialist. The decision of the preview committee is final. If
the committee decision is positive the production will go on air.

BOU introduced audio cassette to supplement its printed course material in

some language teaching programs (English or Arabic). These audio cassettes are usually
prepared by the invited guest speaker and also by in-house faculty member.

QUALITY of BOU COURSE MATERIALS

Once the course is in operation, the university monitors the performance of the course
materials, and begins to collect data on errors. In this respect, it encourages students and
tutors to report errors and difficulties they encounter in the course. The information or
feedback is collected and analyzed by the relevant program for the purpose or relevant
course. If the case is serious i.e. the criticism outweighs the positive reactions the course
is then revised and reprinted; otherwise, errata pages for the mistakes will do.

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BOU policy of developing a course incrementally, refereeing its materials meticulously,
inviting criticisms, collecting feedback, observing course presentation and assessment,
correcting errors and revising the whole work is to ensure that quality assurance is
maintained. This traditional approach is but a synthesis of the BS 5750 (i.e. quality loop)
Approach and the Iterative Approach (Freeman, 1991), and the whole process has
proven effective in the case course materials development at BOU (Islam and Rahman,
1997). Survey report of students opinion on the over all quality of BOU course books,
radio and TV programs and audio cassettes stated that BOU materials is good for self-
study (Rumble, 1995; Ali et al., 1997).

Almost all academic and administrative staffs of BOU have received advanced training on
different aspects of distance and open learning in home and abroad. This enables BOU to
launch and successfully run a huge number of formal and non-formal programs within a
decade of its establishment, and maintain the quality of these programs. Another
interesting feature of BOU course materials is that it first produced so high number of
course books in Bachelor and Masters Level programs in Bengali medium. There were
almost no higher level books in Bangla (mother tongue) medium especially in the field of
agriculture, computer science, health and environments. Therefore, these course books
are often using by the students of traditional universities.

LIMITATIONS oF BOU COURSE MATERIALS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT

Although printed course materials, the most powerful tool of distance learning, are
available to the learners of the BOU as elsewhere in the world, yet teaching support from
ICTs i.e. e-learning, the revolutionary methods for distance education of the modern
world are still out of reach of the BOU students (Islam et al., 2004). This is an unfortunate
situation because the distant students everywhere want a learning process flexible but
relevant to their work, updated, portable, affordable, and understandable (Faruque,
1998). Modern electronic supports in addition to modules produced following
proper instructional design can only satisfy the needs of the distant learners
to understand their readings better with comfort and satisfaction.

Other modes of delivery except printed texts are not well developed yet in BOU. Access to
TV and radio programs is also to some extent restricted owing to short period of
broadcasting by the government owned TV and radio stations. TV and radio broadcasts
are only one way lecturing without discussion and interaction. As a result the hunger to
know by asking questions and participation cannot be fulfilled. A survey result (Kabir,
1995) further indicated other problems like an instable supply of electricity and
frequent transmission interference in TV broadcasts by other stations from across
the border of the country. To solve this problem, BOU can easily make available those
audio and audio-visual programs in RRCs, LCs and even COs for the students use. Some of
those programs could be added in the course package as CD-ROM. These attempts would
surely improve the current delivery system with a cost-effective manner. Question has
also been raised about the effectiveness of the practical sessions in science and technical
courses. Attendance in tutorial sessions can not be made compulsory to the learners in
the ODL system. But missing practical sessions seriously hampers the learners, outcome
in a practice-oriented program like agriculture.

It has also been observed that the students who did not attend the tutorial sessions
regularly failed in great numbers in the practical part of examinations. To attend selective
practical sessions should be mandatory especially for the students of applied science
courses. A separate booklet for practical work should be prepared, and also to ensure the
facilities of the practical work in the tutorial centers or RRCs or COs. Students should
be encouraged to get activity involved in practical components (Harvey, 1992).

The tutorial services in the TCs are only offering direct interactions between tutors and
learners. However, most of the tutors are not well familiarized with the concept of DE.

135
They want to teach students in a traditional ways of lecturing rather motivating
students for self and collaborative learning practices. Therefore, more effective tutor
training is essential to motivate the tutors to behave as a tutor not as a teacher for
creation of friendlier environment in the tutorial sessions.

As accumulation of the new knowledge in any discipline is increasing very rapidly

specially in the areas of science and technology, BOU course books should be revised in
every five years or less intervals. BOU has now a group of well-trained workforce. So it is
very important to utilize all experts in their respective area/disciplines they trained. A
new division of instructional design can be established to do research on innovative
approaches for course materials development (Islam and Rahman, 1997) as well as to
maintain the instructional quality of the course materials.

CONCLUSION

The response of BOU education has been phenomenal. If number are at all any
indicators, the number of enrolled students in the BOU which has only 13 years old
stands at about 600 thousands, makes it a young member of the mega-Universities.

It seems the demands of the peoples should now be matched by appropriate logistics in
place. But it is a great challenge for BOU to maintain the quality of its products.
Therefore, in every step, BOU should remember the comment of Sir John Daniel “Can we
have quantity with quality”.

Innovative idea for improving the present systems of delivery particularly in the process
of practical demonstration in science and technology courses and update the courses
after an interval will no doubt improve the situation to achieve the goal of bringing out
graduates of assured quality from the BOU.

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES of AUTHORS

Dr. Md. Tofazzal ISLAM is an Associate Professor of the School of

Agriculture and Rural Development (SARD) of Bangladesh Open
University (BOU), Bangladesh. He obtained his B. Sc. Ag. (Hons.) and
M. Sc. (Ag.) degrees from Bangladesh Agricultural University,
Bangladesh securing the first position in both the cases in order of
merit. He joined BOU in 1994 as a lecturer and received extensive
training on principles of instructional design and production of audio
and audio-visual materials for distance and open learning. He was
the first teacher of SARD, and played a significant role in launching
an undergraduate program in agriculture (B. Ag. Ed.) in Bangladesh
through distance mode.

Dr. Islam awarded his Ph D in Applied Biosciences from Hokkaido University, Japan in
2002. He has been awarded a fellowship from the Japan Society for the Promotion of
Science (JSPS) for doing postdoctoral research at Hokkaido University from 2003-2005.
For his outstanding academic and research accomplishments, he got many prizes and
medals including a Silver Medal and Award from the Japan Society for Bioscience,
Biotechnology and Agrochemistry as the best young scientist in 2003. He participated in
many national and international conferences at home and abroad, and published more
than 50 research articles and book chapters in peer-reviewed journals.

Md. Tofazzal ISLAM Associate Professor School of Agriculture and Rural Development
Bangladesh Open University Gazipur-1705, BANGLADESH
Tel. 88-02-9291101-4 Extn. 326
Fax 88-02-9291122
Email: [email protected]

136
 Md. Morshedur RAHMAN is a faculty of School of Agriculture and
Rural Development (SARD) of Bangladesh Open University (BOU),
first of its kind in Bangladesh. After graduating from Bangladesh
Agricultural University, Bangladesh with excellent academic record
Mr. Rahman joined in BOU as a lecturer. He received many national
and international training (including a 24 weeks long training at
University of Guelph, Canada) on distance education concept,
instructional design, preparation of audiovisual materials. He has
prepared modules and audio-video materials for various formal and
non-formal programs of SARD.

He has a keen interest of effective use of digital media in higher education of Bangladesh
as well as reaching to the unreached people. Mr. Rahman now studying at Graduate
School of Agriculture of Hokkaido University, Japan as a PhD student.

Md. Morshedur RAHMAN

School of Agriculture and Rural Development
Bangladesh Open University
Gazipur-1705, BANGLADESH

Dr. K. M. Rezanur RAHMAN is an Associate Professor of the School of

Science and Technology (SST) of Bangladesh Open University (BOU),
Bangladesh. He obtained his M. Sc. (Physics) degrees from Peoples’
Friendship University, Russia securing the first position. He joined
BOU in 1997 as a lecturer and received extensive training on
principles of instructional design and production of audio and audio-
visual materials for distance and open learning. He played a
significant role in launching a Diploma program in Computer Science
and Application (DCSA) in Bangladesh through distance mode.

Dr. Rahman awarded his Ph D in Physics (major in Integrated Optics) from Peoples’
Friendship University, Russia in 1996. He has been awarded a fellowship from the Japan
Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) for doing postdoctoral research at University
of Tokyo from 2001-2002. He participated in many national and international conferences
at home and abroad, and published more than 15 research articles in peer-reviewed
journals.

K. M. Rezanur Rahman
Associate Professor
School of School of Science and Technology
Bangladesh Open University
Gazipur-1705, BANGLADESH

REFERENCES

Ali, M. S., Haque, A. K. E. & Rumble, G. (1997) The Bangladesh Open University: mission
and promise, Open Learning 12, pp. 12-17.

Anonymous (2002) Project performance audit report on the Bangladesh Open University
project (Loan 1173-BAN[SF]) in Bangladesh, October 2002 Asian Development Bank
(http://www.adb.org/Documents/PPARs/BAN/ppar_ban_23056.pdf).

Faruque, A. H. M. (1998) How effectively we can teach agriculture in distant mode.

Proceedings of the International Conference on Collaborative and Networked Learning,
New Delhi. 1998.

Freeman, R. (1991) ‘Quality assurance in learning materials production’, Open Learning, 6 (3).

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Gaba, A. K. & Dash, N. K. (2004) Course evaluation in open and distance learning: a case
study from Indira Gandhi National Open University, Open Learning, 19(2), pp. 213-221.

Harvey, L. (1992) ‘Criteria of Quality’, The University of Central England, Birmingham,

UK.

Hedberg, J. G. (1987) Desktop publishing and better design of educational

materials, Educational Research and Perspective, 14(1), pp.69-81.

Islam, M. T. & Rahman, A. N. M. (1997) ‘Quality assurance in distance and open learning:
Bangladesh Open University experience’, Conference Proceedings, 11th AAOU Annual
Conference, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 1, pp. 187-194.

Islam, M. T., Selim, A. S. & Rahman, M. M. (2004) Current status and prospects for e-
learning in the promotion of distance education in Bangladesh, Proceedings for IITC
2004, Colombo, (Submitted).

Kabir, S. 1995. Academic plans of Open University. The Guardian, Dhaka.

Rumble, G. (1995) Media use at Open University, The Guardian, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

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 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2 Article: 13

ECONOMIC THOUGHT ABOUT PRIVATE SECTOR EDUCATION:

POLICY IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT
OF UNIVERSITIES IN AFRICA
Joel B. BABALOLA
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, NIGERIA

Ademola S. TAYO
Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, NIGERIA

A. OKERDIRAN
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, NIGERIA

A. O. AYENI
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, NIGERIA

S. O. ADEDEJI
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, NIGERIA
Centre for Comparative Education Research
University of Nottingham, UNITED KINGDOM

ABSTRACT

This study provides relevant economic ideas that can assist Nigeria and other African
countries in making innovative policies at privatizing university education. A review of the
education market scene on the continent provides an imperfect market with adverse
consequences occasioned by inadequate information and unbridled competition.
Advocating a joint role for sharing the costs and benefits of university education between
government and private sectors, the study suggests a four-policy option for adoption by
Nigeria and other African countries. These are, in ascending order of importance:

regulated private,

subsidized private,

competitive private, and

complementary private systems of university education

Using the Backcock University in Nigeria as an example, this paper demonstrates the
positive managerial influence of a competitive and complementary system of private
university. Nevertheless, to forestall market failure, this study rounds off by pointing out
the reformatory, regulatory and redemptive roles of government in the management of
private universities in Nigeria and other African countries.

Keywords: Private university, government and private sectors, market.

INTRODUCTION

The decade from 1990 witnessed an upsurge in the number of private institutions of
learning in Africa in general and Nigeria in particular. Before this decade, most African
countries committed much of their expenditures on public education, which served as an
instrument for building the nation, following independence. Today, there is an increasing
pressure on African governments to shift from subsidization to privatization of their
education systems especially at the university level. This pressure arises from economic
liberalism, growing political pluralism, rising public demand for education in the face of a

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declining economy and increasing competition among public sectors, as well as lingering
government’s failure in the provision of qualitative schooling.

In Sub-Saharan countries, the number of private institutions of higher learning grew from
30 in 1990 to over 85 in 1999 (IBRD/World Bank, 2002). Much of this expansion has
occurred in Anglophone countries where economic liberalization is now well established.
These countries include, Kenya (21 institutions), Tanzania (14), Ghana (12), Uganda (11),
Nigeria (6) and Mozambique (5). While the existence and spread of private primary and
secondary schools are not new in Nigeria, the rise in the number of private universities is a
recent phenomenon. In 2003, apart from 16 degree awarding institutions, Nigeria had 49
universities comprising six operational private and 43 public universities (JAMB 2003).
These public universities consist of 24 federal and 19 state institutions distributed among
the 36 states of the federation.

Enrolment figures for private universities in Nigeria are not yet available in a reliable form
but with the available data on the numbers of institutions, the private sector provides and
finances only 12.2% of the university education in Nigeria. This implies that the country
provides and finances most of the university education. However, apart from encouraging
private investors to open new universities, the Federal Government of Nigeria, if it had its
way, is likely to privatize at least some of its universities by selling them to the private
investors. The government hopes that by so doing, privatization might lead to an open
accounting system, stability in Nigerian universities, sustainable growth and improved
finances (The Guardian, June 15, 2004: 18).

The privatization moves of African governments in general and Nigeria in particular hinge
on the America’s free market enterprise, based on the view that economy operates best
when government leaves businesses and individuals to succeed or fail on their own merits
in open, competitive markets. This concept came from the economic theory of Adam Smith
who believed that as long as markets were free and competitive, the actions of private
individuals, motivated by self-interest, would work together for the greater interest of
society. Nevertheless, good governance should ensure that private or self-interest does not
jeopardize public or society’s interest and vice versa.

According to an outline of the U.S. economy published by the State Office of International
Information Programs, 2004, the history of American economy has seen the pendulum
swings repeatedly between laissez faire (“leave it alone”) principles and demands for
government interventions through economic and social regulations. America (where there
is a good governance) uses the economic regulations (control of prices) to protect the
consumers and small businesses, while it uses the social regulations to discourage harmful
and socially undesirable corporate behaviors. Free economy works in America because it
has the ability to make it work. America creates, protects and enforces property rights
that promote proper private behaviors and market functioning. America provides a
regulatory regime that works with the market to promote competition.

It changes directions through regulations and deregulations without necessarily changing

focus on efficiency and equity. It also makes macroeconomic policies that create a stable
environment for market activity. America provides an environment for a relative absence
of corruption, which can subvert the goals of policy and undermine the legitimacy of the
public institutions that support, markets (World Development Report, 2002:99). If Nigeria
and other African countries adopt market system of university education, will they be able
to protect the consumers and young proprietors from institutional monopoly using the
right instruments of public action? What is the guarantee that private provision will not fall
short of economic and social expectations? What will be the responsibility of these
governments in terms of university education? What will be the fate of the poor?
Economic theories provide scientific answers to these questions.

The assertion of Romer (1993:543) as quoted in Meier and Stiglitz (2001:5) that “nations
are poor because their citizens do not have access to the ideas that are used in industrial

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nations to generate economic value” inspires the logic of presentation in this study. In
fact, the purpose of this work is to provide relevant economic ideas, which can assist
Nigeria and other developing countries in making policies concerning their innovative
efforts at privatizing university education. A logical starting point for this paper is the
theory of human capital as it affects investment in university education.

HUMAN CAPITAL THEORY AND PRIVATE UNIVERSITY ARGUMENTS

Key theses in this discussion pivot around the statements that investment in university
education should be a shared responsibility of both the public and the private sectors of
the economy and governments have some roles to play even in a free-market system of
university education.

The argument in favour of private involvement’s in university education hinges primarily

on the theory of human capital, which states that education is an investment in human
beings, which increases productivity and hence recipients’ earnings (Eicher, 1998). Like
physical capital, human capital has four main characteristics; namely, it is capable of
reproducing itself with time; its pay-off time is long; the building-up time is equally long
and costly (say about 18 years for medicine), and it depreciates with time. Consequently,
a rational and well-informed man will therefore determine his level of studies to maximize
the difference between its costs and future benefits (differential life earnings). Since
university education increases productivity and earnings of the recipients, a rational and
well-informed individual should be willing, if able, to invest in such education.

Based on the assumption of perfect market of education, three efficiency arguments

further strengthen this human capital view. First, concerns the reduction of waste by
students and their parents. The general belief is that the higher the cost borne by students
the more rational students and their parents are in reduction of wastes (in terms of time
and money). The second is the choice argument that the more students pay for their
education, the more pressure, rational and informed, students and their parents put on the
institutions to provide courses they wish to study. All other things being equal, this
pressure can contribute to a positive change in institutional policies on courses offered,
teachers and quality of education.

In many parts of the world, increased competition from private institutions has brought
about greater diversity and choice for students and has served as a powerful incentive for
public universities to innovate and modernize (IBRD/World Bank, 2002:72). The third
argument concerns institutional autonomy. That the more students pay, the more the
financial autonomy, diversity of sources of funds and innovative capacity of a university
and the less the grip of the state. The IBRD/World Bank, however, agreed that “market
forces can have adverse consequences if there is unbridled competition without adequate
regulatory and compensatory mechanisms”. Two other arguments that develop from the
assumption that the education market is far from being perfect also weaken the human
capital view that individuals should invest in university education and this will be the focus
of the next section.

IMPERFECT MARKET THEORY AND PUBLIC UNIVERSITY ARGUMENTS

Public goods refer to commodities or services that if supplied to one person can be made
available to others at no extra cost (Todaro, 1992:503). This is because such goods or
services generate external benefits and/or costs, which affect society as a whole but are
not captured by individuals. University education generates positive externalities to other
people than the graduates; such as crime reduction, increase in social cohesion,
technological innovations, fertility reduction, increase in standard of health, improved
nutrition and intergenerational benefits which refer to the benefits parents derive from
their university education and pass on to their children (Psacharopoulos and Woodhall,
1985: 53).

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Since these external benefits or costs uncontrollably spill over to other members of the
community, they are always very difficult to identify and measure. This problem of
externalities further affects the supply of and demand for some courses and the quantity
of basic research since rational private people might be unwilling to invest in activities,
which generate benefits to those who do not pay. At the same time, rational consumers
might not be willing to pay money for courses and basic research, which produce free
spillover benefits to every body at no cost. In situation like this, we therefore say that
there is a market failure or imperfection since market cannot use its mechanisms to
prevent people who have not paid to enjoy the spillover benefits or enforce those who
have enjoyed the external benefits to bear a corresponding cost. Consequently,
governments intervene in the production process to bring social and private demand to a
balance. The second argument that weakens the human capital view of private
participation in university education is linked with incomplete information especially at the
side of the consumers. One assumption underpinning private market of university
education is that rational adults are capable of making informed decisions and choices and
ready to pay for the consequences of their decisions and choices. However, students are
incapable of appreciating the quality of services and more especially of assessing the
advantages (especially future higher earnings) their training will bring them (Eicher,
1998:37). Most students are uncertain about the future benefits and satisfaction university
education could bring. Many of them make irrationally and uninformed decisions
concerning choice of institutions and courses.

Capital market imperfection further distorts one of the basic assumptions of the human
capital theory since access to affordable loans frequently remains restricted to majority of
students with limited resources. Dropout and failure rates of students with limited
resources can help in estimating the probability of realizing the given values of net benefit
of their university education. Private universities can minimize some risks that involve
students with limited resources through access to education loans or insurance. Even in
the developed countries, most private colleges and universities are not accessible for low-
income students without extraordinary financial sacrifice. Where they are available, loan
eligibility is restricted to courses with high market values such as engineering, business
management, law and medicine. They are not available to socially important disciplines
such as history, languages and even mathematics. In a similar vein, research grants are
not always available to basic research that has no market values. Governments may
therefore, intervene in private university education to minimize the risks of failure and
dropout by students who have limited financial resources or whose sponsors die in the
course of their studies.

Free-market system of university education has its advantages and disadvantages. As

earlier said, it can have adverse consequences if there is uncontrolled competition. From
an equity perspective, imperfect-market system of private university may lead to exclusion
of those who cannot afford to pay tuition at private universities or of those without access
to financial aid. The advantage of increased institutional choice created by the existence
of private universities might be wiped off by risk of dropout during financial crisis by those
with limited access to financial resources. To correct these market imperfections,
government has to play some roles in university education. According to IBRD/World Bank
(2002), in Russia, the introduction of tuition fees without accompanying student financial
aid mechanisms has had a negative effect on equity.

From quality perspective, an imperfect-market system of private university if uncontrolled

may lead to competition on unequal terms among universities. Private universities are
likely to have more access to private financial resources than their public counterparts.
One cannot rule out the possibility of wide salary gap in favour of private universities
making it difficult for the public universities to attract the best university teachers and
researchers. From efficiency angle, unbridled imperfect-market of university education
could lead to staff wastage or brain drain in a global labour market of university teachers
since there is likely to be a human capital flight to countries where there are higher
salaries.

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A government has a role to play in minimizing these adverse consequences of imperfection
in a free-market system of university. The next few sections of this paper dwell more on
possible government roles, responsibilities and responses to social changes.

PUBLIC-SECTOR THEORY AND MIXED UNIVERSITY ARGUMENT

Public-sector economy is concerned with the proper role of government in modern market-
oriented economies (Greenwald, 1982:962). It is not interested in postulating that public
sector should replace private sector economy. Rather, it is concerned with the right mix of
private and public actions. Consequently, issues emanating from the theory of public-
sector education revolve around the appropriate roles governments should play in
education to correct market imperfection in university education. The theoretical base for
arguing that university education should be a shared responsibility between both public
and private sectors of the economy is the joint-beneficial nature of university education as
a quasi-private good.

Table: 1
Potential Benefits from University Education

Benefits Private Public

Economic
Higher salaries
Greater productivity

Employment
National development

Higher savings
Reduced reliance on government

Improved working conditions support

Personal and professional
Increased consumption
mobility
Increased potential for
transformation from low-skill
industrial to knowledge –based
economy
Social
Improved quality of life for
Nation building and development of
children and self leadership

Better decision-making process
Democratic participation: Increased

Improved personal status consensus and perception that the

Increased educational society is based on fairness and
opportunities opportunity for all citizens.

Healthier lifestyle
Social mobility

Higher life expectancy
Greater social cohesion and reduced
crime rates

Improved health of the citizens

Improved basic and secondary
education.
Source: Adapted from the IBRD/World Bank (2002): 81

Despite the methodological problem associated with measurement of the benefits of

university education to the society as well as to the recipients, IBRD/World Bank has
shown that university education generates enormous benefits to both parties (Table: 1).
The belief is that those who benefit from university education should bear a corresponding
share of its costs. The existence of these important economic and social benefits indicates
that the costs of inadequate investment (on either side) in university education (4-5% of
GDP on education and 15-20% of budget on tertiary education) can be very high
(IBRD/World Bank, 2002).

While the general tendency is to supplement public university with private schooling,
private tutoring and private financing, various countries have come up with various policy
options concerning the right mix of public and private responsibilities in university
education. However, owing to practical problems associated with these, this paper will

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discuss four modified approaches that can be used as alternatives to the two major
extremes (purely public and purely private) in the privatization of university system.

At one extreme of the continuum is the purely public university system in which the state
supplies finances and controls all universities in a country. Nigeria was practicing this
system until recently. The economic foundation for purely public system of education is
the concept of market failure. Under this market system, the university generates socially
undesirable results such as mismatches between manpower supplied and the labour
market requirements (unemployment) as well as disequilibria between what universities
could supply and what fully informed rational consumers of university education and
research would demand (Musgrove, 2004). The market fails when university education is
inefficient or inequitable or both as a result of unregulated and unsubsidized private
market. Once government notices this malfunctions in the system of private market of
university, one of its responses is a complete take over of universities in the interest of the
economy and the society.

At the other end of the continuum is the purely private system of education or a
completely free market of education where there is no state intervention in the ownership,
financing and administration of education. Being a free market enterprise, the market or
non-governmental forces determine the dynamics (changes in the quality, number of
spaces available, access and equity, fees charged and location of institutions) in education.
The economic basis for purely private system of education is “public failure”. Public failure
means that the state or the government fails to provide a socially optimal level of
schooling. The belief behind purely private system is that it is more efficient and more
effective than the public system because of the freedom from bureaucracy enjoyed by the
private system as well as its exposure to customers’ censoring eyes. The argument is that
if a private school performs below expectation, private demand for such a school will drop
and it will eventually close down.

However, the efficiency argument holds where there are perfect information and perfect
competition. For instance, parents must have perfect information about the various fees in
various institutions to make the right decision about a school. Moreover, they need to have
perfect information about the differential class size, quality of teachers, technology of
teaching, curriculum offerings, students’ characteristics and differential opportunities in
various schools. This situation is rare. In Nigeria for instance, it is very difficult to compare
institutions of learning owing to lack of information. Without perfect information, there
cannot be perfect competition among service providers.

Consequently, this might lead to inefficiency and inequity in the provision of schooling
since private schools might be serving a very small proportion of the population at a time
when the polity deserves to reach a much higher number. The parents as beggars with
limited knowledge, power and choice might refuse to take action because the education
providers as kings dictate and manipulate the schooling dynamics at will. In fact, the
school proprietors would do anything to suppress adverse report about their institutions.

Between the two extremes, there are four policy options containing various mixtures of
public and private systems of education, namely the regulated private, subsidised private,
competitive private and complementary private systems of education. The regulated
private education system is a modification of the purely private system. Under this system,
governments allow the private sector to provide schooling under a vigilant eye of the
state.

The state provides guidelines and legislation concerning the minimum requirements for
the establishment of institutions of learning, their inputs, enrolments, processes, outputs
and their fees. One of the limitations of the regulated system of private education is with
respect to inability of private investors to bear the cost of regulations above what parents
could afford. If government compels a proprietor to provide schooling beyond a bearable
minimum, then that government should bear the extra cost of raising standards.

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Otherwise, the proprietor would shift the cost of quality to the consumers who might not
be able to bear the extra cost owing to cash problem. A modification of the regulated
private system of education is the subsidized private system, which takes care of the
problems associated with cost of regulations on the side of the private providers of
education as well as cost of positive externalities and unwillingness to pay on the side of
individuals who wish to invest in education.

The remaining two policy options (competitive and complementary private systems) are
meant to correct practical problems associated with the purely public systems of
education. The competitive (aggressive) private education system aims at correcting the
passivity of existing purely public system of education, which by nature is bureaucratic,
and with time becomes slow and unresponsive to customers’ needs. The belief is that an
existence of a parallel private system of education, which is by nature non-bureaucratic,
will inject vigour into the whole system of education and thereby lead to ‘value for money’
for at least, some consumers and eventually raise the standard of education in both
sectors. With this arrangement, parents and students would be able to choose between
private and public schools provided everybody is financially able to pay for private
education.

Unfortunately, not everybody is always able to pay even if willing to receive private
education. Consequently, some parents and very brilliant students would be forced into
public institutions of learning owing to financial inability. Private investors usually avoid
rural locations in the distribution of private institutions, owing to low attendance and rural
poverty. This means that qualified and willing rural candidates might not enjoy the
opportunities provided by private schools owing to distance problems. These bring
inequality to the system.

To correct these lapses, there is need for a modification of the competitive system. This
brings about the complementary private education system. In this case, both sectors
cooperate to produce the required attitude, skills and knowledge for building a strong and
dynamic society where everybody (male or female, rural or urban, poor or rich) has access
to quality public and private education and enjoy equal educational opportunity. Here, the
government sees the private institutions as a necessary extension of the public and
therefore, does everything including subsidization of both private institutions or/and their
students.

This option seems to be most politically acceptable and of course, it is the option that
Nigeria claims to be operating at present (2004). Based on this claim and the fact that
university education has much characteristics of a private good with many benefits
accruing to the recipients. This brings us to the gains of private system of university
education in a mixed market-oriented economy, which the next section considers.

LESSONS FOR PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES FROM THE BABCOCK UNIVERSITY, NIGERIA

Babcock University is one of the private universities in Nigeria; it is owned and managed
by the Seventh-Day Adventist Church of Nigeria. It will be necessary to draw some lessons
from the Babcock University management practice to support our foregoing arguments.
This is the essence of cultural diffusion in education, which advocates the study of
educational practices across cultures with a view to extract and utilize better practices and
innovations. The major beneficial ideas and experiences from Babcock University can be
categorized under the following headings: financial, personnel, goodwill, tradition and
culture, alumni resource, academic curriculum, land resource and student affairs
management. If pains could be taken to examine critically all the previously mentioned
areas, the public universities in Africa in general and Nigeria in particular could learn
useful lessons.

With respect to it financial management, apart from the traditional bursary and audit
departments, Babcock has a budget monitoring unit to assist in compliance with budget

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stipulations. This is a double assurance of financial prudence in the institution. This could
be borrowed and effectively operated by public institutions, to help them solve the
problem of financial misappropriation and recklessness. Budget sharing which encourages
resource sharing among departments is also another means of reducing wastage and
ensuring cost maintenance, which the public universities can explore.

Another aspect of Babcock university management skill that public universities in Africa
could emulate is the personnel management practice. Personnel management in any
institution is an complex business, which requires careful handling for the smooth running
of any organization. For a proper management of staff matters, Babcock has produced a
concise and comprehensive handbook, which spells out the conditions of service for her
employees. This, however, is very rare in to come across in public universities. Where such
is available, it is usually outdated and contains information that cannot meet the present
challenges of globalization. In some cases a copy of such a handbook, when available, is
kept as an archive material in the registrar’s office, for consultation by members of staff.
Most staff do not bother to check it anyway, thus depriving them the opportunity to be
more conversant with their employment terms. Consequences of such apathy and
breakdown in communication could be very grave. It is therefore, not surprising that there
are incessant labour and student crises, which have sometimes, crippled the smooth
running of our public universities unlike Babcock University, which keeps to the schedules
of its timetable and programmes.

Another unique characteristics of Babcock University worthy of emulation in our public

universities is the establishment of the parents’ consultative forum. This is an association
of all parents of students in the university in partnership with the university authorities.
Similar to the Parents Teachers Association of both the primary and secondary schools, the
body promotes the provision and maintenance of major infrastructural facilities for the
sustenance of the institution academic excellence. In some occasions, it assists the
authorities in calendar, planning, enforcement of discipline between staff and students and
maintenance of quality of instruction. Such a body is very relevant to complement the
management skills of our public universities. Hitherto, many public universities have not
found any great need for, or the usefulness of such an association. This might be the result
of their over dependence on their sponsors, which are mainly governments. Faced with the
harsh dispensation of inadequacy of essential materials, fund, intractable incidence of
cultism, drug abuse, student crises, that have conspired to militate against the smooth and
efficient functioning of the university system, public universities could take a cue from
Babckock experience. A corollary to the Parents Association Forum is the issue of the
Alumni Association. In developed nations of the world, alumni associations are like tonic
for the virility of their universities. This is because the alumni association is ready to offer
timely and useful advice and suggestions for the continued relevance and responsiveness
of the school programmes to society. Of course, many higher institutions in Western
Europe and the Americas rely heavily on the financial and cultural support of their alumni
associations. Apart from being a rallying point for old students, an alumni association also
provides an interactive forum for both the old and new students of the school, and
provides them the opportunity to reflect on the past examine the present and map out
strategies for the maintenance of the good traditions of the school.

On many occasions, most old students develop very strong feelings of attachment, pride,
love for their university, and are ready to show this appreciation through the
establishment of endowment funds, scholarships, prices, cash, equipment, and building
donations. Such gestures though are expressed individually at times, there is no doubt,
however, that alumnus associations are the best channels for expressing such support. It
is therefore gratifying to note that Babcock University though young in existence, has
embraced this idea through its first set of graduates. It is also a good lesson in
management for public universities.

Public universities in Africa should borrow from the practice of Babcock concerning its
academic curricula management. The quality of a university and its graduates is a

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combination of the richness of its curricula and efficient management of resources at its
disposal. To enhance the quality of its curricula, Babcock University has always exceeded
the Minimum Academic Standard (MAS) set by the National Universities Commission (NUC)
in Nigeria. In doing this, however, the university has never compromised standard, but
rather has maintained the use of conventional quality control mechanism of the various
senate committees. It is pertinent to refer to a unique control mechanism introduced by
the University to enhance the quality and standard of its products. This is reflected in the
granting of accreditation to Babcock University for many of its courses. Thus, we find
bodies like the Adventists Accreditation Association (AAA) made up of 102 Universities and
Colleges, the Association of African Universities (AAU), Institute of Chartered Accounts of
Nigeria (ICAN), and The Nursing and Midwifery Council of Nigeria (NMCN), which have
granted recognition and accreditation to the University on courses. It is common
knowledge that in some Nigeria’s public universities, accreditation of courses is still a wide
dream yet to be fulfilled. This predicament is occasioned by the institutions’ inability to
provide enough fund, qualified personnel and instructional equipment and materials
necessary for running courses to the minimum level of standard as required by the
National Universities Commission (NUC) and other professional bodies.

Furthermore, another control measure instituted by Babcock University to ensure the

quality of its graduates is the direct screening exercise of fresh candidates given admission
into the university through the Joint Admissions and Matriculations Board (JAMB). Other
universities in Africa could emulate this screening practice to ensure quality of intakes into
university education.

Another area of management from which the public universities in Africa would have to
borrow a leaf from Babcock University concerns land resource. It is true many of the public
universities in the continent have vast land areas sometimes acquired for them free of
charge by their governments, but lack of proper management is their undoing. A case in
point is the University of Ibadan, Nigeria where land speculators and squatters are
encroaching upon its unutilized land areas. This might be due to the University’s neglect of
putting up a solid fence to secure its land areas. It cannot be said however, that the
university has not provided a master plan for the development of its land as Babcock has,
but that the master plan is yet to be translated in terms of adequate occupation of the land
areas to prevent trespassers from encroaching on the land. It would not be surprising, if
the university would have to resort to litigation in chasing out the flagrant and unbraided
trespass committed by illegal occupiers of its land. One would appeal to public universities
to embark speedily on the execution of their master plans as Babcock University is doing.
This university has begun the execution of the first phase of five years out of its twenty-
five year physical master plan for the management of its land resources.

With respect to student’s affairs management, realizing that students are the essential
‘raw materials’ for production of quality graduates and that the ‘materials’ could become
volatile when not handled carefully, Babcock University authorities have learnt a lesson
from the frequent student unrest from public universities by taking measures to prevent
such occurrence in the institution. The authorities have thus raised the position of the
Dean of Student Affairs to be at per with the principal officers in the University. This makes
the occupant of such a position to sit along with the Vice-Chancellor, the Registrar, the
Bursar and the Librarian to deliberate on issues affecting the students and to convey such
decisions (through the Dean who is regarded an expert in student matters) back to the
student body. That is not all. Students themselves are allowed representation on university
management committees, so that they can air their views on issues affecting their welfare
and that of the University Community.

While the university has instituted a work-study programme for students, to inculcate in
them the virtues of dignity of labour and respect for lives and properly, the scheme is also
meant to recoup those among them who might not be able to finance his/her education
without any form of financial assistance.

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The scheme has contributed to the reduction of the wage bill for hiring potential
pensionable workers, which has constrained the smooth management of public
universities and a depletion of their resources. The public universities stand to gain from
such an innovation, which is a common feature of overseas universities. Deploying
students to management positions as assistants at halls of residence and as class
managers goes a long way in instilling in them the culture of gentlemanliness, tolerance
and socialization.

The university has also provided facilities on campus to develop students in an all round
manner. Perhaps the Nigeria public universities would take a lesson from Babcock
University’s vision of ensuring that its student enrolments match its resources. Inadequate
budget allocations to match student enrolment rate has been a problem to public
universities in Nigeria, this needs urgent correction. Many of these universities admit
students without making adequate provisions to cater sufficiently for their academic and
social needs. The effect is frustration of the students, which could culminate in their unruly
behaviors, and eventual closure of the university. However, public universities need to be
careful in striking a balance between commercialization of their services and performance
of their traditional roles of teaching and research. One must not be at the expense of the
other. Rather they should be complementary.

Finally, the lesson to learn from Babcock University is in the area of training and retraining
of the management staff of the public universities. This can be achieved through induction
courses, in service training, short-term courses and workshops to enable them to acquire
practical management techniques required for good and successful administration of
universities in the 21st Century. In spite of all the good practices in Babcock University,
African governments must perform some public roles in their private universities to check
potential problems associated with market system of university management. Other
conceptual basis for choosing the appropriate public actions to correct market failure in
university education will be discussed in the next two sections.

POSSIBLE PUBLIC ACTIONS IN PRIVATE SYSTEM of UNIVERSITY EDUCATION

Musgrove (2004) provides a logical conceptual basis for choosing the appropriate public
actions in health, which this paper finds very useful in correcting market failure in
university education. According to Musgrove, government can do any one or a combination
of five things to correct market imperfection caused by information and externalities
problems and thereby, intervenes in private or market decisions.

The first public action that Musgrove says should be the least intrusion into private
decisions is public provision of services, using publicly owned institutions and staff. This is
what Nigeria governments do by allowing public universities to operate side by side with
private universities in provision of places to qualified candidates.

The second public instrument in the provision of university education is public finance.
Once a country has decided to finance university education, the choice arises whether to
provide university education and basic research through public universities and research
institutes or to pay private universities and organizations to provide them. Nevertheless,
the society should consider the advantages and disadvantages of “make or buy” decision.
Neither public nor private university is failure proof. But the society only needs to consider
the costs and risks of failure from both ends in order to take a rational decision. As far as
this option is concerned, Nigeria has to consider the possibility of compensating private
universities for the social benefits of the university education provided by them.

The third public action is through the use of mandate, which obligates private institutions
or individuals to do something and to pay for it. However, government may impose
mandates on institutions or individuals to do something with respect to education and
research without asking them to pay for it. Mandatory activities are compulsory and there

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is no institution or individual that can react to them since the law usually backs them up.
With respect to mandatory activities, governments in Africa could mandate private
universities to respect all human rights, gender issues, poverty level of their students and
distributive equity in the location of their institutions in favour of rural segment of the
economy. Governments could also make it compulsory for private universities to make
public information that would help their customers to make rational decisions.

The fourth public role may take the form of public regulations on university education and
research. The difference between a mandate and a regulation is in the level of personal
discretion institutions and individuals have. Private institutions and individuals can react
to regulations by choosing not to embark on the activity. This cannot happen in mandatory
activities. Public regulations may cover such issues as establishment and accreditation of
universities, importation of books and laboratory equipment, environmental protection,
minimum standards, and so on.

Governments may combine regulations with financial incentives (such as grants-in-aid to

institutions, student’s subsidies and scholarship) to offset the costs without public
financing. The fifth public action, which Musgrove says should be the greatest intrusion
into private decisions (for instance to correct market imperfection in university education),
is public information. This may mean to persuade but does not require anyone to do
anything. African governments should do this by publicising benefits and costs (including
external and non-financial benefits, labour market situations, financial opportunities and
so on) of university education and basic research to both consumers and providers. This
information would help the stakeholders to make informed and rational decisions
concerning patronage of private universities.

SUGGESTED ROLES OF GOVERNMENTS

IN THE MANAGEMENT OF PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES IN AFRICA

Private universities should complement the public sector in creating and providing the
right attitudes, skills and knowledge necessary for individual and social efficiency. Drawing
inspiration from various theories, governments in Africa should consider the following
suggested roles in the management of their private universities:

Reformatory role
Government should initiate regular university reforms to balance the market forces and
prevent overproduction of graduates, underproduction of basic research as well as
exploitative tendencies of proprietors of private universities. Two prominent educational
reforms that seem to address the growing contradictions are career education and
recurrent education. Career education represents a broad attempt to integrate more fully
the worlds of education and work. Career strategies include attempts to increase career
guidance and student knowledge on the nature and availability of existing jobs; to improve
the career content of curricula; to provide periods of work and schooling interspersed
through the secondary schooling cycle; and to inculcate students with a more realistic
understanding of what to expect in the workplace. At the university level, the movement
towards career education takes the form of reducing the availability of non-vocational
courses and fields of study as well as changing university governance to increase the voice
of the business community. Obviously, an important element of this strategy is to reduce
“unrealistically high” expectations for high–level careers and to guide students into more
attainment ones.

Lifelong learning refers to establishing patterns of post-secondary training that recur over
a lifetime rather than completing advanced education and training prior to entering the
labour force.

Apparently, a typical pattern would entail labour force entry after the completion of
secondary school with university education and training provided, as needed, for career
mobility through study leave as well as on-the job training. This approach would replace

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the more traditional one in which many persons take university education immediately
after secondary completion, entering the labour market only at the end of formal studies.

This proposal would also match more closely the needs of employers with the educational
system, and it would tend to reduce the number of persons with educational levels in
excess of those required for available jobs by lessening the initial demand for university
degrees prior to labour market entry. However, there are reasons why these strategies
might not meet with substantial success. First, no matter how realistic the universities or
governments are about the available jobs, most families have no alternative other than
education for providing opportunities for their children. Without an alternative route for
social mobility, it is unlikely that parents and students will become more” realistic”.
Second, jobs are not available for school leavers in Nigeria. As one of the first steps, the
country should create employment for school leavers.

Regulatory role
The second important role of government in the management of private institutions of
learning is to create a regulatory environment that encourages initiatives to expand access
to good quality university education. Key dimensions of regulation include the legislative
framework governing the establishment of new universities, quality assurance mechanism
and legislation on intellectual property rights. It is important for government to remove
stifling administrative barriers that may prevent reasonable entry of private universities
into the production arena.

It is not necessary for government to stipulate for the private sector an expected student-
teacher ratio, the qualification of staff to employ, the percentage of expenditure that they
should spend on salary, the amount of fees that they should charge and so on. It is enough
for the government to gear her regulatory efforts at ensuring quality output while allowing
each private institution a reasonable control over the process.

Governments should expect the private sector to serve the interests of the society and
failure to do this must lead to one kind of government intervention or the other. From
studies (Babalola, 1999), there is no evidence of any private educational institution that is
very free from public scrutiny. It is government’s responsibility to monitor the activities of
private institutions of learning

Redemptive role
It is the duty of government to redeem both the public and private institutions of learning
from collapsing. Private universities require financial and ideological supports from
government, although not as much as given to the public sector. In fact, the government
owes private students in private universities some financial responsibilities because part of
the benefits of their education accrues to the larger society. Moreover, some poor people
wishing to participate in private universities need the financial support of government.

Subsidizing this category of people through loans, scholarships and bursaries has the
potential to improve equity in the provision of education in the economy.

CONCLUSION

In this study, we have attemted to provide relevant economic ideas that can assist Nigeria
and other African countries to make innovative policies that will help them privatise their
university education. Using the Backcock (private) University experience, we offered
suggestions on area of policy response in sharing the costs and benefits of university
education between government and private sectors.

Although, looking at the education market scene on the continent, one would observe an
imperfect market with adverse consequences due to inadequate information and unbridled
competition, this paper however, demonstrates the positive managerial influence of a
competitive and complementary system of private university as a way out. Finally, to

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forestall market failure, the paper suggested that Nigeria and other African countries
should put in place reformatory, regulatory and redemptive mechanisms in the
management of private universities.

BIODADTA and CONTACT ADDRESSES of AUTHORS

Joel B. BABOLA is a Prof. of Economics of Education and former

Head of Department, Department of Educational Management,
University of Ibadan, Nigeria. His research interests include
education for development and appreciation and application of
models in educational planning. He is the author of Privatization of
Higher Education in Africa: An Exploration of Theories and Lessons
from Foreign Experiences in the Journal of Humanities, University of
Zambia, Cost and Financing of Higher Education in Nigeria in the
International Journal of Higher Education and Educational Planning.

Ademola S. TAYO holds a Ph.D degree in Development Education

from Central Luzon State University, Murioz Nueva Ecija, Phillipines.
Apart from lecturing in the department of Education and General
Studies of Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo Ogun State, Nigeria.

He is currently a Special Assistant to the Vice-Chancellor. Prior to

this assignment, he was the Director of Aademic Planning of the
same Institution.

A Okediran is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Adult

Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. A former Acting
Director of the Centre for Literacy Training and Development
Programme for Africa (LTDPA).
He is a prolific writer and specialist in Communication, Literacy and
Language in Adult and Non-formal Education. He is also a
Consultant to many International Organization including UNICEF,
UNESCO and UNDP inter alia.

A. O. Ayeni holds a Ph.D of University of Ibadan in Economics of

Education. He currently Lecturers in the Department of Educational
Management, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.

His research interests include School Expenditure and Financing;

Training and Employment; Infrastructural Facilities and Productivities
of University Academic Staff among others.

S. O. Adedeji is a Lecturer in the Department of Educational

Management, University of Ibadan, Nigeria, currently a MacArthur
Fellow at the Centre for Comparative Education Research, University
of Nottingham, U.K.

Contact Person
Dr. S. O. Adedeji
Department of Educational Management,
University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
Emails: [email protected];
[email protected]

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REFERENCES

Babalola, J. B. (1999) “Privatization of Higher Education in Africa: An Exploration of

Theories and Lessons from Some Foreign Experience”, The Journal of Humanity, 2:145-156

Babalola, J. B. (2002) Cost Benefit Analysis and Project Management. Ibadan: Centre for
External Studies, University of Ibadan.

Eicher, J. C. (1998) “The Costs and Financing of Higher Education in Europe”. In European
Journal of Education, Vol. 33(1): 31-39.

Greenwald, D. (1982) Encyclopedia of Economics. USA: McGraw-Hill

IBRD/World Bank (2002) Constructing Knowledge Societies: New Challenges for Tertiary
Education. Washington D.C.: The World Bank.

JAMB (2003) Guidelines for admissions to First Degree Courses in Nigerian Universities and
other Degree Awarding Institutions. Lagos: Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board.

Meier, G. M. (2001) “The Old Generation of Development Economist and the New” In Meier
G.M and Stiglitz J.E (Eds.) Frontiers of Development Economics: The Future in Perspective.
New York: Oxford University Press, pp.1-50.

Musgrove, P. (2004) Health Economics in Development. Washington D.C: The World Bank

US Department of State Office of International Information Programs (no year of

publication) Outline of the U.S. Economy. US Department of State Office of International
Information Programs: http://usinfo.state.gov

Todaro M. P. (1992) Economics for a Developing World: An Introduction to Principles,

Problems and Policies for Development. England: Pearson Education Limited.

William, J. (1999) Principles of Health Economics for Developing Countries. Washington

D.C: The World Bank.

World Bank (1997): World Development Report 1997: the State in a Changing world.
Washington D.C.: The World Bank.

World Bank (2002) World Development Report 2002: Building Institutions for Markets.
Washington D.C.: The World Bank.

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 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2 Article: 14

PDAs: Revolutionizing The Way We Learn and Teach

Kimberly McDONOUGH
Associate Professor Zane L. BERGE Ph.D
Baltimore MD 21250 USA

ABSTRACT

Miniature handheld computers called PDA’s are not only bombarding corporate America,
but they are also noticeably making their mark on college campuses. The question is,
how much impact are they making on the way students learn and instructors teach.
These devices were born from a simple calculator and over two decades have transformed
into a walking computer complete with Internet access. This paper identifies how PDAs
have transformed over the years as well as their benefits and limitations.

Although there are many pros and cons to using PDAs, it was clear that they can be used
to enhance both learning and teaching if used and accepted in the appropriate manner.
With the advancement in technology and data speeds it is evident PDA’s will continue to
add value to education in the future.

Keywords: PDAs (personal digital assistants), using PDAs, Instructional Design Methods.

PDAS: REVOLUTIONIZING THE WAY WE LEARN AND TEACH

“Buzz, Ring, Beep, Vibrate” are all common sounds now radiating from college campuses.
Gone are the days where students walk to class chatting and making eye contact with
fellow students. Now more than likely most are talking to someone else on their mobile
phone or doing the “PDA prayer” by staring down at their digital gadget. What has taken
this generation by storm you ask? Technology.

And more specifically PDAs (personal digital assistants) also commonly referred to as
handheld devices or mini PCs. Computers are a common household necessity and children
are being exposed to the digital world at a very young age. Video games and toys
aggressively simulate real life images and scenarios.

As a result children are entering school with vivid imaginations and the need for constant
stimulation to gratify their cyber world craving. PDA’s are just one of the many
technology devices being used to make connectivity, communication, organization and
learning occur anytime, anywhere. Using PDA’s for learning is also referred to as m-
learning, short for mobile or on the go learning. This paper will outline the current uses
of PDA devices and m-learning in the higher education environment, including the
technology behind PDA’s, benefits and limitations, applications for learning, instructional
design methods, and the future of m-learning.

TECHNOLOGIES AND INFRASTRUCTURE

PDAs have evolved over the last two decades starting in 1974 with Hewlett Packer’s
release of the HP-45 calculator, which could be programmed, included a timer, and had
removable storage. Fast forward a few years to 1978 where Toshiba designed the LC-
836MN, which is what some refer to as the “official first PDA device” (Koblentz, 2005). Its
main function was to store phone numbers, notes and be used as a date book. From there
the PDA exploded each year with the device becoming more robust and functional. Today
the PDA can fit in the palm of your hand and is made up of many different services to
include:

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Phone and email capabilities

Internet browsing: WAP and HTML sites

GPS (Global satellite positioning)-the ability to track the device and receive
driving directions

SMS (short messaging services)-similar to text messaging

MMS (multi-media messaging)- the ability to send messages with video and
digital pictures

Instant messaging-synchronous communication

Digital camera and camcorder

MP3 Player

Infrared beaming-to share documents

Bluetooth technology- wireless technology to transfer data between other
Bluetooth devices

All of the features mentioned above have created the hype and wonder about how m-
learning can benefit students in a learning environment. There are several different types
of PDAs in the market place today. The most common operating systems are Palm OS and
Microsoft Windows Pocket PC (Wood, 2003). Most PDAs can be synchronized with
desktop computers using software and a USB cable that comes with the device. This
synchronization allows data that is currently stored on the desktop to be transferred to
the PDA and vice versa.

Another way to connect a device to a computer on an internal network is through a

wireless environment, which is the untethering of hardware from wiring (Alexander,
2004). This type of connectivity is not common today, especially in higher education
environments. Most campuses are hard-wired, meaning you must plug your computer into
a specified data source to have connectivity into the network. Cost is a major barrier to
moving to a completely wireless environment. However, some universities are
recognizing the benefits of m-learning brought on by PDAs and are using more creative
solutions to work around the budgetary factors. Designated learning spaces such as the
campus library or common areas have been turned into wireless spaces or hot spots.

This is similar to how Starbucks and Panera Bread establishments offer customers Wi-Fi
connectivity to conduct personal or business needs. Since computer labs are here to stay,
there has been recent talk about the design and development of mobile chairs and desks
(Alexander, 2004). This would make the computer lab much more conducive for learning.
Instead of sitting behind a stationary terminal the class could move the wireless chairs
and desks around to form groups for project work and classroom discussions. This is
where PDAs can take learning to the next level.

Once connectivity is established for a PDA, other important areas are bandwidth, memory
and storage capacity of the device. Since most PDAs have the ability to surf the web and
download files, it is important for a consumer to know how fast these transactions will
occur. Most PDAs are built with 3G technology, that has a data transfer rate of about 2
megabits per second (Wood, 2003). PDAs have a typical memory capacity between 32
and 64 MB with 128 MB of total storage capacity. Most devices are now made with
expansion slots where a consumer can purchase a memory card and increase the capacity
of the unit. Some applications such as the MP3 Player require the additional memory in
order for it to function. As PDAs continue to evolve, so will the enhancements of the data
transfer speeds and memory capacity.

BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS

There are many advantages to using PDAs for m-learning in the higher education realm
(Wood, 2005):

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Most PDAs have a memo pad and voice recorder that allow the user to record
notes easily

Easier to work in groups with PDAs than with desktop computers that are
stationary

Quick and easy access to data (Just in Time Learning)

Assisted technology for people with learning and other disabilities

Customized software is available for facilitators to teach using PDAs

Most PDAs have an easy to use Qwerty style keypad or a stylus which allows
the user to touch the screen

Data and research gathering

Learner tracking

There are also drawbacks to using the PDA for learning purposes (Lockitt, 2005):

Small screens

Limited storage capacity

Slow data speeds

Battery life is short and requires daily charging

Less robust than a desktop computer

Security issues

Cost of Connectivity

Easy to lose

One advantage of PDAs is how they can assist students with disabilities. The size factor is
a huge asset for students in wheel chairs. Carrying a PDA can easily fit into a bag versus
a heavy lap top. However the small screens and keypad can be frustrating. Peripherals
such as larger keypads or screens, can attach to the PDA to aid in these limitations.

A disadvantage of the PDA is that it is less robust than a regular desktop. One would not
want to completely abandon the computer but rather use it in conjunction with the PDA
for maximum learning. Although there are limitations to using the PDA, keep in mind the
device continues to evolve. As it develops, some of the drawbacks will no longer be an
issue. They will only continue to get better and easier to use.

APPLICATIONS FOR LEARNING

Because PDAs are affordable (currently ranging anywhere from $200-$400), small and
light weight, they are very portable and easy for students to carry around on or off
campus. Most consumers are “emotionally invested” with their device already since they
use it to communicate via phone, email and to keep track of their daily tasks and
meetings. The convenience of PDAs can enhance the current learning taking place in the
classroom. Learning on the go has the advantage that student learning is not confined to
the four walls of a classroom, but can occur between classes, during a lunch break, or
sitting in a doctor’s office. This flexibility allows student to have total control of when and
how they learn.

The ability to access the web and download files and attachments is a huge learning
benefit. The infrared beam allows for the sharing of documents. In a moments notice a
teacher can “beam” a document to students to read or discuss in small groups. Students
can send electronic files to one another, which could make project collaboration easy and
convenient. Vahey and Crawford (2003) discussed how a teacher has organized her class
into “beam teams” meaning she sends a file first to designated students who in turn
beam the other classmates. This makes for fast and easy file transfers.

If students are out of the classroom, in lab or on a field trip, they can use their Internet
capabilities to search for any topic of interest. Some students will also use it while in class
to expand upon the teacher’s discussion or look up a definition to an unknown word. This
kind of “just in time learning” is extremely beneficial to the learner.

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PDAs are also being heavily used in the workplace to stay connected, drive business, and
remain competitive. If students are familiar with the PDA devices early on, this will give
them an advantage when starting a new job. In 2004 the Business School at the
University of Maryland deployed Blackberry devices to their full time graduate students.
The dean stated “in order to succeed as business executives in today’s digital economy,
business students must learn how to leverage always on communication and manage a
24/7 access to data and people” (Heebner, 2004, p.1). Medical colleges are also using
PDAs to show students that in their profession, instant communication and up to date
information is vital to the care of their patients. Not only is it valuable for students to
utilize PDAs on campus but also it is essential for them continue using them to learn and
advance in their careers.

PDAs allow students to access information 24/7, 365 days of the year, wherever they are.
This is a significant advantage over laptops and desktops. An ideal situation may be for
students to be connected into the school network through a wireless environment. This
would allow students the ability to communicate with peers and instructors, access
course information, take quizzes, provide feedback to peers when working in groups, and
access campus resources such as the library anywhere on campus (Dominick, 2002).
Facilitators could build the use of PDAs into the course curriculum. Bluetooth is also an up
and coming technology typically built into PDA devices. Bluetooth is a wireless
technology that would allow students to use wireless headsets as well as take advantage
of wireless print and fax capabilities (Wagner, 2005). But regardless of how students are
connected, PDAs can be used to enhance learning, collaboration, and communication.

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN METHODS

It is no secret that more students are entering college with a solid technology foundation.
Most have seen or used the multi media tools currently in higher education classrooms
today such as SMART boards, streaming video, projectors, blogs, printers and scanners
(Stafford, 2005). Some may even prefer an e-learning environment compared to an in-
person classroom. PDAs help bridge the gap for these individuals and overall enhance the
current course curriculum.

First and foremost it is essential for a teacher to understand and accept this technology if
it is to be used. A teacher who is opposed to using technology in the classroom is not a
good candidate for m-learning with PDAs. Some universities train and help staff with this
transition. For instance, training offered to business school instructors at the University
of Maryland dedicated to the Blackberry devices when deployed to their graduate
students.

Second, it is important to see and hear examples of how other professors have utilized m-
learning to improve classroom activities. This will also help with the adoption of PDAs in
the classroom. Not only are professors utilizing the PDAs for learning but they are also
taking advantage of the different software applications specifically designed for PDA
learning.

There are over 13,000 packages available and many can be found online. For instance, an
instructor at the University of Dakota used PDAs to help student’s track assignments and
their own individual performance. He also used a customized software package called
“Quiz App” to help students prepare for upcoming tests (Peterson, 2002).

Another professor at Erskine College used a PDA software application called “Beyond
Question” to get instant feed back if his students were absorbing the lesson for the day
(Fallon, 2002). This enabled him to proactively plan his next class to review any gaps
identified through the quiz. Once a facilitator has seen examples and software on how m-
learning can work it is now time to see how it will fit into his or her course curriculum.

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Lockitt (2005) outlined a few key questions to ask before introducing m-learning into
instruction:

Who will be using the device?

What will it be used for?

How often will it be used?

Where will it be used?

How will it be used

Why use this technology rather than another?

Is there an educational benefit?

Is there additional cost (software)

Once an instructor has answered these key questions and decided m-learning will be a
learning asset, it is also important to remember while PDAs can be beneficial for group
projects and collaboration, they also can be used for an autonomous personalized
learning. PDAs are becoming so advanced that with the recent additions of robust
Internet browsers, a personalized profile can be developed for each student. “Profiled
notification” allows a student to enroll in customized learning events and information
sharing portals so when information becomes available, the PDA notifies the student
(Deviney & Von Koschembahr, 2004, p.). For example a PDA could be customized to alert
a student or researcher when any recent article on a specific set of criteria is published.

Another form of personalized m-learning on PDAs is through a new approach called

Adaptive Hypermedia Systems (AHS). “AHS enables the learning experience to be tailored
to a student’s specific capabilities and past history. The techniques frequently employed
in achieving this tailored learning are adaptive navigation structuring, adaptive content
selection and adaptive presentation. Studies have shown that users of educational AHSs
are faster, more goal oriented and take fewer steps to complete a course.” (Brady, et al,
n.d. n.p.). Teachers can use this to help a student customize and accommodate individual
learning needs.

THE FUTURE OF M-LEARNING

What does the future hold for PDAs and m-learning? Super 3G and Fourth generation or
4G phones are already in the planning stages. These phones will have maximum data
transfer speeds of up to 10 MB per second. This would allow for streaming video and
Flash Media Player on PDA devices. An ill student having to miss class could be sitting in
bed watching class from their PDA device. Movies could be downloaded to the device so
professors could send students a movie or video to supplement a class lecture.

Connectivity problems will also be non existent in the future. Either college campuses
will see the significant benefit of moving to a wireless environment or students will use
local or national networks to stay connected (Lockitt, 2005). M-Learning software will
continue to improve and enhance personalized learning. Different peripherals (PDA
attachments to enhance usability) will include screens, keyboards and sensors to increase
the functionality of the device make it easier to use m-learning.
CONCLUSIONS

PDAs have innovated the way a student can learn and a professor can teach. These small,
easy to carry devices can do almost everything a stationary computer can do. The major
difference is that a PDA allows a student to be a more nomadic learner. The current 3G
technology allows a student to be anywhere and surf the web, send an email to a peer
about a project, track their progression in a class, check their calendar to see when an
assignment is due, share documents, and control their learning through profiled
notification and personalized m-learning. This functionality will continue to increase as
Super G and 4G devices are released.

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M-Learning also provides teaching opportunities to the instructor. They can utilize
current software to test students and receive immediate feedback, help student prepare
for the workplace, personalize learning experiences and take advantage of just-in-time”
learning. Who would have thought that the simple birth of a calculator in 1974 would turn
into a device that would imitate a computer but fit in the palm of your hand? While it is
amazing to think the future of technology is unimagined and in many ways unimaginable,
students and teachers will be doing as new technology continues to revolutionize the way
people learn.

BIODATA and CONTACT ADDRESSES of AUTHORS

Zane L. BERGE is Associate Professor of Education. Ph.D., 1988,

Michigan State University, Educational Systems Development
(Dissertation: Effects of group size, gender, and ability grouping on
learning science process kills using microcomputers). B.S., 1977,
Rochester Institute of Technology,Finishing and Production
Management Certification in istance Education, 1995, Pennsylvania
State University. Honors Received: 1999-Charles A. Wedemeyer
Award for distinguished scholarship and publication (Distance
Training) 1987 Finalist- Spencer Dissertation Fellowship Competition
1985-present. Phi Kappa Phi National Honor Society, Life Member 1983-1986.
Fellowship, Institute for Research on Teaching, Michigan State University

Zane Berge
1000 Hilltop Circle
Baltimore MD 21250 USA
Email: [email protected]
www.emoderators.com

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Alexander, B. (2004, September/October). Going nomadic: Mobile learning in higher

education. EDUCAUSE Review,39(5), 28-35. Retrieved on October 20, 2005 from
http://www.educause.edu/pub/er/erm04/erm0451.asp.

Brady, A. et al. (n.d. n.p) Dynamic composition and personalization of PDA based
elearning-personalized m-learning. Retrieved on November 21, 2005 from
http://m-zones.org/deliverables/d234_3/papers/brady-dx3-v1.pdf.

Deviney, N. & Von Koschembahr, C. (2004, February). Learning goes mobile. Human
Resource Executive Magazine. Retrieved on October 20, 2005 from
http://www.workindex.com/editorial/train/trn0402-02.asp.

Dominick, J. (2002, September). Ready or not—PDAs in the classroom. Retrieved on

October 31, 2005 from http://campus-technology.com/article.asp?id=6705.

Fallon, M. (2002, November). Handheld devices: Toward a more mobile campus. Campus
Technology. Retrieved November 4, 2005 from http://campus-
technology.com/article.asp?id=6896.

Heebner, J. (2004). University of Maryland b-school gives Nextel 7510 handhelds to MBA
students. Retrieved on November 19, 2005 from
http://www.rhsmith.umd.edu/news/releases/2004/082704.html.

Koblentz, E. (2005, May). The evolution of the PDA. Computer Collector Newsletter
Version 9.993. Retrieved on November 7, 2005 from http://www.snarc.net/pda/pda-
treatise.htm.

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Lockitt, B. (2005, January). Mobile learning. 3T Productions Limited. Retrieved on
October 10, 2005 from
http://ferl.becta.org.uk/content_files/ferl/resources/organisations/3T%20Productions/
handheldcompISBN.pdf.

Peterson, D. (2002, November). Implementing PDAs in a college course: One professor’s

perspective. Campus Technology. Retrieved November 4, 2005 from
http://www.campus-technology.com/article.asp?id=6897

Stafford, D. (2005, November). Educating the video-game generation. NAESP 14(2).

Retrieved on November 13, 2005 from
http://www.naesp.org/ContentLoad.do?contentId=1775.

Thomas, M. (2005, May). E-Learning on the move. Education Guardian. Retrieved

October 9, 2005 from
http://education.guardian.co.uk/elearning/comment/0,10577,1490476,00.html.

Vahey, P. & Crawford, V. (2003). Learning with handhelds: Findings from classroom
research. SRI International. Retrieved December 27, 2005 from
http://www.intel.com/education/handhelds/SRI.pdf.

Wagner, E. (2005, May/June). Enabling mobile learning. EDUCAUSE Review, 40, 340–53.
Retrieved October 8, 2005 from
http://www.educause.edu/apps/er/erm05/erm0532.asp.

Wood, K. (2003, March). Introduction to mobile learning (m-learning). Retrieved on

October 20, 2005 from
http://ferl.becta.org.uk/display.cfm?page=65&catid=192&resid=5194&printable=1.

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 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2 Article: 15

A Novice Instructional Scenario Writer’s Principles for Internet

Supported Learning:
An Example from Testing and Evaluation Course
Aysel Bahçe, PhD

Vice Director of
School of Foreign Languages
Anadolu University,
Eskisehir, TURKEY
ABSTRACT

In this paper, the principles that govern the development of the instructional strategies of
Testing and Evaluation in English course of Distance English Language Teacher Training
(DELTT) Program are presented. Firstly, the program and the course are described briefly.
Then the major underlying principles are presented with reference to the related
literature and examples from the course are provided.

Keywords: Instructional Design, distance education, pre-service teacher training

INTRODUCTION

Distance English Language Teaching Program (DELT) was initiated in 2000-2001

Academic year in accordance with a protocol signed with Ministry of Education to meet
the increasing demand for English language teachers in Turkey. This is a unique pre-
service teacher training program which incorporates online courses which have been used
in in-service teacher training for approximately three decades (Nielsen, Tatto , Djalil and
Kularatne, 1991). This is a blended program (Özkul and Mutlu, 2005) as the courses
offered in the first two years are face to face while the remaining two years are through
distance education. The aim of the first two years’ courses is to increase students’
proficiency and fluency in four skills (speaking, listening, reading and writing) in English.
In the 3rd and 4th years, students are equipped with the theoretical and methodological
knowledge essential in their profession. Through these courses, the ultimate goal of the
program is to graduate qualified teachers of English.

Beginning in 2004-2005 Academic Year, for the 3rd and 4th year courses Internet
supported materials which are developed by a team of people from different disciplines
are provided. Testing and Evaluation in English is one of these courses. One of the
members of this team is subject area expert who also works in the team as instructional
designer. This paper presents the guiding principles of the instructional design process of
the Internet support materials of this course by providing examples of tasks extracted
from these materials which can be reached at “http://www.iolp.aof.edu.tr” address.

BACKGROUND

In this program students are offered two reading courses, Reading Skills and Advanced
Reading Skills, respectively, in the first two years. The goal of these courses is to teach
students how to read in English and to develop students’ reading fluency. In the 3rd year
of their education, they begin to “read-to-learn”. Therefore, there is a shift from “learning
to read” to “reading-to-learn” and this is not easy (Grabe, and Stoller, 2002) as “the
transition to reading-to-learn is a strategic response to texts and tasks in academic
settings while students are asked to read primarily informational texts with large
amounts of new information that they are expected to understand and use” (Grabe, and

160
Stoller, 2002, p.85). This is especially difficult in distance education as students are on
their own to read and understand the information presented in the textbooks. To
facilitate the shift from learning-to-read to reading-to-learn and help students learn the
new information presented in their textbooks Internet support materials are developed.

All of the Internet support materials follow the template developed by the faculty of
Computer Based Instruction Department (CBID) of Open Education Faculty. Although the
underlying principles of this template are out of the scope of this article, to give a better
insight on the structure of this online course, the homepage of Testing and Evaluation in
English course is given with a brief description. Firstly, the outline presents the main
components of the internet support material. Some examples of these can be Course info
which includes the course description and course outline, units, discussions, and mail.
“Table of Contents”, on the other hand, presents the components of each unit. Unit 1 is
given below as an example and as it is seen in the example, each unit has four parts
which are overview, tasks, quiz for this unit, and comments for this unit. The last part
aims at getting feedback from the students in order to evaluate the course and revise for
better.

Sample 1

Source: http://iolp.aof.edu.tr/dersler/4379/LRNViewer.aspx

Each Internet support material is developed by a team of experts. To begin with,

Computer Aided Education Unit is in charge of the Instructional Development.
Instructional Scenario Preparation is carried out by a group of instructors including the
subject area expert. Instructional Design and Instructional Development Scenario
Preparation are carried out by the faculty of Open Education. Graphic/Animation
Designers are from the Faculty of Fine Arts. Editing of the units is done by the subject
area expert. Program Development and System Administration are carried out by a
technical team.

Finally, Coordination is within the responsibilities of distance education experts. Within

this group, instructional scenario writers are experienced teacher in the traditional
classroom and they write scenarios for each unit of their course to help students
understand and use the information in their textbook.

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THE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN PROCESS

Instructional design is defined as “… the systematic process of translating general

principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials and learning”
(McNeil, 2006). This definition highlights two important points about instructional design.
First one is its being a systematic process and its steps are: analyze, design, develop,
evaluate, and revise (Lindeman, 2006). The second point is the use of general principles
of learning and instruction which may be interpreted as the possibility of transferring
traditional classroom techniques to online materials. The following quote also supports
this idea: “Of the many instructional strategies available for use in the online learning
environment, most have not been developed specifically for online instruction, but are
currently used in traditional classrooms, and can be successfully adapted for facilitating
online learning” (ION, 2006).

Setting and Articulating Goals and Objectives

Identification of the major learning goals and objectives for any course and clearly
stating them is the first steps to an efficient instructional design (ION, 2006). Considering
these clearly stated goals and objectives and the instructional choices, the instructional
designer can make informed decisions about the best practices to achieve these goals and
objectives. This is important for the students enrolled in this course as they may form
their plan for learning the course material according to the explicitly stated objectives
(Hedge, 2000).

Source: http://iolp.aof.edu.tr/dersler/4379/LRNViewer.aspx

162
In this course, the overall aim is stated in the “course info”, and the objectives of each
unit are stated explicitly in the Overview of the unit as the purpose of overview is to
introduce the objectives and the main points of the unit (Ozkul, and Mutlu, 2005).

As an illustration, the overview of Unit 1 Introduction to Language Testing is selected. In

this overview, firstly the content of the chapter is described by highlighting the main
points of the unit. This helps orienting the students to the content of the unit. In addition
to the unit description, the objectives of the unit are stated explicitly.

REFLECTIONS OF THE TRADITIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

As stated earlier in this article, instructional strategies of the traditional classroom are
used in the online learning environment. Learning contracts, small group work,
discussion, project, lecture, collaborative learning, self-directed learning, case study,
mentorship, and forum are among these instructional strategies (ION, 2006). In this part
of the article, the examples of instructional strategies of the traditional classroom will be
presented and discussed.

Lecture
In the traditional classroom, the teacher is the expert of the topic and source of
information and one of his responsibilities is to transmit this information to the students.
he achieves this through lectures which are also used in online courses. However,
“[o]nline lectures are likely to be shorter and more to the point ….Short lectures provide
enough information to serve as a basis for further reading, research, or other learning
activities….they are readily available for students to revisit” (ION, 2006). The following is
an example of an online lecture. In this example, by clicking on the flashing button each
of which includes a key point about the difficulties of testing oral skills, students reach
the information and as he finishes clicking on the flashing buttons, another key point
related to assessment of oral skills appears.

http://iolp.aof.edu.tr/dersler/4379/LRNViewer.aspx

Discussion
“The discussion format encourages learners to analyze alternative ways of thinking and
acting and assists learners in exploring their own experiences so they can become better

163
critical thinkers” (ION, 2006). The followings are samples of encouraging discussion
through which students would integrate what they learn in the textbook and what they
bring from real world. Student-student interaction is an inevitable component of
traditional classroom. Either in pairs or in small groups students have the opportunity for
exchanging ideas and learning each other’ view points. This feature of the face-to-face
interaction is reflected in this online course and students are guided on how to participate
in the discussion.

http://iolp.aof.edu.tr/dersler/4379/LRNViewer.aspx

Feedback
Presence of the teacher is one of the salient features of the traditional classroom, and one
of responsibilities of the teacher is to provide feedback.

Source: http://iolp.aof.edu.tr/dersler/4379/LRNViewer.aspx

164
This is important as it indicates how well the student is doing. However, in online courses
“the learner is frequently insecure in the absence of the teacher and apprehensive
regarding his/her progress in the absence of close feedback” (Worldbank, 2006).

Therefore, to help students feel more secure, they are provided with the answers to all
the questions and tasks given in the chapters. As they complete the task, they can hit on
the “show the answers” or “look” button to compare their answers to the ones provided
by the teacher and encouraged by their correct answers and guided fort he answers they
get wrong. The following is an example of receiving feedback. In this task, students need
to drag the words or phrases given on the list and as they answer correctly, both the
circle and the phrase change colors and have matching colors.

Reflections of the Reading Models

Metaphorical models of reading—bottom-up model, top-down model and interactive
model—guided the instructional design of Testing and Evaluation in English course. In the
rest of the paper, this will be discussed and exemplified by using sample tasks selected
from the materials.

Tasks
Before You Begin
Before you begin part is designed as the pre-reading stage of the conventional face-to-
face intensive reading instruction. This stage is important as by the help of pre-reading
activities students’ background knowledge is activated, some information that will help
comprehension of the text is provided, their expectations are built and/or they can be
motivated to read.

The first example of Before you Begin aims at activating students’ background knowledge
about the topic. Activating background knowledge is perceived as an important factor
that affects text comprehension (Grabe and Stoller, 2002). Based on this, before students
begin to read the chapter, their background knowledge is activated. The following
example is taken from Unit 8 Test of Grammar and Usage. In this example, students are
asked to reflect on their experiences as language learners. Because they have taken
grammar and usage tests many times, they are directed to recall these experiences and
remember the types of items used by their teachers in the tests and evaluate the
appropriateness of these items critically.

165
Activation of background knowledge is followed with “prediction” and “scanning” both of
which are important reading strategies. The learners are expected to make predictions
using their background knowledge, and then go through the text to check their
predictions. As detailed comprehension is not required in this reading, students would
easily complete this task and this would help detailed reading as they would be familiar
with the text.

Source: http://iolp.aof.edu.tr/dersler/4379/LRNViewer.aspx

The second example aims at helping students to built expectations. It is taken from Unit 5
which is a chapter on the approaches to language testing.

Source: http://iolp.aof.edu.tr/dersler/4379/LRNViewer.aspx

166
Due to the nature of the information in this chapter, students are not expected to have
any background knowledge about the topic. Therefore, to lead them to the chapter, a
brief description of the chapter is given, and they are asked to form questions of their
own. This is a frequently used pre-reading activity of face-to-face instruction, and it is
based on top-down model of reading. According to this model, “reading is primarily
directed by reader goals and expectations” (Grabe, and Stoller, 2002, p.32). Because
students are asked to read the chapter to answer these questions, these questions turn to
purpose for the first reading.

Sample Tasks
Most of the time students experience problems in comprehending the texts although
lexically and syntactically these texts are at their level. Therefore, the tasks that follow
Before you Begin aim at helping students to read the chapter which contains intensive
and complicated information (Grabe, 1997). One solution to this problem is using graphic
representations of the texts which help them understand the text structure (Grabe, 1997;
Grabe and Stoller, 2002). These are important as they are visual representations of the
information given in the text and students are required to restructure the information
according to the logical connections between the ideas. There are three main types used
in these tasks as explained and exemplified below.

1- Parts of the visual representation are filled and other parts left blank:

Source: http://iolp.aof.edu.tr/dersler/4379/LRNViewer.aspx

167
In this type of visual representation, as illustrated in the following example, only the
main headings are given and reading the related part, students are asked to fill in the
missing parts.

2- Major units of the outline are moved around out of sequence, and students need to
reassemble the outline: In this type, as a visual representation, fishbone is used.
Main points are given and students are asked to complete the visual
representation by using the words and phrases given as a list on the right-hand
side of the figure. To accomplish this task, students need to read the related
section of the unit.

Source: http://iolp.aof.edu.tr/dersler/4379/LRNViewer.aspx

3- A list of the phrases is given and students are asked to reorganize the visual
representation. As illustrated in the following example, students are given the
main points to categorize (advantages and disadvantages of multiple choice tests
in this example). They should read the related part of the unit to complete this
task.

168
Source: http://iolp.aof.edu.tr/dersler/4379/LRNViewer.aspx

These visual representations are expected to motivate students to read the academic
texts which are difficult to grasp and help them see the logical relation between ideas.

CONCLUSION

Developing Internet support materials and being an instructional designer is a real

challenge for someone coming from face-to-face education culture. This definitely
requires a new interpretation of teaching and a change in culture and expectation.
However, both in face-to-face education and distance education the teachers’
responsibility is the same: guiding students’ learning.

This responsibility, theoretical knowledge and classroom experience—knowing student

nature and teaching the same course in face-to face education—played important roles in
the development of educational scenarios. To help students to read-to-learn, reading
models are used. By stating the objectives explicitly, students are guided to set their own
agenda for learning. Different types of pre-reading activities aimed at tuning students in
the reading so that they would not start reading with an empty mind.

By the help of these activities either their background knowledge is activated or they are
leaded to set expectations. The during reading tasks aimed at helping them to shift from
“learning-to-read” to “reading-to-learn” by highlighting the important information in the

169
texts and the text organization. Highlighting the important information is essential as
students have a tendency to read and to try to understand every detail in the text. By the
help of these activities, students learn the major points and minor points. Knowledge of
text structure plays an important role in learning content (Grabe, 1997) and via visual
representations students’ awareness of text structure can be raised.

Although the primary aim is facilitate understanding and using the content of the course,
the principles of this design are hoped to be a model for teaching reading for the
prospective English teachers.

BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF THE AUTHOR

Dr. Aysel Bahçe is Vice President of School of Foreign Languages,

Anadolu University and Head of Department of Basic Languages. She is
currently coordinating Writing Skills, Advanced Writing Skills and
Testing and Evaluation in English courses of Distance ELT Program of
Open Education Faculty. She is also teaching Expository Writing and
Methodology courses in face-to-face ELT Program. Her research
interests are pre-service teacher training, curriculum development, and
teaching writing.

Aysel Bahce, Ph.D

Vice Director
School of Foreign Languages, Anadolu University
26470 Eskisehir, Türkiye
Email: [email protected]
Phone: (90) (222) 335-5402
Fax: (90) (222) 335-5402

REFERENCES

Grabe, W. (1997) Discourse analysis and reading instruction. In Miller, T (Ed.) Functional
Approaches to Written Text: Classroom Applications (pp. 2—15). Washington, D.C.:
English language programs, United States Information Agency.

Grabe, W. And Stoller, F.L. (2002) Teaching and Researching Reading. Malaysia: Pearson
Education.

Hedge, T. (2000) Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Hong Kong: OUP

Mutlu, M. E. ve Ozkul, A. E., “İnternet Destekli Açıköğretim Modeli: İngilizce Öğretmenliği

Lisans Programı[ Internat Aided Open Learning Model: Case of Distance English Language
Teaching Progra -DELT]”, Uzaktan eğitim Çalıştayı, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, 29
Nisan 2005. from
http://www.bilgi.aof.edu.tr/yayinlar/2005/Internet%20Destekli%20Acikogretim%20Modeli.pdf

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 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2 Review: 1

ON-LINE EDUCATION: AN EMANCIPATING VISION

Written by Margarita Victoria Gomez

Publisher: Cortez Editora ISBN 85-249-1062-3
São Paulo, Brazil, July 2004.

Reviewed by Ricardo Romo TORRES

Manuel Moreno Castaneda
Maria del Sol Orozco Aguirre
Universidad de Guadalajara Virtual
MEXICO
http://www.udgvirtual.udg.mx

"On-line Education" is a book that meets the challenge to present

itself as an unfinished text. In addition to demanding an active
participation of the reader, it requires a predisposition to
complete it through an also inconclusive dialogue.

Among its goals we can find the search for education networks
that remain under constant reconstruction, maintaining the
emancipative vision as an imperative for the reconfiguration, as a
constituted tissue for the scaffolding of subjects who impress,
imagine, think and have a will.

The unfinished part is presented in the following paragraph: "Similar to Babel according
to Borges, knowledge is the product of a hazard in which fiction is the universe and
where, out of fear of its multiple combinations, individual texts constitute an unfinished
tale. In this labyrinth-shaped universe, the mirror and the recurrence do not allow
finding the way out" page 134.

The sense of being of man within a planetary community is framed by the ontological
condition of inconclusiveness; the requirement of being more, however, as well. This
more is guided by the need for dialogue with others in terms of the opening and
maintaining an unconcluded dialogue.

The idea of a web or network leads to an articulating demand within the context of the
category of wholeness. Based on this category, we will be able to present a reticulum of
concepts where we can find included the web, subjectivity, identity, experience,
mediation and, of course, digital literacy. This reticulum results in a concept of identified
education with a condensed arrival point to something that the author defines as 'the
pedagogy of virtuality'.

The author is willing to contribute to the preparation of education networks through an

emancipating vision, implying here a libertarian educational concept. This concept
includes subjectivity related to fears and uncertainties of those who have recently joined
the virtual feature.

One of the merits of this work is to conceive the identity at the mark of an unfinished
process, where the unconcluded subjects wish to be more based on the encounter
between men and women. Thus, communication and dialogues embody modalities of
accordance and conflict that have to be faced by the interacting subjects within the
network. Another fundamental aspect is represented by the cyber culture where the

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identity problem has to be rethought and reintroduced in the networks sphere,
considering the inconclusiveness of men and women.

The experience of opening, in turn, is felt as a 'foundation experience' as long as it

represents a pedagogic device. This refers to a new organization of acknowledgements
whose demand follows a 'new organization of the experience' where the
acknowledgements in their function of cognition find their articulations related to ethical
and political levels.

Even though the text is giving us a point of departure based on the concept of dialogic
educational networks and a point of arrival of an educational concept that intends to
agree with a pedagogy of virtuality, the mediation will be offered by the aspects of the
pedagogic project, by the methodological questions, and by the evaluation.

THE EDUCATION PROJECT ORIENTED TO PEDAGOGY OF VIRTUALITY

From the project's point of view, virtual education, or education via internet, is created
as an important option to insure that the subjects accept knowledge, debate over it and
build up proposals that match their reality and their very context. All of this is
accomplished while respecting the participant's subjectivity, culture and context, thus
guiding to proposals of intervention that allow improving and even transforming the
social, political and educative environment.

Special attention is given to the procedures during the design and implementation of
educational projects, from the technological to the pedagogic area, especially the
moment where the content is related to the means, tools, objectives, competence, etc. In
all of this, the emancipating ideas of Paulo Freire present themselves as a viable and
realistic alternative for network education under the reference of pedagogy of virtuality.

The pedagogy of virtuality is based on a technological appropriation, considering the

principles of popular education, and aiming at the conformation of an open and
democratic society that in turn should be supported by the ethical and political
awareness of the subjects.

Within the context of political education associated to a creative usage of the internet,
the possibility of a transforming action is shown through a system that gives room for
intervention based on a socio-historical view through which the pedagogical resources
should be strengthened, especially with network support that includes actual situations
in its design.

One of the challenges of pedagogy of virtuality is to overcome a culture of silence

through the creation of cyber culture circles. Within these circles, men and women
retrieve their history and their culture, using the internet in a critical manner and in a
creative way. Thus, individualistic and solipsistic attitudes will be surpassed by means of
a cooperation method through which the attempt is made to set free a space for the
participation of citizens. It has to be kept in mind, however, that from the point of view
of pedagogy of virtuality, long distance education should not be one that homogenizes in
time and space, but one where the dialogic mediations and the participation program
allow and confirm the social being in an educative way.

Based on the above mentioned point of view, long distance education has to be seen as a
multi-disciplinary system where knowledge, perception and feelings are being involved
that are committed to a new action that ranges from the aesthetic to the ethics. While
the team observes and applies those principles, the simple visual reflection can be
surpassed and exchanged by social and pedagogic contributions, thus acquiring an
ethical-aesthetical experience.

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As a matter of fact, this experience has to be considered an achievement of the team that
participated in the project, through the implementation and the development of this
educative alternative.

Among the strongest principles to be considered in a project of this nature are the
following: to present a minimum of common denominators between the members of the
team that works for the institution; to provide the work between institutions, and finally,
to provide basic operational implementation through a multidisciplinary and specialized
work that includes the choice of the software. In the same way, the proposition should
consider symbolic aspects of the needs of the users, participants and the context, and
after that an intensive analysis of the methodological type has to be performed in both
the lineal and transversal mode of elaboration and implementation of the project,
involving the knowledge and the chosen platform. In addition, special attention has to be
given to communication with the team and also with the students through the virtual
rooms that have been created for that purpose (written texts, images, sound, audio,
links, forums, meetings in real time [chats], videoconferences, animations and
simulations) as their participation might activate the potential of one of the involved
subjects.

METHODOLOGICAL FIELDS

These fields remain open regarding the experience, as this experience carefully takes
into account the record of the methodological dimensions of the participants' knowledge.
The experience also implies a reflexive dimension, as it tries to make available to the
knowledge base of the team members, a new manner of creating and producing courses.

The courses are presented as educational projects in which several methodological

strategies are considered, such as: brainstorming, work groups, group dynamics,
questionnaires, and direct interviews in on-line time. While making a presentation of the
structure of this type of course, a permanent participation of the people involved in the
educational process should be encouraged.

This interaction will allow the establishing of a foundation for other types of instruments
that enrich the project, meaning that it will suggest a permanent systematization of the
performed work, during and afterwards, thus outlining the collective work.

During the creation process of WEB courses, it has to be considered that these are
"oriented by popular education principles, the rhizome, by participation design, by
multiple subjects and by pedagogical mediations. According to our view, it involves a
concrete exercise of the participants, a subject treatment of both the learning and the
form. In the same way, it implies a socio-historical situation of the constituents of the
project, an organization according to the methodologies that was constructed by them".

With regard to the actual use of the proposition, it could be said that because of the
moment and the conjuncture we are living in, it demands an educational situation of
permanent innovation that provides new meaning with respect to the education of the
teacher and, for that, the pedagogical mediation processes and the participation
programs of web courses have to be acknowledged as relevant.

Here it is also worth noting that this proposal does not only include a epistemological
dimension but also presents in an outstanding way the 'how, why and for what' of long
distance education by exposing several important points of the LDE–Long Distance
Education), utilizing an emancipating vision that joins a series of pertinent ideas to a
different model for the development of courses, to their processes, as well as to the more
adequate forms of evaluation, including all of the actors in the educational process, as
well as the materials, the pedagogical mediations and the means.

174
EMANCIPATING EVALUATION

The evaluation is considered to be a solid backbone of the educational process because

of its importance for a permanent improvement of the courses and the interaction of the
involved people during the appropriation of knowledge, as well as for the development of
competencies and values.

Based on this emancipating vision, the possibilities of the evaluation process may be
considered based on the grounding of the evidence found in experience and thus, the
education can be analyzed as an area that includes the teachers of the network as well
as the whole interacting community. The shared responsibility of the programmers and
the pedagogues that are involved in the evaluation should take on the criticism and the
problematic as essential steps for the construction of an emancipating education.

Irrespective of the evaluation done by the software of network learning, the process of
forming evaluation has to be noted, as the technological resources allow for a new
approach of the aspects referring to processes, their quality, and the ethics in the virtual
sphere, because the communities formed there are linked to particular ideologies and
world-views. This way, conditions may allow access to a flexible and interactive, as well
as dialogic and contextual practice from the very beginning and, therefore, the
triangulation of data obtained through the reports of the educational practices of the
teacher, of the students, and of the participating observers allows a reliable evaluation.

Finally, the evaluation as a device based on emancipation is conceived as an instrument

for the purpose of hope for the future as it is supported by a larger process of education,
having the objective of participating with unfinished and incomplete subjects in the
permanent and inquisitive search for improving practices through communication,
dialogue, mediation and strategies of learning that require a new understanding of the
world. Thus, during the action of educating with criticism in the virtual sphere, the
evaluation is the process that allows for developing practices that should contribute to
the improvement of the quality of life, responding creatively to the social needs of
education and achieving a pedagogical strengthening of new technologies, turning them
into tools that render an emancipation service to men and women.

You can visit by clicking the links:

http://www.cortezeditora.com.br/detalhe.php?idn=OTQ1(Brazil),
http://www.udgvirtual.udg.mx/dspace/handle/123456789/352 (México)

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 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2 Review: 2

Trends and Issues in Distance Education:

International Perspectives
Edited by Yusra Laila Visser, Lya Visser, Michael Simonsın, & Ray Amirault
2005, United States of America: Information Age Publishing ,
Inc. pp. 315. ISBN 1-59311-212-2

Reviewed by Dr. Erhan EROGLU

Anadolu University
Eskisehir, TURKEY

In this book, the terms of “distance education” has been

discussed from different perspectives. The term “distance
education” conjures up in many minds the image of modern,
computer-enabled technology that has blossomed in only the
last twenty years.

Many of the lessons learned over the last century of distance

education research and practice have been implemented in a
wide variety of distance education programs worldwide, from
higher education online learning programs in the United States
to rural, radio-based instructional programs in developing

countries. Distance education is truly international discipline.

While it is true that the term “distance education” has a
universal definiton, local distance ducation experiences are
often quite idiosyncratic. This idiosyncratic nature emerges
from the need to integrate distance education within the constraints, oppurtunities, and
realities of spesific cultural and geographic contexts.

From these local distance education experiences, educators are developing new
understandings of the broader field of distance education, including the trends and issues
present in the field.

ORGANIZATION OF THE SECTIONS

This book has been organized by thematic content into four main sections. Each of these
sections represents a unique level of analysis for trends and issues in distance education.

Part I presents five distinct perspectives on the state of distance education and the trends
and issues of the field. First perspective of five distinct perpectives is “a survey of
progressive and conservative trends in education with implications for distance education
practice.” Second perspective is “quality, accredition and recognition: issues in the
delivery of transnational education.” Third perspective is “the long and short of distance
education: trends and issues from a planetary human develeopment perspective.” Fourth
perspective is “distance education reappraised: emerging trends in traditional universities
and corporate training institutions.” And fifth one is “what the world needs now:
international research on distance education.”

Part II contains a series of interviews that that were conducted with international
distance education leaders. This section has four chapters. The individuals interviewes in

176
this section were selected because they have played a significant role in the development
of distance education theory, research and practice.

Part III of the book presents a fascinating array of case studies in distance education.
This section has eight chapters. The chapters in Part III section of the book cover
experiences with programs and initiatives in places as diverse as South Africa, Brazil, and
Turkey. Some of these case studies report on experience with in a specific nation.

Part IV, the last part of the book, focuses on practical issues in distance education. In tih
section, there are three chapters. In this section, authors of the chapters discuss some of
the key trends in the design and development of distance education for international
audiences and settings. For example, “wide array of technologies and strategies that can
be used for distance education, while giving special consideration to the impact of human
and environmental differences on the selection of approaches”, “analysing of how
mentoring roles evolve as the technologies enabling distance learning become
increasingly interactive and accomodating of student-to-student and student-to-
instructor interaction.

CONTENTS OF THE BOOK

Introduction
Yusra Laila VISSER, Lya VISSER, Michael SIMONSON, and Ray Amirault

PART I
PERSPECTIVES ON GLOBAL TRENDS AND
ISSUES IN DISTANCE EDUCATION

A Survey of Progressive and Conservative Trends in Education

with Implications for Distance Education Practice. Brent G. WILSON

Quality, Accreditation and Recognition: Issues in the Delivery of

Transnational Education. Andrea HOPE

The Long and Short of Distance Education: Trends and Issues

from a Planetary Human Development Perspective. Jan VISSER

Distance Education Reappraised: Emerging Trends in Traditional

Universities and Corporate Training Institutions. Francois MARCHESSOU

What the World Needs Now: International Research on Distance

Education. Deborah LAPOINTE

PART II
lNTERV1EWS WITH LEADERS IN
INTERNATIONAL DISTANCE EDUCATlON

Defining Trends and Issues in Distance Education:

An Interview with Don Ely. Lya VISSER and Kristen GAGNORZ

A Career in International Distance Education:

An Interview with Barbara Spronk. Michael SIMONSON and Margaret CRAWFORD

University-wide Distance Education Implementation:

An Interview with Robert Morgan. Rqv J. AMIRAULT and Jeffery SIEVERT

Personal Perspectives on Trends and lssues in Distance

Education: An Interview with Otto Peters. Lya VISSER and Meira Van der SPA

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 PART III
NATIONAL AND REGIONAL CASE STUDlES IN
DlSTANCE EDUCATION

Open and Distance Learning for Developing Countries:

Is the Cup Half Full or is it Still Half Empty? Tony DODDS

The Promise of M-learning for Distance Education in

South Africa and Other DeveIoping Nations
Lya VISSER and Paul WEST
British Distance Education: A Proud Tradition. Steve WHEELER

Distance Education in Turkey: Experiences and Issues. Ugur DEMIRAY

Supporting Distance Learning in Brazil:

Applications of a Multimedia Digital Library. Fredric Miclzael LITTO

Open and Distance Learning Enhanced through 1CTs:A Toy for

Africa's Elite or an Essential Tool for Sustainable Development? Bob DCY

The Role of Distance Education in Turkish Women's Education

Emine DEMIRAY and Senstl CURABAY

"Thank You for (not) Forgetting Us": A Reflection on the Trials,

Tribulations, and Take-off of Distance Education in
Mozambique. Muriel VISSER - VALFREY, Jan VISSER, and Miguel BUENDIA

PART IV
DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT TRENDS FOR
INTERNATIONAL DISTANCE EDUCATION

Learning Management Systems (LMS) for Web-based

Distance Education: An International Review. Wei-yuan ZHANG and Lixun WANG

Trends in Distance Education Technologies from an

International Vantage Point. Michael SIMONSON

Dynamism and Evolution in Student Support and Instruction in

Distance Education: Implications for International Distance
Education. Yusra Laila VISSER
About the Authors

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 Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE April 2006 ISSN 1302-6488 Volume: 7 Number: 2 Review: 3

Teaching With Educational Technology in the 21st Century:

The Case of The Asian-Pasific Region
Edited by Yukiko Inoue and Suzanne Bell
Hersley: PA: Information Science Publishing, 2006
pp. 321, ISBN 1-59140-724-9

Reviewed by Dr. Abdullah KUZU

Anadolu University
Eskisehir-TURKEY

This book was edited by Yukiko Inoue and Suzanne Bell, an

educator and a librarian at the University of Guam, and
published by Information Science Publishing in 2006.

The book describes the opportunities, challenges and

strategies of the technology-enhanced learning in the regional
base, namely Asia-Pacific. The main goal of the book is to
examine educational technology, learning theories, human
learning and cognition; to provide successful experiences in
higher education and educational technology; to explain the
technology integration into teaching in geographically remote
regions such as Guam and Micronesia; to support faculty
members in technology use and achieve the reluctance, and to
discuss the future trends in educational technology.

The book can be recommended for students as well as the professionals such as
university professors, researchers, learning center directors, librarians, media specialists,
supervisors, and software and courseware designers who are interested in theory and
practice of the educational technology, distance education and technology-enhanced
learning in multicultural context.

ORGANIZATION OF THE SESSIONS

The book has nine chapters divided into five sections.

Section I contain one chapter and provide an introduction to Guam and Micronesia. The
selecting of this region as a case study based on their community that reflects diverse
ethnic cultures influenced by European, American, Asian, and Micronesian populations.
Guam is a regional learning center in western Pacific.

Section II consists of two chapters. Chapter II concentrates on advanced technologies

and e-learning, and describes an overview of educational technology, educational media
in curriculum and instruction, and online government e-resources for teacher education
as a case study. Chapter III focuses on human information processing, learning theories
and information technology. It compares cognitive theory with behavior theory in terms
of human information processing of learning.

Section III presented in three chapters, and focuses on faculty voices on technology
integration. The first chapter of this section, Chapter IV, describes faculty teaching
experiences with educational technology in higher education system in Guam. Chapter V
focuses on experiences on Micronesian faculty members in the area of educational

179
technology integration into teaching. Chapter VI provides successful examples for
developing IT skills, and suggestions for planning flexible programs for training and
mentorship to encourage and support reluctant and apprehensive faculty.

Section IV consists of one chapter. Chapter VII describes Internet technologies and
distance learning based on three online programs in higher education. A regional distance
education program titled as the University Challenge Grant Program is described in terms
of its design, implementation, and evaluation.

The last section of the book, Section V has two chapters, and focuses on educational
computing in the Asia-Pacific region. Chapter VIII emphasizes virtual academic resources
to support digital programs, higher education research and curriculums. Chapter IX
discusses generally future directions of technology-enhanced teaching and learning.
Besides this, the changing roles of higher education faculty and policymakers and the
opportunities, challenges, and strategies of educational technology for the Asia-Pacific
region are presented in this chapter.

180