Research J. Engineering and Tech.

8(4): October-December 2017

ISSN 0976-2973(Print) www.anvpublication.org

2321-581X(online) www.ijersonline.org

REVIEW ARTICLE

A Review of Advanced Casting Techniques

Manikanda Prasath. K1*, Vignesh. S2
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore,
India.
2
PG Scholar, Industrial Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Kumaraguru College of Technology, Coimbatore
*Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT:
Nowadays, in the area of casting, the focus is on cost and resource efficient production of increasing complex
shapes, miniature precision component along with the considering environmental issues, put an all stringent
requirements on the advances in casting technology. Casting is the primary manufacturing process is being
developed at each and every stages over centuries of years to satisfy the needs of the customer. This paper
reviews most of the advanced casting techniques and their advantages, limitations and applications in the field of
engineering. The paper is divided into four sections, the first section details about the casting process within
expandable mold with expandable patterns such as investment casting, full mold process and replicast process.
The second section describes about the semisolid process such as thixocasting, rheocasting and thixomolding.
The third sections explains non-bonded sand molding process such as vacuum molding and magnetic molding
and the fourth sections associates with the centrifugal casting process such as De Lavand process and Moore
casting process.
.
KEYWORDS: Semisolid process, Centrifugal casting process, Replicast process, Expandable Mold with
Expandable Patterns.

INTRODUCTION: When using the expendable pattern method, the part is

Even though sand casting enjoys wide application the typically made twice: once in an expendable form of the
needs of advance casting process is inevitable. The part (which is disposable) and then as the actual
following discussion will give an idea of application of functional metal form of the part. Casting with
advanced casting process with advantages, limitations expendable molds is a very versatile metal-forming
and applications in the field of engineering. process that provides tremendous freedom of design in
size, shape, and product quality. Adding expendable
EXPANDABLE MOLD WITH EXPANDABLE patterns to this equation increases the complexity and
PATTERNS: tolerance of product.
One major difference between the permanent pattern
casting methods and the expendable pattern methods is Depending upon the size and application, castings
that the expendable pattern is typically always the manufactured with the expendable mold process and
positive shape of the part. In contrast, permanent patterns with expendable patterns increase the tolerance from 1.5
are the negative or mirror image to be cast. to 3.5 times that of the permanent pattern methods. The
two major expendable pattern methods are lost foam and
investment casting. A hybrid of these two methods is the
Replicast casting process which involves patternmaking
Received on 02.08.2017 Accepted on 15.10.2017 with polystyrene (similar to lost foam) but with in a
©A&V Publications all right reserved ceramic shell mold (similar to investment casting). These
Research J. Engineering and Tech. 2017; 8(4): 440-446. three methods are briefly reviewed here.
DOI: 10.5958/2321-581X.2017.00076.9

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 Research J. Engineering and Tech. 8(4): October-December 2017

A. Investment Casting Process: B. Full Mold Process:

Investment casting (also known as ‘lost wax casting’ or H.F. Shroyer patented for metal casting on April 15,
‘precision casting’) has been a widely used process for 1958. In this patent, expanded polystyrene (EPS) block
Centuries. As per [1] Taylor (1983), the principles can were used by him to machine the pattern and during
be outlined back to 5000 BC when the early man pouring, it was supported by bonded sand. In the full
engaged this method to produce elementary tools. As per mold process, the pattern is usually machined from an
[2] Barnett (1988), the technology have a great EPS block and is used to make large kind of castings
advancement in USA during Second World War, to the primarily. Originally this process is also known as ‘lost
need of fastidiousness components with complex foam process’. The Evaporative pattern casting process
geometry. [3] Eddy et al. (1974) reckoned has a different (EPC) is a binder less process and no physical bonding is
applications and advantages of investment casting required to bind the sand aggregates. Foam casting
process. It is commonly used to manufacturing parts techniques has been known by a variety of generic and
ranging from turbocharger wheels to golf club heads, proprietary names such as in lost foam casting,
from electronic boxes to hip replacement implants, evaporative pattern casting, cavity-less casting, full mold
general engineering to aerospace engineering and casting and evaporative foam casting.
defense outlets.
The full-mold process (lost foam) is a sand casting
Kalpakjian and Schmid (2008) It explained the basic method in which polystyrene is used as pattern [5]. The
steps of an investment casting, using a ceramic shell [4]. more suitable polymeric materials is to manufacture the
and their presentation, in the investment casting patterns are expandable polystyrene and
technique, are in desired shape, its made of wax, formed polymethilacrilate, or combination of both [6,7]. The
by injecting molten wax into a metallic die. Then the polymer density can vary from 16 to 24 kg/m3. The
pattern or a cluster are gated together to a central wax pattern is covered with refractory coating and inside of
sprue. The sprued pattern is invested with ceramic or mold during metal pouring. As the metal is poured
refractory slurry, which is solidified to build a shell through feeding system, and the metal takes its place,
around in the wax pattern. The pattern is removed from reproducing the exact pattern shape. The gases from the
the shell by melting or combustion process, leaving a foam burn flee through the sand, crossing the coating
hollow void within the shell. Prior of casting, the shells layer. The generated gases must travel through the sand
are fired in an oven where intense heat burning out any easily.
remaining wax reduce. The resulting shell are hardened
by heating, it filled with molten metal. After that molten The full-mold process has more advantages compare to
metal is solidified, the shell is broken and the gates are other casting methods, especially for high production of
cut off from the casting to obtain the required shape of difficult shape parts. The patterns are cheap and easy to
component. Good surface finish is the major advantage manufacture, the produced parts are free of lines and exit
of this process. No elaborate and expensive tools are angles. It possible to reuse the sand [8,9]. The energy
involved in this process. So that shapes are difficult to consumption is low, as well as operation costs and
produce by other casting methods and are very easily investments. There is more flexibility for parts design
possible to be produced by this method. Thin cross [10]. The production cost cutback with respect to green
sections and intricacies can be made by this processes. sand method is around 20–25% for simple parts and 40–
Finished machining is considerably reduced on this 45% for complex parts [11].
castings made by this process, making it economical in
cost. The process has no metallurgical limitations. Since every casting requires a new pattern, it is a costly
process. There is an limitations on the minimum section
But there is more expensive in this process because of thickness of the pattern. Quality of the casting fully
large manual labor involved in the preparations of wax depends upon the quality of the pattern. As the sand is
pattern and ceramic slurry. As the shells are delicate, the unbounded, during pouring, because of difference
process is limited by the size and mass obtained. Making evaporation rate of the metal and flow rate of the metal,
intricate and high quality pattern increases the process sand falls down in the cavity generated. Hence, defective
costs. Steel investment castings is for one-third of the casting. The foam is 92% C by weight, the lost foam
total output by value. Among the non-ferrous alloys, process is unsuitable for the majority of steel alloys.
there is a wide range of applications of aluminum and its
alloys. Splines, holes, bosses, lettering and even some This process is suitable for non-ferrous alloys and irons.
threads can be successfully cast. Very fine and thin It is used for making automotive components (cylinder
sections can be produced by this process. heads, engine blocks, inlet manifolds, heat exchanger,
and crank shaft). It is used in marine, aerospace and
construction industries.
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C. Ceramic Shell Casting – Replicast: produce a relatively higher surface roughness of the
The Replicast process can be best characterized as a casting, which has been verified by [16] Kumar et al.
hybrid of the investment casting process and expanded (2007) and Li et al. (1998). This has consequently
polystyrene (EPS) as in lost foam. [12] Ashton et al. hundreds of application in this new shell casting process
(1984) developed the ceramic shell casting process based in the precise casting field. However, it was verified by
on the foam pattern, researchers and precise casting Campbell (2000) and Bonilla et al. (2001) that, for large
production enterprises has already recognized its castings, the process becomes no better than low
advantages over lost wax casting and lost foam casting, technology sand castings.
and have mainly employed as a solution to carburization
of low-carbon steel castings produced in the lost foam Wang et al. (2007) and Wen et al. (2009) reported that
process. the rapid development of aerospace and automotive
industry [13], the demand for complicated and thin-
First of all, the foam pattern is based on the part shape is walled aluminium and magnesium alloy precision
prepared as prototype, and the thin shell with fewer castings increases market due to their high strength-to-
layers is fabricated using the shell fabrication technology weight ratio and lightweight. [14] Liao et al. (2009)
and investment casting outside the foam prototype. After introduced vacuum and low-pressure casting process into
the foam prototype is removed, the shell is taken to be primary ceramic shell process to produce magnesium
roasted. Following the boxing and modelling, the molten alloy and aluminium precision castings, which could
metal is poured and solidified under vacuum and air eliminating pore and shrinkage defects as present in lost
pressure at a level. foam castings. As presented by [15] Jiang et al. (2010).
Table 1 compares replicast with investment casting
In this foam pattern has higher dimensional accuracy and process.
much lighter weight, in this new process can be used to
produce large precise castings. Furthermore, the shells SEMI-SOLID METAL PROCESSING:
are very thin because of the loose-sand uniting vacuum Semi solid metal processing, also known as semisolid
was employed to further reinforce it, thus the production metal casting, semisolid forming, or semisolid metal
cycle of shells can be significantly shortened. This new forging, is a special die casting process wherein a
shell casting process also over in lost foam casting partially solidified metal slurry (typically, 50%
process. In as much as the foam prototypes are removed liquid/50% solid instead of fully liquid metal) is injected
before pouring, the filling capacity of molten metal can into a die cavity to form a die-cast type of component. It
be improved, especially for non-ferrous metals, and was discovered that when the dendritic structure of a
carburization of low-carbon steel castings would also be partially solidified Sn-15wt%Pb alloy was fragmented
eliminated. Air emissions are easier to control than with by shear in a Couette viscometer, it results in a globular
lost foam. This application of a vacuum during casting structure.
allows improved fill-out of molding.
The apparent viscosity of the globular structure was
The support provided by the ceramic shell during casting dramatically lower than that of the dendritic, and the
allows large, thin shells to be easily poured. Sand slurry is formed has fluidity approximating that of
inclusions and other sand mold-related defects can be machine oil. That semisolid material has rest held its
virtually eliminated. As with investment and lost foam shape like a solid; however, when a shear stress was
casting, there are no cores or parting lines, high applied, it became fluid to be injected into a die casting
dimensional accuracy, and excellent surface finish. The this property is known as thixotropy. The key to SSM
ceramic shell does not have a thick as for shell casting. processing is to generate a semisolid metal slurry that
The technique minimizes dust emissions from molding contains a globular primary phase (surrounded by the
and finishing, as compared to sand molding. enriched liquid phase) and exhibits thixotropic behavior.
That is, the viscosity of the slurry decreases continuously
In the lost wax casting process, wax can be retain in its under shear deformation, whereas the viscosity value can
common name of ‘precision casting process’ only for be recovered once the shear action ceases. There are
very small castings. Since the surface quality of the foam three major semisolid processing routes: thixocasting,
pattern is much poor when compared to that wax casting, rheocasting, and Thixomolding, and several variations
the shell fabricated outside the foam pattern would within those.

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TABLE 1 : Comparison of investment casting, Full mold process and replicast Process
Feature Investment casting Full mold process Replicast process
Pattern Softened wax is injected at high Pattern is made from polystyrene Partially expanded EPS beads are blown into
pressure into a metal tool. foam and Injected into aluminium aluminium tooling and completely expanded.
The wax is subject to shrinkage tool Finished patterns are lightweight, have high
and deformation, and it is density, and provide good surface finish and
expensive and heavy. excellent dimensional accuracy.
It is reclaimable to some degree.
Shell Successive coats of refractory No shell is prepared but coated Successive coats of refractory slurry and
slurry and stucco are applied. with primary refractory paint stucco are applied.
Five to ten coats are required Three or four coats are required, resulting in
completed shells are often heavy a relatively light and easy-to-handles shell.
and difficult to handle. Firing at 925–1000oC for 5 min removes the
Firing at 1000oC for 20 min EPS pattern and hardens the shell
removes the residual wax and
hardens the shell.
Pouring Metal is frequently poured into The polystyrene foam pattern left Thin ceramic shell is surrounded by loose
hot, unsupported shells, breakage in Sand mold is decomposed by the sand vibrated to maximum bulk density, and
is possible. molten metal. the vacuum is applied during pouring to
The metal replaces the foam prevent shell breakage.
pattern, exactly duplicating all of
the features of the pattern
Applications Suitable for all alloys. Suitable for non-ferrous alloys and Suitable for all alloys.
Less suited for heavy section irons (preferably aluminum) Not ideal for very thin section parts (e.g.
components. Not suitable for steel. <2mm).
Manufactura Medium productivity with Less productivity Very less productivity
bility outstanding dimensional control.

A. Thixocasting: achieve the higher injection forces and velocity control,

Thixocasting consists of two separate stages: the these specialized thixocasting machines are more
production of billet feedstock having the appropriate expensive than conventional die-casting machines.
globular structure, and reheating of billets to the
semisolid temperature range, followed by the die casting B. Rheocasting:
operation. The thixocasting route starts from a non- Rheocasting (also known as slurry-on-demand), the
dendritic solid precursor material that is specially liquid state is the beginning point, and a thixotropic
prepared by manufacturer, using continuous casting slurry is formed directly from the melt via special
methods. Upon reheating this material into the mushy thermal treatment/management of the solidifying system
(two-phase) zone, a thixotropic slurry is formed, which [17]. The rheocasting method is favored over
is the feedstock for the semisolid casting operation. thixocasting because there is no premium added to the
There are three major processing methods to make billet cost, and the scrap recycling issues are alleviated.
thixocasting feedstock which can be reheated to the C. Thixomolding (Magnesium Pellets) :
semisolid region to develop the fully globular structure Thixomolding process uses solid chips or pellets of
for forming into SSM parts. conventionally solidified magnesium alloys that are fed
The advantages of thixocasting are exceptional part into a heated injection system containing a reciprocating
quality extremely because of low levels of shrinkage or screw. Upon heating, the metal chips are converted by
gas porosity, excellent leak tightness and weldability. the shear action of the screw into a thixotropic, low-
Excellent mechanical properties (T5 heat treated solid-content slurry (solid fraction less than 0.3), which
thixocasting parts are able to achieve properties typically is fed into the shot accumulator by the rotating screw.
found in T6 heat treated permanent mold castings). Fast Once the accumulation chamber is filled, the slurry is
cycle times. Long die life because of limited thermal injected in the mold.
shock to the tooling and less heat checking. Near-net
shape because of low draft angles possible, reduced A major advantage of the process is that it effectively
machining stock compared to competitive casting combines both slurry making and slurry injecting into a
processes one step process, leading to high productivity and energy
savings. In addition, the process avoids the safety
The thixocasting machines incorporate larger injection problems usually associated with melting, handling, and
cylinders with additional hydraulic multiplication die casting molten magnesium. Thixomolding is
systems, as well as thicker platens and larger-diameter successfully implemented in some of magnesium alloys.
tie bars to accommodate the high injection forces. Due to Table 2 provides a comparison of semi-solid metal
the extra material costs and engineering necessary to process.

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TABLE 2 Comparison of Semi-solid metal process

Thixocasting Rheocasting Thixomolding
Thixocasting begins with a non- Rheocasting starts with material in Thixomolding process uses solid chips or pellets of
dendritic solid precursor of material the liquid state, and the thixotropic conventionally solidified magnesium alloys that are fed
that is specially prepared by the slurry is formed directly from the into a heated injection system
manufacturer using continuous casting melt via special thermal
methods treatment/management of the system
Upon reheating the material into the The slurry is subsequently fed into Upon heating, the metal chips are converted by the shear
mushy (i. e., two-phase) zone, the die cavity. of the screw into a thixotropic, low-solid-content slurry
thixotropic slurry forms and becomes which is fed into the shot accumulator by the rotating
the feed for the casting operation screw. Once the accumulation chamber is filled.
No prior treatment is required It is favored in that there is no A major advantage of the process is that it effectively
premium added to the billet cost, and combines both slurry making and slurry injecting into a
the scrap recycling issues are one step process, leading to high productivity and energy
alleviated savings. In addition, the process avoids
The safety problems usually associated with melting,
handling, and die casting molten magnesium.

NO-BOND SAND MOLDING PROCESS: B. Magnetic Molding:

Sand molding processes are classified according to the Based on a concept similar to the lost-foam process
way in which the sand is held (bonded). Most sand using an expandable polystyrene (EPS) pattern, magnetic
casting employs green sand molds, which are made of molding was developed. In initial development of the
sand, clay, and additives. Binders are also used to magnetic molding process took place at the same time as
strengthen the cores, which are the most fragile part of the lost-foam process, but it has never achieved the same
mold assembly. However, some molding processes do level of industrial development as the lost-foam method
not use binders [18]. Instead, the sand or mold [21]. The magnetic molding process involves a coated
aggregates are held together during pouring by the EPS pattern that is surrounded by a mold material of
pattern itself (as in lost-foam casting) or by the use of an magnetic iron or steel shot (instead of sand as in lost
applied force (as in vacuum molding and magnetic foam). After the EPS pattern is positioned in the flask
molding described here). No-bonded molding processes and encased with magnetic shot particles (between 0.1
involve free-flowing mold particles and do not require and 1.0 mm, or 0.004 and 0.04 in., in diameter), the mold
binders, mulling equipment, or mold additives. is compacted further by periodic vibrating and/or tilting.
The mold is then made rigid by the application of a
A. V-Process: magnetic field prior to pouring the molten metal.
The vacuum-sealed molding process allows molders to Evolving gases are drawn off through the base of the
make complex molds using dry, unbounded, and freely flask. The magnetic field is turned off after solidification
flowing sand. Molds are sealed by using plastic films and cooling, resulting in immediate shakeout. The free-
along the top and bottom sand surfaces of the cope and flowing magnetic shot molding material is returned to its
the drag molds and then vacuum applied to the sand point of origin after cooling, dedusting, and metal splash
medium of cope and drag [19]. The plastic film along removal.
with top of the drag mold and the bottom of cope mold is
softened by heating and formed on an appropriate pattern Advantages of the magnetic molding, like other no-bond
to produce the hollow cavity for the finished mold. The methods, include the absence of a chemical binder,
control factors of the V-process are may affect the reductions in dust and noise levels, full mechanization or
quality of the castings and the molding sand, vibration automation of the process, and the elimination of
frequency, vibrating time, degree of vacuum imposed, normally used molding activities (such as ramming and
and pouring temperature. jolting). The increased heat conductivity of the iron or
steel molding material also results in a finer grain
The advantage of the V-process is that the use of vacuum structure in the cast metal. Another advantage is that a
to maintain the mold eliminates the requirement for a piece mold can be produced without a joint line.
sand binder. Consequently, no sand mixing system is
required, and the machinery for shakeout and sand Magnetic molding using irons, carbon and low-alloy
reclamation are therefore less costly to installing and steels, high-chromium steels, and copper-base alloys are
operate. Additional benefits for V-process molding under research.
include reduced requirements for sand control and lower
fume and dust generation [20]. V-process mold will also CENTRIFUGAL CASTING:
retain heat longer, slowing solidification, due to presence Centrifugal casting is the largest casting branches in the
of no moisture in the mold sand. casting industry, accounting for 15% of the total casting
output of the world in terms of tonnage. In centrifugal
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casting the molten metal is introduced into the rotating an alloys casting of various shapes and sizes. In this
mould. Centrifugal force tends the poured a metal to fly surface roughness of the casting mainly depends on the
outwards away from the axis of rotation, this centrifugal surface quality of shells, replica ability of the molten
force can thus play a part in shaping and in feeding of metal and other factors such as the casting oxidation on
the molten metal into the casting. The centrifugal force the surface as well as damage while removing the shell.
produced by rotation is larger than normal hydrostatic In addition, of the foam pattern outside which the shell
forces. (Sand casting process utilizes hydrostatic forces) was fabricated has great influence on the surface
it creates a high pressure in the metal or casting while it roughness of castings. Therefore, it is very useful to
is solidifying. This results in producing high quality develop some methods to improve the surface roughness
casting [22]. The wall thickness of the casting is of foam patterns and castings. It is more expensive than
determined by the volume of metal introduced into the the lost foam process.
mold. Casting cools and solidifies from outside towards
central axis thereby providing directional solidification. SSM advantages reduced enthalpy, increase of tool life.
Because the slurry is approx. 50% solid when cast, much
The most important advantage of using centrifugal is of the sensible heat and heat of fusion has already been
high metallurgical quality. It can be used for cylindrical released before injection into a die, and the thermal load
components. A further function of centrifugal force is on tooling is thus greatly reduced. Reduced cycle time,
seen in the tendency for nonmetallic inclusions to the reduced energy release also affects solidification
segregate towards the axis of rotation. In centrifuge, is time, typically reducing it by nearly 50%. Reduced
combined with marked directional freezing and with a solidification shrinkage. Injecting a slurry with 50%
short path to the free surface in the bore, so that a high fraction solid into a die cavity means that 50%
standard of freedom from inclusions is achieved. The solidification shrinkage associated with the primary
pressure gradient within the casting, dissolved gases to phase has already taken place, thus reducing the
form bubbles at the bore region, where the gas can tendency for shrinkage pores and the need for shrinkage
escape readily from the casting [23]. feeding improved casting integrity and properties.
Reducing solidification shrinkage and porosity
The limitation is more for alloy component during ultimately improves mechanical properties also the
pouring of metal under the forces of rotation and eutectic morphology typical of semisolid processed
possibility of contamination of internal surface of material favors high ductility, even in less-pure alloys
castings with non-metallic inclusions. such as secondary material made from scrap recycling.

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