18ECO106J –PCB Design and Manufacturing

UNIT-1
Dr. J.Manjula
Associate Professor
ECE/SRMIST
 Introduction
What is PCB ?
⚫ A PCB- Printed Circuit Board is a thin board made of fiberglass,
composite epoxy, or other laminate material.
⚫ Conductive pathways are etched or "printed" onto board, connecting
different components on the PCB, such as transistors, resistors, and
integrated circuits.
Advantages of PCB
The size of components assembly is reduced with a corresponding decrease in weight

Quantity production can be achieved at lower unit cost

Component wiring and assembly can be mechanized

Circuit characteristics can be maintained without introducing variation in intercircuit capacitance

Ensure high level of repeatability and offer uniformity of electrical characteristics from assembly to
assembly

The location of parts is fixed, which simplifies identification and maintenance of electronic equipment
and systems

Inspection time is reduced because of probability of error is less

Requires minimal technical skill and training

Components of PCB
The base, which is a thin board of insulating material, rigid or flexible, which supports all
conductors and components
The conductors, normally of high purity copper in the form of thin strips of appropriate
shapes firmly attached to the base material.
❑ The base provides mechanical support to all copper areas and all components attached to the copper. The
electrical properties of the completed circuit depend upon the dielectric properties of the base material and
must therefore, be known and appropriately controlled.
❑ The conductors provide not only the electrical connections between components but also solderable
attachment points for the same.

When the completed board provides mechanical support and all necessary electrical
connections to the components, it is essentially a Printed Wiring Board or Printed Circuit
Board. The term printed became popular because the conductive areas are usually
generated by means of a printing process like screen printing or photo-engraving, which
are commonly used to print drawings or inscriptions.
 2. Classification of PCB
There are two ways of classifying printed circuit boards:
❖ Based on use and application of boards
❖ Based on number of planes or layers of wiring

BASED ON USE BASED ON NO. OF LAYERS

HIGH-RELIABIL SINGLE DOUBLE MULTI RIGID &

PROFESSIONAL CONSUMER
TY SIDED SIDED SIDED FLEXIBLE
 2.1 Classification-based On Use

A) CONSUMER
Used in consumer products such as television, radio, cheap tests and
measuring instruments.
Used less expensive base material.
Allowed greater tolerance.
Less importance given to electrical properties.
 2.1 Classification-based On Use
B) PROFESSIONAL
Made of better quality material.
Better electrical and environmental specifications.
Tightly controlled fabrication techniques used.
C) HIGH-RELIABILITY
Best quality electrical specification.
High quality base material.
Highly controlled fabrication techniques used.
Normally used in strategic applications.
2.2 Classification-based On No. Of Layers
A) SINGLE-SIDED PCB
▪ Wiring available on only one side of the insulating
substrate.
▪ SOLDER SIDE- Side containing circuit pattern,
COMPONENT SIDE- Other side.
▪ Simple circuitry to keep cost low.
▪ Manufactured mostly using PRINT AND ETCH or
DIE-CUT METHOD.
▪ Single-Sided PCBs are used for simple and low
cost electrical/electronic devices like calculators,
power supplies, LED Lighting boards, FM Radios,
Timing Circuits etc.
2.2 Classification-based On No. Of Layers
B) DOUBLE-SIDED PCB
▪ Wiring on both sides of insulating material.
▪ Component density and conductor lines are higher than single-sided PCB.
▪ Are of 2 types-
i. Double-sided board with Plate Through Hole (PTH)
ii. Double-sided board without Plate Through Hole (non-PTH)
 Double-Sided PCB
i. DOUBLE-SIDED PTH
⚫ Circuitry on both sides of insulating surface.
⚫ Connected by metallizing wall of a hole in the
substrate that intersects the circuitry on both sides.
⚫ Popular where circuit complexity and density is
high.
ii. DOUBLE-SIDED NON-PTH
⚫ Extension of single-sided board.
⚫ Cost considerably lower due to absence of plate.
⚫ Contacts are made by soldering component leads
on both sides of the board.
⚫ No. of solder joints to be kept minimal on
component side in case of removal.
Plate Through Hole Techniques
Configuration of plated through-hole

Interconnections with (a) funnel-flanged eyelet (b) split funnel-flanged eyelet (c) fused-in-place eyelet
 C) MULTILAYER PCB
⚫ Used in situations where density of
connections is too high to be handled by
2 layers.
⚫ Other reasons- accurate control of line
impedance or for earth screening.
⚫ More than 2 PCBs with a thin layer in
between called PREPEG forming a
sandwich like structure.
⚫ Some boards have as many as 50 layers.
⚫ Top layer is similar to conventional
PCBs.
⚫ Circuit is completed by interconnecting
various layers by plated through holes.
 Applications Of Multilayer PCB
⚫ Consumer Electronics use multilayer PCBs for their increased
functionality and smaller size.
⚫ Computer Electronics: Everything from servers to motherboards uses
multilayer PCBs, primarily for their space-saving attributes and high
functionality. With these applications, performance is one of the most
essential characteristics of a PCB, whereas cost is relatively low on the list
of priorities.
⚫ Telecommunications: Telecommunication devices often use multilayer
PCBs in numerous general applications, such as signal transmission, GPS
and satellite applications. The reason for this lies primarily in their
durability and functionality.
⚫ Industrial: Multilayer PCBs do prove more durable than several other options
currently on the market, making them a good choice for applications where
rough handling may be a daily occurrence such as industrial controls.
⚫ Medical Devices: Multilayer PCBs are particularly favored in Medical
industry for their small size, lightweight nature and impressive functionality
compared to single-layer alternatives.
⚫ Automobile: Due to their small size and durability, multilayer PCBs are also
highly functional and relatively heat-resistant, making them a good fit for the
internal environment of an automobile.
⚫ Aerospace: Multilayer PCBs present an ideal solution in this case, with plenty
of protective layers to keep heat and outside stress from damaging the
connections, as well as the ability to be made from flexible materials.
 Rigid And Flexible PCB
⚫ Rigid- made up of variety of materials.
⚫ Flexible-
substrate- polyester or polyamide.
base- very thin, 0.1mm.
laminate- copper
⚫ Rigid-Flex- Combination of rigid and flexible , volumetrically efficient,
thus gaining popularity.

9884431270
 Manufacture of PCB
SINGLE SIDED BOARD
Step 1- Artwork Generation
Step 2- Panel Preparation
Step 3- Image Transfer
Step 4- Etching
Step 5- Board Drilling
Step 6- Coating
Step 7- Testing
DOUBLE SIDED PTH BOARD
Almost all the steps are similar except the following:
⚫ Panel Preparation
⚫ Hole Drilling
⚫ Electroless copper plating
⚫ Image Transfer
⚫ Tin led plating
⚫ Etching
MULTI LAYER BOARD
Steps involved :
⚫ Laminating pattern layers, pre-etched layers and undrilled copper-clad layers
together.
⚫ Bounding inner and outer layers using prepreg.
⚫ Bounding is performed in hydraulic press or autoclave.
FLEXIBLE BOARD
⚫ They are normally punched and not drilled.
⚫ In addition to the print and etch process, there is an alternative technique called
‘additive process which is used for manufacturing printed circuit boards.
⚫ In this process, there is no copper on the laminate.
⚫ The copper is deposited selectively on the base laminate wherever required, as
per the design of the circuit.
 Challenges in Manufacture of PCB

⚫ The concept stage defines the requirement and specifications, and entails deciding
on the overall architecture of the design.
⚫ The capture stage defines the design intent by describing its functionality.
⚫ The layout step includes determining optimum placements for the components on
the circuit boards and routing the tracks that connect them together, besides also
accounting for the cables and/or connectors that tie multiple circuit boards
together.
 PCB standards
Extensive work has been done at the international level to develop standards and
specifications connected with PC boards.

The prominent organizations engaged in such activities are:

1. Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits (IPC);

2. American National Standards Institute (ANSI);
3. International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC);
4. Department of Defense, USA (DoD); and
5. DIN German Standards.
6.International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
 Active Vs Passive Components

Active components (i) transistors

Passive components (i) resistors (ii) capacitors; (ii) integrated circuit
Active components are devices that are capable of
A passive device is one that contributes no power gain controlling voltages or currents and can create a
(amplification) to a circuit or system. It has no control action switching action in the circuit. They can amplify or
and does not require any input other than a signal to perform its interpret a signal. They include diodes, transistors
function. Since passive components always have a gain less than and integrated circuits. They are usually
one, they cannot oscillate or amplify a signal. semiconductor devices.
 Component Leads
⚫ Discrete vs Integrated Circuits

component with
surface mount axial leads
through-hole component components with radial leads
component

single-in-line package dual-inline package pin grid arrays leadless components

Polarity in Components
Polarized Capacitors
Anode + Cathode - Diodes
Component Symbols
 RESISTORS
⚫ The most commonly used component in an electronic
assembly is the resistor.
⚫ It is a passive component which exhibits a controlled value
of resistance across its two leads.
⚫ Resistance, by definition, is the opposition to the flow of
current offered by a conductor, device or circuit.
⚫ It is related to current as follows:
⚫ Resistance = voltage/current (Ohm’s Law).
There are two classes of resistors; fixed resistors and variable resistors. They are
also classified according to the material from which they are made. The most
commonly used types of resistors are detailed below.
⚫ Carbon Resistors -They are made either by mixing finely ground carbon with
a resin binder and an insulating filler or by depositing carbon film onto a
ceramic rod. Most carbon film resistors have low stray capacitance and
inductance, so they are usable at higher frequencies. However, their accuracy
is limited to 1%. In addition, carbon film resistors tend to drift with
temperature and vibration .
⚫ Metal Resistors -They are made of metal film on ceramic rod or metal glaze
(a mixture of metals and glass) or metal oxide (a mixture of a metal and an
insulating oxide).They are more stable under temperature and vibration
conditions having tolerances approaching 0.5 per cent. Precision metal film
resistors with tolerances below 0.1 per cent are also commercially available.
⚫ Wire-wound Resistors -They are made by winding resistance wire onto an
insulting former. They can be made to very close tolerances.
⚫ Thick Film Resistor Networks -Thick film resistor networks comprise
precious metals in a glass binding system which have been screened on to a
ceramic substrate and fired at high temperatures. These networks provide
miniaturization, have rugged construction, are inherently reliable and are not
subject to catastrophic failures. Single in-line (SIL) packages, DIP
(dual-in-line package) and square packages are commonly available.
 PACKAGING OF RESISTORS
⚫ The physical construction of a resistor is often a ceramic or glass cylinder
or rectangle on to which the resistor material is deposited.
⚫ End-caps are used to make the connections, forming a physical pressure
contact with the resistor material. Less used configurations are cylindrical
with radial leads, arrays or networks of resistors usually having a DIP
(dual-in-line) package.
Color code of resistor
Variable Resistors
 THERMISTOR
⚫ Thermistors are resistors with a high temperature co-efficient of
resistance.
⚫ Thermistors with negative temperature co-efficient (fall in resistance
value with an increase in temperature) are the most popular.
⚫ They are oxides of certain metals like manganese, cobalt and nickel.
Thermistors are available in a wide variety of shapes and forms suitable
for use in different applications.
⚫ They are available in the form of disks, beads or cylindrical rods.
⚫ Thermistors have inherently non-linear resistance–temperature characteristics. However,
with a proper selection of series and parallel resistors, it is possible to get a nearly linear
response of resistance change with temperature over a limited range.
⚫ Thermistors with a positive thermo-resistive co-efficient are called posistors. They are
made from barium titanate ceramic and are characterized by an extremely large resistance
change in a small temperature span.
⚫ Thermistors have various applications such as excess current limiters, temperature
sensors, protection devices against over-heating in all kinds of appliances such as electric
motors, washing machines and alarm installations, etc.
⚫ They are also used as thermostats, time delay devices and compensation resistors.
Depending upon the application, the thermistor beads need to be properly protected by
sealing them into the tip of a glass tube or placing them inside a stainless steel cover.
 CAPACITOR
⚫ A capacitor (also called a ‘condenser’) consists of
two facing conductive plates called electrodes, which
are separated by a dielectric or insulator .
⚫ Capacitors are available in a large variety of
packages, shapes and dimensions such as axial, disc,
rectangular, tubular.
⚫ The dielectric can be made of paper, mica, ceramic,
plastic film or foil. To make a practical capacitor, a
lead is connected to each plate or electrode.
⚫ The charge Q which can be stored in a capacitor,
when connected to a voltage V across it, is given by:
Q = CV
 Types of capacitors
⚫ Paper capacitors make use of thin sheets
of paper wound with thin aluminum foils.
In order to increase the dielectric strength
and to prevent moisture absorption, the
paper is impregnated with oils or waxes.
⚫ Mica capacitor is made by directly
metallizing the thin sheets of mica with
silver and stacking together several such
sheets to make the complete capacitor.
The assembly is encapsulated in resin or
molded in plastic.
⚫ Ceramic capacitors generally employ
barium titanate as the dielectric medium.
However, low-loss ceramic capacitors use
steatite, which is a natural mineral. A thin
plate of ceramic is metallized on both
sides and the connecting leads are
soldered to it.
Variable Capacitors
 Inductors
⚫ Inductance is the characteristic of a device which
resists change in the current through the device.
⚫ Inductors work on the principle that when a
current flows in a coil of wire, a magnetic field is
produced, which collapses when the current is
stopped.
⚫ The collapsing magnetic field produces an
electromotive force which tries to maintain the
current. When the coil current is switched, the
induced EMF would be produced in such a
direction, so as to oppose the build-up of the current.
Induced EMF e = – L di/dt where L is the
inductance and di /dt the rate of change of current
⚫ The primary use of an inductor is filtering. There are two very different
types of filter inductors:
⚫ High current inductors wound around a large core are used in power
supply filters, and Low current air core inductors are used in signal
filters.
 DIODES
⚫ A diode is an active component through which the current flows more
easily in one direction than in the other.
⚫ It is made from semiconductor material.
⚫ As the name implies, diode means a two-electrode device: one electrode
is made of n-semiconductor material while the other is p-type.
⚫ The junction of the two dissimilar materials results in the diode action.
⚫ The main functions of the diode in a circuit are to act as a switching
device, a detector or a rectifier.
 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)
⚫ A light emitting diode is basically a pn junction that emits light when
forward biased. LEDs are available in various types and mounted with
various colored lenses like red, yellow and green.
⚫ They are used mostly in displays employing seven segments that are
individually energized to form alphanumeric characters.
⚫ LED displays are encountered in test equipment, calculators and digital
thermometers whereas LED arrays are used for specific applications such
as light sources, punched tape readers, position readers, etc.
⚫ Electrically, LEDs behave like ordinary diodes except that their forward
voltage drop is higher.
⚫ For example, the typical values are; IR (infra-red): 1.2 V, Red: 1.85 V,
Yellow: 2 V, Green: 2.15 V.
⚫ Further, the actual voltages may vary depending upon the actual
technology used in the LED.
 PHOTODIODE
⚫ A photodiode is a solid state device, similar to a conventional diode, except
that when light falls on it ( pn junction), it causes the device to conduct.
⚫ It is practically an open circuit in darkness, but conducts a substantial amount
of current when exposed to light.
 TRANSISTORS
⚫ The most commonly used semiconductor device is the transistor having the
characteristic to control voltage and current gain in an electronic circuit.
⚫ These properties enable the transistor to provide amplification, rectification,
switching, detection and almost any desired function in the circuit.
⚫ It is the basic device of all solid state electronics, both as a single component
or as an element of integrated circuit.
⚫ A transistor is a three-terminal device. The terminals are called base (B),
collector (C) and emitter(E).
⚫ Basically, it is made up of two diodes: a base-emitter diode and a
base-collector diode.
⚫ In normal amplifier operation, the base-emitter diode is forward-biased and
the base-collector diode is reverse-biased.
⚫ All transistors have leakage current across their reverse-biased base-collector
diodes.
⚫ For silicon transistors, this current is more than several nanoamperes. In
germanium transistors, the leakage current may even be several microamperes.
Leakage current increases with temperature and doubles about every 10 °C.
⚫ More than 500 packages of transistors are listed in the component manufacturers’
catalogues.
⚫ However, only about 100 types are in common use. Metallic packages (TO-3,
TO-5 and TO-18)have been in use for a long time.
⚫ They have been mostly replaced in low and medium power applications by cheap
plastic packages due to the low cost of the latter.
⚫ For high power applications, however, metallic packages, both stud or bolt type,
are still common, though flat type packages are being replaced by plastic versions,
with metallic tabs to improve heat dissipation.
 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS

⚫ Field-effect transistors, like bipolar transistors, have three

terminals.
⚫ They are designated as: source, drain and gate, which correspond
in function to the emitter, collector and base of junction transistors.
Source and drain leads are attached to the same block (channel of n
or p semiconductor material).
⚫ A band of oppositely doped material around the channel (between
the source and drain leads) is connected to the gate lead.
⚫ There are three different types of field-effect transistors including;
⚫ (a) Junction gate;
⚫ (b) Insulated gate (non-enhanced type); and
⚫ (c) Insulated gate (enhanced type).
⚫ Each type comes with either n-channel or p-channel.
⚫ The junction gate and non-enhanced type insulated gate FETs are
basically ‘ON’ devices like vacuum tubes. These two devices must be
biased off. On the contrary, the enhanced type insulated gate FET is
basically an ‘OFF’ device and must be biased on.
 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
⚫ A power MOSFET allows for simple gate control circuit design and has excellent
fast switching capability.
⚫ On the other hand, at 200 V or higher, it has the disadvantage of rapidly increasing
on-resistance as the break-down voltage increases.
⚫ The bipolar power transistor has excellent on-state characteristics due to the low
forward voltage drop, but its base control circuit is complex and fast switching
operation is difficult as compared with the MOSFET.
⚫ Has the combined advantages of the above two devices.
⚫ The structure is a combination of the power MOSFET and a bipolar power
transistor .
⚫ The input has a MOS gate structure, and the output is a wide base PNP transistor.
⚫ The base drive current for the PNP transistor is fed through the input channel
⚫ Besides PNP transistor, there is an NPN transistor,
which is designed to be inactivated by shorting the
base and the emitter to the MOSFET source metal.
⚫ The four layers of PNPN, which comprise the PNP
transistor and the NPN transistor, form a thyristor
structure, which causes the possibility of a latch-up.
⚫ Unlike the power MOSFET, it does not have an
integral reverse diode that exists parasitically, and
because of this, it needs to be connected with the
appropriate fast recovery diode when needed.
 Thyristor
⚫ Thyristor is the generic name for the solid state devices that have electrical
characteristics similar to that of the thyratron.
⚫ This family of components is mostly used in all solid state power control and
switching circuits, thereby replacing the old relay circuits. The following
three types of thyristors are widely used:
Silicon-controlled rectifier (reverse blocking triode thyristor);
Triac (bidirectional triode thyristor); and
Four-terminal thyristor (bilateral switch).
⚫ The thyristor is basically a four-layer pnpn device and can be represented
as

• Many transistor packages are used for packaging SCRs and TRIACs. Special
packages have however, been also developed.

• The most common packages are TO-49, TO-118, TO-65 and TO-200.
 Digital integrated circuits
⚫ Digital integrated circuits are used extensively in all branches of
electronics from computing to industrial control, electronic instruments,
communication systems and medical equipment.
⚫ Digital circuits cover a wide range of applications, from high current
industrial motors to microprocessors.
⚫ The basic elements of all digital circuits are logic gates that perform
logical operations on their inputs.
 Logic circuits
⚫ Logic circuits are decision-making
elements in electronic circuits.
⚫ They are the basic building blocks of the
circuits that control data flow and
processing of standard signals.
⚫ In most systems, which use logic, the
output function represents a voltage
level, which is high or low.
Categories of Integrated Circuits Based on
Packing Density
⚫ SSI (Small scale integration) refers to integration levels typically having about
12 equivalent gates on chip. They are available in 14 or 16 pin DIP or Flat
packs.
⚫ MSI (Medium scale integration) means integration typically between 12 and
100 equivalent gates per IC package. It is available in 24-pin DIP or Flat pack
or 28-pin ceramic chip carrier package.
⚫ LSI (Large scale integration) implies integration typically up to 1000
equivalent gates per IC package.
⚫ VLSI (Very large scale integration) means integration levels with extra high
number of gates, up to 1,00,000 gates per chip.
⚫ For example, a RAM may have more than 4000 gates in a single chip, which is
why it comes under the category of VLSI device.
 Random Access Memory (RAM)

⚫ Random Access Memory (RAM) is used in a micro processing system to store variable
information.
⚫ The CPU (central processing unit) under program control can read or change the contents
of a RAM location as desired.
⚫ RAMs constitute a generic category that encompasses all memory device in which the
contents of any address can be accessed at random in essentially the same time as any
other address.
⚫ There are two types of RAMs: static and dynamic.
⚫ In the dynamic RAM, information is stored as electrical charge on the gate
capacitance of MOS transistors.
⚫ Since these capacitors are not perfect, the charge will leak away and the
information is likely to be lost with time if the charge is not periodically
refreshed.
⚫ This can be done in several ways and depends upon the type of device in use.
⚫ Static RAM does not need to be refreshed, as the memory cells are bi-stable
and similar in design to conventional flip-flops.
⚫ In general, a static RAM consumes more power than its dynamic counterpart.
⚫ However, it requires less support circuitry.
⚫ Also, there are no problems of synchronizing the memory refresh cycles with
normal CPU read and write operations.
 Read Only Memory (ROM)
⚫ In a microprocessor-based system, ROMs are normally used to hold the
program of instructions and data constants such as look-up tables.
⚫ Unlike the RAM, the ROM is non-volatile, i.e. the contents of the
memory are not lost when the power supply is removed.
⚫ Data stored in these chips is either unchangeable or requires a special
operation to change.
⚫ This means that removing the power source from the chip will not cause
it to lose any data.
⚫ The following are the five basic ROM types:
⚫ ROM;
⚫ PROM;
⚫ EPROM;
⚫ EEPROM; and
⚫ Flash Memory.
 Mask-programmed ROMs
⚫ They are programmed by the manufacturer to the user’s requirements.
⚫ This type of ROM is only used if a fairly large number of units are required,
because the cost of preparation of creating the bit pattern on the chip is quite
high.
⚫ The contents of these ROMs cannot be altered after manufacture. Once the
chip is made, the actual chip can cost very little money.
⚫ They use very little power, are extremely reliable and, in the case of most small
electronic devices, contain all the necessary programming to control the device.
Programmable Read Only Memory
(PROM)
⚫ This is programmed by the user. Selectively fusing (open-circuiting) the
metal or polysilicon links in each memory cell sets that cell to a fixed
state.
⚫ The process is irreversible.
⚫ In one form of PROM, the information is stored as a charge in a
MOSFET cell.
⚫ Blank PROM chips can be coded by anyone with a programmer.
⚫ The process is known as ‘burning the PROM’.
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read
Only Memories (EEPROM) or Read-Mostly
Memories
(RMM)
⚫ They are designed such that the contents of these memories can be
altered electrically.
⚫ However, this is a fairly slow process.
⚫ It often requires voltages and circuit techniques that are not commonly
found in normal logic circuitry.
 Flash Memory
⚫ This is a type of EEPROM that uses in-circuit wiring to erase by
applying an electrical field to the entire chip or pre-determined
sections of it called blocks.
⚫ Flash memory works much faster than traditional EEPROM
because it writes data in chunks, usually 512 bytes in size,
instead of a byte at a time.
 Microcontroller
⚫ A microcontroller is basically a single-chip microcomputer provided in a
single integrated circuit package, which contains a CPU, clock circuitry,
ROM (flash), RAM, serial port, timer/counter and I/O circuitry.
⚫ As such, unlike conventional microprocessors it does not require a host of
associated chips for its operation.
⚫ Most of the microcontrollers come in 40-pin DIP packages; the pin-out
consists essentially of up to 32 I/O lines with the remainder being used for
power, reset interrupt and timing.
⚫ The instruction set of a single chip microcomputer generally bears a close
resemblance to that of the microprocessor family to which the microcontroller
belongs.
⚫ One of the popular microcontrollers available in the CMOS technology is
89C51, which has 4K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read-only
memory (EEPROM). Its instruction set and pin-out are compatible with
industry standard MCS-51.
⚫ Flash allows the program memory to be re-programmed in-system or by a
conventional non-volatile memory programmer.
⚫ This microcontroller is available in both DIP or QUAD package.
 Transformer
⚫ A transformer is an electrical device which, by electromagnetic induction,
transforms electric energy from one circuit to another at the same frequency,
but usually at a different voltage and current value.
⚫ In electronic equipment, transformers are generally used to provide the
required ac voltage to the circuit by appropriately transforming the mains
voltage.
⚫ When a transformer transfers electric energy at a different level, it is called
either a step-up (increase in the voltage ratio) or a step-down (decrease in the
voltage) transformer.
⚫ If there is no level change, then it is said to have a 1:1 voltage ratio.
⚫ A transformer is so constructed that one winding (primary) induces voltage
into a second winding or windings (secondary).
⚫ The windings are adjacent to each other to obtain magnetic or inductive
coupling.
⚫ The input voltage is applied to the primary winding, and the output is taken
from the secondary winding.
⚫ The primary is normally shown on the left, so that the signal flows from left
to right, with the output at the right.
⚫ The transformer may have either an air or an
iron core.
⚫ The air core transformer is used for coupling
signals between stages at higher frequencies.
⚫ The power transformer is usually of iron core
and has two or more secondary windings.
⚫ These windings are intended for generation of
different voltage levels required in some
electronic circuits.
 Relays
⚫ A relay is an electromechanical device.
⚫ It depends upon the energizing of a magnetic coil (solenoid) in one
circuit to control the opening or closing of contacts in a completely
different circuit.
⚫ The relay solenoid and the contacts of that relay may appear in
different locations on the diagram.
 Solid State Relays
⚫ With a sealed construction and no moving parts, the solid state relays are
particularly suited to ac switching applications requiring long life and
high reliability.
⚫ The switching is silent, causes no arcing and is unaffected by vibration
and corrosive atmospheres.
⚫ The control input is optically isolated from the zero voltage switching
circuit which produces virtually no RF interference.
⚫ They are operated by a TTL open collector.
⚫ The output circuit is ‘normally open’.
⚫ These relays are available as SIL) or DIL (dual-in-line) PCB mounting
type packages.
 Reed Relays

⚫ Encapsulated reed relays which incorporate a coil to operate the contacts,

when energized, are available in DIL (dual-in-line) package. These relays
internally incorporate a diode across the coil to protect the driver circuitry
from back EMF.
⚫ The relays normally have open contacts with ac mains (230 V) switching
capacity.
⚫ They are normally used with mains Triac Trigger devices.
 CONNECTORS
⚫ The connector on a printed circuit board provides a route for all input
and output signals, voltages and grounds.
⚫ The connectors on the board are usually of male contact type which
can be ‘plugged-into’ a female receptacle.
⚫ The plug or male contacts always constitute the removable part of a
connector assembly and the receptacle is the stationary or fixed part.
⚫ The male or pin contacts are not wired to voltage or power sources to
protect the personnel from touching the pins and a possible shock
hazard, when the plug is separated from the female part.
⚫ The symbol for a male contact looks like the head of an arrow, and for a
female contact, like the tail of an arrow.
⚫ The type of contact can be shown graphically as either a plug or a jack.
⚫ The plug must be shown at the top of the diagram with a dotted line joining
each contact.
⚫ The connector contacts are numbered on the diagram for convenience.
⚫ They show the location of circuits, not necessarily in alphabetical or
numerical order.