SPE-24978-MS Offshore Amorphous Silica
SPE-24978-MS Offshore Amorphous Silica
SPE-24978-MS Offshore Amorphous Silica
This paper was prepared for presentation at the European Petroleum Conference held in Cannes, France, 16-18 November 1992.
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cements have been similarly applied in low density such variations could cause certain portions of the
slumes. An integration of widely accepted gas cement column above the gas zone to gel more
control properties, these lightweight cements (referred quickly than cement across the gas zone. A gelled
to herein as Gastight Lead Cement [GLC]) attempt to cement "plug" restricts hydrostatic transmission to the
arrest gas movement along each potential path of formation, thus promoting the influx of gas.
flow. Successfully applied in many offshore waters,
GLC not only provides a way to minimize shallow To help achieve a properly mixed cement slurry and
gas migration, but also offers insight into obtaining help avoid such occurrences, automatic density
better zonal isolation in all wells. control mixing units were introduced in the late
1980's. Automatic density control, together with
DRILLING FLUID DISPLACEMENT adequate mixing energy applied to the slurry, has
increased slurry consistency over conventional
To isolate formations and help prevent gas movement on-the-fly mixers and will help maintain the high
along the wellbore-cement sheath interface, the first quality performance properties of GLC.6
step prerequisite to GLC is the proper removal of
drilling fluid from the wellbore. The importance of GASTIGHT LEAD CEMENT (GLC)
drilling fluid removal in the cementing process is
clearly understood but in shallow casing scenarios
's3 As previously mentioned, it is the intent of GLC to
the condition of the wellbore may sometimes be help stop gas migration at each potential flow route.
overlooked. It is obvious, however, that drilling To achieve this goal, GLC slurry designs incorporate
fluid left in the hole could serve as a conduit for gas various cementing additives, listed in Table 1, each
flow, nullifying the performance of any gas control with basic function(s) to enhance desirable gastight
cement slurry. The efficiency of drilling fluid performance properties. Those key properties, which
displacement can be increased in many ways include low fluid loss, rapid gel strength, zero free
including proper mud conditioning, using adequate water, low permeability, high early compressive
spacer fluids, centralizing the casing, pumping at high strength, and adequate waiting-on-cement (WOC)
rates, and moving the casing during circulation and time, are more fully described in the following
cement placement. 43s sections.
For the purposes of this paper, a lightweight lead Low fluid loss properties help attack gas flow at all
cement is defined as a cement slurry exhibiting a potential routes through the unset cement column.
specific gravity less than 1.7 that is placed in the After cement slurry is placed in the wellbore, low
wellbore to reduce hydrostatic pressures or costs in fluid loss helps lower overall volume losses in the
the construction of the wellbore. annulus. In turn, minimizing volume losses helps
maintain overbalance hydrostatic pressure across the
A consistent control on lightweight slurry density is formation that helps keep gas from entering the
important for several reasons. A slurry that is too wellbore. When overbalance pressure is eventually
heavy may result in formation breakdown and lost as a result of cement gelation,' low fluid loss
potential loss of the cement column. Conversely, a cements allow only small volumes of formation gas
slurry that is mixed below desired density may not be to enter the annulus. Less gas present in the annulus
capable of maintaining hydrostatic control and result lowers the chance for migration to occur.
in immediate gas flow. Also, if the slurry density is
not accurate, there may be major effects on key gas To help achieve "gastight" properties, it is
control parameters including slurry viscosity, free recommended that fluid loss values,= determined by
water, transition time, and compressive strength. For API Spec 10, be kept below 100 ccI30 min, and
a lightweight slurry, a variation in slurry density of more preferably below 50 cc130 min tested at a
only 0.3 lb/gal may affect both compressive strength pressure differential of 1000 psi. This can be
development and slurry viscosity values by more than achieved through a variety of fluid loss control
30%.6 With respect to changes in slurry viscosity, additives. Certain additives perform more efficiently
SPE 24978 OLIVER COKER, TIM WILLIAMS, AND KIRK HARRIS 3
in low density slurries and testing should be shallow applications, a settling slurry causes changes
conducted to determine the best design. in slurry density and a potential problem with
Consideration should also be given to the effect of hydrostatic control. Also, a column with free water
fluid loss additives on other gas control properties may encourage gas migration by forming "stringers"
that are key to the success of the GLC. of water in the cement column which may serve as
conduits for gas flow.
RAPID GELATION
MINIMIZING INTERSTITIAL FLOW
Although fluid loss additives will minimize annular
volume losses, they will not eliminate volume losses Theoretically, another potential path of gas flow is
completely (hydration volume reduction, e.g.1. That through the interstitial water between the grains of
truth, combined with the fact that cement gelation unset cement.12*" Although large amounts of gas
will reduce hydrostatic pressure across the gas flow are unlikely to occur through the gelled cement
formation, means that it is practically impossible to "matrix," GLCt4incorporates properties to minimize
prevent some amount of gas from entering the cement the chance of intrusion of gas. Again, it is
column. When this occurs, one potential route of gas amorphous silica's ultrafine particles that fill the
migration will be the percolation of gas bubbles channels between cement grains and provide the agent
through the unset cement. A well documented means needed to help block this potential path of migration.
of helping prevent this type of gas flow is to obtain Latex materials have also been touted for this
rapid gelation of the cement slurry; this arrests property, however, for shallow gas control
buoyant gas bubbles from their upward m o ~ e m e n t . ~ , ~ applications, any adverse effect on compressive
After cement is placed in the annulus, if it can strength development must be considered.
quickly gel from 100 lbf 100 ft2 static gel strength to
500 lbI100 ft2 (often referred to as the cement slurry Another method of effecting interstitial gas flow at
transition), then it is viewed as favorable for particular points in the cement column is the use of
restricting gas percolation through the unset cement. an openhole external casing packer (ECP). By
In GLC, a transition time less than 30 minutes is inflating a packer element across the annular
recommended. clearance and against the formation, a rubber
membrane provides a barrier that can block gas
To achieve adequate transition times, GLC movement through the unset cement. A proper seal
incorporates an amorphous silica material of high against the formation may also help stop flow of gas
fineness. Amorphous silica is a very important along the formation-cement sheath interface.
ingredient in the anti-gas cement design, since it not Although obtaining an adequate seal using ECPs has
only catalyzes rapid gelation, but also enhances fluid been difficult in several applications, success rates are
loss control, lowers slurry "permeability," and reportedly increasing in some areas. A recently
increases early compressive strength development. It developed, mechanically set packer that does not rely
also serves as GLC's "lightweight" additive since it on the inflation process was used in seven shallow
binds excess water to promote slurry stability and gas situations in the Gulf of Mexico and successfully
minimal free water while maintaining beneficial eliminated surface gas in each operation."
slurry rheologies. Amorphous silica's "gastight"
characteristics have been duly recognized over the COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH - SHEAR BOND
past few years,'~'~J'and its multi-faceted role in STRENGTH
shallow gas applications continues to prove
beneficial. The competency of a cement design is often measured
by compressive strength. A compressive strength of
ZERO FREE WATER 250 to 500 psi is generally considered acceptable for
the purposes of drilling ahead.I6 Higher compressive
The extensive surface area of amorphous silica serves strength usually correlates to higher shear bond
as a means to help control free water and settling strength" which is important in restricting gas flow
tendencies. This property is considered an important at the cement-casing and cement-formation interfaces.
parameter in helping prevent gas flow, and especially It is therefore important for GLC to provide a cement
critical in deviated well condition^.'^ In straight-hole
PREVENTING SWALLOW GAS MIGRATION IN OFFSHORE
WELLS: THE PERFORMANCE OF LEAD CEMENTS SPE 24978
slurry that develops the highest early compressive displays the difference in compressive strengths
strength that can be safely placed in the well. between such temperature extremes for a few lead
cement compositions. It can be noted that while tests
Shear bond strengths can also be enhanced by show adequate compressive strength at 90°F in 24 hr,
additional means. Expanding cement additives may cement that is placed and cured close to surface
provide significant increases in shear bond strength temperatures (40°F)may have no strength to handle
and can be con~idered.'~ Another means of the stresses of drillout until 48 to 96 hr.
enhancing shear bond strength is by increasing the
bonding characteristics of the casing surface. This Although this factor is sometimes overlooked, its
may be achieved through various methods. Roughing importance cannot be overstated. If gas enters the
the surface via sandblasting will increase shear bond wellbore, begins to migrate, but is arrested by means
strength. Also the use of surfactants to achieve better of cement gelation, then gas control is deemed
casing wettability may serve to increase bonding. successful. However, if the cement is not adequately
set when drillout occurs, then a new pathway along
Compressive strength retrogression (and the cement-casing interface can be formed that
corresponding shear bond strength retrogression) is connects with the original path created through the-
another factor that must be investigated if the cement. The end result of the combination of these
complete wellbore is going to eventually encounter two paths would be gas flow to surface.
high temperatures. Drilling fluid circulating
temperatures or well flowing temperatures greater The reality of this potential situation can be seen in a
than 230°F can be detrimental to shallow casing brief survey of 11 liner cementing operations
cement. Unless the shallow casings were cemented performed in a deep gas field. As shown in Table 3,
with lightweight slurries containing crystalline silica gas flow after cementing was apparent in four wells.
(amorphous silica alone may not be acceptable), the In the same field, seven wells were successfully
cement sheath's compressive strength may retrogress cemented without gas flow, The one common thread
and result in cracks or fissures through which gas can that connects all four failures is the lack of
flow. compressive strength at the time of drillout.
Conversely, all seven successes exhibited adequate
WAITING-ON-CEMENT (WOC) TIME compressive strengths at the top of liner. To further
illustrate, Wells 10 and 11 were cemented with
If a compressive strength of 250 to 500 psi is "identical" slurry compositions that exhibited similar
accepted as adequate for the purpose of drilling out compressive strength development. After
and maintaining cement-casing bond, a remaining cementation and driIlout, Well 10 experienced gas
question must be considered: At what point in the flow and Well 11 did not. The major difference
annulus should the compressive strength value be between the two operations that had an obvious and
determined? If adequate compressive strength is pronounced effect was WOC time. Well 10 was
obtained by the tail slurry, does this reflect the drilled out in 18 hr when the cement had very low
capability of the lead cement to withstand the compressive strength. Well 11 was drilled out in 41
mechanical disturbances of drillout? Obviously, it hr after the cement was allowed an extended curing
does not. Since the lightweight slurry surely develops time to properly set along the entire length of the
strength more slowly than the densified slurry, it liner.
would also need to be tested for competency.
Likewise, if the lead cement slurry exhibits NORTH SEA FIELD OPERATIONS
compressive strength of 250 to 500 psi at bottom hole
static temperature (BHST), the integrity of the cement In certain areas of the North Sea, potential gas flow
may still be inadequate at points higher in the annulus may often be present behind several strings of casing
where temperatures are colder. in the well. Shallow gas migration becomes just one
of the many challenges that operators face.
In North Sea shallow cementing operations, curing
temperatures may range from 100°F' at TD to In the past, the intent of many shallow gas operations
approximately 40°F at the sea floor. Table 2 was to keep slurry designs simple and avoid the use
SPE 24978 OLIVER COKER, TIM WILLIAMS, AND KIRK HARRIS
Grinrod, M., Vassoy, B., and Dingsoyr, E.O.: Bour, D.L. and Wilkinson, J.G.: "Combating
"Development and Use of a Gas-Tight Cement," Gas Migration in the Michigan Basin," paper
paper IADCISPE 17258, presented at the 1988 SPE 19324 presented at the SPE Regional
IADCISPE Drilling Conference, Dallas, TX, meeting, Morgantown, WV, Oct. 24-27, 1989.
February 28-March 2.
10. Bol, G., Grant, H., Keller, S., Marcassa, F.,
Haut, Richard C. and Crook, Ronald J: and de Rozieres, J.: "Putting a Stop to Gas
"Primary Cementing: The Mud Displacement Channeling, " OitfieM Review, April 1991, pg 35-
Process," paper SPE 8253 presented at 54th 43.
Annual Fall Technical Conference of the Society
of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, Las Vegas, 11. Worldwide Cementing Practices, American
NV, Sept. 23-26, 1979. Petroleum Institute, First Edition, 1991, pg 124.
Smith, Dwight K.: Cementir&g Monograph 12. Cheung, P.R., and Myrick, B.D.: "Field
Volume 4, Revised Edition, 1991. Evaluation of an Impermeable Cement System
for Controlling Gas Migration," paper SPE
11983, presented at the 58th Annual Technical
SPE 24978 OLIVER COKER, TIM WILLIAMS, AND KIRK HARRIS
Additive I Concentration
(% bwoc)
-
Maior Functionk) Performance Pro~ertv
Table 2
Slurry Design No. 1 Class G cement +0.5% low fluid loss additive + 3.15 gallsk amorphous silica + 0.10 gaVsk
+
retarder 0.28 gallsk dispersant + 9.07 gallsk fresh water
Thickening Time Q 86°F = 8 hr, 25 min
(Success/Failure)
Table 4
1 Case
Number
Slurry
Type
Slurry
Density
(Iblgal)
Thickening
Time
(hr:min)
Fluid Loss
(cc130 min)
Free
Water
(%)
Compressive
Strength
(psi)
WOC
Time
(hr:min)
3 0 CASING @ 592 FT
(SUBSEA) MD
26" HOLE
TAIL SLURRY
-
Fig. 1 - Case Well No. 1 Typical Wellbore -
Fig. 2 Case Well No. 1 .- Well Configuration
Stratigraphy after Cementing.