Carleton University

Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

MAAE2400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Laboratory Instructions
(Modified Version for Online Classes)

Issued: September 2020

Laboratory Experiments

1. Ford Six Cylinder Gasoline Engine

2. Ford Turbocharged Diesel Engine

3. Perkins Marine Diesel Engine

4. Measuring Properties of Saturated Water

5. Carrier Air Conditioning System

6. Heat Transfer Experiment

1
 Part 1: Generic Instructions

1.0 Laboratory Objectives

The objectives of the laboratory sessions are as follows:

▪ Give physical reality to the abstract concept of the thermodynamic "system" or "control
volume", which is used in the analysis of energy-conversion systems.
▪ Introduce the methods of carrying out performance tests and to give the student the opportunity
to examine and assess the relationship between actual performance and that predicted by
simplified thermodynamic models.
▪ Give the student practice in the clear recording, assessment and reporting of test data.
▪ Familiarize the student with practical engineering instrumentation and equipment.
▪ Develop familiarity with experimental work on relatively complex engineering equipment.
It will be seen that the laboratory work is complementary to the lectures. It is not intended to
illustrate principles so much as to develop familiarity and skill with experimental methods in
thermodynamics and heat transfer, and to give students exposure to substantial and complex
equipment.

2.0 Experimental Log Books

Online students are not required to use log books, but should be aware of their usage in
engineering practice as described in the following.
The objective in keeping a log book of engineering activity, whether experimental, analytical or
managerial, is to record for future reference what was done, how it was done, and, usually, the
consequences; note that the 'future' may be only a few weeks, as in this course, or several years
away in professional activities or research work. Such a record can form the basis of a report, or
merely act as a guide for future action in similar situations. The log book may become a "design
manual" or it may even become evidence in a lawsuit. It is therefore important to keep records
that are clear and accurate, and preferably of such a professional quality that one needs not be
embarrassed if they are made public.

2
3.0 Laboratory Reports

Online students will prepare Laboratory Reports based on data provided by the Teaching
Assistants (TAs). The Laboratory report should contain the following.
1. Front end matter: The report must have a Cover Page listing the title of the experiment;
student's name and number; section number; date; etc. And the first item in the report
content must be the test objectives.
2. Outline of test procedures.
3. Engineering Schematic(s).
4. Data tables.
5. Calculations, and results with graphs depicting trends of parameters or their relationships.
6. Discussions of the experiment’s results, and experimental errors.
7. Conclusion.
8. Clarity in language and presentations of graphs and tables.
Clarity in the language and presentation of graphs and tables in the laboratory report is
important.
Marking Scheme for laboratory reports is shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Laboratory Report Marking Scheme

# Category Number of marks (out of 10)

1 Front end matter. 0.3
2 Outline of Test Procedures 0.2
3 Engineering schematic(s) 0.5
4 Data tables 0.5
5 Calculations, graphs and results 3.0
6 Discussions of
• Experiment’s results 2.0
• Experimental errors 2.0
7 Conclusion 0.5
8 Clarity 1.0

3
 Part 2: Experiments

Part 2 describes specific experiments and achievements expected from students. It describes, for
example, the test objectives and experimental apparatus, and instructs students on the running of
the experiments, collecting and analysing data and presenting the results.
This part retains the pre-pandemic version of the Laboratory Instructions, i.e., the version of
December 2019, which has been prepared for in-person classes. It would help the online students
better visualizing the laboratory environment and activities, but it also contains some
inapplicable instructions, such as those related to the keeping of the logbooks.
Most areas of the laboratory instructions in Part 2 are applicable to online students, and they
include:
• Purpose or objective of the experiment.
• Test instructions (which should help online students to follow the lab video more
effectively);
• Calculations and data analysis;
• Presentation of results; and
• Discussion questions.

4
EXPERIMENT 1

Fixed Throttle Performance Test of a Six Cylinder Automotive Gasoline Engine (Ford Engine)

1. Introduction
The purpose of this experiment is to measure the torque, power, specific fuel consumption (SFC), and
thermal efficiency (η) of a typical automotive engine at a fixed throttle setting.
1. Torque: load on the engine [N·m or lbf·ft]
2. Power: rate of work done or energy transferred [W or hp]
o Power input determined by fuel consumption
o Power output = torque x engine speed
3. SFC: rate of fuel consumption divided by power output of the engine
4. Thermal efficiency: power output / power input
Gasoline engines are spark-ignition internal combustion engines, which use gasoline (petrol) fuel. Gasoline
engines differ from diesel engines in that they use spark plugs to ignite the air-fuel mixture in the cylinder.
Diesel engines, on the other hand, utilize the heat of compression (compressed air) to ignite the injected
fuel [1]. The thermodynamic cycle of a gasoline engine is referred to as the Otto cycle, named after the
German engineer Nikolaus August Otto [2]:

0-1: Intake of the air-fuel mixture

1-2: Compression of the air-fuel mixture
2-3: Combustion after ignition by a spark plug
3-4: Expansion due to combustion
4-1: Exhaust after opening of exit valve
1-0: Push-out of the combustion products

Figure 1: P-V diagram of an Air Standard Otto Cycle

The premixing of air and fuel allows gasoline engines to operate at higher speeds (higher rpm) than diesel
engines. As a result, gasoline engines typically outperform diesel engines over a wider range of operating
conditions. Diesel engines, on the other hand, can operate at much higher compression ratios (gasoline
engines are susceptible to premature ignition at higher pressure ratios), and so they may be more efficient
than gasoline engines for higher power outputs. Internal combustion engines typically have thermal
efficiencies under 35%, but there is significant variance depending on fuel type, engine design, and
operational parameters. Compression ratios of gasoline engines range from 9:1 to 12:1. Compression ratios
of diesel engines range from 15:1 to 22:1. Students can refer to experiments 2 and 3 for more information
regarding diesel engines.

The engine drives a dynamometer which is bolted to the engine block. This dynamometer is a water brake
with a swinging stator; the restraining force and hence the torque, is provided by a hydraulic load cell and
the load cell pressure is read on a remotely-mounted gauge. The load is varied by changing the water flow
rate through the dynamometer. The engine speed is measured by a remotely mounted tachometer driven
by a flexible cable. Fuel flow rate is measured by a rotameter-type flowmeter, which consists of a ball in a
tapered-bore tube. Instruments showing engine coolant temperature, oil temperature and oil pressure are
also mounted on the console, so that the engine operating conditions can be monitored. If any of these
instruments exceed their ranges (identified by red pointers), immediately bring the engine to idle and ask
for assistance from the T.A. or Lab Technician.
2. Pre-Lab

The following tasks must be performed before you come to the lab:

1- Prepare the front matter of your logbook (experiment name, date, reference to procedure, etc.)
2- Starting from Figure 2, draw a simple control volume schematic for the engine. Indicate any other
fluid streams flowing through the engine, and show any energy transfers by heat or work.
3- Prepare Table 1 (below) in your logbook. A printout glued into your book is acceptable.

Figure 2: Incomplete control volume schematic of the engine block

3. Instructions

Table 1: Experimental Data

Water
Load Scale Engine Fuel Flow Oil Pressure Oil Temp
Test No. Temp
Reading Speed (rpm) Reading (s) (psi) (°F)
(°F)
1 (idle) 0.5 1900
2 3 4000
3 3600
4 3200
5 2800
6 2600
7 (idle) 0.5 1900

*** Always increase RPM (engine speed) by opening the throttle prior to increasing load (torque)
for step 3 below. ***
*** Use the OUTER scale on torque gauge. ***

1) Have an instructor initial the data sheet.

2) Allow the engine to warm up under a light load (1900 rpm and 0.5 on the OUTER scale of the torque
gauge) before proceeding with the test. Record a set of data at this condition: engine idling point.
3) Set the throttle at about 3/8 throttle. To do this, open the throttle until the engine speed is 4000 rpm
and increase the load to 3 on the torque gauge (OUTER scale). You may need to readjust the throttle
after increasing the load to maintain the desired engine speed of 4000 rpm.
4) From this step on, do NOT adjust the throttle until step (8).
5) Record a set of data: engine speed, load scale reading, fuel flow reading, oil pressure, oil temperature
and water temperature. Call the laboratory demonstrator if these instruments indicate an engine
malfunction.
6) Increase the load until the engine speed falls to 3600 rpm and record a second set of data.
7) Progressively increase the load to reach the following engine speeds: 3200, 2800 and 2600 rpm,
recording data at each speed.
8) Simultaneously reduce the load to 0.5 and close the throttle to reduce the engine speed to 1700 rpm.
Record one last set of data. Check your data to make sure that there are no outliers.
9) Do NOT shut down the engine. Have the instructor check and initial the data sheet. Clean up and
leave the equipment in good order.

4. Calculations & Presentation of Results

1) Calculate (and tabulate in a Results table) torque (𝑇, [𝑙𝑏𝑓 ∙ 𝑓𝑡]), power output of the engine (𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 , [ℎ𝑝]),
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
fuel mass flow rate (𝑚̇𝑓 , [ ℎ𝑟𝑚]) and specific fuel consumption (𝑆𝐹𝐶, [ℎ𝑝∙ℎ𝑟
𝑚
]) for all data points. The
specific gravity (S.G.) of gasoline fuel is 0.68.
2) For the point of best SFC, estimate the power produced by the combustion of air and fuel in the
engine (𝑃𝑖𝑛 , [ℎ𝑝]). The lower heating value (LHV) of the gasoline fuel may be taken as 19,000
Btu/lbm (44 MJ/kg). The LHV is the amount of heat (energy) that can be generated through complete
combustion of a unit mass of fuel (combustion products at 150°C), assuming all water in the exhaust
stream is in vapour form.
3) Calculate the thermal efficiency (𝜂𝑡ℎ ) of the engine at the point of best SFC.
4) On a graph with engine speed on the horizontal axis, plot the calculated torque, output power and SFC;
use different symbols for each quantity and pass reasonably smooth curves through the data. Title the
graph and label the axes and the curves. (Do not use the same vertical axis for all three curves, see the
graph on page 4 of this lab manual as an example. Note that SFC uses the axis on the right-hand side).
Do not plot the idle points.

5. Discussion Questions

1) What does “fixed throttle” mean with respect to the engine’s operation? Hint: This Ford V6 is fuel
injected, so the fuel flow is electronically controlled. Think of what else the engine needs that the
throttle could be controlling.
2) Discuss the thermal efficiency of the engine. Is it reasonable? Referring to your schematic,
suggest areas where energy may have been lost.
3) Is it desirable to have a high or low SFC? How do SFC and fuel consumption (𝑚̇𝑓 ) differ?
4) Discuss trends in your performance graphs (torque, power and SFC), referring to the relationships
between torque, speed and power.
5) Briefly discuss the suitability of this type of engine in a motor vehicle considering your results. Is
the performance similar at all engine speeds? Remember that a motor vehicle is expected to
function through a range of speeds (which can be extended using a gearbox).

6. References
[1] Moran, M.J. & Shapiro, H.N. (2007) “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics”, 6th Edition,
Wiley.
[2] Müller, I. & Müller, W.H. (2009) “Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Applications with Historical
Annotations”, Springer.
7. Other Sources
- Obert, "Internal Combustion Engines" (TJ 785-02)
- Schmidt, "The Internal Combustion Engine" (TJ 785S3)
- Ricardo and Hempson, "The High Speed Internal Combustion Engine" (TJ 785R52)

Important Equations and Constants:

𝑙𝑏
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑚̇𝑓 [ ℎ𝑟𝑚 ]
𝑇 [𝑙𝑏𝑓 ∙ 𝑓𝑡] = 5.252 × 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝐹𝐶 [ ]=
ℎ𝑝 ∙ ℎ𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 [ℎ𝑝]

𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 [𝑟𝑝𝑚] 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 [ℎ𝑝] = 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 × 𝜂𝑡ℎ [%] =
1000 𝑃𝑖𝑛

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝐿𝐻𝑉 × 𝑚̇𝑓

𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦: 𝑆. 𝐺. =
𝜌𝐻20
𝜌𝐻20 = 1.0 g/ml 1 kg = 2.2 lb m 1 hp = 2544 BTU/hr
EXPERIMENT 2

Constant-Speed Performance Test of a Diesel Engine (Kubota Engine)

1. Introduction
The purpose of this experiment is to measure the torque, power, specific fuel consumption (SFC), and
thermal efficiency (η) of a diesel engine at a constant-speed setting.
1. Torque: load on the engine [N·m or lbf·ft]
2. Power: rate of work done or energy transferred [W or hp]
o Power input determined by fuel consumption
o Power output = torque x engine speed
3. SFC: rate of fuel consumption divided by power output of the engine
4. Thermal efficiency: power output / power input
The compression-ignition or Diesel engine is made in a wide range of sizes, from about 10 hp (7.5 kW) up
to 50,000 hp (37 MW). The Kubota D902-E4 is a 3-cylinder diesel engine capable of producing 20.4 hp at
3600 rpm. Diesel engines differ from gasoline engines in that they use the heat of compression to ignite the
injected fuel. Gasoline engines, on the other hand, use spark plugs to ignite the compressed air-fuel mixture
(see experiments one and two for more detail regarding gasoline engines). The diesel cycle, named after
the European inventor Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel, is shown next [1,2]:

1-2: Isentropic air compression

2-3: Reversible constant-pressure heating
3-4: Isentropic expansion
4-1: Reversible constant-volume cooling

The premixing of air and fuel allows gasoline engines to operate at higher speeds (higher rpm) than diesel
engines. As a result, gasoline engines typically outperform diesel engines over a wider range of operating
conditions. Diesel engines, on the other hand, can operate at much higher compression ratios (gasoline
engines are susceptible to premature ignition at higher pressure ratios), and so they may be more efficient
than gasoline engines for higher power outputs. Internal combustion engines typically have thermal
efficiencies under 35%, but there is significant variance depending on fuel type, engine design, and
operational parameters. Compression ratios of gasoline engines range from 9:1 to 12:1. Compression ratios
of diesel engines range from 15:1 to 22:1.

The power output of the engine is absorbed by a Stuska water brake dynamometer. The dynamometer has
a swinging stator which is restrained from turning by an S-type load cell. The strain on the load cell is
indicated on a remote gauge approximately calibrated to read torque directly. The load is varied by
changing the water flow rate through the dynamometer. Speed is also remotely indicated by an electronic
counter. The engine has an "all speed" governor, so that the throttle lever resets the governor, which in turn
meters fuel to the engine to keep it at approximately constant speed. However, due to "governor droop"
the speed varies slightly with load, and small throttle readjustments are required to maintain speed truly
constant at all loads. Fuel flow rate is measured by a tube-and-ball type flowmeter calibrated for diesel fuel
with a specific gravity of 0.84. Typical engine instruments, oil and water temperature and oil pressure
indicators, are also located on the console.
2. Pre-Lab

The following tasks must be performed before you come to the lab:

1- Prepare the front matter of your logbook (experiment name, date, reference to procedure, etc.)
2- Starting from Figure 2, draw a simple control volume schematic for the engine. Indicate any other
fluid streams flowing through the engine, and show any energy transfers by heat or work.
3- Prepare Table 1 (below) in your logbook. A printout glued into your book is acceptable.
4- Estimate the current cost of diesel fuel, in $/litre. A link is provided in Section 7 of this experiment’s
lab manual.

Figure 1: Incomplete control volume schematic of the engine block

3. Test Instruction
The hand-written data sheets should resemble the following table:

Load Displayed
Engine Fuel Flow
Scale Engine
Test No. Speed Reading
Reading Power
(rpm) (ml/min)
(lbf∙ft) (hp)
1 (idle) 5 1600
2 5 2800
3 10 2800
4 15 2800
5 20 2800
6 25 2800
7 30 2800
8 (idle) 5 1600

*** Always increase RPM (engine speed) prior to increasing load (torque). ***
*** Alert the instructor if any of the engine health warning lights turn on ***

1) Have an instructor initial the data sheet.

2) Allow the engine to warm up under a light load (1600 rpm and 5 lb·ft on the torque gauge) before
proceeding with the test. Record a set of data at this condition: engine idling point.
3) Increase the engine speed to 2800 rpm. Set the torque to approximately 5 lb·ft. Check the engine
health warning lights, torque and fuel flow rate during this process. Call the laboratory demonstrator
if these instruments indicate an engine malfunction.
4) Record a set of data: fuel flow rate, and engine power.
5) Increase the torque to 10 lb·ft. Maintain an engine speed of 2800 rpm (you may need to make small
adjustments due to governor droop), and record a set of data. Repeat this process for the following
torque values: 15, 20, 25 and 30 lb·ft.
6) Reduce the torque to 5 lb·ft and reduce the engine speed to 1600 rpm. Record one last set of data.
Check your data to make sure that there are no outliers.
7) Do NOT shut down the engine. Have the instructor check and initial the data sheet. Clean up and
leave the equipment in good order.

4. Calculations & Presentation of Results

𝑙𝑏
1) Calculate (and tabulate in a Results table) fuel mass flow rate (𝑚̇𝑓 , [ ℎ𝑟𝑚]), power output of the engine
𝑙𝑏
𝑚
(𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 , [ℎ𝑝]) and specific fuel consumption (𝑆𝐹𝐶, [ℎ𝑝∙ℎ𝑟 ]) for all data points. The specific gravity (S.G.)
of diesel fuel is 0.84.
2) For the point of best SFC, estimate the power produced by the combustion of air and fuel in the
engine (𝑃𝑖𝑛 , [ℎ𝑝]). The lower heating value (LHV) of the diesel fuel may be taken as 18,600 Btu/lbm
(43.2 MJ/kg). The LHV is the amount of heat (energy) that can be generated through complete
combustion of a unit mass of fuel (combustion products at 150°C), assuming all water in the exhaust
stream is in vapour form.
3) Calculate the thermal efficiency (𝜂𝑡ℎ ) of the engine at the point of best SFC.
4) Calculate the cost of electrical power generated at best SFC assuming you replaced the dynamometer
with an electrical generator (use the diesel cost you found in the prelab).
5) On a graph having power as the horizontal axis, plot the specific fuel consumption (SFC) data for the
test speed of 2800 rpm (NOT idle), and pass a reasonably smooth curve through the data points. Title
the graph and label the axes.

5. Discussion Questions

1) Explain the role of the governor in maintaining the speed of the diesel engine. Did you experience
any “governor droop”?
2) Discuss the thermal efficiency of the engine. Is it reasonable? Referring to your schematic, suggest
areas where energy may have been lost.
3) Is it desirable to have a high or low SFC? How do SFC and fuel consumption (𝑚̇𝑓 ) differ?
4) Discuss the trend in your performance graph. What are the implications for operation of this type of
engine?
5) Discuss potential advantages and disadvantages of using this sort of engine to generate electricity.

*Remember to include an error analysis in your discussion (see marking scheme)*

6. References
[1] Moran, M.J. & Shapiro, H.N. (2007) “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics”, 6th Edition,
Wiley.
[2] Moon, J.F. (1974) “Rudolf Diesel and the Diesel Engine”, Priority Press, London.

7. Other Sources
- Armstrong and Hartman, "The Diesel Engine" (TJ 795 A73).
- Williams, "The Modern Diesel," Butterworths, 1972 (TJ 795 AlM6).
- National Resources Canada, “Average Retail Prices for Diesel in Canada”:
http://www2.nrcan.gc.ca/eneene/sources/pripri/prices_byyear_e.cfm?productID=5
Important Equations and Constants:
𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 [ℎ𝑝] = 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 × 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (watch units) 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦: 𝑆. 𝐺. =
𝜌𝐻20
𝑙𝑏
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑚̇𝑓 [ ℎ𝑟𝑚 ]
𝑆𝐹𝐶 [ ]=
ℎ𝑝 ∙ ℎ𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 [ℎ𝑝]

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝐿𝐻𝑉 × 𝑚̇𝑓

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑡ℎ [%] =
𝑃𝑖𝑛

𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑆𝐹𝐶

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 [ ]= ×
𝑘𝑊 ∙ ℎ𝑟 𝐿 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

Be careful with the units in the cost calculation, you may need to apply conversion factors for:
𝑙𝑏𝑚 ↔ 𝑘𝑔
ℎ𝑝 ↔ 𝑘𝑊

𝜌𝐻20 = 1.0 g/ml 1 kg = 2.2 lbm 1 hp = 2544 BTU/hr = 0.7457 kW = 550 lbf-ft/sec

1 RPM = 2π/60 rad/s

EXPERIMENT 3

Constant-Speed Performance Test of a Marine Diesel Engine (Perkins Engine)

1. Introduction
The purpose of this experiment is to measure the torque, power, specific fuel consumption (SFC), and
thermal efficiency (η) of a small diesel engine at a constant-speed setting.
5. Torque: load on the engine [N·m or lbf·ft]
6. Power: rate of work done or energy transferred [W or hp]
o Power input determined by fuel consumption
o Power output = torque x engine speed
7. SFC: rate of fuel consumption divided by power output of the engine
8. Thermal efficiency: power output / power input
The compression-ignition or Diesel engine is made in a wide range of sizes, from about 10 hp (7.5 kW) up
to 50,000 hp (37 MW). The Perkins Marine Diesel in the laboratory is a high speed, 4-stroke cycle,
naturally aspirated engine rated at 45 hp at 3600 rpm. Diesel engines differ from gasoline engines in that
they use the heat of compression to ignite the injected fuel. Gasoline engines, on the other hand, use spark
plugs to ignite the compressed air-fuel mixture (see experiments 1 and 2 for more detail regarding gasoline
engines). The diesel cycle, named after the European inventor Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel, is shown next
[1,2]:

1-2: Isentropic air compression

2-3: Reversible constant-pressure heating
3-4: Isentropic expansion
4-1: Reversible constant-volume cooling

The premixing of air and fuel allows gasoline engines to operate at higher speeds (higher rpm) than diesel
engines. As a result, gasoline engines typically outperform diesel engines over a wider range of operating
conditions. Diesel engines, on the other hand, can operate at much higher compression ratios (gasoline
engines are susceptible to premature ignition at higher pressure ratios), and so they may be more efficient
than gasoline engines for higher power outputs. Internal combustion engines typically have thermal
efficiencies under 35%, but there is significant variance depending on fuel type, engine design, and
operational parameters. Compression ratios of gasoline engines range from 9:1 to 12:1. Compression ratios
of diesel engines range from 15:1 to 22:1.

The load on the engine (engine torque) is provided by a Stuska water brake dynamometer. The
dynamometer has a swinging stator which is restrained from turning by a hydraulic load cell. The cell
pressure is indicated on a remote gauge appropriately calibrated to read torque directly. The load is varied
by changing the water flow rate through the dynamometer. Speed is also remotely indicated by a flexible
cable-driven tachometer. Fuel flow rate is measured by a rotameter type flowmeter. Typical engine
instruments, oil and water temperature and oil pressure, are also located on the console. The engine has an
"all-speed" governor, so that the throttle lever resets the governor, which in turn meters fuel to the engine
to keep it at approximately constant speed. However, due to "governor droop" the speed varies slightly
with load, and small throttle readjustments are required to maintain constant speed at all loads.
2. Pre-Lab

The following tasks must be performed before you come to the lab:

1- Prepare the front matter of your logbook (experiment name, date, reference to procedure, etc.)
2- Starting from Figure 2, draw a simple control volume schematic for the engine. Indicate any other
fluid streams flowing through the engine, and show any energy transfers by heat or work.
3- Prepare Table 1 (below) in your logbook. A printout glued into your book is acceptable.
4- Estimate the current cost of diesel fuel, in $/litre. A link is provided in Section 7 of this experiment’s
lab manual.

Figure 2: Incomplete control volume schematic of the engine block

3. Test Instructions
The hand-written data sheets should resemble the following:

Table 1: Experimental Data

Load Engine Fuel Flow Fuel Flow Oil Oil Water
Test No. Scale Speed Reading Reading Pressure Temp Temp
Reading (rpm) (mm) (cc/min) (psi) (°F) (°F)
1 (idle) 0.5 1300
2 0.5 2200
3 2 2200
4 4 2200
5 6 2200
6 8 2200
7 (idle) 0.5 1300

*** Always increase RPM (engine speed) prior to increasing load (torque). ***
*** Use the INNER scale on torque gauge. ***

1) Have an instructor initial the data sheet.

2) Allow the engine to warm up under a light load (1300 rpm and 0.5 on the INNER scale of the torque
gauge) before proceeding with the test. Record a set of data at this condition.
3) Increase the engine speed to 2200 rpm. Set the torque to approximately 0.5. Check the engine health
monitoring gauges, torque and fuel flow rate during this process. Call the laboratory demonstrator if
these instruments indicate an engine malfunction.
4) Record a set of data: engine speed, load scale reading, fuel flow reading, oil pressure, oil temperature
and water temperature.
5) Increase the load gradually to 2. Maintain an engine speed of 2200 rpm (you may need to make small
adjustments due to governor droop), and record a set of data. Repeat this process for the following
loads: 4, 6 and 8.
6) Reduce the load to 0.5 and reduce the engine speed to 1300 rpm. Record data at this condition. Check
your data to make sure that there are no outliers.
7) Do NOT shut down the engine. Have the instructor check and initial the data sheet. Clean up and
leave the equipment in good order.

4. Calculations & Presentation of Results

6) Calculate (and tabulate in a Results table) torque (𝑇, [𝑙𝑏𝑓 ∙ 𝑓𝑡]), power output of the engine (𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 , [ℎ𝑝]),
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
fuel mass flow rate (𝑚̇𝑓 , [ ℎ𝑟𝑚]) and specific fuel consumption (𝑆𝐹𝐶, [ℎ𝑝∙ℎ𝑟
𝑚
]) for all data points. The
specific gravity (S.G.) of diesel fuel is 0.84.
7) For the point of best SFC, estimate the power produced by the combustion of air and fuel in the
engine (𝑃𝑖𝑛 , [ℎ𝑝]). The lower heating value (LHV) of the diesel fuel may be taken as 18,600 Btu/lbm
(43.2 MJ/kg). The LHV is the amount of heat (energy) that can be generated through complete
combustion of a unit mass of fuel (combustion products at 150°C), assuming all water in the exhaust
stream is in vapour form.
8) Calculate the thermal efficiency (𝜂𝑡ℎ ) of the engine at the point of best SFC.
9) Calculate the cost of electrical power generated at best SFC assuming you replaced the dynamometer
with an electrical generator (use the diesel cost you found in the prelab).
10) On a graph having power as the horizontal axis, plot the specific fuel consumption (SFC) data for the
test speed of 2200 rpm (NOT idle), and pass a reasonably smooth curve through the data points. Title
the graph and label the axes.

5. Discussion Questions

6) Explain the role of the governor in maintaining the speed of the diesel engine. Did you experience
any “governor droop”?
7) Discuss the thermal efficiency of the engine. Is it reasonable? Referring to your schematic, suggest
areas where energy may have been lost.
8) Is it desirable to have a high or low SFC? How do SFC and fuel consumption (𝑚̇𝑓 ) differ?
9) Discuss the trend in your performance graph. What are the implications for operation of this type of
engine?
10) Discuss potential advantages and disadvantages of using this sort of engine to generate electricity.

*Remember to include an error analysis in your discussion (see marking scheme)*

6. References
[3] Moran, M.J. & Shapiro, H.N. (2007) “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics”, 6th Edition,
Wiley.
[4] Moon, J.F. (1974) “Rudolf Diesel and the Diesel Engine”, Priority Press, London.

7. Other Sources
- Armstrong and Hartman, "The Diesel Engine" (TJ 795 A73).
- Williams, "The Modern Diesel," Butterworths, 1972 (TJ 795 AlM6).
- National Resources Canada, “Average Retail Prices for Diesel in Canada”:
http://www2.nrcan.gc.ca/eneene/sources/pripri/prices_byyear_e.cfm?productID=5
Important Equations and Constants:
𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦: 𝑆. 𝐺. =
𝜌𝐻20
𝑙𝑏
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑚̇𝑓 [ ℎ𝑟𝑚 ]
𝑆𝐹𝐶 [ ]=
ℎ𝑝 ∙ ℎ𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 [ℎ𝑝]

𝑇 [𝑙𝑏𝑓 ∙ 𝑓𝑡] = 5.252 × 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 [𝑟𝑝𝑚]

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 [ℎ𝑝] = 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 ×
1000

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝐿𝐻𝑉 × 𝑚̇𝑓

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑡ℎ [%] =
𝑃𝑖𝑛

𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑆𝐹𝐶

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 [ ]= ×
𝑘𝑊 ∙ ℎ𝑟 𝐿 𝜌𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

Be careful with the units in the cost calculation, you may need to apply conversion factors for:
𝑙𝑏𝑚 ↔ 𝑘𝑔
ℎ𝑝 ↔ 𝑘𝑊

𝜌𝐻20 = 1.0 g/ml 1 kg = 2.2 lbm 1 hp = 2544 BTU/hr = 0.7457 kW = 550 lbf-ft/sec

1 RPM = 2π/60 radians/sec

 EXPERIMENT 4
Measuring Properties of Saturated Water

1. Introduction
The Armfield TH3 Saturation Pressure apparatus is a bench-top device designed
to introduce students to the characteristics of saturated water. The apparatus is
illustrated in Figure 1.
The equipment consists of a pipe loop in rectangular form. A boiler (indicated
by 2 in the figure) is located in one of the vertical limbs of this pipe loop. This
boiler heats the water using a pair of electric resistance heaters (11) that are located
near the bottom of the boiler. A sight glass (10) is situated at the front of the boiler
to allow the operator to observe the behaviour of the water within the boiler.
Since the apparatus should be purged of all air before the experiment, the
apparatus contains a saturated mixture of liquid and vapour. This means the state
of the water is located within the vapour dome. When the boiler heater is turned
on, saturated steam rises in the boiler and exits through the pipe located at the top
of the boiler; its state is located on the saturated vapour line. The water then flows
around the rectangular loop in a clockwise direction.
Because the water’s temperature is higher than the room air temperature, heat
will be transferred from the water to its surroundings as it flows around the loop.
As a result of this heat transfer, some of the saturated steam will condense as it
travels around the pipe loop, returning the state to within the vapour dome. The
amount of liquid in the mixture will increase the further the water flows from the
boiler, reaching a maximum where the pipe loop reenters the boiler to complete
the cycle.
As the pressure drop due to friction within the pipe loop is very low, the entire
loop can be considered to be operating at the same pressure.
The top horizontal limb of the pipe loop contains electronic temperature (3)
and pressure (9) sensors to measure the properties of the water at this location.

4-1
 (a) Side view

(b) Top view

Figure 1: TH3 Saturation Pressure apparatus

4-2
As explained above, the state of the water will lie within the vapour dome at this
location due to heat transfer from the working fluid to the surroundings. This
location is labelled state point 1. A Bourdon gauge is also located at this point to
give the operator quick, albeit approximate, indication of the pressure.
Only two properties can be measured with this apparatus: pressure and tem-
perature. However, pressure and temperature are not independent at state point
1 because this point lies within the vapour dome. Consequently, the state cannot
be fixed (i.e. quality determined) at this location using only these two properties.
But the apparatus includes a throttling calorimeter (7) that can be used—along
with the 1st law of thermodynamics—to determine the quality of the water at state
point 1.
When the isolation valve (6) is opened, some of the water is bled from the loop
and allowed to pass into the throttling calorimeter. The bled water passes along
a labyrinth (13) where it expands to atmospheric pressure. During this expansion
process, the water leaves the vapour dome and passes into the superheated region.
A second temperature sensor (14) is located within the calorimeter to measure the
temperature of this superheated steam, which is at atmospheric pressure. Since
pressure and temperature are independent within the superheated region, this tem-
perature reading and the atmospheric pressure serve to fix the state of water at this
location. This location is labelled state point 2.
As the superheated steam expressed from the throttling calorimeter cools, it
condenses and is collected by a container (15) located below the calorimeter, and
is then removed from the apparatus through a plastic tube.

2. Objectives
The objectives of this experiment are as follows:

• To observe the physical behaviour of water during the transition between

liquid and vapour phases and at the onset of boiling.

• To understand the relationship between pressure and temperature of satu-

rated water.

• To understand how the quality of a mixture can be determined using a throt-

tling calorimeter.

4-3
3. Preparation prior to lab
The following tasks must be performed before you come to the lab:
1. Ensure you have physical copies of Tables A-2, A-3, and A-4 from Moran
et al. (2014), as you will require these for this lab (you will also need these
for your final exam).
2. Review Section 7 and Figure 1. Produce a rough schematic of the lab ap-
paratus (showing only the main components), or neatly paste the schematic
from the lab manual in your logbook.
3. Prepare the following data sheet in your logbook for recording water prop-
erties and your observations of the appearance of the water within the boiler
during the heating-up phase of the experiment.

Elapsed time (min) Rm1 (Ohms) Pg,1 (kPa) Appearance of water

5
10
15
...

4. Prepare the following data sheet in your logbook for recording water prop-
erties during the cooling-down phase of the experiment.

Nominal pressure (bar) Rm1 (Ohms) Pg,1 (kPa) Rm2 (Ohms)

7
4

5. Prepare a hand-drawn P-T diagram (phase diagram) for water in your log-
book (use a full page). The diagram should span a temperature range of 0
to 220o C and the pressure axis should be in units of kPa. This diagram must
be drawn to scale. Label the axes, indicate the units, and apply a title to the
diagram.
Use data from Table A-2 of Moran et al. (2014) to plot the pressure and
temperature of saturated water from 20 to 200o C, at 20o C increments, on
your hand-drawn P-T diagram. Draw a line through these points to indicate
the saturated liquid-vapour line. You may wish to consult Section 3.2 of
Moran et al. (2014) for guidance on phase diagrams.

4-4
 6. Prepare a hand-drawn T-v diagram for water in your logbook (use a full
page). This diagram need not be drawn to scale. Clearly indicate the vapour
dome and draw isobars at 8 bar, 5 bar, and 1 bar. Label the axes, include
appropriate units, and apply a title to the diagram. On the temperature axis,
mark the location of the saturation temperature corresponding to each iso-
bar. You may wish to consult 3.2 of Moran et al. (2014) for guidance on T-v
diagrams.

7. Draw a schematic of the throttling calorimeter in your logbook, that is the

process from state 1 to state 2. Illustrate the system boundary with a dashed
line. The flow of fluid streams entering and exiting the system should be
clearly indicated, as should any energy transfers across the system boundary
by work or heat transfer.

8. Write a 1st law energy balance for the throttling calorimeter that is consistent
with your schematic. Each mass flow across the system boundary should
be considered. Ensure that the sign of each term agrees with the directions
indicated on your schematic. Cancel any unnecessary terms from the energy
balance; explicitly list and justify all assumptions. You may wish to consult
Section 4.10 of Moran et al. (2014) for guidance.

4. Instructions for running the experiment

1. Review Section 7 and Figure 1, and familiarize yourself with the equipment
before turning the system on.

2. Have a teaching assistant check and initialize the schematic, 1st law energy
balance, data sheets, and the P-T and T-v diagrams you prepared in your
logbook.

3. Record the atmospheric pressure (Patm ) using the mercury barometer lo-
cated within the laboratory. Convert this reading taken in mm or inches of
mercury to kPa.

4. Switch on the heater and turn the heater power control to maximum. Start
recording time from the moment the heater is switched on.

5. At the start of the experiment the liquid water within the boiler will be in a
subcooled liquid state. The heaters will slowly warm the subcooled liquid

4-5
 to the boiling point; this process will take approximately 20 minutes. Dur-
ing this process, continuously observe the appearance of the water within
the boiler by looking through the sight glass. Pay particular attention to
movement at the surface of the liquid, evidence of evaporation at the sur-
face of the liquid, formation of bubbles at the heater elements, condensation
of bubbles on the sight glass or within the liquid, and movement of bubbles
to the surface of the liquid.

6. Five minutes after the heater is turned on, record the resistance of the tem-
perature sensor (Rm1 ) and the gauge pressure (Pg,1 ) at state point 1 using the
first data sheet you prepared prior to the lab. Also, record your observations
on the appearance of the water (refer to Step 5).

7. Repeat Step 6 every 5 minutes until the maximum working pressure of 7

bar has been reached.

8. Monitor the pressure within the pipe loop using the Bourdon pressure gauge.
Switch the heater power to minimum and open the throttling calorimeter
isolation valve to bleed off a sample of water once the maximum working
pressure of 7 bar (gauge) has been achieved. Once the resistance of the tem-
perature sensor at state point 2 (Rm2 ) stops changes rapidly (ask your TA
for guidance), record this value using the second data sheet you prepared
prior to the lab. Also record the resistance of the temperature sensor (Rm1 )
and the gauge pressure (Pg,1 ) at state point 1 using this sheet.

9. The pressure in the loop will continue to drop as water is bled through the
throttling calorimeter. Repeat the measurements of Pg,1 , Rm1 , and Rm2
when the Bourdon gauge indicates a nominal gauge pressure of 4 bar.

10. Once the Bourdon gauge indicates that the gauge pressure has been reduced
to approximately 1.5 bar, close the calorimeter isolation valve and turn off
the heater. Have a teaching assistant check your results and have them shut
the system down for you.

5. Data analysis and presentation of results

1. For each row of your first data sheet determine the temperature (T1 ) and
absolute pressure (P1 ) at state point 1 using the procedures described in
Section 7.

4-6
 2. Plot each pair of T1 and P1 found for the warm-up phase (Step 1) on the P-T
diagram (phase diagram) you prepared prior to the lab.

3. Determine the temperature (T1 ) and absolute pressure (P1 ) at state point 1
and the temperature at state point 2 (T2 ) using the procedures described in
Section 7 for the first row of your second data sheet (ie that corresponding
to a nominal gauge pressure of 7 bar). As explained in Section 1, state point
2 is at atmospheric pressure.

4. Determine the enthalpy at state 2 (h2 ) using data from Table A-4 of Moran
et al. (2014). Interpolate as necessary.

5. Determine the enthalpy of saturated liquid (hf,1 ) and of saturated vapour

(hv,1 ) corresponding to the pressure measured at state point 1 (P1 ) using
data from Table A-3 of Moran et al. (2014). Interpolate as necessary.

6. Write an expression for determining the enthalpy at state point 1 (h1 ) using
the unknown quality (x1 ) and the values of hf,1 and hv,1 determined in Step
5.

7. Substitute the properties determined in Steps 4 through 6 into the 1st law
energy balance of the throttling calorimeter you prepared prior to the lab.
Rearrange as necessary to solve for x1 .

8. Locate state points 1 and 2 on the T-v diagram your prepared prior to the
lab.

9. Repeat Steps 3 through 8 for the second row of your second data sheet (ie
that corresponding to a nominal gauge pressure of 4 bar).

6. Discussion Questions
Your discussion should address the following questions:

1. Describe the behaviour observed as the water was heated. Was there a sud-
den change in behaviour, or were the transitions gradual? At what pressure
and temperature did these changes occur? Did the bubbles that were formed
on the heating elements collapse before reaching the surface? Explain why.

4-7
 2. State point 1 should be located within the vapour dome, as explained in
Section 1. Consequently, all of your data points plotted in Step 2 of Sec-
tion 6 should lie on the saturated liquid-vapour line of your P-T diagram.
Comment on your results and explain any discrepancies.

3. Contrast the values you obtained for the quality at state 1 (x1 ) at the two
pressures, and explain the reasons for this difference.

4. As the apparatus cools back down to room temperature, what will happen to
the pressure inside the apparatus? Will all the water condense into liquid?
Explain why or why not.

Remember to include an error analysis section in your discussion (see lab

grading scheme).

7. Operational notes and instrumentation

1. The heater on/off switch is located at the bottom left of the electrical console
as is the heater power control dial. Turn this dial all the way to the right for
maximum power, and all the way to the left for minimum power.

2. The temperature sensors at state points 1 and 2 are platinum resistance ther-
mometers (PRT). The resistance of a PRT changes with its temperature. A
bridge circuit is used to determine the resistance of the PRT by using a small
current source and by measuring the voltage across the bridge. Tabulated
calibration tables are then used to relate the PRT’s resistance to its temper-
ature.
The resistances of the two PRTs can be read on the electrical console’s
digital display by toggling the dial to the appropriate channel: Rm1 for state
point 1, and Rm2 for state point 2. Conversion of these measured resistances
to temperatures is a two-step process. Firstly, determine the “corrected”
resistance from the measured resistance (Rm1 or Rm2 ) using the table in
Appendix A. Interpolate between the rows of data as necessary.
Secondly, determine the temperature corresponding to the corrected resis-
tance using the table in Appendix B. Interpolate between the rows of data
as necessary.

4-8
 3. The pressure sensor at state 1 uses a semiconductor to sense the deflection
of a diaphragm. The deflection of this diaphragm is proportional to the
gauge pressure of the working fluid (in this case water) pressing against it.
A conditioning circuit is used to convert the semiconductor’s signal to the
corresponding pressure in kN/m2 (equivalent to kPa), which is displayed
directly on the electrical console’s digital display by toggling the dial to the
appropriate channel.
The total pressure of the water can be determined by adding the atmospheric
pressure to the gauge pressure read from the digital display:

P1 = Pg,1 + Patm

References
Moran, M. J., Shapiro, H. N., Boettner, D. D., and Bailey, M. B. 2014. Funda-
mentals of Engineering Thermodynamics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 8th edition.

4-9
Appendix A PRT resistance bridge correction

4-10
Appendix B PRT resistance to temperature calibra-
tion

4-11
 EXPERIMENT 5
Carrier Air Conditioning System

1. Introduction
The Carrier air conditioner is a typical system used for the air conditioning (cool-
ing) of homes. It consists of two units: an “indoor” unit and an “outdoor” unit.
The “indoor” unit (i.e., the unit that would be located indoors in a standard instal-
lation) consists of an evaporator coil and an evaporator fan. This is mounted on the
wall in this experiment. The compressor, the condenser coil, and the condenser
fan make up the “outdoor” unit. This is mounted on the floor in this experiment.
The “indoor” unit is commonly referred to as the evaporator unit, while the “out-
door” unit is commonly referred to as the condenser unit.
Figure 1 shows a schematic of the Carrier air conditioning system and in-
strumentation as installed in Room ME 2230. The system operates as a vapour-
compression refrigeration cycle with R22 as the refrigerant. The cooling effect
for air conditioning is obtained by drawing warm room air (T5 in the schematic)
over the evaporator coil, and by circulating low temperature refrigerant through
the coil (T30 ). Heat is transferred from the air to the refrigerant during this pro-
cess. As a result, the air is cooled to T6 and distributed back to the room, while
the refrigerant expands and undergoes a change in phase from state 30 to state 4.
After exiting the evaporator, the refrigerant passes through the compressor,
which raises the refrigerant’s pressure and temperature (state 2). At this point the
refrigerant is hotter than the surrounding air. The refrigerant then flows through
the coil of the condenser. The condenser’s fan causes room air to flow over the
condenser coil (in an actual installation this unit would be located outdoors, so
outdoor air would flow over the coil). This causes a heat transfer from the refrig-
erant to the air. As a result, the temperature of the refrigerant is lowered to its
saturation temperature and then undergoes a change in phase, ending the process
at state 3.

5-1
Figure 1: Carrier air conditioning system and instrumentation (The measurement
points and state points are indicated, e.g. measurement point 7 on the thermocou-
ple meter corresponds to state point 5 (T5 ).)

5-2
Figure 2: Simplified schematic of a refrigeration cycle (Moran et al. [2018, Sec-
tion 2.6])

The refrigerant then flows through the throttling valve, which expands the fluid
to a lower pressure and temperature, and causes a partial phase change from state
3 to 30 . It is the cold temperature of the refrigerant at state 30 that makes the
refrigeration effect possible. This cold refrigerant then enters the evaporator coil
to repeat the cycle.
To quantify the performance of a vapour compression refrigeration cycle, the
coefficient of performance (COP) is commonly used. The COP for cooling is
given the symbol β, and represents the ratio of heat extracted from the cool space
to the work required to run the cycle. Under typical conditions, COPs for air
conditioners can range from 2-4, though modern units may exceed this. The COP
for cooling can be calculated as follows:

Q̇in,evap
β= (1)
Ẇcomp
As Figure 2 shows, the heat extracted from the cool space is equal to the
heat input to the refrigeration cycle, Q̇in,evap . This heat enters the cycle via the
evaporator coil, and can be related to the compressor work required to run the
cycle, Ẇcomp , and the heat rejection at the condenser, Q̇out,cond , by applying the
1st law of thermodynamics to the entire cycle at steady-state:
0 = Q̇in,evap − Q̇out,cond + Ẇcomp (2)

5-3
2. Objective
The objective of this experiment is to obtain performance data for the air condi-
tioning system, to quantify the major energy transfers in and out of the system,
and to determine the air conditioner’s coefficient of performance.

3. Preparation prior to lab

The following tasks must be performed before you come to the lab:

1. Ensure you have a physical copy of Tables A-7, A-8 and A-9 from Moran
et al. [2018], as you will need these for the lab.

2. Review Sections 7 and 8 and Figure 1.

3. Prepare the following data sheet in your logbook for recording properties,
operational states, and the state of the refrigerant (vapour, liquid, mixture of
vapour and liquid), as observed through the sight glasses:

value units
T1
T2
T3
T30
T4
T5
T6
Pevap
Pcond
V̇H2 O
Fan speed setting
State of refrigerant upstream of compressor
State of refrigerant upstream of refrigerant flow meter
State of refrigerant upstream of evaporator

5-4
4. Prepare a hand-drawn T-v diagram for the refrigerant in your logbook (use
a full page). This diagram need not be drawn to scale. Clearly indicate the
vapour dome and draw isobars that represent the absolute pressure of the
refrigerant in the evaporator (Pevap ) and in the condenser (Pcond ). Label the
axes, include appropriate units, and apply a title to the diagram. On the tem-
perature axis, mark the location of the saturation temperature corresponding
to each isobar; however, do not indicate the value of these temperatures as
they can only be determined once the experiment is run. You may wish to
consult Moran et al. [2018, Section 3.2] for guidance on T-v diagrams.
5. Include Figure 1 in your logbook as the schematic for the experiment. Circle
and label each of the following on the schematic: the evaporator unit, the
condenser unit, the throttling valve, and the complete refrigeration cycle.
6. Draw a schematic for each of the four major components of the cycle:
the evaporator coil, the condenser coil, the compressor, and the expansion
valve. For each, illustrate the system boundary with a dashed line. Clearly
indicate the fluid streams entering and exiting the control volume. Indicate
any energy transfers by heat or work between the system and surroundings.
7. Starting with a 1st law energy balance, derive one of the following two equa-
tions for the heat transferred through the evaporator and condenser coils.
Include all possible terms in your energy balance, and ensure the sign of
each term agrees with the signs indicated in the schematic. Cancel any un-
necessary terms from the energy balance, and explicitly list and justify all
assumptions in doing so.

Q̇in,evap = ṁR22 (h4 − h30 ) (3)

Q̇out,cond = ṁR22 (h2 − h3 ) (4)

You may wish to consult Moran et al. [2018, Chapter 4].

8. Starting with a 1st law energy balance, derive the following equation for
the work performed by the compressor. Include all possible terms in your
energy balance, and ensure the sign of each term agrees with the signs in-
dicated in the schematic. Cancel any unnecessary terms from the energy
balance, and explicitly list and justify all assumptions in doing so.

Ẇcomp = ṁR22 (h2 − h1 ) (5)

5-5
 9. Starting with a 1st law energy balance, derive the following equation for
the expansion valve. Include all possible terms in your energy balance, and
ensure the sign of each term agrees with the signs indicated in the schematic.
Cancel any unnecessary terms from the energy balance, and explicitly list
and justify all assumptions in doing so.
h30 = h3 (6)
You may wish to consult Moran et al. [2018, Section 4.10].

4. Instructions for running the experiment

1. Review Sections 7 and 8 and Figure 1 and familiarize yourself with the
equipment before turning the system on.
2. Have a laboratory instructor check and initialize the schematics, 1st law
energy balances, and data sheet you prepared in your logbook.
3. Do the following to obtain a set of measurements:
(a) Turn the main power switch on.
(b) Turn the compressor on.
(c) Set the evaporator fan speed to LOW.
(d) After a few minutes of operation, gradually adjust the throttle to obtain
a refrigerant flow meter reading of about 0.3 gallons/min.
(e) Turn the thermocouple meter on.
(f) Turn the frequency counter on.
(g) Allow the system to run for about 20 minutes in order for the mea-
surements to stabilize. Do not attempt to use the data taken during
this transient period. Monitor the various pressures and temperatures
to determine the end of the transient period. In particular, the com-
pressor exit temperature (T2 ) requires a relatively longer period to sta-
bilize. Ensure there is no liquid visible in the sight glass upstream of
the compressor and that there is no vapour visible in the sight glass
upstream of the refrigerant flow meter (refer to Section 7).
(h) Record the data on your data sheet.
4. After the appropriate data have been obtained, have a laboratory instructor
check your results and have them shut the system down for you.

5-6
5. Data analysis and presentation of results
1. Determine Pevap and Pcond in MPa. Indicate these values on the isobars you
drew on your P-v diagram.
2. Determine the saturation temperatures for Pevap and Pcond using Table A-8
of Moran et al. [2018]. Indicate these saturation temperatures on the vertical
axis of your T-v diagram.
3. Fix the state of the refrigerant at state points 1, 2, 3, and 4 (but not 30 ) using
the measured temperatures and by making the following assumptions:
P1 = P4 = P30 = Pevap
P2 = P3 = Pcond
Approximately locate these state points on your T-v diagram, clearly indi-
cating whether each state point lies within the superheated, subcooled, or
mixed region. Use your observations of the refrigerant state through the site
glasses to confirm the placement of these state points on the T-v diagram.
4. Evaluate h1 , h2 , h3 , v3 , and h4 using Tables A-7, A-8, and A-9 from Moran
et al. [2018]. Note that if T1 = T4 , state points 1 and 4 will have the same
enthalpy. Clearly list any assumptions taken and clearly show how data
have been interpolated from the tables.
5. Determine the mass flow rate of the refrigerant (ṁR22 ). Refer to the de-
scription of the refrigerant flow meter in Section 8.
6. Determine the h30 by applying Equation 6 (Step 9 of Section 3).
7. Determine the enthalpy of saturated liquid and saturated vapour at P30 us-
ing Table A-8 from Moran et al. [2018]. Then use these values and h30 to
determine the quality at state point 30 (x30 ). Locate state point 30 on the
evaporator pressure line of the T-v diagram, but indicate the measured value
of T30 next to the point.
8. With the enthalpies and mass flow calculated in previous steps, use Equa-
tions 3 through 5 to calculate the heat input from the evaporator, the heat
rejected at the condenser, and the work performed by the compressor, in
kW.
9. Calculate the coefficient of performance, β, for the refrigeration cycle.

5-7
6. Discussion questions
Your discussion should address the following questions.

1. Does the calculated COP agree with your expectations? Explain why or
why not.

2. Explain how the performance of the air conditioner might vary if it were
installed in a real-life scenario rather than in the lab room (hint: did the lab
room temperature go down as a result of this experiment?).

3. Is the calculated compressor work the total work required to run the system?
Explain any other power requirements, and how they might change the COP
if included in its calculation.

4. Comment on the measured value of T30 . Does it agree with the saturation
temperature at P30 ? Explain why this may be (this can relate to your sources
of error section).

Remeber to include an error analysis in your discussion section (see marking

scheme or ask your TA).

7. Operational notes
1. The operating conditions may be varied by adjusting the air flow rate through
the evaporator unit and/or by adjusting the refrigerant flow rate using the
metering valve.

2. For any operating condition selected, ensure that the refrigerant at the com-
pressor inlet is all vapour (i.e. dry saturated or superheated). This can be
verified through the sight glass at measurement point 4 (Figure 1). If liquid
is observed at this location, slightly reduce the flow rate of the refrigerant
until the liquid disappears.

3. For any operating condition selected, ensure that saturated or subcooled liq-
uid enters the refrigerant flow meter. This can be verified through the sight
glass located upstream of measurement point 3. If vapour is observed at
this location, slightly reduce the flow rate of the refrigerant until the vapour
disappears.

5-8
 4. To avoid excessive pressures and/or damage to the metering valve (throttle),
a spacer is installed on the valve, preventing its complete closure.

5. If the compressor is turned off before completing the experiment, it should

not be restarted until the condenser and evaporator pressures have equalized.

6. The system is automatically switched off in the event that: 1) the evapo-
rator pressure drops below about 190 kPa(g) (28 psig); 2) the condenser
pressure exceeds about 2760 kPa(g) (400 psig); or, 3) the refrigerant flow
rate exceeds about 0.6 USGPM. In such an event, immediately turn off all
power switches. Do not restart the system until the condenser and evapora-
tor pressures have equalized. Inform the laboratory instructor if the problem
reoccurs.

8. System description and instrumentation

This section describes the components that comprise the experiment. Note that
not all components are analyzed in the current laboratory experiment.

Evaporator
The evaporator coil consists of rifled copper tubing through which refrigerant
flows. Louvered fins are attached to the copper tubing to provide greater surface
area to improve heat transfer between the air and the refrigerant. The evaporator
fan causes air to flow through the evaporator unit.
Heat is transferred from the relatively warm air to the colder refrigerant as the
two streams flow independently through the evaporator. This causes a cooling of
the air. Furthermore, water vapour may be condensed from the air. A drip pan at
the base of the evaporator collects this condensed liquid water which then flows
through tubing to a drain under the floor of the laboratory.
The speed of the evaporator fan can be controlled through a switch situated
on the control panel. The electrical power draw of the fan at its three operational
speeds is given in the following table.

fan speed electrical power draw (kW)

LOW 0.26
MEDIUM 0.30
HIGH 0.36

5-9
Condenser
The condenser coil is made of copper tubing and aluminum fins. Air flows through
the condenser unit at about 1900 cfm. The fan used to generate the air flow is
driven at 1100 rev/min by a 1/2 hp motor.

Compressor
The compressor is of a hermetically-sealed scroll design and operates at 3450
rev/min. It is protected with internal temperature-sensitive and current-sensitive
overload sensors.

Throttle
The throttle is an 8o stem point, 0.125” orifice, stainless steel metering valve. A
spacer placed in the valve prevents complete shut off.

Propeller anemometer
The Gill propeller anemometer is a low-threshold precision air velocity sensor
employing a fast response carbon fibre thermoplastic propeller. The propeller di-
ameter is 20 cm. The “pitch” (the distance the air stream is advanced for each full
rotation) is 29.4 cm/rev, which is equivalent to 0.294 m/s per rev/s. Its accuracy is
± 0.3 m/s.
The rotational speed of the propeller is measured with a photo-chopper trans-
ducer. The frequency of the square-wave output signal of the photo-chopper is
measured with a frequency counter. The reading on the frequency counter in Hz
corresponds to the propeller rotational speed in rev/s.
Consequently, the velocity of the air stream through the propeller anemometer
can be determined from the pitch and the measured rotational speed:
Vair = 0.294 · ω̇
Where Vair is the air velocity (m/s) and ω̇ is the rotational speed (rev/s) measured
with the frequency counter.

Refrigerant flow meter

The refrigerant flow rate is measured using a rotameter with an anodized alu-
minum float and a cylindrical control tube with V-groove. The body is nickel-
plated brass. The meter’s accuracy is ± 4% of the full scale.

5-10
 The flow rate should be read off the top edge of the indicator. The indicator is
actuated by a permanent magnet built into the float, allowing reading of the flow
rate without requiring visibility of the float. This permits all metal construction of
the rotameter, providing high pressure and shock resistance.
The readings on the water scale of the flow meter can be converted into the
volumetric flow rate of refrigerant by using the following formula:
1 h i 
V̇R22 = (1.56 · 103 ) · vR22 − 0.556 2 · V̇H2 O · 6.31 · 10−5
 

Where V̇R22 is refrigerant volumetric flow rate (m3 /s) and V̇H2 O is the reading
on the meter’s water scale (USGPM). vR22 is the specific volume (m3 /kg) of the
refrigerant at the flow meter’s inlet (measurement point 3 in Figure 1).
The mass flow rate of refrigerant can be determined using the following for-
mula:
V̇R22
ṁR22 =
vR22
Where ṁR22 is the refrigerant mass flow rate (kg/s).

Compressor power meter

Measures the electric power consumed by the compressor. The meter is calibrated
to display the power in kW when the display unit is set to the V-DC scale.

Pressure gauges
They measure the gauge pressure of the refrigerant (i.e., the ambient pressure must
be added to the reading to determine the absolute pressure).

Thermocouples and thermocouple meter

J-type thermocouples are used to measure the refrigerant and air temperatures at
the measurement points indicated in Figure 1. The thermocouple meter converts
the thermocouple output (mV) into degree Celsius. Measurement number 5 on
the temperature display measures the refrigerant temperature entering the evapo-
rator (T30 ) while measurement number 7 on the temperature display measures the
temperature of the air entering the evaporator (T5 ).

5-11
Refrigerant filter/drier
A device for removing contaminants from the circulating refrigerant.

References
Michael J. Moran, Howard N. Shapiro, Daisie D. Boettner, and Margaret B. Bai-
ley. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
9th edition, 2018.

5-12
EXPERIMENT 6

Conduction Heat Transfer Experiments

1. Introduction

The purpose of this experiment, located in the Thermodynamics Laboratory (2230 Mackenzie Building),
is to illustrate the conduction mode of heat transfer in solid media.

Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy through molecular interactions when the medium is exposed
to a temperature gradient. According to Fourier’s law of conduction (Note that this topic will be covered
in more detail in the Heat Transfer section of the course), the rate of conductive heat transfer is
proportional to the area across which heat is transferred and the temperature gradient:

𝑑𝑇 (1)
𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥

where 𝑄̇ : rate of heat transfer (W)

k: thermal conductivity (W/m·K)
A: area (m2)

The negative sign indicates that heat flows in the opposite direction of the temperature gradient, namely
from hot to cold. The constant of proportionality, k, is known as thermal conductivity, and expresses the
ability of a substance to conduct heat. Values of k for several metals are listed in the following table.

Table 1: Thermal conductivity of selected metals.

k
Metal
(W/m-K)

Brass 110-128

Stainless steel 25

Aluminum 180

Copper 380

Further, if one assumes the temperature distribution to be linear and considering one-dimensional heat
transfer, the Eq. (1) becomes:

∆𝑇 (2)
𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝐴
∆𝑥

6-1
If the temperature distribution of interest spans more than one material (i.e. a composite; see Figure 1),
one may express the heat transfer as follows:

𝑄̇ 𝑘𝐴 ∆𝑇𝐴 𝑘𝐵 ∆𝑇𝐵 𝑘𝐶 ∆𝑇𝐶 (3)

= = =
𝐴 ∆𝑥𝐴 ∆𝑥𝐵 ∆𝑥𝐶

where A, B, C: different materials

𝑄̇
Ti

To
kA kB kC

ΔxA ΔxB ΔxC

Figure 1: Example of a composite material

In other words, when thermal equilibrium is reached, the heat flux remains constant throughout the
multiple layers of material due to conservation of energy. The temperature gradient, however, will differ
depending on the value of the thermal conductivity, k. From equation (3), it follows that:

𝑄̇ ∆𝑥𝐴 ∆𝑥𝐵 ∆𝑥𝐶 (4)

𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 = (∆𝑇𝐴 + ∆𝑇𝐵 + ∆𝑇𝐶 ) = ( + + )
𝐴 𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑘𝐶

One may therefore express 𝑄̇ using an overall heat transfer coefficient, U, and the overall temperature
difference as follows:

𝑄̇ (5)
= 𝑈(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝐴
The overall heat transfer coefficient, U, provides an indication of the ability of the composite material to
conduct heat. Its inverse, R, is known as the thermal resistance to heat flow.

1 (6)
𝑅=
𝑈

6-2
2. Apparatus

Refer to Figure 2 for a schematic of the experimental apparatus.

Figure 2: Linear heat conduction apparatus

The experimental apparatus, labelled HT11, consists of three insulated sections, each fitted with a metal
cylinder. The top and bottom sections each contain a brass cylinder, whereas the intermediate section is
reserved for the test specimen which can be removed. Brass and stainless steel test specimens are provided
with the setup. Both metal cylinders have a circular cross section of diameter D = 25 mm.

An electric heater is located in the top section (hot section), and generates heat which is conducted
through the metal cylinders. Conversely, the bottom section (cold section) is cooled by water. The flow
rate of water may be varied by the operator using a knob on the pressure regulator.

Eight K-type thermocouples are located in the apparatus – three in the top section, two in the intermediate
section, and three in the bottom section – to measure the temperature at different locations. The
thermocouples are spaced 15 mm apart. Consequently, T3 is 7.5 mm from the hot face of the test
specimen, while T6 is 7.5 mm from the cold face of the test specimen.

The voltage, current, water flow rate, and temperature readings are read off the main control panel when
the appropriate knob is turned to the V, I, Fw, and T1-T8 settings, respectively.

6-3
3. Procedure

Note: it may take a few minutes before temperatures stabilize for given power input and water cooling
settings. During this period, students should continue to study the apparatus and this lab description to
thoroughly understand the quantities to be measured, the sensor used for the measurements, the
measurement procedure, and the subsequent data processing steps.

(a) Data sheets are given in Appendix A. Please attach these tables to your logbook.

Part I: Brass

(b) Apply conductive paste on both faces of the brass specimen as instructed by the T.A., and clamp it
in place. Note that the conductive paste will enhance the thermal contact by filling the
microscopic imperfections at the interface.

(c) Turn on the front panel switch and the cooling water. Verify that the water valve is open (parallel
to tube). Using the knob on the pressure regulator, adjust the water flow rate to 1.5 L/min. The
flow rate may be read on the front panel when the knob is set to Fw.

(d) Adjust the voltage to 9.0 V. The voltage is read on the front panel when the knob is set to V.
Record the current (knob set at I). The voltage and current are required to determine the electric
power input to the system (𝑄̇𝐼𝑁 = 𝑉 × 𝐼), hence the rate of heat transfer through the test specimen.
When temperatures have stabilized, record temperatures T1 to T8 by turning the knob to
correspond to the appropriate thermocouple.

Part II: Stainless steel

(e) Apply conductive paste on both faces of the stainless steel specimen, and clamp it in place.

(f) Set the voltage at 9.0 V. Record the current I. When temperatures have stabilized, record
temperatures T1 to T8.

4. Data analysis and questions

Part I: Brass

(a) Plot a graph of temperature against longitudinal position along the bar (T1 to T8).

(b) Calculate the thermal conductivity of the brass between thermocouples 1 and 3 (k13), 4 and 5 (k45), and
6 and 8 (k68). From these, find the average thermal conductivity of brass.

6-4
Part II: Stainless steel

(c) Plot a graph of temperature against longitudinal position along the bar.

(d) Determine the thermal conductivity (k) of the stainless-steel sample.

(e) Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient (U) for the brass-steel-brass composite, as well as its
thermal resistance (R).

Part III: Discussion questions

(a) Referring to your graphs, how does temperature vary with position? Is this consistent with Fourier’s
law of conduction? What variables affect the slope of the temperature-position graph?

(b) Why is the temperature gradient different in the stainless steel section compared to the brass sections?

(c) Compare your experimental values of thermal conductivity to the values provided in Table 1. You may
explain any discrepancies in your sources of error section.

(d) How would you expect the temperature to vary if conductive paste was only applied on the bottom
face of the metal specimen, but not on the top face? Sketch the expected temperature distribution on a
temperature vs. longitudinal position graph.

(e) If purchasing insulation for your house, would you prefer insulation with a high or low thermal
resistance (R)? If purchasing thermal paste for your computer, would you prefer high or low thermal
conductivity (k)?

Remember to include an error analysis section in your discussion!

Reference
Holman, J.P., Heat Transfer, 9th edition, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co

6-5
Appendix A - Experiment 6
A = π D2/4 D = 0.025 m

Table 1: Data for conductive heat transfer for brass specimen

Flow Rate (𝑭𝐰 ) (L/min) 1.5

Voltage (V) 9
Current (A)
Position (mm) Temperature (oC)
0 T1
15 T2
30 T3
45 T4
60 T5
75 T6
90 T7
105 T8

Table 2: Data for conductive heat transfer for steel specimen

Flow Rate (𝑭𝐰 ) (L/min) 1.5

Voltage (V) 9
Current (A)
Position (mm) Temperature (oC)
0 T1
15 T2
30 T3
37.5 TH (extrapolate)
67.5 TC (extrapolate)
75 T6
90 T7
105 T8

6-6
 Calculations
Table 3: Calculated results for conductive heat transfer for brass specimen.

𝑸̇ IN (W)
ΔT13 (K)
ΔT45 (K)
ΔT68 (K)
k13 (W/mK)
k45 (W/mK)
k68 (W/mK)
kavg (W/mK)
kBRASS (W/mK) 110 - 128

Table 4: Calculated results for conductive heat transfer for steel specimen.

𝑸̇ IN (W)
ΔText (K)
kcalc (W/mK)

Ub-s-b (W/m2K)
Rb-s-b (m2K/W)

6-7