Alain Badiou: - Bodies, Languages Truths
Alain Badiou: - Bodies, Languages Truths
..........
...........Alain Badiou
Spanish Version
What is the dominant ideology today? Or, if you want, what is, in our
countries, the natural belief? There is the free market, the technology,
the money, the job, the blog, the reelections, the free sexuality, and so
on. But I think that all that can be concentrated in a single statement:
Today the body is not just a subject who produces and who - because it
produces art - shows us the paradigm of production in general, the
power of life: the body has become a machine into which production
and art inscribe themselves. That is what we postmoderns know.
There are only bodies and languages, except that there are truths.
For instance, when we think that we could not make something out of
nothing, we do not believe that this proposition is some thing that
exists or the property of some thing, but we treat it as a eternal truth
that has its seat in our thought, and that is called a common notion or
maxim: nevertheless, when someone tells us it is impossible for
something to be and not to be at the same time, that what has been
done cannot be undone, that he who thinks cannot stop being or
existing whilst he thinks, and numerous other similar statements, these
are only truths, and not things.
One can see in what sense Descartes thinks the three (and not only the
two). His own axiom can in fact be stated as follows: 'There are only
(contingent) corporeal things and intellectual things, except that there
are (eternal) truths.'
The idea that we can identify the special being of truths was one of the
principal stakes, in 1988, of my book Being and Event which has been
published in English last year. There I established that truths are
generic multiplicities: no linguistic predicate can allow them to be
discerned, no explicit proposition can designate them. I said why it is
legitimate to call 'subject' the local existence of the process that
develops these generic multiplicities (the formula was: 'a subject is a
point of truth').
That was in Being and Event, the most important result concerning the
ontological nature of truths. We can say that in another form : It is true
that a world is composed of bodies and languages. But every world is
capable of producing within itself its own truth.
What the 1988 (nineteen eighty-eight) book did at the abstract level of
pure being, must be done at the level of appearing, or of being there, or
of concrete worlds. It is the contents of my new book, which has been
published in Paris this year, Logiques des mondes.
Or:
"Truth" is the name that philosophy has always reserved for these
productions. We can say that their body - the body of a truth, the new
truth-body - is composed only of the elements of the world in which
this body appears. And nevertheless, the truth-body exhibits a type of
universality that these elements themselves have not the power to
sustain. This type has seven fundamental properties.
That means that freedom presupposes that there appears in the world
a new body, a truth-body. The subjective forms of incorporation made
possible by this new body define the nuances of freedom. Freedom has
nothing to do with the capacities of an ordinary body under the law of
some language. Freedom is : active participation to the consequences
of a new body, which is always beyond my own body. A truth-body
which belongs to one of the four great figures of exception : love,
politics, art and science ; so freedom is not a category of elementary life
of bodies. Freedom is a category of intellectual novelty, not within, but
beyond ordinary life.
'Life' - and its tributaries ('forms of life', 'constituent life', 'the art of life',
and so on) - a major signifier of democratic materialism. At the level of
pure opinion 'to have a successful life' is the only imperative that is
today understood by everyone. That is because 'life' designates every
empirical correlation between bodies and language. And the norm of
life is, all too naturally, that the genealogy of languages be adequate to
the power of bodies.
Is that to say that materialist dialectics must renounce any use of the
word 'life'? My idea is rather to bring this word to the centre of
philosophical thought, in the form of a systematic response to the
question 'What is it to live?'
The resolution of the problem of the body has for essence, I recall, the
problem, of the appearance of truths. That's why this resolution is a
terrible task. We have to completely explain the possibility of
something new in an old world.
We can set that the question on which depends the exception is that of
objectivity. A truth, such as a subject formalizes its active body in a
given world, is not a miracle. A truth takes place among the objects of
a world. But what is an object? In a sense, what we have to do, is to
find a new definition of the object and it is in fact my most complex
and innovative argument. Because, with this new conception of
objectivity, it is possible to clarify the paradoxical status of the
existence of a truth.
But you can understand that the path of materialist dialectics organizes
the contrast between, on one hand, the complexity of materialism
(logic of appearing, or theory of objectivity) an, on the other hand, the
intensity of dialiectics (the living incorporation to a new truth). It is the
contrast between what I name, after Hegel, a Great Logic and the
answer to the question "How are we to live really." This contrast is
philosophy itself.
We can here give only a poor idea of the program of this philosophical
enterprise.
All that defines a new future for philosophy itself. Philosophy has to
expose the possibility of a true life. As Aristotle has said, our goal is to
examine the question : How can we live really, that is, are immortals.
And when we are incorporated within a truth-body, we are in fact as
immortals. As Spinoza says, we experiment that we are eternal. But all
that is always after some events, events in politics, arts, sciences or
love. So, we, philosophers, are working during the night, after the day
of the real becoming of a new truth.
Alain badiou
Franceʼs agony was not born of the flagging reasons to believe in
her: defeat, demography, industry, etc., but of the incapacity to
believe in anything at all. André MalrauxWhat do we all think,
today?* What do I myself think when I donʼt monitor myself? Or,
rather, what is our (my) natural belief? By ʻnaturalʼ, of course, I
mean in accordance with the rule of an inculcated nature. A belief is
all the more natural to the extent that its imposition, or its
inculcation, is freely sought out – and to the extent that it serves our
immediate and often unavowed designs. Today, natural belief can
be summarized in a single statement:There are only bodies and
languages.This statement is the axiom of our contemporary
conviction. I propose to name this conviction democratic
materialism. Why?
Democratic materialism. The individual fashioned by the
contemporary world recognizes the objective existence of bodies
alone. Who would ever speak today, other than to conform to a
certain rhetoric, of the separability of our immortal soul? Who does
not subscribe de facto – in the pragmatics of desires and the self-
evidence of commerce – to the dogma of our finitude, of our carnal
exposition to enjoyment, suffering and death?
Take one symptom among many: artists, the ʻcreativeʼ people of our
day – choreographers, painters, video-makers – track the self-
evidence of bodies, of the desiring and machinic life of bodies, of
their intimacy, their nudity, their entwinings and ordeals. They all
adapt the inhibited, quartered and soiled body to the domain of
fantasies and dreams. All, in the end, impose upon the sphere of the
visible the partition of bodies shot through with the noise of the
universe. Aesthetic theory merely follows in their wake. A random
example: a letter from Antonio Negri to Raúl Sanchez, from
December 15, 1999. In it, we read the following:
Today the body is not just a subject who produces and who – because it
produces art – shows us the paradigm of production in general, the power of
life: the body has become a machine into which production and art are
inscribed. This is what we postmoderns know. [1]
ʻPostmodernʼ is certainly one of the possible names for
contemporary democratic materialism. Negri is right about what the
postmoderns ʻknowʼ: the body is the only concrete instance
[instance] available to individuals who aspire, in their desolation, to
enjoyment. Man, within the regime of the ʻpower of lifeʼ, is a
somewhat unhappy animal, perpetually needing to be convinced
that the law of the body harbours the secret of his hope.
In order to validate the equation ʻexistence = individual = bodyʼ,
contemporary doxa must bravely absorb humanity into an
overstretched vision of animality. ʻHuman rightsʼ are
indistinguishable from the rights of the living – that is, the rights of
the living being to remain a desolate individual aspiring to
enjoyment. Mortal bodies. Suffering lives. The humanist protection
of all animals, humans included: such is the norm of contemporary
materialism. It supplies contemporary materialism with its scientific
name, ʻbioethicsʼ. The progressive inversion [envers progressiste]
of bioethics borrows its own name from Foucault: ʻbiopoliticsʼ.
This materialism is therefore a materialism of life.
It is a bio-materialism.
The statement ʻthere are some truthsʼ which opposes the dualistic
axiomatic of democratic materialism – the law protects all the
bodies, arranged under all the compatible languages – is for me the
obvious empirical point of departure. There is no doubt concerning
the existence of truths, which are not bodies, languages, or
combinations of the two. And this obviousness is materialist,
inasmuch as it does not require any scission of world, any
intelligible place of its own, any ʻheightʼ.
Note that the basis of the cogito (the induction of existence through
the act of thought) is a truth in the sense outlined in this passage.
This means that a truth is what thought persists in presenting even
when the regime of the thing is suspended (by doubt). A truth is
thus precisely what insists as an exception to the forms of the ʻthere
isʼ.
One can see in what sense Descartes thinks the three (and not just
the two). Indeed, his own axiom might be formulated as follows:
ʻThere are only (contingent) corporeal things and intellectual things,
except that there are (eternal) truths.ʼ
The idea that the type of being that pertains to truths can be
identified over and above the empirical evidence of their existence
was one of the principal issues at stake in my 1988 book Being and
Event. In that text I established, on the basis of a lengthy analysis of
the forms of being, that truths are generic multiplicities: no
linguistic predicate allows them to be discerned, no explicit
proposition allows them to be designated. I also explained why it is
legitimate to call ʻsubjectʼ the local existence of the process that
unfolds these generic multiplicities (the formula was: ʻa subject is a
point of truthʼ).
It is not a question here of returning to those conclusions, which
undermine the linguistic, relativist and neo-sceptical parenthesis in
which contemporary academic philosophy is confined – a
philosophy which, when all is said and done, is merely the
sophisticated handmaiden of democratic materialism.
For the time being, suffice it to say that these conclusions fully
ground the possibility of a prospective metaphysics capable of
enveloping the actions of today and of reinforcing itself, tomorrow,
in view of what these actions will produce. Such a metaphysics is a
component of the new materialist dialectic.
I would like to draw attention here to the fact that, via entirely
different (even opposed) paths, that of a vitalist analytic of
undifferentiated bodies, Deleuze too sought to create the conditions
for a contemporary metaphysics. In this sense, he too embodied one
of the orientations of the materialist dialectic, as can be shown by
his stubborn resistance to the devastating gains made by democratic
materialism. We should remember that he used to say that when the
philosopher hears the words ʻdemocratic debateʼ, he turns and runs.
That is because Deleuzeʼs intuitive conception of the concept
presupposed the survey of its components at infinite speed. But this
infinite speed of thought is indeed incompatible with democratic
debate. Generally speaking, the materialist dialectic opposes the real
infinity of truths to the principle of finitude which is deducible from
the maxims of democracy. For example, we can say:A truth affirms
the infinite right of its consequences, with no regard to what
opposes them.Deleuze was a free and sombre bearer of such an
affirmation of the infinite rights of thought. This affirmation had to
clear a path for itself against the democratic complicity of the
phenomenological tradition, always too pious (including
Heidegger), and the analytic tradition, always too sceptical
(including Wittgenstein). The insistent motif of this complicity is
finitude, which has since been transformed, by essayists or
editorialists, into that of ʻmodestyʼ. In the final analysis, one is
never modest enough when it comes either to exposing oneself to
the transcendence of the destiny of Being, or to becoming aware of
the fact that our language games cannot open an access to that
mystical beyond in which the meaning of life is decided.
The materialist dialectic exists only in so far as it digs the furrow
which separates, on its right, the diktats of authenticity, and, on its
left, the humilities of Critique.
To produce, in the world such as it is, new forms that might shelter
the pride of the inhuman – this is what legitimates us. It matters
therefore that by ʻmaterialist dialecticʼ we understand the
deployment of a critique of all critique.
MIKE DAVIS
People desperately need to go back to work and save what
they can of their lives. But Mike Davis argues that a rapid
reopening of the economy would only result in unspeakable
tragedy for millions.
Medical workers prepare with personal protective equipment (PPE) before entering a
residential building on April 27, 2020 in a neighborhood of the Brooklyn borough of
New York City. Spencer Platt / Getty
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Mike Davis: Reopening the Economy Will Send Us to Hell
Mike Davis
Are You Reading Propaganda Right Now?
Liza Featherstone
Four Futures
Peter Frase
The Red and the Black
Seth Ackerman
People desperately need to go back to work and save what they can of their
lives. But heeding the siren call of the MAGA demonstrators, puppets on
strings manipulated by hedge funds and billionaire casino owners, to “reopen
the economy” would only result in tragedy. Consider these points:
Indefinite Lockout
In a sense, we are living in an indefinite lockout, facing an administration that
sets a higher priority on destroying the US Postal Service than it does on
organizing a crash program to produce the tests, safety equipment, and
antivirals that will allow the United States to return to work.
Then in 2003 a new viral epidemic started with a traveler in a Chinese airport
hotel who passed his infection on to everyone with whom he had contact.
Within twenty-four hours the virus had flown to five other countries. Severe
Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) killed one out of every ten victims.
The SARS pathogen was identified as another coronavirus, passed from bats
to small lithe carnivores known as civets, long valued in southern Chinese
cuisine. SARS reached thirty countries and caused a full-scale international
panic. But it had an Achilles’ heel: it was only contagious at the stage when
infected people displayed symptoms like dry coughing, fever, and muscle
aches. Because it was so easily recognized, the SARS virus was finally
contained.
After four months of circulation in the human world, we now know that the
virus, unlike its predecessors, flies on the same wings as influenza: spread
easily by people without visible signs of illness. The current pathogen has
turned out to be a “stealth virus” on a scale far exceeding influenzas and
perhaps unprecedented in the annals of microbiology. The Navy has tested
almost the entire crew of the stricken aircraft carrier Theodore Roosevelt and
discovered that 60 percent of those infected never displayed visible
symptoms.
But most recent research (which can be reviewed at the National Institutes of
Health pandemic website, LitCovid) suggests that conferred immunity is very
limited and coronavirus could become as entrenched as influenza. Barring
dramatic mutations, second and third infections will likely be less dangerous
to survivors, but there is as of yet no evidence that they will be any less
dangerous to uninfected people in high-risk groups. So COVID-19 will be the
monster in our attic for a long time.
For nearly a generation the World Health Organization (WHO) and all major
governments have been planning how to detect and respond to such a
pandemic. There has always been a very clear international understanding of
the need for early detection, large stockpiles of emergency medical supplies,
and surge capacity in ICU beds. Most important has the been the agreement of
WHO members to coordinate their response along guidelines they all had
voted to accept. Early containment was crucial: comprehensive testing,
contact tracing, and the isolation of suspected cases. Large-scale quarantines,
sealing off cities, shutting large sectors of the economy — these should be
only last-ditch measures, made unnecessary by extensive planning.
Along these lines, after the arrival of avian flu in 2005 the US government
published an ambitious “National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza” based on
the finding that all levels of the American public health system were totally
unprepared for a large-scale outbreak. After the swine flu scare in 2009, the
strategy was updated, and, in 2017, a week before Trump’s inauguration,
outgoing Obama officials and incoming Trump administrators jointly carried
out a large-scale simulation that tested the response of federal agencies and
hospitals to a pandemic arising in three different scenarios: swine flu, Ebola,
and Zika virus.
In the simulation the system, of course, failed to prevent the outbreaks or, for
that matter, flatten the curves in time. Part of the problem was detection and
coordination. Another was inadequate stockpiles and supply chains with
obvious bottlenecks, such as depending on a few overseas factories to produce
vital protective equipment. And behind all this lay the failure to aggressively
take advantage of revolutionary advances in biological design over the last
decade in order to stockpile an arsenal of new antivirals and vaccines.
In other words, the United States was not ready, and the government knew it
was not ready.
Dominoes of Disaster
By the end of January 2020 three things had happened. First, the WHO
quickly distributed hundreds of thousands of test kits designed by German
scientists but otherwise was pushed to the sidelines while each nation bolted
its doors and ignored previous commitments to mutual aid.
Second, three East Asian nations with well-prepared medical arsenals and
single-payer health systems — South Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan —
successfully contained outbreaks with minimal mortality and moderate
periods of social isolation. After early disasters that allowed the virus to
escape on air flights and forced the lockdown of Wuhan, China mobilized on
an unprecedented scale and quickly extinguished all COVID-19 hotspots
outside Wuhan.
Third, our Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) decided to
create its own diagnostic kit rather than use the one distributed by the WHO.
The CDC’s production lines were contaminated with viruses, however, and
the test kits were useless. The entire month of February, when it was still
possible to prevent the exponential increase of infection through testing and
contact tracing, was squandered.
This was the first disaster. The second was in March, when severe and critical
cases began to crowd hospitals. As institutions began to run out of respirators,
N-95 masks, and ventilators, they turned to their states and then to the federal
government’s National Strategic Stockpile, which had been designed
specifically for use during an outbreak like COVID-19.
But the cupboard was almost bare. It had been largely depleted during the
national panic over swine flu in 2009 and several subsequent emergencies.
The Trump administration had been repeatedly warned of its statutory duty to
restock it, but had other priorities such as slashing the budget of the CDC and
killing the Affordable Care Act.
HADAS THIER
It’s okay to talk to your kids about politics. In fact, it's a
good idea — if you do it the right way. Here’s how.
Mothers and their children with Moms Clean Air Force walk to meet up with other
protesters for the Global Climate Strike protests on September 20, 2019 in Washington,
DC. Samuel Corum / Getty
Our spring issue, “Pandemic Politics,” is out now. It features over 120
pages of beautiful illustrations and quality writing and analysis. Get a
discounted subscription today!
Mike Davis: Reopening the Economy Will Send Us to Hell
Mike Davis
Are You Reading Propaganda Right Now?
Liza Featherstone
Four Futures
Peter Frase
The Red and the Black
Seth Ackerman
A few people, though, had complaints about my parenting. One said, “He is
clearly not old enough to understand politics. There’s no need for this forced
indoctrination.”
I found this insulting to my child — and all children, for that matter. But it
made me think: How old do you have to be to understand politics? How do
you define politics? If it’s think-tank policy papers, lobbying strategies, and
political maneuverings on Capitol Hill, then sure, leave my kid out of it. But if
it’s an outline of the injustices of the world, and the necessity of a fight for
things to be better, then we need everyone, especially the children — who
often have a clearer and more hopeful understanding of reality than we do.
My own child, who I’m grateful doesn’t yet know about war, likes to talk a lot
about how we’re trying to make the world better. Specifically, he says he
would like to live in a world where his parents don’t have to work so much.
Where schools have more adults that could pay attention to him and the others
in his class. Where he could cry and be scared and be himself without being
told to be a “big boy.”
“We’re going to make the world better,” he often tells me. Then he’ll follow
up with one or another goal: “We’re going to have more trains.”
He sees that we pay for everything. He sees people asking for money on the
subway. And he asks us about them. It would be a lot more confusing to him
if we pretended no one was begging for change and didn’t talk about it. The
implicit message of our silence would be that it was okay, and if he couldn’t
understand it, it was just his confusion. One of the things that first clicked for
him about Bernie’s campaign was that Bernie thinks “everyone should share”
— that it’s not fair that a very few people have so many things, and that most
people don’t have the things that they need.
I’ve spent many years as an activist, but I was reticent to “talk politics” with
my kid, in an effort to let him be his own person. But I also don’t want to
insult his intelligence by assuming that he can’t understand, or underestimate
his capacity to engage with the world around him.
There are far too many things that we’ve become numb to as adults because
we’ve had to get along in this world as it is. We need people in our movement
that are not completely numb yet, and whose expectations of change have not
been so lowered. In many ways, their picture of the world is a lot less fuzzy
than ours. This is the reason that young people are now playing leading roles
in the movement for climate justice.
For the next half hour, my son grilled me about other candidates throughout
the debate. “Do you like that guy?” he asked when Cory Booker was
speaking. “Not so much,” I replied. “Why? What does he say?” “Do you like
her?” he asked of Elizabeth Warren. “Well, I don’t think what she’s saying is
true,” I responded. “Why not? What is she saying? What is true?” Then
Bernie would talk. “Is that Brownie Sander [his first name for him]? What
does he say?”
These questions would go on and on, and I realized that he was learning that
there are different ideas out there, and that we can argue them out. And that
his mom prefers the kind of grouchy one who shakes his finger and tells the
truth about the problems in the world.
When my family headed to the climate strike together, my son was pretty
jazzed at the idea of a protest — that we would be getting together with lots
and lots of other people who want to shout out together about the things we
want to change. We talked about the earth and needing to take care of it, and
that right now it’s not being taken care of well.
When I broached the subject of global warming, I quickly backed off. The
look on his face told me that it was incomprehensible. Not because I got into
the weeds of the science (I didn’t), but because it was just too scary and life-
threatening of an idea to drop on a three-year-old.
I stopped there. We had broached the question of the environment, and he was
interested in the idea that the earth is something we not only live on but take
care of. We talked about how good trains are because it means we can all use
them together and not bother the planet too much. This only increased his love
of trains. Better to save the really scary stuff for when he’s better equipped to
handle it.
It’s this last point that got my son really excited about Bernie. When I come
home from canvassing for our first socialist president, my son asks me about
Bernie — about what he says, about why I like him. The questions go on.
“Well,” I explained, “Bernie wants to help fix the things that aren’t working
well right now.” “Like what? What’s not working well?” he responds. And off
we go.
Dialectique
Sauter à la navigationSauter à la recherche
Sommaire
1Histoire
o 1.1La dialectique dans l'Antiquité
1.1.1Chez les présocratiques
1.1.2Chez Socrate
1.1.3Chez Platon
1.1.4Chez Aristote
1.1.5Chez Théophraste
1.1.6Chez les stoïciens
o 1.2La dialectique dans la philosophie médiévale
1.2.1Le haut Moyen Âge
1.2.2Le bas Moyen Âge
o 1.3La dialectique dans la philosophie moderne
1.3.1La dialectique chez Hegel
1.3.2La dialectique chez Karl Marx
1.3.3La dialectique chez Adorno
2La dialectique éristique
3La dialectique contemporaine et la science
4Notes et références
5Voir aussi
o 5.1Articles connexes
o 5.2Liens externes
o 5.3Bibliographie
Histoire[modifier | modifier le code]
La dialectique dans l'Antiquité[modifier | modifier le code]
Chez les présocratiques[modifier | modifier le code]
Socrate discutant avec ses amis le jour de sa mort (détail du tableau de Jacques-Louis David, La
mort de Socrate, 1787).
La dialectique contemporaine et la
science[modifier | modifier le code]
Après 1945, à la suite de la caricature du matérialisme dialectique
(le diamat) et l'affaire Lyssenko, la dialectique est fortement et
diversement critiquée par les philosophes (Jean-Paul Sartre) et les
scientifiques (Jacques Monod, Guillaume Lecointre15). Aujourd'hui
certains philosophes comme Lucien Sève ou Jean-Marie
Brohm remettent en avant la dialectique mais de manière
philosophique dans le cadre strictement de l'action humaine, la
praxis. Ils rejettent la dialectique de la nature et positiviste ou
matérialiste et l'existence des lois scientifiques déterminées
naturellement et existantes en dehors de l'action de l'homme.
Cependant après guerre, quelques-uns (Richard Lewontin, Stephan
Jay Gould, Alexandre Zinoviev, Patrick Tort…) la reconnaissent
ouvertement dans leurs études et l'objet de leurs études.
Au XXI siècle, des ouvrages de scientifiques remettent en avant la
e
1. Mouvement et transformation.
2. L'action réciproque (ou interdépendance, dite aussi unité
dialectique).
3. La contradiction, force créatrice.
4. Le passage du quantitatif au qualitatif (bonds et ruptures).
5. La négation de la négation : thèse, antithèse et synthèse (ou
principe du développement en spirale).
Notons que Georges Politzer (1936) regroupe les principes 3 et 5 en
un seul. Cela ne présente aucun inconvénient, puisque le contenu
des principes n'a pas encore été défini. Qui plus est, l'évolution de
nos connaissances scientifiques conduit à une révision permanente
du contenu de ces principes. C'est ainsi que […], pour les
phénomènes faisant intervenir l'évolution d'au moins trois agents, un
nouveau principe, « des comportements erratiques sur l'attracteur »
mettant en œuvre des découvertes (le chaos déterministe) datant
seulement d'une trentaine d'années, et donc totalement inconnues
d'Engels ou de Politzer17. »
La dialectique matérialiste a trouvé dans la biologie un certain
nombre d’arguments (cf JBS Haldane, Richard Lewontin, Stephen
Jay Gould). Par le fait que les êtres vivants, déterminés par leurs
bases physico-chimiques fluctuantes (voir Prigogine) et un certain
contenu en information, sont soumis à des changements incessants,
aussi bien sur le plan de leur structure (métabolisme) que de
leur évolution, le concept de dialectique, au sens qui avait été donné
par Engels dans la dialectique de la nature, a pu être appliqué18.
Selon Évariste Sanchez-Palencia, la dialectique permet de résoudre
des problèmes scientifiques contradictoires, insolites et paradoxaux
dans tous les domaines de connaissances dont les mathématiques
appliquées. « Mais, c'est surtout la sociologie et la psychologie de la
recherche, les méthodes de productions de connaissances, si
éloignées d'une logique communément admise mais très peu
convaincante, qui peuvent trouver dans la dialectique un cadre
permettant une ébauche de cohérence. »19 En effet, « la dialectique
n'est pas une logique avec des lois strictes, mais un cadre général
dans lequel s'inscrivent les phénomènes évolutifs ».
libéraux.
10. ↑ À la fin du XII siècle, Henri Aristippe traduit notamment du grec le Livre IV
e
Arts libéraux
Logique
Zénon d'Élée
Liens externes[modifier | modifier le code]
Platon, Parménide
Textes classiques
Slavoj Zizek
is a cultural philosopher. He’s a senior researcher at the Institute for Sociology and Philosophy
at the University of Ljubljana, Global Distinguished Professor of German at New York
University, and international director of the Birkbeck Institute for the Humanities of the
University of London.
1 Jul, 2020 08:06
Black Lives Matter demonstration in Northampton town centre, UK on June 13, 2020 © Getty
Images/Leila Coker/MI News/NurPhoto
Smashing up monuments and disowning the past isn’t the way to address racism
and show respect to black people. Feeling guilty patronizes the victims and
achieves little.
It was widely reported in the media how on June 21, German authorities were
shocked by a rampage of an “unprecedented scale” in the centre of Stuttgart:
between 400 and 500 partygoers ran riot overnight, smashing shop windows,
plundering stores and attacking police.
The police – who needed four and a half hours to quell the violence – ruled out any
political motives for the “civil war-like scenes,” describing the perpetrators as
people from the “party scene or events scene.” There were, of course, no bars or
clubs for them to visit, because of social distancing – hence they were out on the
streets.
Such civil disobedience has not been limited to Germany. On June 25, thousands
packed out England’s beaches, ignoring social distancing. In Bournemouth, on the
south coast, it was reported: “The area was overrun with cars and sunbathers,
leading to gridlock. Rubbish crews also suffered abuse and intimidation as they
tried to remove mountains of waste from the seafront, and there were a number of
incidents involving excessive alcohol and fighting.”
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One can blame these violent outbreaks on the immobility imposed by social
distancing and quarantine, and it is reasonable to expect that we’ll see similar
incidents across the world. You could argue that the recent wave of anti-racist
protests follows a similar logic, too: people are relieved to deal with something they
believe in to take their focus away from coronavirus.
We are, of course, dealing with very different types of violence here. On the beach,
people simply wanted to enjoy their usual summer vacation, and reacted angrily
against those who wanted to prevent it.
READ MORE
Let’s leave aside the obvious counter-argument that fundamentalist countries like
Saudi Arabia and Qatar are being ravaged, and focus on the procedure of “thought
policing,” whose ultimate expression was the infamous Index Librorum
Prohibitorum (List of Prohibited Books), a collection of publications deemed
heretical or contrary to morality by the Sacred Congregation of the Index, so that
Catholics were forbidden from reading them without permission.
This list was operative (and regularly updated) from early modernity until 1966, and
everybody who counted in European culture was included at some point. As my
friend Mladen Dolar noted some years ago, if you imagine European culture without
all the books and authors who were at some point on the list, what remains is pure
wasteland…
The reason I mention this is that I think the recent urge to cleanse our culture of all
traces of racism and sexism courts the danger of falling into the same trap as the
Catholic Church’s index. What remains if we discard all authors in whom we find
some traces of racism and anti-feminism? Quite literally all the great philosophers
and writers disappear.
Let’s take Descartes, who at one point was on the Catholic index, but is also
regarded today by many as the philosophical originator of Western hegemony,
which is eminently racist and sexist.
Today’s claims that sexual identities are socially constructed and not biologically
determined are only possible against the background of Cartesian tradition; there is
no modern feminism and anti-racism without Descartes’ thought.
So, in spite of his occasional lapses into racism and sexism, Descartes deserves to
be celebrated, and we should apply the same criterion to all great names from our
philosophical past: from Plato and Epicurus to Kant and Hegel, Marx and
Kierkegaard… Modern feminism and anti-racism emerged out of this long
emancipatory tradition, and it would be sheer madness to leave this noble tradition
to obscene populists and conservatives.
And it’s not just about Europe: yes, while the young Gandhi fought in South Africa
for equal rights for Indians, he ignored the predicament of the blacks. But he
nonetheless successfully led the biggest anti-colonial movement.
So while we should be ruthlessly critical about our past (and especially the past
which continues in our present), we should not succumb to self-contempt – respect
for others based on self-contempt is always, and by definition, false.
The paradox is that in our societies, the white people who participate in anti-racist
protests are mostly the upper-middle class white people who hypocritically enjoy
their guilt. Perhaps these protesters should learn the lesson of Frantz Fanon, who
certainly cannot be accused of not being radical enough:
“Every time a man has contributed to the victory of the dignity of the spirit, every
time a man has said no to an attempt to subjugate his fellows, I have felt solidarity
with his act. In no way does my basic vocation have to be drawn from the past of
peoples of color. /…/ My black skin is not a repository for specific values. /…/ I as a
man of color do not have the right to hope that in the white man there will be a
crystallization of guilt toward the past of my race. I as a man of color do not have
the right to seek ways of stamping down the pride of my former master. I have
neither the right nor the duty to demand reparations for my subjugated ancestors.
There is no black mission; there is no white burden. /.../ Am I going to ask today’s
white men to answer for the slave traders of the seventeenth century? Am I going
to try by every means available to cause guilt to burgeon in their souls? /…/ I am
not a slave to slavery that dehumanized my ancestors.”
The opposite of guilt (of the white men) is not tolerance for their continued politically
correct racism, most famously demonstrated in the notorious Amy Cooper
video that was filmed in New York’s Central Park.
ALSO ON RT.COMGuilt and self-loathing
pervades the ‘we must do better’ responses
of businesses and institutions over #BLM –
it’s truly pathetic
In a conversation with academic Russell Sbriglia, he pointed out to me that “the
strangest, most jarring part of the video is that she specifically says – both to the
black man himself before she calls 911 and to the police dispatcher once she’s on
the phone with them – that ‘an African American man’ is threatening her life. It’s
almost as if, having mastered the proper, politically correct jargon (‘African
American,’ not ‘black’), what she’s doing couldn’t possibly be racist.”
Instead of perversely enjoying our guilt (and thereby patronizing the true victims),
we need active solidarity: guilt and victimhood immobilize us. Only all of us
together, treating ourselves and each other as responsible adults, can beat racism
and sexism.
LARRY HOLMES
Début mai, les travailleurs ont célébré la Journée Internationale des travailleurs 2020. Il n’y
a eu aucun autre moment dans notre vie où s’est fait plus pressant le message qui
transpire à travers le 1er mai, à savoir la solidarité mondiale des travailleurs dans la lutte
contre le capitalisme. Nous sommes entrés dans une période décisive.
L’ampleur de la lutte mondiale des classes qui se profile exigera plus que la solidarité du
mouvement ouvrier. Cela nécessitera un niveau de coordination entre les organisations et
les mouvements du monde entier dans la lutte contre le capitalisme, un niveau supérieur
même à celui des premières années de la Troisième Internationale sous la direction de
Lénine. Le contexte et les technologies ont rendu possible ce qui ne l’était pas. Mais
d’abord, pour ceux d’entre nous qui vivent aux États-Unis, l’épicentre de l’impérialisme
mondial, il y a du pain sur la planche.
L’économie capitaliste mondiale, dirigée par les États-Unis, tombe très rapidement dans
une dépression. Elle est susceptible d’être plus grave que toutes les dépressions
précédentes dans l’histoire du capitalisme. Car ce qui se produit actuellement, c’est
l’implosion d’un système arrivé à son stade final. Aussi stupéfiante la pandémie de COVID-
19 soit-elle, elle a en fait précipité une colossale crise du capitalisme mondiale qui couvait
depuis longtemps. Après avoir été relancé il y a 75 ans par la Seconde Guerre mondiale, le
capitalisme américain a glissé au cours du dernier demi-siècle dans sa phase finale. La
mondialisation et le développement de nouvelles technologies, combinés à une attaque
incessante contre le niveau de vie de la classe ouvrière, n’ont pas réussi à arrêter le déclin
du système.
Le capitalisme ne s’est jamais remis du krach de 2008 sur les marchés financiers. Depuis
lors, les marchés financiers sont sous assistance respiratoire, car les banques centrales y
ont injecté des milliards de dollars. Lorsque les actions US se sont presque effondrées il y
a deux mois, la Réserve Fédérale a fait quelque chose d’extraordinaire. En quelques jours,
elle a injecté environ 5 trillions de dollars sur les marchés financiers US, environ un quart
du produit intérieur brut annuel des États-Unis. Wall Street est maintenant placé sous ce
qui ressemble à un respirateur financier. Avant la pandémie, l’économie mondiale stagnait
aux États-Unis et se contractait ailleurs. Maintenant et partout, l’économie se contracte à
un rythme plus rapide que pendant la Grande Dépression.
Cependant, ceux d’entre nous qui attendaient avec impatience l’effondrement du
capitalisme ne devraient pas se réjouir trop vite. La pandémie du COVID-19 et son impact
sur l’économie capitaliste font mener un véritable enfer partout pour les travailleurs et les
opprimés. Des travailleurs meurent de la pandémie, d’autres perdent leurs emplois. Le taux
de suicide augmente et continuera de croître en corrélation directe avec l’augmentation du
chômage, des expulsions, de la faim, en plus d’une augmentation des maladies et des
décès.
Le nombre réel de travailleurs qui viennent de perdre leur emploi aux États-Unis n’est pas
de 30 millions, mais se rapproche plutôt des 50 millions lorsqu’on y ajoute tous les
travailleurs qui ne remplissent pas les conditions requises pour obtenir les allocations de
chômage. C’est le cas de nombreux travailleurs migrants, des travailleurs pour les
plateformes collaboratives comme Uber ou Deliveroo, ou encore d’un grand nombre de
travailleurs licenciés qui n’ont pas pu accéder aux sites Internet du chômage soit parce
qu’ils étaient trop occupés, soit parce qu’ils s’étaient écrasés. Cela signifie que près d’un
tiers de la main-d’œuvre étasunienne vient de devenir sans-emploi.
Le besoin des capitalistes de forcer les travailleurs – ceux qui ont encore un emploi – à
reprendre le travail pourrait rendre impossible de contenir la pandémie, car le marché
boursier a besoin de la réouverture de l’économie pour se redresser. Lorsque la pandémie
ne sera plus le principal problème, la plupart des emplois perdus ne reviendront pas. Ce
qui conduit à une dépression capitaliste, c’est que le système dépend des travailleurs pour
acheter des biens et des services. Or, le chômage important qui marque la dépression
signifie que les travailleurs ne pourront pas acheter tous les biens que la surproduction
capitaliste doit vendre sur le marché.
Naturellement, ce seront les travailleurs issus de l’immigration, ceux qui luttent pour
survivre dans des conditions normales, qui souffriront le plus. Nous devons nous préparer
à la dévastation inimaginable que la pandémie et la crise économique vont causer aux
peuples du Sud. Mais les travailleurs qui vivent dans les principaux pays impérialistes,
ceux qui pensaient jouir d’une bonne situation, surtout avant la récession de 2008, seront
également très durement touchés par cette tempête.
C’est pour cette raison qu’il n’y avait pas suffisamment de lits d’hôpital, d’équipement de
protection, de respirateurs et de travailleurs de la santé pour répondre à la pandémie. Les
mesures qui ont rendu les hôpitaux complètement mal préparés à protéger la population
ont été la conséquence d’une campagne d’austérité que les capitalistes ont lancée dans
l’espoir de sauver leur système en déroute. Que les capitalistes soient malfaisants ou non
est hors de propos.
Le problème fondamental est que les capitalistes ne peuvent pas faire ce qui est le mieux
pour la société parce que ce n’est pas dans leur intérêt de le faire. Leur intérêt est
d’accumuler toutes les richesses qu’ils peuvent, de maximiser les profits, d’exploiter la
main-d’œuvre et de maintenir leur pouvoir sur la société. Si les intérêts des gens étaient
primordiaux et si c’était nécessaire pour arrêter la pandémie, les travailleurs pourraient
rester chez eux en toute sécurité sans craindre de perdre leur emploi.
Ce n’est pas l’économie qui doit être fermée, c’est le capitalisme. Le capitalisme ne peut
pas nous protéger des pandémies, des changements climatiques ou de tous les dangers
auxquels nous sommes confrontés. En raison de cette crise qui change le monde, de plus
en plus de gens vont se rendre compte que le capitalisme est incompatible avec les
besoins immédiats de la société et que sa continuation est une menace existentielle pour
toute vie sur la planète. Jusqu’à ce que nous mettions un terme au capitalisme, nous
serons tous à la merci d’une petite classe de parasites super-riches, qui se rétrécit.
La lutte pour le socialisme ne doit pas être considérée comme distincte de la lutte pour le
droit de chacun à un emploi ou à un revenu, aux soins de santé, à une augmentation du
salaire minimum, à l’arrêt des expulsions et, surtout, au droit et au besoin de la classe
ouvrière de s’organiser elle-même comme jamais auparavant.
Marx et Engels ont offert une perspective révolutionnaire à ce sujet dans le «Manifeste
communiste» : « De temps à autre, les travailleurs sont victorieux, mais leur triomphe est
éphémère. Le vrai résultat de leurs luttes, ce n’est pas le succès immédiat, mais l’union de
plus en plus étendue des travailleurs. »
Mais nous n’avons d’autre choix que de nous engager sur la voie qui mène finalement à la
révolution. Le capitalisme ne disparaîtra pas simplement. Il faut y mettre fin. Nous ne
pouvons pas prédire avec certitude le moment précis où une véritable situation
révolutionnaire sera à portée de main aux États-Unis. Cela dépendra de beaucoup de
choses, y compris la préparation de la classe ouvrière, la seule classe suffisamment
grande et puissante pour mettre fin au capitalisme. Mais nous pouvons dire que les
événements d’aujourd’hui ouvrent des voies à la révolution qui n’existaient pas il y a peu de
temps.
Le problème de cette réflexion est qu’elle laisse de côté un élément essentiel sans lequel
tout changement, en particulier la révolution, serait impensable. Cet élément est le
matérialisme dialectique. Les conditions matérielles, qui changent constamment, imposent
finalement le changement social. Peu importe le temps que ça prend et peu importe que le
fait que nous le voyions venir ou pas. La classe ouvrière peut bien être politiquement
inactive pendant de nombreuses décennies, des changements radicaux dans les
conditions matérielles peuvent survenir et propulser dans un délai relativement court les
travailleurs à un nouveau niveau de conscience politique, même révolutionnaire.
En ce moment même, les conditions matérielles sont en train de créer les conditions
politiques d’un changement révolutionnaire. Il ne faut pas minimiser ce qui est en jeu ici !
Certaines forces pensent qu’une réforme seulement possible. Si ce sont seulement ces
forces qui influencent la classe ouvrière, il sera alors impossible pour la classe ouvrière de
se libérer de la classe dirigeante et de ses partis politiques. En conséquence,
l’indépendance et le potentiel révolutionnaire de la classe ouvrière sera sapé, ce qui aidera
le capitalisme à traverser cette expérience de mort imminente.
La dernière fois que la possibilité d’une révolution présentait une réelle menace pour la
classe dirigeante étasunienne, c’était lorsque la force de rébellion de la classe ouvrière
était à son sommet, dans les années 1930. Le président Franklin Delano Roosevelt a
sagement fait pression sur la bourgeoisie US pour qu’elle accorde les concessions du New
Deal à la classe ouvrière. Roosevelt était préoccupé par les perspectives d’un remake de la
Révolution russe chez lui. Ce furent des concessions importantes. Mais elles ont
également aidé l’impérialisme US à survivre à la Grande Dépression, lui permettant de
devenir le leader incontesté du monde capitaliste pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale.
Si l’on regarde derrière le rideau du magicien d’Oz tout puissant, on trouve une classe
dirigeante qui n’a jamais été aussi peu confiante. La plupart des membres de la classe
dirigeante aiment Trump parce qu’il est prêt à tout faire pour les rendre plus riches, pas
plus tard, mais maintenant. Pourtant, le simple fait qu’un démagogue embarrassant,
incompétent et charlatan soit le chef de l’impérialisme US en dit long sur l’état de la classe
dirigeante étasunienne.
Bien sûr, l’impérialisme US reste toujours très dangereux, peut-être encore plus dangereux
maintenant parce qu’il lutte pour sa survie. L’impérialisme US possède toujours la plus
grande économie parmi les pays impérialistes, le plus d’armes nucléaires ainsi que l’armée
la plus importante, la plus meurtrière et la plus avancée sur le plan technologique. Avec
une dépression économique qui ralentit ses perspectives de réélection, Trump pourrait
essayer quelque chose de radical et de violent pour détourner la crise ailleurs.
Que fera la classe dirigeante? Que fera la classe ouvrière?
Personne ne peut dire avec certitude comment se dérouleront ces crises économique et
politique qui gonflent. La classe dirigeante a été forcée, du moins pour le moment, de
mettre de côté son petit manuel de l’austérité qui régit ses décisions depuis plusieurs
décennies. Le gouvernement a agi de manière plus drastique et beaucoup plus rapide que
lors de toutes les crises précédentes. Il a injecté des milliards de dollars dans l’économie.
Mais la plus grosse partie de ces fonds est allée aux grandes multinationales.
La plupart des personnes qui ont besoin d’une petite aide financière n’ont pas encore reçu
ou n’ont pas droit à l’argent qui est censé aller aux travailleurs. Mais on remarquera que le
gouvernement n’avait jamais prétendu apporter une telle aide à une si large échelle
auparavant. De manière générale, le gouvernement ne s’est jamais engagé dans de telles
mesures sans qu’une grande lutte de masse l’y oblige. Le fait que les capitalistes y soient
contraints montre à quel point cette crise est grave et exceptionnelle. Certains des grands
capitalistes se plaignent déjà que le gouvernement sape le capitalisme et ajoute des
billions de dollars à la dette qui finira par briser leur système. Que fera la classe dirigeante
lorsque le chômage prendra des proportions dantesques et irréversibles? Si les forces de
la classe dirigeante parviennent à s’entendre pour continuer à fournir indéfiniment une aide
d’urgence massive à l’économie, elles pourront peut-être prévenir une rébellion sociale,
alors qu’elles cherchent un moyen de sortir de la crise. Mais ce scénario semble peu
probable.
Plus probable, les capitalistes et leurs politiciens refuseront de continuer à faire couler les
dépenses. L’économie capitaliste pourrait sombrer dans une chute libre. Tant au niveau
national qu’aux échelons inférieurs, l’appareil politique du système pourrait devenir
paralysé, et commencer à s’effondrer. La police, sur laquelle le système s’appuie comme
première ligne de défense contre les travailleurs, pourrait perdre toute motivation et devenir
inefficace. Les membres de l’armée pourraient aussi se diviser sur une base de classe.
Des travailleurs de la santé aux travailleurs agricoles migrants, des épiciers et aux
prisonniers, les travailleurs du monde entier se battent pour le droit de rester en vie. Les
forces progressistes et révolutionnaires doivent soutenir ces travailleurs. Ce soutien doit se
manifester pas seulement avec des mots, mais avec des actes concrets de solidarité. Les
millions de chômeurs vont se transformer en mouvement. Nous devons aider ces
travailleurs dans leur besoin de s’organiser, mais aussi de toutes les autres manières utiles
et possibles.
De nombreux syndicats perdent des membres. Cela signifie qu’ils perdront des ressources,
ce qui rendra leur survie plus difficile. D’un autre côté, la période la plus importante et la
plus militante pourrait s’ouvrir maintenant pour les organisations de travailleurs. Il faudra
une organisation de bas en haut et non de haut en bas. L’organisation de masse de la
classe ouvrière comprendra tous les travailleurs, y compris les travailleurs incarcérés, les
travailleurs migrants, les sans-papiers, les chômeurs, les travailleurs ubérisés, les
travailleurs du sexe, les vendeurs de rue, les entrepreneurs indépendants et tous les autres
travailleurs que le système veut marginaliser. Cela comprend les travailleurs d’usine, les
employés de bureau, les travailleurs à bas salaire et les travailleurs municipaux, étatiques
et fédéraux.
L’organisation de la classe ouvrière est plus qu’une stratégie. C’est une nécessité politique
absolue sans laquelle nous ne pouvons pas maximiser la solidarité de classe et l’emporter
dans l’élargissement de la lutte de classe. Les syndicats qui sont prêts à être utiles dans
cette tâche feront la plus grande différence. Mais si de tels syndicats ne sont pas
impliqués, nous ne pouvons pas permettre que cela retienne l’organisation des travailleurs.
Il appartiendra aux travailleurs, avec toute l’aide et la solidarité que nous pouvons apporter,
de former des assemblées ou des conseils de travailleurs à tous les niveaux, du lieu de
travail à la ville et à la région. L’avantage des assemblées de travailleurs est qu’elles sont
ouvertes à tous les travailleurs et chômeurs, quelles que soient les circonstances. Ces
assemblées devraient aussi être ouvertes aux étudiants et aux jeunes, aux retraités et à
toute autre personne pouvant aider. Si elles sont ouvertes, cela rendra le mouvement
ouvrier potentiellement énorme, inclusif et libéré des liens avec le Parti démocrate ainsi
que des idées et des conceptions restrictives et étroites qui sont malheureusement trop
courantes parmi les dirigeants actuels du mouvement syndical.
Préparons-nous à ce qui nous attend !
Aux militants démoralises par la campagne de Bernie Sanders, à ceux épuisés d’avoir
consacré tant d’énergie à des luttes difficiles qui ne se sont pas bien déroulées, à ceux qui
croyaient qu’un monde meilleur est possible avant de déchanter, à ceux qui sont
traumatisés et se sentent impuissants à cause de ce qui s’est passé ces derniers mois ou
même avant, écoutez bien!
Que le capitalisme puisse être renversé plus tôt que tard ne dépend pas uniquement des
aspirations des révolutionnaires, d’autres conditions indépendantes de notre contrôle
doivent également être prises en compte. Toutefois, notre volonté et notre disponibilité
pourraient devenir décisives. Si nous ne sommes pas prêts et motivés, accepterons-nous
de remettre à une prochaine génération le devoir de renverser le capitalisme?
Accepterons-nous de permettre au système de continuer à mettre en danger la planète et
toute vie qui s’y trouve?
Travaillons tous à nous remettre sur pied et à nous épauler les uns les autres pour que
nous puissions faire l’Histoire. Les travailleurs et les peuples opprimés de cette planète ont
besoin de révolutionnaires dévoués qui sont prêts à tout sacrifier pour ouvrir la voie à un
monde nouveau, libre de toute oppression. Ils n’ont pas besoin de révolutionnaires pour se
substituer aux masses. Ils ont besoin que chacun donne à la lutte tout ce qu’il peut donner,
ils ont besoin de ceux qui sont capables de faire de la lutte le travail de leur vie