INFORMATION THEORY AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

UNIT- I:
Information- Definition, Characteristics & Interpretation, Data & Its logical and physical
Concepts.

UNIT- II:
Computers: History of Computers and their classification, Basic Organization, Memory:
Primary- RAM, ROM, EPROM etc. Secondary- Magnetic-Floppy and Hard Disks,
Optical - CDROM, WORM etc. Concept of Virtual Memory and Cache Memory and
why are they needed, I/O Devices, Computer Operation- Instruction Cycle, Program flow
of control with and without interrupts, Computer Arithmetic- Number systems Decimal,
Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal and their conversion, Binary Addition, Subtraction and
Multiplication, Floating point representation and arithmetic, Computer Language-
Introduction to computer language, Definition of assembler, compiler and Interpreter

UNIT- III:
Telecommunication- Concept of Analog and Digital Signal, Channel
Capacity (Shannon’s Theorem), Transmission Impairments, Concept of Signal to Noise
ratio, Encoding/Decoding(Concept of Parity bit, Hamming Code), Transmission Media,
A/D and D/A conversion, Modulation, Communication technique- circuit, message,
packet switching- their advantages and disadvantages. Type of Networks (LAN, MAN,
WAN etc.), Topologies, Network configuration- Basic Protocols OSI, TCP/IP, Token
ring, Internet- introduction to internet terminologies and concept of WWW, HTTP, Email,
GIAS, Search engine, Domain name etc., FDM/TDM, Sampling theorem, PAM,
PWM, PDM, PPM

UNIT- IV:
Digital electronic signals and switches- concept on digital signal, logic levels, Active
high, Active low signals, Transistor.

1
Logic Gates- AND, OR, NOT, NOR, EX-OR, EX-NOR operations and their truth table,
Boolean Algebra and reduction techniques- K- Maps.
Complement Subtraction Circuits- Half Adder, Full Adder, Half Subtracter, Full
Subtractor, Various Code convertors.
Multiplexers (MUX)- Working of MUX, Implementation of expression using MUX
Demultiplexers (DEMUX)- Implementation of expression using DEMUX, Decoder.
FLIP FLOPS -Concepts, S-R, J-K, Preset &Clear, Master-Slave J-K D,T, Flip Flops with
truth table

Unit-V
Introduction to 8085 microprocessor :-Organization of microprocessor based system,
8085 microprocessor Architecture , Concepts of Address line and memory interfacing,
Instruction Format Modern day computer System :- Organization and Architecture,
Structure and Function ,System buses ,Input/output modules,
Concept of parallel processing – Multiprocessing -Organization, Time-Shared Bus,
Multiport Memory, Central Control Unit. Pipelining

2
UNIT- I:
Information:
Definition:
Data that is (1) accurate and timely, (2) specific and organized for a purpose, (3) presented
within a context that gives it meaning and relevance, and (4) can lead to an increase in
understanding and decrease in uncertainty.
Information is valuable because it can affect behavior, a decision, or an outcome. For example,
if a manager is told his/her company's net profit decreased in the past month, he/she may use
this information as a reason to cut financial spending for the next month. A piece of information
is considered valueless if, after receiving it, things remain unchanged. For a technical definition
of information see information theory

Information Characteristics:

Characteristics of Information: The parameters of a good quality are difficult to determine for
information. Quality of information refers to its fitness for use, or its reliability. Following are
the essential characteristic features:

i) Timeliness: Timeliness means that information must reach the recipients within the
prescribed timeframes. For effective decision making, information must reach the decision-
maker at the right time, i.e. recipients must get information when they need it. Delays destroys
the value of information. The characteristic of timeliness, to be effective, should also include
up-to-date, i.e. current information.

ii) Accuracy: Information should be accurate. It means that information should be free from
mistakes, errors &, clear. Accuracy also means that the information is free from bias. Wrong

3
information given to management would result in wrong decisions. As managers decisions are
based on the information supplied in MIS reports, all managers need accurate information.
iii) Relevance: Information is said to be relevant if it answers especially for the recipient what,
why, where, when, who and why? In other words, the MIS should serve reports to managers
which is useful and the information helps them to make decisions.

iv) Adequacy: Adequacy means information must be sufficient in quantity, i.e. MIS must
provide reports containing information which is required in the deciding processes of decision-
making. The report should not give inadequate or for that matter, more than adequate
information, which may create a difficult situation for the decision-maker. Whereas
inadequacy of information leads to crises, information overload results in chaos.

v) Completeness: The information which is given to a manager must be complete and should
meet all his needs. Incomplete information may result in wrong decisions and thus may prove
costly to the organization.

vi) Explicitness: A report is said to be of good quality if it does not require further analysis by
the recipients for decision making.

vii) Impartiality: Impartial information contains no bias and has been collected without any
distorted view of the situation.

Information Interpretation,

What Is Data Interpretation?

Data interpretation refers to the implementation of processes through which data is reviewed
for the purpose of arriving at an informed conclusion. The interpretation of data assigns a
meaning to the information analyzed and determines its signification and implications.

The importance of data interpretation is evident and this is why it needs to be done properly.
Data is very likely to arrive from multiple sources and has a tendency to enter the analysis
process with haphazard ordering. Data analysis tends to be extremely subjective. That is to say,
the nature and goal of interpretation will vary from business to business, likely correlating to
the type of data being analyzed. While there are several different types of processes that are

4
 implemented based on individual data nature, the two broadest and most common categories
are “quantitative analysis” and “qualitative analysis”.

Qualitative Data Interpretation

Qualitative data analysis can be summed up in one word – categorical. With qualitative
analysis, data is not described through numerical values or patterns, but through the use of
descriptive context (i.e., text). Typically, narrative data is gathered by employing a wide variety
of person-to-person techniques. These techniques include:

• Observations: detailing behavioral patterns that occur within an observation group. These
patterns could be the amount of time spent in an activity, the type of activity and the method
of communication employed.
• Documents: much like how patterns of behavior can be observed, different types of
documentation resources can be coded and divided based on the type of material they contain.
• Interviews: one of the best collection methods for narrative data. Enquiry responses can be
grouped by theme, topic or category. The interview approach allows for highly-focused data
segmentation.

A key difference between qualitative and quantitative analysis is clearly noticeable in the
interpretation stage. Qualitative data, as it is widely open to interpretation, must be “coded” so
as to facilitate the grouping and labeling of data into identifiable themes. As person-to-person
data collection techniques can often result in disputes pertaining to proper analysis, qualitative
data analysis is often summarized through three basic principles: notice things, collect things,
think about things.

Quantitative Data Interpretation

If quantitative data interpretation could be summed up in one word (and it really can’t) that
word would be “numerical.” There are few certainties when it comes to data analysis, but you
can be sure that if the research you are engaging in has no numbers involved, it is not
quantitative research. Quantitative analysis refers to a set of processes by which numerical data
is analyzed. More often than not, it involves the use of statistical modeling such as standard
deviation, mean and median. Let’s quickly review the most common statistical terms:

5
• Mean: a mean represents a numerical average for a set of responses. When dealing with a data
set (or multiple data sets), a mean will represent a central value of a specific set of numbers. It
is the sum of the values divided by the number of values within the data set. Other terms that
can be used to describe the concept are arithmetic mean, average and mathematical expectation.
• Standard deviation: this is another statistical term commonly appearing in quantitative
analysis. Standard deviation reveals the distribution of the responses around the mean. It
describes the degree of consistency within the responses; together with the mean, it provides
insight into data sets.
• Frequency distribution: this is a measurement gauging the rate of a response appearance
within a data set. When using a survey, for example, frequency distribution has the capability
of determining the number of times a specific ordinal scale response appears (i.e., agree,
strongly agree, disagree, etc.). Frequency distribution is extremely keen in determining the
degree of consensus among data points.

Typically, quantitative data is measured by visually presenting correlation tests between two
or more variables of significance. Different processes can be used together or separately, and
comparisons can be made to ultimately arrive at a conclusion. Other signature interpretation
processes of quantitative data include:

• Regression analysis
• Cohort analysis
• Predictive and prescriptive analysis

Now that we have seen how to interpret data, let's move on and ask ourselves some questions:
what are some data interpretation benefits? Why do all industries engage in data research and
analysis? These are basic questions, but that often don’t receive adequate attention.

Why Data Interpretation Is Important?

Data analysis and interpretation, regardless of method and qualitative/quantitative status, may
include the following characteristics:

• Data identification and explanation

• Comparing and contrasting of data

6
• Identification of data outliers
• Future predictions

Data Models
Types of Data Models

Types of Data Models: There are mainly three different types of data models: conceptual data
models, logical data models, and physical data models, and each one has a specific purpose.
The data models are used to represent the data and how it is stored in the database and to set
the relationship between data items.

1. Conceptual Data Model: This Data Model defines WHAT the system contains. This model
is typically created by Business stakeholders and Data Architects. The purpose is to organize,
scope and define business concepts and rules.
2. Logical Data Model: Defines HOW the system should be implemented regardless of the
DBMS. This model is typically created by Data Architects and Business Analysts. The purpose
is to developed technical map of rules and data structures.
3. Physical Data Model: This Data Model describes HOW the system will be implemented using
a specific DBMS system. This model is typically created by DBA and developers. The purpose
is actual implementation of the database.

7
 Conceptual Data Model

A Conceptual Data Model is an organized view of database concepts and their relationships.
The purpose of creating a conceptual data model is to establish entities, their attributes, and
relationships. In this data modeling level, there is hardly any detail available on the actual
database structure. Business stakeholders and data architects typically create a conceptual data
model.

The 3 basic tenants of Conceptual Data Model are

• Entity: A real-world thing

• Attribute: Characteristics or properties of an entity
• Relationship: Dependency or association between two entities

Data model example:

• Customer and Product are two entities. Customer number and name are attributes of the
Customer entity
• Product name and price are attributes of product entity

8
• Sale is the relationship between the customer and product

Conceptual Data Model

Characteristics of a conceptual data model

• Offers Organisation-wide coverage of the business concepts.

• This type of Data Models are designed and developed for a business audience.
• The conceptual model is developed independently of hardware specifications like data storage
capacity, location or software specifications like DBMS vendor and technology. The focus is
to represent data as a user will see it in the "real world."

Conceptual data models known as Domain models create a common vocabulary for all
stakeholders by establishing basic concepts and scope.

Logical Data Model

The Logical Data Model is used to define the structure of data elements and to set relationships
between them. The logical data model adds further information to the conceptual data model
elements. The advantage of using a Logical data model is to provide a foundation to form the
base for the Physical model. However, the modeling structure remains generic.

Logical Data Model

9
 At this Data Modeling level, no primary or secondary key is defined. At this Data modeling
level, you need to verify and adjust the connector details that were set earlier for relationships.

Characteristics of a Logical data model

• Describes data needs for a single project but could integrate with other logical data models
based on the scope of the project.
• Designed and developed independently from the DBMS.
• Data attributes will have datatypes with exact precisions and length.
• Normalization processes to the model is applied typically till 3NF.

Physical Data Model

A Physical Data Model describes a database-specific implementation of the data model. It

offers database abstraction and helps generate the schema. This is because of the richness of
meta-data offered by a Physical Data Model. The physical data model also helps in visualizing
database structure by replicating database column keys, constraints, indexes, triggers, and other
RDBMS features.

Physical Data Model

Characteristics of a physical data model:

• The physical data model describes data need for a single project or application though it may
be integrated with other physical data models based on project scope.
• Data Model contains relationships between tables that which addresses cardinality and
nullability of the relationships.

10
• Developed for a specific version of a DBMS, location, data storage or technology to be used
in the project.
• Columns should have exact datatypes, lengths assigned and default values.
• Primary and Foreign keys, views, indexes, access profiles, and authorizations, etc. are defined.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Data Model:

Advantages of Data model:

• The main goal of a designing data model is to make certain that data objects offered by the
functional team are represented accurately.
• The data model should be detailed enough to be used for building the physical database.
• The information in the data model can be used for defining the relationship between tables,
primary and foreign keys, and stored procedures.
• Data Model helps business to communicate the within and across organizations.
• Data model helps to documents data mappings in ETL process
• Help to recognize correct sources of data to populate the model

Disadvantages of Data model:

• To develop Data model, one should know physical data stored characteristics.
• This is a navigational system produces complex application development, management. Thus,
it requires a knowledge of the biographical truth.
• Even smaller change made in structure require modification in the entire application.
• There is no set data manipulation language in DBMS.

Conclusion

• Data modeling is the process of developing data model for the data to be stored in a Database.
• Data Models ensure consistency in naming conventions, default values, semantics, security
while ensuring quality of the data.
• Data Model structure helps to define the relational tables, primary and foreign keys and stored
procedures.
• There are three types of conceptual, logical, and physical.

11
• The main aim of conceptual model is to establish the entities, their attributes, and their
relationships.
• Logical data model defines the structure of the data elements and set the relationships between
them.
• A Physical Data Model describes the database specific implementation of the data model.
• The main goal of a designing data model is to make certain that data objects offered by the
functional team are represented accurately.
• The biggest drawback is that even smaller change made in structure require modification in the
entire application.
• Reading this Data Modeling tutorial, you will learn from the basic concepts such as What is
Data Model? Introduction to different types of Data Model, advantages, disadvantages, and
data model example.

================================================================

UNIT- II:
Computers: History of Computers and their classification,

Generations of computers explain the history of computers based on evolving technologies.

With each new generation, computer circuitry, size, and parts have been miniaturized, the
processing and speed doubled, memory got larger, and usability and reliability improved.

Note that the timeline specified for each generation is tentative and not definite. The
generations are actually based on evolving chip technology rather than any particular time
frame.

The five generations of computers are characterized by electrical current flowing through the
processing mechanisms listed below:

12
• The first within vacuum tubes
• The second within transistors
• The third within integrated circuits
• The fourth within microprocessor chips
• The fifth unveiled smart devices capable of artificial intelligence.

First Generation of Computers: 1940s -1950s: (Vacuum Tubes and Plugboards)

First generation computers were actually the first general purpose and true digital computers.
They came in time to replace the electromechanical systems which were way too slow for
assigned tasks.

A case in point was the need by the USA army to have machines capable of computing artillery
firing tables fast enough. Existing ones took almost two days. When completed the new
machines computed this table data in seconds. Fortunately, or unfortunately, they became
available only after the end of World War II in 1946.

13
First Generation

The first computer generations used vacuum tubes for amplification and switching purposes.
The tubes were made of sealed glass containers, the size of light bulbs. The sealed glass allowed
current to flow wirelessly from the filaments to metal plates. And because there were no
moving parts in the system, the flow amplified current to enable the computer to manipulate
assigned tasks. Vacuum tubes also started and ended the circuitry by switching on and off when
turned on or off.

Besides boasting of thousands of resisters and capacitors, these computers would use anything
up to and over 17,000 vacuum tubes, which meant computer installations covered entire rooms!

Input and output was done using punch cards, magnetic drums, typewriters and punch card
readers. Initially, technicians manually perforated the cards with holes. This was later done
using computers.

14
 Characteristics of 1st Generation Computers

They:

• Used vacuum tubes for circuitry

• Electron emitting metal in vacuum tubes burned out easily
• Used magnetic drums for memory
• Were huge, slow, expensive, and many times undependable
• Were expensive to operate
• Were power hungry
• Generated a lot of heat which would make them malfunction
• Solved one problem at a time
• Used input based on punched cards
• Had their outputs displayed in print outs
• Used magnetic tapes
• Used machine language
• Had limited primary memory
• Were programming only in machine language

Second Generation of Computers: 1950s -1960s: (Transistors and Batch Filing)

These were computers which used transistors instead of vacuum tubes. They were better than
their predecessors in many ways because of apparent small size, speed and cheaper cost.

Transistors are more or less the building blocks of any microchip out there, and also, more
reliable, energy efficient and capable of conducting electricity faster and better.

15
 Transistor used in 2nd Generation

Just like vacuum tubes, transistors are switches or electronic gates used to amplify or control
current, or switch electric signals on and off. They are called semiconductors because they
contain elements which lie between conductors and insulators.

Transistor semiconductors were invented at Bell Laboratories in 1947 by scientists William

Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain, but did not see the day of light until mid-1950s.

Second generation computers saw advancement in data input and output procedures. Initially,
these processes were similar to the last models of 1st gen computers. They were tedious because
they involved multiple personnel carrying punched cards from room to room.

Characteristics of 2nd Gen Computers

They:

• Used transistors
• Faster and more reliable than first generation systems
• Were slightly smaller, cheaper, faster
• Generated heat though a little less
• Still relied on punch cards and printouts for input/output
• Allowed assembly and high-level languages
• Stored data in magnetic media
• Were still costly
• Needed air conditioning
• Introduced assembly language and operating system software

16
2nd Generation Computer

2nd Generation

17
Third Generation of Computers: 1960 - 1970s (Integrated Circuits and Multi-Programming)
3rd generation computers used the integrated circuit (IC) microchip instead of transistors. The
semiconductor IC packed a huge number of transistors, capacitors, diodes and rectifiers onto a
single germanium or silicon. These were then printed on separate parts of a printed circuit
board.

The implementation of these computers was also in line with Moore's Law (1965), which
observed that transistor size was shrinking so fast, that double the number would fit into new
microchips every two years for 10 years to come.

The IC sought to solve the cumbersome procedures that went into designing the transistor
circuitry. The manual interconnection of capacitors, diodes, and rectifiers in transistors was
time-consuming and not completely reliable.
Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce of Fairchild Corporation separately
discovered the benefits of integrated circuits in 1958 and 1959, respectively. Kilby built his IC
onto germanium whereas Noyce built one onto a silicon chip.

Characteristics of 3rd Gen Computers

They:
18
• Used ICs
• Used parallel processing
• Were slightly smaller, cheaper, faster
• Used motherboards
• Data was input using keyboards
• Output was visualized on the monitors
• Used operating systems, thus permitting multitasking
• Simplified programming languages i.e. BASIC

Fourth Generation of Computers: 1970s to Present (The Microprocessor, OS and GUI)

The birth of the microprocessor was at the same time the birth of the microcomputer. It was
also in line to fulfill Moore's law which predicted exponential growth in transistor and
microchips starting in 1965. This generation is instrumental in ushering in diverse devices. The
2nd generation computers which began in 1971 are those in use today.

Intel, through its engineers Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin and Stan Mazor In November 1971,
introduced the world's first single chip microprocessor, the Intel 4004. It boasted of 2300
transistors and measured 1/8" by 1/16".

4th Generation computer

19
 Introduction of OS

Desktop computers
Characteristics of 4th Gen Computers

They:

• Used CPUs which contained thousands of transistors

20
• Were much smaller and fitted on a desktops, laps and palms
• Used a mouse
• Were used in networks
• Were cheap
• Had GUI
• Were very fast
• Register over 19 billion transistors in high-end microprocessors (Compare with 2,300 in Intel
4004)

Fifth Generation of Computers: The Present and the Future

Fifth generation computing is built on technological advancement gained in the previous
computer generations. It is meant to headline the 4th Industrial Revolution (4IR).

The implementation is designed to improve human and machine interaction by harnessing

human intelligence and taking advantage of the large data that has accumulated since the dawn
of the digital age.

It is viewed as the cyber-physical system and arises from the theory, concept and
implementation of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML). AI and ML may not
be the same but are used interchangeably to mean the science of crafting devices and programs
which are intelligent enough to interact with humans, other computers, the environment, and
programs, by mining big data to achieve set goals.

Computer sizes and power

Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is
considerable overlap:

• Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor.

• Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer, but
it has a more powerful microprocessor and, in general, a higher-quality monitor.
• Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to hundreds of users
simultaneously.

21
• Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or
thousands of users simultaneously.
• Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of
instructions per second.

The most powerful computers in terms of performance and data processing are the
Supercomputers. These are specialized and task specific computers used by large
organizations. These computers are used for research and exploration purposes, like NASA
uses supercomputers for launching space shuttles, controlling them and for space exploration
purpose.

Basic Organization, Memory:

Primary Memory : RAM / ROM

Memory is the storage place where data and instructions are stored. They can be retrieved from
memory whenever required. Every computer comes with a certain amount of physical memory,
usually referred to as Main Memory or RAM. You can think of main memory as an array of
cells, each cell holding a single bit of information.

RAM (Random Access Memory)

22
It is a read/write (R/W) memory which is volatile. This means when power is turned off, all
the contents are destroyed. This is memory that can be accessed randomly: that is, any byte of
memory can be accessed without touching the preceding bytes. RAM is synonymous with main
memory, the memory available to programs. RAM is the most common type of memory found
in computers and other devices such as printers. There are two basic types of RAM: Dynamic
RAM (DRAM) and Static RAM (SRAM)

DRAM (Dynamic RAM): Dynamic RAM is more common type. Dynamic RAM needs to be
refreshed thousands of times per second. DRAM stores a bit of data using a transistor and
capacitor pair, which together comprise a memory cell. The capacitor holds a high or low
charge (1 or 0, respectively), and the transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on
the chip read the capacitor's state of charge or change it. As this form of memory is less
expensive to produce than static RAM, it is the predominant form of computer memory used
in modern computers.

SRAM (Static RAM): Static RAM does not need to be refreshed, which makes it faster, but it
is more expensive than dynamic RAM. In static RAM, a bit of data is stored using the state of
a flip-flop. This form of RAM is more expensive to produce, but is generally faster and requires
less power than DRAM and, in modern computers, is often used as cache memory for the CPU.

ROM (Read Only Memory)

ROM is non-volatile which menas it retains the stored information even if power is turned off.
This memory is used to store programs that boot the computer and perform diagnostics.
Therefore, we can also call ROM as the read-only RAM.

ROM is of four types:

Masked ROM: In this ROM a bit pattern is permanently recorded by a marking and
metalization process, which is an expensive and specialized one. Memory manufacturers are
generally equipped to undertake this process.

PROM (Programmable ROM): A PROM is a memory chip on which data can be written
onto only once. Once a program is written onto a PROM chip, it remains there forever. Unlike
RAM, PROM retains its contents when the computer is turned off. The difference between a
PROM and a ROM is that a PROM is manufactured as blank memory and programmed later

23
with a special device called PROM programmer or the PROM burner, whereas the ROM is
programmed during manufacturing process. The process of programming a PROM is
sometimes called burning a PROM.

EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM): An EPROM is a special type of PROM that can
be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light. Once erased, it can be reprogrammed. An EPROM
is similar to a PROM except that it requires ultraviolet radiation to be erased.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM): EEPROM is a special type of

PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge. Like other types of PROM,
EEPROM retains its contents even when the power is turned off. Also, like other types of
ROM, EEPROM is not as fast as RAM. EEPROM is similar to Flash Memory (sometimes
called flash EEPROM). the principal difference is that EEPROM requires data to be written or
erased one byte at a time whereas flash memory allows sata to be written or erased in blocks.

Cache Memory:

The speed of the CPU is extremely high as compared to the access time of main memory. the
slowness of main memory inhibits the performance of CPU. To decrease the mismatch in
operating speed, a small memory chip is attached between the CPU and the main memory,
whose access time is close to the processing speed of the CPU. It is called cache memory.
Cache memory is accessed more quickly than conventional RAM. It is used to store programs
or data currently being executed or temporary data frequently used by the CPU.

Secondary Storage Device

Definition - What does Secondary Storage Device mean?

A secondary storage device refers to any non-volatile storage device that is internal or external
to the computer. It can be any storage device beyond the primary storage that enables
permanent data storage.

A secondary storage device is also known as an auxiliary storage device, backup storage
device, tier 2 storage, or external storage.

24
 Examples of secondary storage
• Hard drive
• Solid-state drive
• USB thumb drive
• SD card
• CD
• DVD
• Floppy diskette
• Tape drive
Why does a computer need secondary storage?
A computer may not have or use secondary storage (e.g., dumb terminal). However, for most
computers and users, secondary storage is required because of the need to permanently store
some data to a computer. Without primary storage, if you were working on a document and the
power turned off, everything would be lost because primary storage is temporary. However, a
computer with secondary storage that saved the file before the power turned off would be able
to recover the last saved version of the file.

Concept of Virtual Memory

Virtual memory is a valuable concept in computer architecture that allows you to run large,
sophisticated programs on a computer even if it has a relatively small amount of RAM. A
computer with virtual memory artfully juggles the conflicting demands of multiple programs
within a fixed amount of physical memory. A PC that's low on memory can run the same
programs as one with abundant RAM, although more slowly.

In computing, virtual memory (also virtual storage) is a memory management technique that
provides an "idealized abstraction of the storage resources that are actually available on a given
machine"[1] which "creates the illusion to users of a very large (main) memory".

Cache Memory
Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory. It is used to speed up and synchronizing
with high-speed CPU. Cache memory is costlier than main memory or disk memory but

25
 economical than CPU registers. Cache memory is an extremely fast memory type that acts as
a buffer between RAM and the CPU. It holds frequently requested data and instructions so that
they are immediately available to the CPU when needed.

In computing, a cache is a hardware or software component that stores data so that future
requests for that data can be served faster; the data stored in a cache might be the result of an
earlier computation or a copy of data stored elsewhere.

I/O Devices,
Alternatively referred to as an IO device, an input/output device is any hardware used by a
human operator or other systems to communicate with a computer. As the name suggests,
input/output devices are capable of sending data (output) to a computer and receiving data from
a computer (input).
Examples of input/output devices
• CD-R/RW, DVD, and Blu-ray drive
• Digital camera
• Floppy diskette drive
• Hard drives
• Modem
• Network adapter
• SD Card
• Touch screen
• USB thumb drives

26
Computer Arithmetic
Computer arithmetic is a field of computer science that investigates how computers should
represent numbers and perform operations on them. It includes integer arithmetic, fixed-point
arithmetic, and the arithmetic this book focuses on: floating-point (FP) arithmetic.

- Number systems Decimal,

mathematics, positional numeral system employing 10 as the base and requiring 10 different
numerals, the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. It also requires a dot (decimal point) to represent
decimal fractions. In this scheme, the numerals used in denoting a number take different place
values depending upon position. In a base-10 system the number 543.21 represents the sum (5
× 102) + (4 × 101) + (3 × 100) + (2 × 10−1) + (1 × 10−2)

Binary Numeral System - Base-2

Binary numbers uses only 0 and 1 digits.
B denotes binary prefix.
Examples:
101012 = 10101B = 1×24+0×23+1×22+0×21+1×20 = 16+4+1= 21
101112 = 10111B = 1×24+0×23+1×22+1×21+1×20 = 16+4+2+1= 23
1000112 = 100011B = 1×25+0×24+0×23+0×22+1×21+1×20 =32+2+1= 35
Octal Numeral System - Base-8
Octal numbers uses digits from 0..7.
Examples:
278 = 2×81+7×80 = 16+7 = 23
308 = 3×81+0×80 = 24
43078 = 4×83+3×82+0×81+7×80= 2247
Decimal Numeral System - Base-10
Decimal numbers uses digits from 0..9.
These are the regular numbers that we use.
Example:
253810 = 2×103+5×102+3×101+8×100
Hexadecimal Numeral System - Base-16

27
Hex numbers uses digits from 0..9 and A..F.
H denotes hex prefix.
Examples:
2816 = 28H = 2×161+8×160 = 40
2F16 = 2FH = 2×161+15×160 = 47
BC1216 = BC12H = 11×163+12×162+1×161+2×160= 48146
Numeral systems conversion table

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

Base-10 Base-2 Base-8 Base-16

0 0 0 0

1 1 1 1

2 10 2 2

3 11 3 3

4 100 4 4

5 101 5 5

6 110 6 6

7 111 7 7

8 1000 10 8

9 1001 11 9

10 1010 12 A

28
11 1011 13 B

12 1100 14 C

13 1101 15 D

14 1110 16 E

15 1111 17 F

16 10000 20 10

17 10001 21 11

18 10010 22 12

19 10011 23 13

20 10100 24 14

21 10101 25 15

22 10110 26 16

23 10111 27 17

24 11000 30 18

25 11001 31 19

26 11010 32 1A

27 11011 33 1B

29
28 11100 34 1C

29 11101 35 1D

30 11110 36 1E

31 11111 37 1F

32 100000 40 20

Binary to Decimal
Example
Find the decimal value of 1110012:

binary number: 1 1 1 0 0 1

power of 2: 25 24 23 22 21 20

1110012 = 1⋅25+1⋅24+1⋅23+0⋅22+0⋅21+1⋅20 = 5710

Example 1: (345)8 = (229)10

Method 1:
(5 * 80) + (4 * 81) + (3 * 82) = 5 + 32 + 192 = 229

Method 2:
0+3=3
3 * 8 = 24
24 + 4 = 28
28 * 8 = 224
224 + 5 = 229

Example 2: (2675)8 = (1469)10

30
Method 1:
(5 * 80) + (7 * 81) + (6 * 82) + (2 * 83) = 5 + 56 + 384 + 1024 = 1469

Method 2:
0+2=2
2 * 8 = 16
16 + 6 = 22
22 * 8 = 176
176 + 7 = 183
183 * 8 = 1464
1464 + 5 = 1469

Hexadecimal to decimal

Example: 1
3B in base 16 is equal to each digit multiplied with its corresponding 16n:
3B16 = 3×161+11×160 = 48+11 = 5910
Example: 2
E7A9 in base 16 is equal to each digit multiplied with its corresponding 16n:
E7A916 = 14×163+7×162+10×161+9×160 = 57344+1792+160+9 = 5930510
Example: 3
0.8 in base 16:
0.816 = 0×160+8×16-1 = 0+0.5 = 0.510

31
UNIT- III:
Telecommunication- Concept of Analog and Digital Signal,

Definition:
Telecommunication (from Latin communicatio, referring to the social process of information
exchange, and the Greek prefix tele-, meaning distance) is the transmission of information by
various types of technologies over wire, radio, optical or other electromagnetic systems.[1][2] It
has its origin in the desire of humans for communication over a distance greater than that
feasible with the human voice, but with a similar scale of expediency; thus, slow systems (such
as postal mail) are excluded from the field.

Concept of Analog and Digital Signal,

Differences between Analog Signal and Digital Signal

analog as well as digital signals, input & outputs. In some way, an electronics project mainly
interacts by the real analog world whereas digital signals with computers, microprocessors, and
logic units. These two kinds of signals are similar to different electronic languages. As some
of the other languages can only recognize as well as speak one of the two. This article discusses
an overview of both analog as well as digital signals, and comparison between them. Please
refer the link to know about Difference Between Analog Circuit and Digital Circuit

32
 Analog Digital

Analog Signal Graphs:

Because a signal varies over time, it's helpful to plot it on a graph where time is plotted on the
horizontal, x-axis, and voltage on the vertical, y-axis. Looking at a graph of a signal is usually
the easiest way to identify if it's analog or digital; a time-versus-voltage graph of an analog
signal should be smooth and continuous.

Analogue signals

Digital Signals

Digital signals must have a finite set of possible values. The number of values in the set can be
anywhere between two and a-very-large-number-that's-not-infinity. Most commonly digital
signals will be one of two values -- like either 0V or 5V. Timing graphs of these signals look
like square waves.

33
Digital signals graph

Channel Capacity (Shannon’s Theorem)

The Shannon-Hartley Capacity Theorem, more commonly known as the Shannon-Hartley

theorem or Shannon's Law, relates the system capacity of a channel with the averaged recieved
signal power, the average noise power and the bandwidth.

This capacity relationship can be stated as:

where:

C is the capacity of the channel (bits/s)

S is the average received signal power

N is the average noise power

W is the bandwidth (Hertz)

Shannon's work showed that the values of S,N, and W set a limit upon the transmission rate.
[1]

It is important to note that doubling the bandwidth will NOT double the available capacity. The
parameter N, is often defined as the average noise power in an AWGN (Additive White

34
Gaussian Noise) system, is dependent upon bandwidth. In order to double the capacity, the
argument within the logarithm, "1 + signal to noise ratio" must be squared.

The graph

Transmission Impairments,

Transmission Impairment in Data Communication

In communication system, analog signals travel through transmission media, which tends to
deteriorate the quality of analog signal, which means that the signal at the beginning of the
medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium. The imperfection causes signal
impairment. Below are the causes of the impairment.

Attenuation – It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing
distance which causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This is also known

35
as attenuated signal. Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the
original signal back and compensate for this loss.

Distortion – It means changes in the form or shape of the signal. This is generally seen in
composite signals made up with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own
propagation speed travelling through a medium. And thats why it delay in arriving at the final
destination Every component arrive at different time which leads to distortion. Therefore, they
have different phases at receiver end from what they had at senders end.

36
Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise.
There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and
impulse noise which may corrupt the signal.
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as sending
antenna and transmission medium act as receiving antenna. Thermal noise is movement of
electrons in wire which creates an extra signal. Crosstalk noise is when one wire affects the
other wire. Impulse noise is a signal with high energy that comes from lightning or power lines

Encoding/ Decoding(Concept of Parity bit, Hamming Code)

In digital systems, the transmitted data for communication can be corrupted due to external
noise and any other physical failures. If the transmitted data is not matched with the given input
data, then it is called an ‘error’. The data errors can delete vital data in digital systems. The
transfer of data will be in the form of bits ( 0 and 1) in digital systems. If anyone of the bit is
changed, then the entire system’s performance can be affected. If the bit ‘1’ is changed to the
bit ‘0’ or vice versa, then it is called bit error. There are different types of errors like single bit
errors, multiple errors and burst errors. In this article, we discuss error correction and detection,
and hamming code.
What is Error Detection and Correction?

In digital communication, the data will be lost if there is an error in the transfer of information
from one system/network to another system/network. So, it is important to find and correct
errors. Some error detection and correction methods are used to detect and correct the errors

37
 for effective communication. If these methods are used, then the data can be transferred with
higher accuracy.

What is the Hamming Code?

Hamming code is defined as, a linear code that is used in the error detection process up to 2-
intermediate errors. It is also capable of detecting single-bit errors. In this method, the
redundant bits are added to the data/message by the sender to encode the data. In order to do
error detection and correction, these redundant bits are added in certain positions for the error
correction process.

Transmission Media,
o Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the sender
to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.
o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the form of bits
through LAN(Local Area Network).
o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.
o In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
o In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
o In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media supports the Layer 1.
Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1 component.

38
o The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics, atmosphere, water, and
vacuum.
o The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the characteristics of
medium and signal.
o Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In wired media,
medium characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless media, signal characteristics
are more important.
o Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth, delay, cost and ease
of installation and maintenance.
o The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference model,
i.e., Physical layer.

Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission media:

o Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth of a medium, the
higher the data transmission rate of a signal.
o Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical to the transmitted one due
to the transmission impairment. The quality of the signals will get destroyed due to
transmission impairment.
o Interference: An interference is defined as the process of disrupting a signal when it travels
over a communication medium on the addition of some unwanted signal.

Type of Networks (LAN, MAN,WAN etc.)

A computer network is a group of computers connected with each other through a transmission
medium such as cable, wire etc. In this guide, we will discuss the types of computer networks
in detail.

Types of Computer Network

39
There are mainly three types of computer networks based on their size:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide area network (WAN)

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

1. Local area network is a group of computers connected with each other in a small places such
as school, hospital, apartment etc.
2. LAN is secure because there is no outside connection with the local area network thus the
data which is shared is safe on the local area network and can’t be accessed outside.
3. LAN due to their small size are considerably faster, their speed can range anywhere from
100 to 100Mbps.
4. LANs are not limited to wire connection, there is a new evolution to the LANs that allows
local area network to work on a wireless connection.

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

40
MAN network covers larger area by connections LANs to a larger network of computers. In
Metropolitan area network various Local area networks are connected with each other through
telephone lines. The size of the Metropolitan area network is larger than LANs and smaller
than WANs (wide area networks), a MANs covers the larger area of a city or town.

3. Wide area network (WAN)

Wide area network provides long distance transmission of data. The size of the WAN is larger

41
than LAN and MAN. A WAN can cover country, continent or even a whole world. Internet
connection is an example of WAN. Other examples of WAN are mobile broadband connections
such as 3G, 4G etc.

Advantages of WAN:

Centralized infrastructure: One of the main advantage of WAN is the that we do not need to
maintain the backup and store data on local system as everything is stored online on a data
centre, from where we can access the data through WAN.

Privacy: We can setup the WAN in such a way that it encrypts the data that we share online
that way the data is secure and minimises the risk of unauthorized access.

Increased Bandwidth: With the WAN we get to choose the bandwidth based on the need, a
large organization can have larger bandwidth that can carry large amount of data faster and
efficiently.

Area: A WAN can cover a large area or even a whole world though internet connection thus
we can connect with the person in another country through WAN which is not possible is other
type of computer networks.

Disadvantages of WAN:

Antivirus: Since our systems are connected with the large amount of systems, there is
possibility that we may unknowingly download the virus that can affect our system and become
threat to our privacy and may lead to data loss.
Expensive: Cost of installation is very high.
Issue resolution: Issue resolution takes time as the WAN covers large area, it is really difficult
to pin point the exact location where the issues raised and causing the problems.

42
 Network Topologies

Geometric representation of how the computers are connected to each other is known as
topology. There are five types of topology – Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring and Hybrid.

1. Mesh Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Bus Topology
4. Ring Topology
5. Hybrid Topology
Mesh Topology

In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the network through a
dedicated point-to-point link. When we say dedicated it means that the link only carries data
for the two connected devices only. Lets say we have n devices in the network then each device
must be connected with (n-1) devices of the network. Number of links in a mesh topology of n
devices would be n(n-1)/2.

43
Advantages of Mesh topology

1. No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices which means the link
is only available for those two devices.
2. Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t affect other links and the
communication between other devices on the network.
3. Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus unauthorized access is not
possible.
4. Fault detection is easy.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. Amount of wires required to connected each system is tedious and headache.

2. Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number of I/O ports required
must be huge.
3. Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with large number of devices with
a dedicated point to point link.

Star Topology

44
In star topology each device in the network is connected to a central device called hub. Unlike
Mesh topology, star topology doesn’t allow direct communication between devices, a device
must have to communicate through hub. If one device wants to send data to other device, it has
to first send the data to hub and then the hub transmit that data to the designated device.

Advantages of Star topology

1. Less expensive because each device only need one I/O port and needs to be connected with
hub with one link.
2. Easier to install
3. Less amount of cables required because each device needs to be connected with the hub
only.
4. Robust, if one link fails, other links will work just fine.
5. Easy fault detection because the link can be easily identified.

45
Disadvantages of Star topology

1. If hub goes down everything goes down, none of the devices can work without hub.
2. Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance because it is the central system of star
topology.

Bus Topology

In bus topology there is a main cable and all the devices are connected to this main cable
through drop lines. There is a device called tap that connects the drop line to the main cable.
Since all the data is transmitted over the main cable, there is a limit of drop lines and the
distance a main cable can have.

Advantages of bus topology

1. Easy installation, each cable needs to be connected with backbone cable.

2. Less cables required than Mesh and star topology

Disadvantages of bus topology

1. Difficultly in fault detection.

2. Not scalable as there is a limit of how many nodes you can connect with backbone cable.

Ring Topology

46
In ring topology each device is connected with the two devices on either side of it. There are
two dedicated point to point links a device has with the devices on the either side of it. This
structure forms a ring thus it is known as ring topology. If a device wants to send data to another
device then it sends the data in one direction, each device in ring topology has a repeater, if the
received data is intended for other device then repeater forwards this data until the intended
device receives it.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Easy to install.
2. Managing is easier as to add or remove a device from the topology only two links are
required to be changed.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. A link failure can fail the entire network as the signal will not travel forward due to failure.
2. Data traffic issues, since all the data is circulating in a ring.

47
Hybrid topology

A combination of two or more topology is known as hybrid topology. For example a

combination of star and mesh topology is known as hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid topology

1. We can choose the topology based on the requirement for example, scalability is our concern
then we can use star topology instead of bus technology.
2. Scalable as we can further connect other computer networks with the existing networks with
different topologies.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

1. Fault detection is difficult.

2. Installation is difficult.
3. Design is complex so maintenance is high thus expensive.

48
Introduction to internet terminologies
List of Basic Internet Terminologies

1. Internet
One of the most important and basic internet terminologies is the Internet itself. The Internet is
a worldwide network of computers, which provides a wide array of information that follows a
standard communication protocol. This communication protocol is what we call as TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) or IP (Internet Protocol).
In 1969, the internet was known as ARPANET. It is coined by the Advanced Research Projects
Agency of the United States of America. During that time, the Department of Defense was only
using four computers to connect with each other. Today ARPANET is widely termed as the
Internet.

2. World Wide Web

Another one of the basic Internet terminologies is the World Wide Web. World Wide Web or
www is a collection of data stored and shared in the digital space. This collection of information
form and connect into websites and divides into web pages. Tim Bernes-Lee in the CERN
laboratory invented it in 1989.

The World Wide Web is accessible anywhere as long as there’s an internet connection. You
can use a wireless router, Wi-Fi or Ethernet cable to access www through the internet.

3. Host (Network)

A Network Host is usually a computer or any device that connects to a computer network. It
provides information and facilities to other computers and their users. In addition, you can use
the term host when there’s two or more computer system that connects through a modem or
other internet connection channels.

49
4. Domain Name
This is a friendly naming system for giving addresses to web pages and servers. It is a
description of a computer’s location on the Internet. Usually, a dot separates a domain name,
for example, www.google.com or www.slashdigit.com.
In addition, Domain Names are part of the DNS (Domain Name System, a database
of domain names and their corresponding IP addresses). Also, a domain name follows certain
rules and algorithms in the DNS.
5. Web Browser
A web browser or browser is a software program that can access websites. Popular web
browsers include Google Chrome, Apple’s Safari, Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox. Each
web browser has its own settings and works separately from each other. However, they have
the same function and that is to serve as portals to the World Wide Web.

Moreover, web browsers allow you to surf, search any information from various websites on
the internet. You also have a choice to pick your own web browser preference. If you like
Chrome, you can stick with chrome or if you’re an Apple user, Safari is the best browser for
you.

6. IP Address
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique set of numbers assigned to a computing device
that uses the internet protocol. Also, IP address identifies a device on the Internet
communication network. Furthermore, it allows a system to be acknowledged by other systems.

7. Homepage
A Homepage is the main page of a particular website. Usually, this is the first page you see
when you open a website. Additionally, a home page can have one of several different
filenames.

8. URL
URL or short for “Universal Resource Locator.” From the name itself, it provides a way of
locating a resource on the web. It also serves as a method of retrieving location on a computer
network.

50
9. Search Engine
Search Engine is a software system that works to search information on the World Wide Web.
Common examples of online search engines are Google, Yahoo, and Bing. These programs
allow you to search keywords and phrases to locate information on the Internet.

UNIT- IV:

What is Multiplexer

The Multiplexer acts as a multiple-input and single-output switch. Multiple signals share one
device or transmission conductor such as a copper wire or fiber optic cable.In
telecommunications, the analog or digital signals transmitted on several communication
channels by a multiplex method. These signals are single-output higher-speed signals. A 4-to-
1 multiplexer contains four input signals and 2-to-1 multiplexer has two input signals and one
output signal.

Multiplexing

The technique of transmitting multiple signals over a single medium is defined as

Multiplexing. It is a technique showed at physical layer of OSI model.

51
The different types of multiplexing technologies are as below

• Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

• Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
• Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM)
• Conventional Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM)
• Reconfigurable Optical Add-Drop Multiplexer (ROADM)
• Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
• Add/Drop Multiplexing (ADM)
• Inverse Multiplexing (IMUX)

52
Types of Multiplexer

Types of Multiplexer

Frequency Division Multiplexing

Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique which uses various frequencies to combine

many streams of data for sending signals over a medium for communication purpose. It carries
frequency to each data stream and later combines various modulated frequencies to
transmission.Television Transmitters are the best example for FDM, which uses FDM to broad
cast many channels at a time.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is analog multiplexing technique and it modulates

many data streams on light spectrum. This multiplexing is used in optical fiber. It is FDM
optical equivalent.Various signals in WDM are optical signal that will be light and were
transmitted through optical fiber.WDM similar to FDM as it mixes many signals of different
frequencies into single signal and transfer on one link.Wavelength of wave is reciprocal to its

53
frequency, if wavelength increase then frequency decreases.Several light waves from many
sources are united to get light signal which will be transmitted across channel to receiver.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

The main principle in using prisms is that they bend a light beam depending on angle of
incidence and frequency of light wave or ray. At receiver end the light signal is split into
different light waves by demux. This type of merging and breaking of light wave made by a
prism. Single prism is used at the end of sender for multiplexing and other prism is used at
receiver end for demultiplexing as shown in fig.

Usage of PRISM in WDM

WDM used in Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). It utilizes various optical fiber lines
that are multiplexed and demultiplexed.

54
Time Division Multiplexer

TDM is one of types of multiplexers which join data streams by allotting every stream different
time slot in a set. It frequently transfers or sends various time slots in an order over one
transmission channel. TDM attaches PCM data streams.

Time Division Multiplexer

Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexer

In Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing, an optical technology used to expand bandwidth

onto fiber optic. Bit rate and protocol are independent and these are the main advantage of
DWDM. Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) operated by combining different
signals simultaneously at different wavelengths. On fiber is changed to multiple fibers. By
increasing the carrier capacity of fiber from 2.5Gb/s to 20 Gb/s, an eight OC 48 signals can be
multiplexed into single fiber.Single fibers are able to transfer data at a speed upto 400 GB/s
due to DWDM.DWDM transfers data or information in IP, SONET, ATM and Ethernet It also
carries different type of traffic at a range of speeds on an optical channel.

55
 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexer

Statistical Multiplexer

It allows to share a single line of data for multiplexer RS-232 devices. Error correction will be
performed in order to ensure the transmission an error-free one. The word “Statistical” refers
to its capability to receive advantage of statics of many RS-232 devices means terminal and
PC users.Each PC averages less than 5% of its potential data rate.

This type of multiplexer permits the sum of terminal and PC rates in which it extends composite
link speed between multiplexers. This is due the reason that the keyboards are idle. These types
of multiplexers requires buffer.

Difference between Mux and Demux

• A Multiplexer is a device used to communicate by means of a medium with

combination of multiple signals.
• A DE multiplexer is a process of separating multiplexed signals from transmission
line.
• These both Mux and DMux are mixed into single device which has the capability to
process outgoing and incoming signals
• An electronic multiplexer is a multiple-input, single-output switch.
• A DE multiplexer as a single-input, multiple-output switch
• MUX allows many signals to share one device.
• Example: one A/D converter or one communication line

56
 Difference between MUX and Demux

The Demultiplexer

The demultiplexer is a combinational logic circuit designed to switch one common input line
to one of several separate output lines. Or A Demultiplexer is a data distributor read as
DEMUX. It is quite opposite to multiplexer or MUX. It is a process of taking information
from one input and transmitting over one of many outputs. This article explains
different types of Demultiplexers.

57
Types of Demultiplexers

1 to 4 Demultiplexer

The 1 to 4 demultiplexer consists of one input, four outputs, and two control lines to make
selections The below diagram shows the circuit of 1 to 4 demultiplexer.

1 to 4 Demultiplexer

The input bit is Data D with two select lines A and B. The input bit D is transmitted to four
output bits Y0, Y1, Y2, and Y4.

When AB is 01 The upper second AND gate is enabled while the other AND gate is disabled.
Thus, only one data is transmitted at Y1. If D is low, then Y1 is low and if D is high, Y1 is
high. The value of Y1 depends on the value of D.
If the control input changes to AB=10 all the gates are disabled except the third AND gate from
the top. Then D is transmitted to output Y2.

58
Truth Table
The below is the truth table for the 1 to 4demultiplexer.

1 to 4 Demux Truth Table

1 to 8 Demultiplexer

A 1 to 8 demultiplexer consists of one input line, 8 output lines and 3 select lines. Let the input
be D, S1 and S2 are two select lines and eight outputs from Y0 to Y7. It is also called as 3 to 8
demux because of the 3 selection lines. Below is the block diagram of 1 to 8 demux.

1 to 8 Demux Block Diagram

Truth Table
The below is the truth table for 1 to 8 demultiplexer. It tells the functionality of the demux,
like, if S1S2S0=000, then the output is seen at Y0 and so on.

59
1 to 8 Demux Truth Table

Using the above truth table the logic diagram of the demultiplexer is implemented using eight
AND and three NOT gates. The different combinations of the select lines select one AND gate
at given time, such that data input will be seen at a particular output.

60
A 1 to 8 demultiplexer can be implemented using two 1 to 4 demultiplexers. Implementation
of large output demultiplexers becomes complex, so smaller demux is used to implement large
demultiplexers.

1 to 16 Demultiplexer

1 to 16 demultiplexer has one input data, four select lines A, B, C and D and 16 output lines
Y0 to Y15. This is implemented using AND and NOT gate. 1 to 16 demultiplexer is
implemented using the logic circuit below.

1 to 16 Demux

This can be implemented using 1 to 8 demultiplexer, 1 to 4 demultiplexer and 1 to 2

demultiplexer.

61
Unit-V
Introduction to 8085 microprocessors:

8085 is pronounced as "eighty-eighty-five" microprocessor. It is an 8-bit microprocessor

designed by Intel in 1977 using NMOS technology.

It has the following configuration −

• 8-bit data bus

• 16-bit address bus, which can address upto 64KB

• A 16-bit program counter

• A 16-bit stack pointer

• Six 8-bit registers arranged in pairs: BC, DE, HL

• Requires +5V supply to operate at 3.2 MHZ single phase clock

It is used in washing machines, microwave ovens, mobile phones, etc.

8085 Microprocessor – Functional Units

8085 consists of the following functional units.

Accumulator

It is an 8-bit register used to perform arithmetic, logical, I/O & LOAD/STORE operations. It
is connected to internal data bus & ALU.

Arithmetic and logic unit

As the name suggests, it performs arithmetic and logical operations like Addition, Subtraction,
AND, OR, etc. on 8-bit data.

62
General purpose register

There are 6 general purpose registers in 8085 processor, i.e. B, C, D, E, H & L. Each register
can hold 8-bit data.

These registers can work in pair to hold 16-bit data and their pairing combination is like B-C,
D-E & H-L.

Program counter

It is a 16-bit register used to store the memory address location of the next instruction to be
executed. Microprocessor increments the program whenever an instruction is being executed,
so that the program counter points to the memory address of the next instruction that is going
to be executed.

Stack pointer

It is also a 16-bit register works like stack, which is always incremented/decremented by 2

during push & pop operations.

Temporary register

It is an 8-bit register, which holds the temporary data of arithmetic and logical operations.

Flag register

It is an 8-bit register having five 1-bit flip-flops, which holds either 0 or 1 depending upon the
result stored in the accumulator.

These are the set of 5 flip-flops −

• Sign (S)

• Zero (Z)

• Auxiliary Carry (AC)

• Parity (P)

• Carry (C)

Its bit position is shown in the following table −

63
 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0

S Z AC P CY

Instruction register and decoder

It is an 8-bit register. When an instruction is fetched from memory then it is stored in the
Instruction register. Instruction decoder decodes the information present in the Instruction
register.

Timing and control unit

It provides timing and control signal to the microprocessor to perform operations. Following
are the timing and control signals, which control external and internal circuits −

• Control Signals: READY, RD’, WR’, ALE

• Status Signals: S0, S1, IO/M’

• DMA Signals: HOLD, HLDA

• RESET Signals: RESET IN, RESET OUT

Interrupt control

As the name suggests it controls the interrupts during a process. When a microprocessor is
executing a main program and whenever an interrupt occurs, the microprocessor shifts the
control from the main program to process the incoming request. After the request is
completed, the control goes back to the main program.

There are 5 interrupt signals in 8085 microprocessor: INTR, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5,
TRAP.

Serial Input/output control

It controls the serial data communication by using these two instructions: SID (Serial input
data) and SOD (Serial output data).

Address buffer and address-data buffer

The content stored in the stack pointer and program counter is loaded into the address buffer
and address-data buffer to communicate with the CPU. The memory and I/O chips are

64
connected to these buses; the CPU can exchange the desired data with the memory and I/O
chips.

Address bus and data bus

Data bus carries the data to be stored. It is bidirectional, whereas address bus carries the
location to where it should be stored and it is unidirectional. It is used to transfer the data &
Address I/O devices.

8085 Architecture

We have tried to depict the architecture of 8085 with this following image −

The concepts of Parallel processing:

Parallel processing is a method of simultaneously breaking up and running program tasks on

multiple microprocessors, thereby reducing processing time. Parallel processing may be
accomplished via a computer with two or more processors or via a computer network.

65
Parallel processing is also called parallel computing.

Parallel processing is information processing that uses more than one computer processor
simultaneously to perform work on a problem. This should not be confused with multitasking,
in which many tasks are performed on a single processor by continuously switching between
them, a common practice on serial machines. Computers that are designed for parallel
processing are called parallel processors or parallel machines. Many parallel processors can
also be described as supercomputers, a more general term applied to the class of computer
systems that is most powerful at any given time.

===================Best Wishes==============================

66