Geotechnical Engineering-1

Course Code –CE-221

Credit Hours -3+1

Contact Hours -3+3

Dr Hassan Mujtaba

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 What is Geotechnical Engineering
• Geotechnical Engineering deals with the
application of Civil Engineering Technology
to some aspects of earth.
• Geotechnical Commission of Swedish State
Railways (1914-1922) was the first to use the
word geotechnical (Swedish word
Geotekniska)
• It is combination of civil engineering
technology and geology.
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 What is Geotechnical Engineering
• All topics of soil mechanics and foundation
engineering and many aspects of geological
engineering can be grouped under the term
Geotechnical Engineering.
• It is a broader term as compared to soil
mechanics/ soil engineering.
• Geo means earth/ ground/ land

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 What is Soil
• The word 'soil' is derived from the Latin word
solium which, means the upper layer of the
earth that may be dug or plowed; specifically,
the loose surface material of the earth in which
plants grow. (In Agriculture)
• In geology, earth’s crust is assumed to consist
of unconsolidated sediments which is called
mantle.
• The upper layer of mantle which can support
plants is called soil. 4
 What is Soil (cont’d)
• The term ‘soil’ in Soil Engineering is defined
as an unconsolidated material, composed of
solid particles, produced by the disintegration
of rocks.
• The void space between the particles may
contain air, water or both. The solid particles
may contain organic matter.

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Nomenclature in Soil Engineering/ Geology

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 Soil Mechanics
• According to Dr. Karl Terzaghi (Father of Soil
Mechanics)
– Soil mechanics is the application of the laws
of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering
problems dealing with sediments and other
unconsolidated accumulations of solid
particles produced by the mechanical and
chemical disintegration of rock, regardless
of whether or not they contain an admixture
of organic constituents. 7
 Soil Mechanics
• Branch of mechanics which deals with the
action of forces on soil and with the flow of
water in soil.
• The soil consists of discrete solid particles
which are neither strongly bonded as in solids
nor they are as free as particles of fluids.
Consequently, the behavior of soil is
somewhat intermediate between that of a solid
and a fluid.
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 Scope of Soil Engineering
• Foundations
• Retaining Structures
• Stability of Slopes
• Underground Structures
• Pavement Design
• Earthen Dam and Embankments
• Miscellaneous Soil Problems

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Scope of Soil Engineering

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 Uses of Soil
• As supporting material to bear the load of
structures resting on earth.
• Raw construction material for earthern
structures like dams, leeves, roads, airfields
• Processed material in the form of burnt bricks
• In Pottery industry china clay (kaolinite) is
used as raw material

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 Uses of Soil
• Kaolinite is used in paper, paint and
pharmaceutical industry
• Bentonite (clay) is used in drilling industry for
stabilization of boring and in slurry trench
construction for stabilizing foundation
excavation
• In medicines (kaoline mixture)

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Why soils are important for Civil Engineers

• Soil is the most common, oldest but the

complex material.
• Unlike other material like steel it is not
homogenous so its behaviour under load
cannot be predicted with reasonable accuracy.
• For design of dams, highways, tower, retaining
walls we have to deal with the situations where
parameters are not well defined, hence no
single solution.
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Why soils are important for Civil Engineers

• In such situation one has to apply his judgement/

experience in addition to the knowledge of the
subject.
• Settlement of a structure is predicted from the
behaviour of a small sample of soil subjected to
consolidation test.
• But the question arises up to what extent these test
data are representative of the overall behaviour of
the actual soil stratum.
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Why soils are important for Civil Engineers

• Also other factors need to be considered are as

follows
– Up to what extent was the sample disturbed
during excavation/ extraction, preparation.
– To what extent the physical characteristics
of the soil under consideration vary both in
horizontal/ vertical direction.

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Historical Development of Soil Mechanics

• Remnants of most notable structures built by

Roman, Egyptians, Chinese and other provide
evidence that some knowledge existed during
ancient civilization of interaction of super
structure with the supporting soil underneath
• The great wall of China
• The pyramids of Egypt
• Many buildings and durable roads constructed
by Romans
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Historical Development of Soil Mechanics

• The mastery of Dam building displayed by

Indians.
• Leaning Tower of Pisa

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 Role of Geotechnical Engineering in various
projects

Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco

Golden Gate Bridge in San
(foundation extend to bed rock about
Francisco
100 ft below the water level, difficult to
Sears Tower
Sears Tower in Chicago
in Chicago (one of construct high tidal waves)
(one of theBuilding)
the Tallest Tallest Building) 18
Role of Geotechnical Engineering in various
projects

Oroville Dam,Oroville Dam,

California (oneCalifornia
of the largest earth 19
filled(one
damofinthe largest earth filled dam in world)
world)
Role of Geotechnical Engineering to avoid failure

Niigata Earthquake in Japan (Liquefaction rotating

Niigata Earthquake in Japan (Liquefaction)
the apartment buildings) 20
Role of Geotechnical Engineering to avoid failure

TetonTeton
DamDam
Failure
Failure House built near the top
(only few month after the of slope
completion when reservoir
was completely filled)
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Role of Geotechnical Engineering to avoid failure

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 Rocks
• Rocks are made from various types of
minerals. Minerals are substances of
crystalline form made up from a particular
chemical combination. The main minerals
found in rocks include quartz, feldspar, calcite
and mica.
• Geologists classify all rocks into three basic
groups: igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic.
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 Igneous Rocks
• These rocks have become solid from a melted
liquid state. Extrusive igneous rocks are those
that arrived on the surface of the Earth as
molten lava and cooled. Intrusive igneous
rocks are formed from magma (molten rock)
that forced itself through cracks into rock beds
below the surface and solidified there.
• Examples of igneous rocks: granite, basalt,
gabbro.
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 Sedimentary Rocks
• Weathering reduces the rock mass to fragmented
particles, which can be more easily transported
by wind, water and ice.
• When dropped by the agents of weathering, they
are termed sediments. These sediments are
typically deposited in layers or beds called strata
and when compacted and cemented together
(lithification) they form sedimentary rocks.
• Examples of sedimentary rocks: shale,
sandstone, chalk.
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 Metamorphic Rocks
• Metamorphism through high temperatures and
pressures acting on sedimentary or igneous
rocks, produces metamorphic rocks.
• The original rock undergoes both chemical and
physical alterations.
• Examples of metamorphic rocks: slate,
quartzite, marble.

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Rock
Cycle

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 Soils and Rocks
• Soil: Unconsolidated agglomerate of minerals
above solid Rock
• Rock: Hard and durable material that can not
be excavated without blasting
Difference between Rock and Soil
• Rocks are generally cemented; soils are rarely
cemented
• Rocks usually have much lower porosity than
soils
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 Difference between Soils and Rocks
• Rocks are more susceptible to weathering than soils
• Rocks are often discontinuous; soil masses usually
can be represented as continuous
• Rocks have more complex and unknowable stress
history than soils
• In Many rocks, minor principal stress is vertical but
in most soils, this is horizontal.
• Stability of rock mass is controlled by the strength
of discontinuities while in soil the strength of soil
apply.
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 Geotech studies for soil & rocks
• Geotechnical Investigation cover studies of
soils as well as rocks.
• In civil engineering, construction, mostly more
emphasis on soil than rocks
• Generally we construct more on soil than
rocks, also rocks have more bearing capacity.
• For large projects like dams, rocks needs more
investigation as they are more complex.

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 Soil Formation
• The rock and the minerals of the earth’s crust were
the parent materials from which soil originated.
• Exposure to weathering agents, volcanic action and
stresses induced by ongoing deformation of the
earth’s crust were factors responsible for weathering
of rocks and minerals.
• Soil is formed as a result of weathering of rocks.
• Weathering: is a process whereby an intact rock mass
is decomposed or disintegrated by atmospheric agents
– Physical or Mechanical weathering agents
– Chemical weathering agents
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 Soil Formation
• Characteristics of soil is related to its parent
material.
• The process of weathering is going on for
million of years.
• During this period soil have continuously
being formed from rocks and then transported
by rivers, wind and ice.
• These are eventually deposited in oceans
where they are transformed into rock again.
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 Rock-Soil Cycle
• Weathering of all three
kinds of rock form soil
• Pressure and cementation
of sediments (soil) forms
sedimentary rock
• Pressure, heat and solution
of both igneous and
sedimentary rock forms
Metamorphic rocks
• Melting of rocks forms
Magma. Cooling of
Magma forms igneous and
pyroclastic soils
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 Mechanical Weathering Agents
• Temperature changes
• Freezing and thawing (volume of frozen water
increases by 9%)
• Erosion/abrasion by flowing water, wind and
ice
• Natural disasters, e.g. earthquakes, landslides
etc.
• Activities by plants and animal including men
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 Mechanical Weathering Agents
• Temperature changes
– Different minerals of a rock have different coefficients of
thermal expansion. Unequal expansion and contraction of
these minerals occur due to temperature changes. When the
stresses induced due to such changes are repeated many
times, the particles get detached from the rocks and the
soils are formed.
• Freezing and thawing (volume of frozen water increases by
9%)
– Water in the pores and minute cracks of rocks gets frozen
in very cold climates. As the volume of ice formed is more
than that of water, expansion occurs. Rocks get broken into
pieces when large stresses develop in the cracks due to
wedging action of the ice formed. 35
Freeze and Thaw

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 Mechanical Weathering Agents
• Erosion/abrasion by flowing water, wind and ice
– As water, wind and glaciers move over the surface of rock,
abrasion and scouring takes place. It results in the
formation of soil.
• Natural disasters, e.g. earthquakes, landslides etc.
• Activities by plants and animal including men
– As the roots of trees and shrubs grow in the cracks and
fissures of the rocks, forces act on the rock. The segments
of the rock are forced apart and disintegration of rocks
occurs.
• Soil formed by mechanical weathering retains the minerals and
material fiber of parent rock.
• Coarse-grained soils such as gravels, sands and their mixtures.
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Abrasion (wind)

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Abrasion (water)

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Abrasion (Ice)

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 Chemical Weathering Agents
• Chemical weathering results from reactions of
rock minerals with oxygen, water, acids, salts
etc. The various chemical weathering
processes are
–Oxidation
–Carbonation
–Hydration
–Leaching
–Solution
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 Chemical Weathering Agents
• Oxidation
– It occurs in the rock containing iron
– Oxygen in the air reacts with them and
decomposes them.
• Carbonation
– The rock containing minerals iron, calcium,
magnesium, sodium, potassium etc can be
decomposed by carbonic acid formed by carbon
dioxide with water.
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 Chemical Weathering Agents
• Carbonation
– All igneous rock may be decomposed in this
manner.
– Silica is not decomposed by carbonic acid and
quartz mineral is regarded as most stable mineral.
– Granite is more resistant to weathering as
compared to basalt and gabbro.
• Hydration
– Decay of rock caused by water combined with
some rock mineral. This process is more intensive
in humid than in arid climates. 43
 Chemical Weathering Agents
• Leaching
– Is a process whereby water soluble salts are
dissolved and washed out from the soil by rainfall,
percolating water, surface runoff or other water.
• Solution
– Some of the rock minerals form a solution with
water when they get dissolved in water. Chemical
reaction takes place in the solution and the soils
are formed.

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 Organic Weathering
• A prominent rock is acted by bacteria which
induce chemical changes in their surrounding.
• This contribute to the weathering of rocks

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 Soil Deposits
• Residual soils
– Soils formed by weathering of rocks in place
• Transported soils
» Alluvial or fluvial or Alluvium
» Aeolian soil deposits
» Glacial soil deposits
» Colluvial or colluvium

• Organic soils
• Marine soils
• Pyroclastic soils 46
Soil Deposits

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 Alluvial Deposits
• Deposits by running
water
• Deposits from
braided stream
• Are those with high
gradient, rapidly
flowing that are
highly erosive

•A minor change in velocity will cause sediments to

deposit. They are complex in nature
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Alluvial Deposits

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 Alluvial Deposits
• Meander Belt Deposits
Stream with winding
Course
• Point par
• Natural levee
• Flood plain or back swamp
deposit (highly plastic clay)
• Oxbow or channel fill-
erosion of neck of meander
may result in cutting of
meander leaving a curved
isolated channel 50
 Alluvial Deposits
• Alluvial Terrace deposits
Relatively narrow, flat-surfaced, river flanking
remnant of flood plain deposit formed by
entrenchment of river
• Alluvial fans
When a river channel widens significantly or its
slope decreases substantially, coarse soil particles
settle forming submerged, flat, triangular deposits
known as Alluvial Fans
• Delta Deposit:
soil deposited at mouth of river or stream entering
a lake or reservoir. 51
 Alluvial Deposits
• Deposits made in lakes are called lacustrine
deposits. Such deposits are laminated or
varved in layers.
• Marine deposits are formed when flowing
water carries soils to ocean or sea. Also, when
these sediment precipitates through salt water.

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 Aeolian Deposits
Soils transported and deposited by wind action; two type of
soils are famous
• Loess: is a soil consisting of silt and silt-size particles.
The grain size tends to be uniform. Cohesion is developed
by clay coating or by chemical leaching by rainwater.
Loess is quite stable under unsaturated condition. Its
collapsible upon saturation.
• Sand Dune: Mounds ridges of uniform fine sand. They
are formed when the sand is blown over the crest of the
dune by wind action. Sand dunes have the properties:
– Uniform in grain size
– Relative density on windward side is more than leeward side
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Aeolian Loess
Deposits

Sand dune

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 Glacial Deposits
They are transported and deposited by the
movements of glaciers.
The general name is glacial till or Moraines.
• Terminal moraine (Ablation till)
• Ground Moraine or lodgments till (hard pan)
• Lateral Moraine
• Glaciofluvial deposit or out wash
• Glacio-lacustrine deposit (varved clay)
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 Glacial Deposits
• Terminal moraine (Ablation till)
– are the ridges of material scraped or bulldozed to
the front of glacier.

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 Glacial Deposits
• Ground Moraine or lodgments till (hard pan)
– The land which was once covered by glaciers and
on which till has been deposited after melting.
• Lateral Moraine
– Accumulation of material deposited underneath or
at the side
• Glaciofluvial deposit or out wash
– The soil carried by the melting water from the
front of a glacier
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 Glacial Deposits
• Glacio-lacustrine deposit (varved clay)
– Material deposited within lakes by melting water
from glaciers

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 Colluvial Deposits
Soils transported and deposited by the action of
gravity.
• Talus: formed by gradual accumulation of
unsorted rock fragments and debris at the base
of cliffs
• Hill Wash: Fine colluvial consisting of clayey
sand, sand silt or clay washed from top hills
• Landslide deposit:
Large mass of soil or rock which have stepped
down as a unit
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 Organic Soil Deposits
Formed by in-place growth and subsequent decay of animal
and plant life
Peat: A fibrous aggregate of decaying vegetation matter with
dark color and bad smell
Muck:
Peat with advanced stage of decomposition
Properties:
• NMC may range 200 to 300%
• Highly compressible
• Likely to undergo secondary consolidation
• Not suitable for engineering purposes. 60
 Marine Deposits
Material transported and deposited by ocean
waves and currents in shore and offshore
areas:
• Shore deposits: deposits of sand and/or gravel
by waves on the shoreline
• Marine clays: Organic and inorganic deposit of
fine-grained soil at the bed of sea or lake.

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 Pyroclastic soil Deposits
Materials ejected from volcanoes and transported
by wind, air, gravity etc.
• Volcanic ash:
Lava thrown in air and subsequent cooling
• Pumice: is rock form by cooling of lava flow
on earth surface during volcanic eruption.
Very porous, light weight material

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