Flash powder

Normally, flash powder mixtures are compounded to achieve a

particular purpose. These mixtures range from extremely fast-burning
mixtures designed to produce a maximum audio report, to mixtures
designed to burn slowly and provide large amounts of illumination, to
mixtures that were formerly used in photography.

Aluminium and chlorate

The combination of aluminium powder and potassium chlorate is

unstable, and a poor choice for flash powder that is to be stored for more
than a very short period. For that reason, it has been largely replaced by
the potassium perchlorate mixtures. Chlorate mixes are still used when
cost is the overriding concern because potassium chlorate is less
expensive than perchlorate.

The simplest is a two-component chlorate mix, although this is rarely

used.

KClO3 + 2Al → Al2O3 + KCl

The composition is approximately 70% KClO3 : 30% Al by weight for

the reactants of the above stoichiometrically balanced equation.

It is considered critically important to exclude sulfur and any acidic

components from these mixtures. Sulfur oxidises and absorbs moisture
to produce sulphuric and thionic acids; any acid in the mixture makes it
unstable. Sometimes a few percent of bicarbonate or carbonate buffer is
added to the mixture to ensure the absence of acidic impurities.
Sulphur is deliberately added as a third component to this mixture in
order to reduce the activation energy. However this gives the problem
with acid production and instability and so these mixtures are generally
considered too unstable to be stored and must be mixed immediately
before use. Antimony trisulfide may be used as an alternative, and is
more stable in storage.

Potassium nitrate, aluminium and sulfur

This composition, usually in a ratio of 5 parts potassium nitrate, to 3

parts aluminium powder, to 2 parts sulfur, is especially popular with
hobbyists. It is not very quick-burning, unless exceptionally fine
ingredients are used. Although it incorporates sulfur, it is in fact fairly
stable, sustaining multiple hits from a hammer onto a hard surface.
Adding 2% of its weight with boric acid is reputed to significantly
increase stability and shelf life, through resistance to dampening through
ambient humidity. Other ratios such as 6 KNO3/3 Al/2 S and 5 KNO3/2
Al/3 S also exist and work. All ratios have similar burn times and
strength, although 5 KNO3/3 Al/2 S seems to be dominant.

2 KNO3 + 4 Al + S → K2S + N2 + 2 Al2O3

The composition is approximately 59% KNO3 : 31.6% Al : 9.4% S by

weight for the reactants of the above stoichiometrically balanced
equation.

For best results, "German Dark" aluminium should be used, with airfloat
sulfur, and finely ball milled pure potassium nitrate. The finished
mixture should never be ball milled together.
 Aluminium and perchlorate

Aluminium powder and potassium perchlorate are the only two

components of the pyrotechnic industry standard flash powder. It
provides a great balance of stability and power, and is the composition
used in most commercial exploding fireworks.

aka A B mixture

The balanced equation for the reaction is:

3 KClO4 + 8 Al → 3 KCl + 4 Al2O3

The stoichiometric ratio is 34.2% aluminum and 65.8% perchlorate by

mass. A ratio of seven parts potassium perchlorate to three parts dark
pyro aluminium is the composition used by most pyrotechnicians.

For best results, the aluminium powder should be "Dark Pyro" grade,
with a flake particle shape, and a particle size of fewer than 10
micrometres. The KClO4 should be in powder form, free from clumps. It
can be sieved through a screen, if necessary, to remove any clumps prior
to use. The particle size of the perchlorate is not as critical as that of the
aluminium component, as much less energy is required to decompose
the KClO4 than is needed to melt the aluminium into the liquid state
required for the reaction.

Although this composition is fairly insensitive, it should be treated with

care and respect. Hobbyist pyrotechnicians usually use a method called
diapering, in which the materials are poured separately onto a large
piece of paper, which is then alternately lifted at each corner to roll the
composition over itself and mix the components. Some amateur
pyrotechnicians choose to mix the composition by shaking in a closed
paper container, as this is much quicker and more effective than
diapering. One method of mixing flash is to put the components in the
final device and handling the device will mix the flash powder.
Paper/cardboard is chosen over other materials such as plastic as a result
of its favorable triboelectric properties.

Large quantities should never be mixed in a single batch. Large

quantities are not only more difficult to handle safely, but they place
innocent bystanders within the area at risk. In the event of accidental
ignition, debris from a multiple-pound flash powder explosion can be
thrown hundreds of feet with sufficient force to kill or injure. (Note:
3 grams of mixture is enough to explode in open air without constraint
other than air pressure.)

No matter the quantity, care must always be taken to prevent any

electrostatic discharge or friction during mixing or handling, as these
may cause accidental ignition.

Magnesium and nitrate

Another flash composition common among amateurs consists of

magnesium powder and potassium nitrate. Other metal nitrates have
been used, including barium and strontium nitrates. Compositions using
nitrate and magnesium metal have been used as photographic flash
powders almost since the invention of photography. Potassium
nitrate/magnesium flash powder should be mixed and used immediately
and not stored due to its tendency of self-ignition.
If magnesium isn't a very fine powder it can be passivated with linseed
oil or potassium dichromate. The passivated magnesium flash powder is
stable and safe to store.

2 KNO3 + 5 Mg → K2O + N2 + 5 MgO

The composition is approximately 50% KNO3 : 50% Mg by weight for

the reactants of the above stoichiometrically balanced equation. Below is
the same reaction but involving barium nitrate.

Ba(NO3)2 + 5 Mg → BaO + N2 + 5 MgO

Mixtures designed to make reports are substantially different from

mixtures designed for illumination. A stoichiometric ratio of three parts
KNO3 to two parts Mg is close to ideal and provides the most rapid burn.
The magnesium powder should be smaller than 200 mesh, though up to
100 mesh will work. The potassium nitrate should be impalpable dust.
This mixture is popular in amateur pyrotechnics because it is insensitive
and relatively safe as such things go.

For photographic use, mixtures containing magnesium and nitrates are

made much more fuel rich. The excess magnesium is volatilized by the
reaction and burns in air providing additional light. In addition, the
higher concentration of fuel results in a slower burn, providing more of a
"poof" and less of a "bang" when ignited. A formula from 1917 specifies
5 parts of magnesium to 6 parts of barium nitrate for a stoichiometry of
nine parts fuel to one part oxidizer. Modern recreations of photographic
flash powders may avoid the use of barium salts because of their toxic
nature. A mixture of five parts 80 mesh magnesium to one part of
potassium nitrate provides a good white flash without being too violent.
Fuel rich flash powders are also used in theatrical flash pots.

Magnesium based compositions degrade over long periods, as

magnesium does not form a passivating oxide coating, meaning the
metallic Mg will slowly react with atmospheric oxygen and moisture. In
military pyrotechnics involving magnesium fuels, external oxygen can
be excluded by using hermetically sealed canisters. Commercial
photographic flash powders are sold as two-part mixtures, to be
combined immediately before use.

Magnesium and PTFE

A flash composition designed specifically to generate flares that are

exceptionally bright in the infrared portion of the spectrum use a mixture
of pyro-grade magnesium and powdered polytetrafluoroethylene. These
flares are used as decoys from aircraft that might be subject to heat-
seeking missile fire.

2n Mg + (C2F4))n → 2n MgF2 (s) + 2n C (s)

Antimony trisulfide and chlorate

This mixture, and similar mixtures sometimes containing pyro

aluminium have been used since the early 1900s for small "Black Cat"
style paper firecrackers. It is extremely low cost makes it popular among
manufacturers of low-grade fireworks in China. Like all mixtures
containing chlorates, it is extremely sensitive to friction, impact and
ESD, and is considered unsafe in pyrotechnic devices that contain more
than a few tens of milligrams of the mixture.

3 KClO3 + Sb2S3 → Sb2O3 + 3 SO2 + 3 KCl

This mixture is not highly energetic, and in at least some parts of the
United States, firecrackers containing 50 mg or less of this mixture are
legal as consumer fireworks.
 Safety and handling
Flash powders even within intended usages often release explosive force
of deadly capacity. Nearly all widely used flash powder mixtures are
sensitive to shock, friction and electrostatic discharge. In certain
mixtures, it is not uncommon for this sensitivity to spontaneously
change over time, or due to change in the environment, or to other
unknowable factors in either the original manufacturing or in real-world
storage. Additionally, accidental contaminants such as strong acids or
sulfur compounds can sensitise them even more. Because flash powder
mixtures are so easy to initiate, there is potentially a high risk of
accidental explosions which can inflict severe blast/fragmentation
injuries, e.g. blindness, explosive amputation, permanent maiming, or
disfigurement. Fatalities have occurred. The various flash powder
compositions should therefore not be handled by anyone who is
unfamiliar with their properties, or the handling techniques required to
maintain safety. Flash powder and flash powder devices pose
exceptionally high risks to children, who typically cannot understand the
danger and may be less adept with safe handling techniques. As a result,
children tend to suffer more severe injuries than adults.

Flash powders—especially those that use chlorate—are often highly

sensitive to friction, heat/flame and static electricity. A spark of as little
as 0.1–10 millijoules can set off certain mixtures. Certain formulations
prominent in the underground press contain both sulfur and potassium
chlorate. These mixtures are especially shock and friction sensitive and
in many applications should be considered unpredictable. Modern
pyrotechnic practices call for never using sulfur in a mix containing
chlorate salts.

Some flash powder formulations (those that use single-digit micrometre

flake aluminium powder or fine magnesium powder as their fuel) can
self-confine and explode in small quantities. This makes flash powder
dangerous to handle, as it can cause severe hearing damage and
amputation injury even when sitting in the open. Self-confinement
occurs when the mass of the pile provides sufficient inertia to allow high
pressure to build within it as the mixture reacts. This is referred to as
'inertial confinement', and it is not to be confused with a detonation.

Flash powder of any formulation should not be mixed in large quantities

by amateur pyrotechnicians. Beginners should start with sub-gram
quantities, and refrain from making large devices. Flash powder should
only be made at the site at which it will be used. Additionally, the
mixture should be made immediately before use. When mixed, the
transportation, storage, usage, various possession, and illegal "firearms"
laws (including felonies) may come into effect that do not apply to the
unmixed or pre-assembled components.