Cost and Management Accouting PDF
Cost and Management Accouting PDF
Cost and Management Accouting PDF
Third Year
BHARATHIAR UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
COIMBATORE – 641 046
2
CONTENTS
Lesson Page
LESSON TITLE
No. No.
UNIT - I
1 Overview of Cost Accounting 5
2 Classification of Cost 20
3 Cost Sheet 36
4 Tender and Quotation 52
UNIT - II
5 Material Purchase Procedures 62
6 Inventory Control and its Techniques 69
7 Stores Ledger and Methods of Pricing 87
8 Labour Cost – Computation and Control 110
9 Labour Cost – Incentive Schemes 129
UNIT - III
10 Nature and Scope of Management Accounting 138
11 Financial Statement Analysis 148
12 Ratio Analysis 168
UNIT - IV
13 Funds Flow Statement 240
14 Cash Flow Statement 297
UNIT - V
15 Standard Costing 330
16 Variance Analysis 343
17 Budget and Budgetary Control 384
18 Marginal Costing 408
19 Capital Budgeting 442
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(Syllabus)
COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
UNIT – I
Cost accounting: Meaning, Definition, objectives, Importance, Merits and demerits of
Cost and Management Accounting – Differentiate Cost Accounting with Financial
Accounting and Management Accounting – elements of cost – Preparation of cost sheet.
UNIT – II
Material: Bin card, Stores ledger, different levels of stock; Maximum level, Minimum
level, Reorder level, Average Stock level, Danger level – Material Issues: FIFO, LIFO,
Average Cost method, Standard price.
Labour: Labour turnover, wages and Incentives.
UNIT – III
Objectives of Management Accounting – Scope and functions. Financial Statement
Analysis – Comparative, Common Size Statement, Trend analysis; Ratio Analysis:
Liquidity, Profitability, Proprietary Ratios, Turnover Ratios.
UNIT – IV
Fund Flow statements – Cash flow Statement.
UNIT – V
Standard Costing – Marginal costing – Budget and Budgetary Control; preparation of
various types of budgets, Capital budgeting.
Recommended Books:
1. Jain and Narang: Cost accounting
2. Dr.S.N. Maheswari – Management accounting
3. Dr.R. Ramachandran & Dr.R.Srinivasan – Cost and Management accounting.
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UNIT - I
This unit introduces the Cost concepts and cost sheets
LESSON-1
OVERVIEW OF COST ACCOUNTING
The objective of the lesson is to expose concepts and after studying this lesson you should
able to:-
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¾ Understand the Meaning and Definition of cost, costing and cost Accounting
¾ Know the objectives and functions of cost Accounting
¾ Describe the importance of cost Accounting
¾ Know the Characteristics of a good costing system
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Cost Accounting is a branch of accounting and has been developed due to the limitations
of Financial accounting. Financial accounting is primarily concerned with record keeping
directed towards the preparation of financial accounts i.e., trading, profit and loss account
and balance sheet. It provides information regarding the financial positions of business on
a particular date.
Cost accounting is a set of procedures used in refining raw data into usable information for
management decision making, for ascertainment of cost of products and services and its
profitability. Cost accounting is a management information system which analyses past,
present and future data for to provide the basis for managerial decision making.
01.02.01 Cost
The term ‘Cost’ has a variety of meanings according to its purpose and conditions. As per
the definition by Institute of Cost and Management Accountants (I.C.M.A.), now known
as Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (C.I.M.A.), London, “Cost“ us the
amount of :
1.2.2 Costing
Staubus Observes “Costing is the process of determining the cost of doing action something i.e the
cost of manufacturing an article, rendering a service or performing a function”.
CIMA defines as “the techniques and process of ascertaining cost and studies the
principles and rules concerning the determination of costs of products and services”.
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1.2.3 Cost Accounting
Cost Accounting primarily deals with collection, analysis of relevant cost data for
interpretation and presentation for various problems of management.
Cost accounting is the application of accounting and costing principles, methods and
techniques in the ascertainment of costs and the analysis of savings and / or excess as
compared with previous experience or with the standard.
CIMA defines Cost Accounting as ‘ the establishment of budgets, standard costs and
actual costs of operations, processes, activities or products; and the analysis of variances,
profitability or the social use of funds”.
Cost accountancy is the science, art and practice of a cost accountant. It is science
because it is a body of systematic knowledge having certain principles which a cost
accountant should possess for proper discharge of his responsibility. It is an art as it
requires the ability and skill with which a cost accountant is able to apply the principles of
cost accountancy to various managerial problems. Practice includes the continuous efforts
of a cost accountant in the field of cost accountancy.
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In the initial stages of evolution, cost accounting confined itself to cost ascertainment and
presentation of the same with the main objective of finding the product cost. With the
development of business activity and introduction of large scale production, the scope of
cost accounting was broadened and providing information for cost control and cost
reduction has assumed equal significance along with finding out cost of production.
In addition to enlargement of scope, the area of application of cost accounting has also
widened. Initially cost accounting was applied in manufacturing activities only. Now, it is
applied in service organizations, government organizations, local authorities, farms,
extractive industries, etc.
The profit of any activity can be ascertained by matching cost with the revenue of that
activity. The purpose under this step is to determine costing profit or loss of any activity
on an objective basis.
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(v) Assisting management in decision making
Decision making means as a process of selecting a course of action out of two or more
alternative courses. For making a choice between different courses of action. It is
necessary to make a comparison of the outcomes which may be arrived under different
alternatives. Such comparison has only been made possible with the help of cost
accounting information.
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x) To facilitate planning and control of business activity.
xi) To supply timely information for various decisions.
xii) To organize the internal audit systems etc.
(e) Budgeting
Nowadays detailed estimates in terms of quantities and amounts are drawn up before the
start of each activity. This is done to ensure that a practicable course of action can be
chalked out and the actual performance corresponds with the estimated or budgeted
performance. The preparation of the budget is the function of costing department.
(h) Expansion
Cost accounts may provide estimates of production of various levels on the basis of which
the management may be able to formulate its approach to expansion.
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(i) Arriving at decisions
Most of the decision in a business undertaking involves correct statements of the likely
effect on profits. Cost accounts are of vital help in this respect. In fact, without proper cost
accounting, decision would be like taking a jump in the dark such as when production of a
product is stopped.
2) Measuring efficiency
With the help of cost accounting the management can prepares budgets and standards for
various elements of cost and compare them with actual to measures efficiency.
3) Cost reduction
It is helpful to management in reduction of cost through its techniques by efficient and
effective utilization of raw material, labour and optimum production output.
6) Improve efficiency
Under cost accounting system, proper inventory control, labour utilization and proper
analysis of expenditure is possible. This results in increased efficiency throughout the firm
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8) Reduction of wastages
Cost accounting can reduce wastages on material and labour.
4) Security of job
Employees get better remuneration security of job etc., due to increasing prosperity of the
industries monetary appreciation of the efficiency of a worker is a good tonic which leads
to higher rate of productivity.
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1.7.4 To the public
1) It removes all types of wastage.
2) The customer to pay fair price for products
3) It create more Employment opportunities.
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1.10 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD COSTING SYSTEM
An ideal system of cost accounting must possess some characteristics which bring all the
advantages, discussed above; to the business, in order to be ideal and objective. The main
characteristics are:
1. Simplicity
It must be simple and it must be easily understandable to the personnel. The information
provided must be in the proper order, in right time and to the right persons so as to be
utilized fully.
2. Flexibility and Adaptability
The costing system must be flexible to accommodate the changing conditions and
circumstances. The expansion, contraction of changes must be adopted in the existing
system with minimum changes.
3. Economy
The costing system must suit the finance available. The expenditure must be less than the
benefits derived from the system adopted.
4. Comparability
The management must be able to make comparison of the facts and figures with the past
figures, figures of other concerns, or other departments of the same concern.
7. Uniformity of Forms
Forms of different colours can be used to distinguish them. Forms must be uniform in size
and quality. Form should contain instructions to fill, to use and for disposal.
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9. Efficient Material Control and Wage System
There must be a proper procedure for recording the time spent on different jobs, by
workers for the payment of wages. A systematic method of wage system will help in the
control of labour cost. Since the cost of material forms a great proportion to the total cost,
there must be an efficient system of stores control.
11. Reconciliation
The systems of costing and financial accounting must be facilitated to reconcile in the
easiest manner.
1. Determination of objectives
The first and foremost step is to clearly lay down the objectives of the costing system. If
the objective is only to ascertain the cost, a simple system will be sufficient. However, if
the objective is to get information for decision making, planning and control, a more
elaborate system of costing is necessary.
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4. Deciding the structure of cost accounts
A suitable costing system can be developed on the basis of the study of the nature of
business and organization. The structure of cost accounts should be simple and in
accordance with the natural production process.
Both financial and cost accountings are the branches of accounting. They are aimed at
providing financial information for interested parties. In both the systems of accounting,
information is accumulated and presented to serve the needs of management, proprietors
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and the outsiders. The sources of the two systems for recording the transactions are the
same. Double entry system of accounting is followed in both the system of accounting.
Both are in monetary terms. They are supplementary each other. But the two systems
differ in their purpose and scope.
Point of
S.No Financial accounting Cost accounting
difference
It’s main objective is to It aims to provide cost
1 Object prepare final A/c to report information to management
to owner and outsiders. for decision making.
Financial records are
maintained as per the It is maintained to fulfill the
Legal requirement of IT act and internal requirement of the
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requirement companies act management.
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(b) Check your answer with the ones given at the end of this Lesson
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1.15 MODEL ANSWERS TO “CHECK YOUR PROGRESS”
The difference between cost and financial accounting are in respect of objects, legal
requirements, nature, stock valuation, period of accounting, information recorded.
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1.16 SUGGESTED READING/REFERENCES/SOURCES
1. Jain S.P. and Narang K.L. , Cost Accounting , Principles and Practice, Kalayani
Publishers,
2. Sexena V.K. and Vashist C.D., Advanced Cost and Management Accounting –
Textbook, Sultan Chand & Sons
3. Pillai. R.S.N. and Bagavathi V., Cost Accounting, S. Chand & Company Ltd.
4. Alex K., Cost Accounting, ARR publications
5. Horngren, Datar and Foster, Cost Accounting A managerial Emphasis, Pearson
Education
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LESSON-2
CLASSIFICATION OF COST
Contents:
2.0 Aims and objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Important Terms in Cost Accounting
2.3 Classification of Cost
2.4 Elements of Cost
2.5 Methods of Costing
2.6 Techniques of costing
2.7 Let us Sum Up
2.8 Lesson-end Activities
2.9 Model Answers to “Check your Progress”
2.10 Suggested Reading/References/Sources
¾ Explain the meaning and definition of the terms like cost unit, cost centre and profit
center
¾ Classify the costs
¾ Describe the various methods and techniques of costing
¾ Describe the elements of classification
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The basic objective of cost accounting is the ascertainment and control of costs. In order
to effectively calculate the cost of the product or service and control the cost, the cost
needs to be classified according to some basis. They are called as classification of cost.
The most important classification is element wise classification. Furthermore, the
computation of cost varies with industry to industry, according to its nature of operation.
Hence, in order to ascertain the cost of the product or service, we have to apply various
methods and techniques of costing and they are the subject matter of this lesson.
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2.2 IMPORTANT TERMS IN COST ACCOUNTING
In the previous lesson we have discuses about the basic concepts – cost, costing, cost
accounting and accountancy. Apart from the above we have some important terms used in
the cost accounting. They are discussed in this section.
Cost unit: - A cost unit is a unit of a product or service or time to which costs are
ascertained by means of allocation, apportionment and absorption.
CIMA defines cost unit as ”a quantitative unit of product or service in relation to which
costs are ascertained”. [e.g., cost of Refrigerator is ascertained per unit [per piece]
The selection of cost unit is important in cost accounting. It should be carefully selected to
suit the nature of business operation. The selected unit should be neither too small nor too
big, but ideal for cost ascertainment. Cost unit may be expressed in terms of number
(units), weight, area, length etc. The following are the cost units in various industries.
Cost units are of two types: [1] Single and [2] Composite.
The examples of single cost unit are – Kilogram, Ton, Piece, Liter, etc.
The examples of composite cost unit are- Passenger Kilometer, Tonne kilometer for
transport firm, per bed day for hospitals, etc.
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Cost centre: - The firm is generally divided into a number of functional departments [viz.,
production, marketing and finance] for administrative convenience. These departments
[some times] may further divided into smaller divisions for cost ascertainment and control.
These smaller divisions are called cost center.
In simple, cost center is a location, person or item of equipment for which cost may be
ascertained and used for the purpose of cost control.
Profit centre: - It is a segment of a business responsible for all activities involved in the
production and sales of products and services. It is responsible for both revenue and
expenses. Profit centers are created to delegate responsibility to individuals and measure
their performances.
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2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF COST
CLASSIFICATION OF COST
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1. Cost according to nature or element; [analytical classification] based on element, cost is
classified into materials, labour and expenses. [discussed in detail under elements of cost].
2. Functional Classification; Here the classification is under four major purpose of the
business.
a. Production cost b. Administration cost c. Selling cost and d. Distribution cost.
[a] Production cost is ‘the cost of sequence of operations which begins with supplying
materials, labour and services and ends with primary packing of the product’ – I.C.M.A.
It is also known as manufacturing or factory cost incurred in converting raw material into
finished product.
[b] Administration cost is ‘the cost of formulating the policy, directing the organization
and controlling the operations of an undertaking, which is not related directly to a
production, selling, distribution, research or development activity or function’- I.C.M.A.
Administration cost is incurred for overall planning, organizing and control of the
enterprise.
[c] Selling cost is ‘the cost of seeking to create and stimulate demand and of securing
orders’ – I.C.M.A.
Selling costs are also known as selling expenses and selling overheads, which comprise of
all the expenses of selling department including product promotion and advertising.
[d] Distribution cost is ‘the cost of sequence of operations which begin with making the
packed product available for dispatch and ends with making the reconditioned, returned
empty package, if any, available for reuse’- I.C.M.A.
It is also known as distribution expenses or overheads which comprises of packing,
warehouse expenses, cost of freight, etc.
I.C.M.A. Terminology also defines the following terms:
[e] Research Cost:- “This is the cost of searching for new or improved products, new
application of materials, or new or improved methods”.
[f] Development Cost:- “Having made the research the management decides to produce a
new or improved product or to employ a new or improved method, the cost of process
beginning with the commencement of formal production of that product or by that
method, is called the development cost”.
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4. By Variability
According to this classification, costs are classified according to their behavior in relation
to changes in the level of activity or volume of production. On this basis, costs are
classified into three groups viz. fixed, variable and semi-variable.
(1) Fixed (or period) cost are commonly described as those which remain fixed in total
amount with increase or decrease in the volume of out put or productive activity for
a given period of time. Fixed cost per unit decreases as production increases and
increases as production declines. Examples of fixed costs are rent, insurance of
factory building, factory manager’s salary etc.
(2) Variable (or product) costs are those, which vary in total in direct proportion to the
volume of output. These costs per unit remain relatively constant with changes in
production. Thus, variable costs fluctuate in total amount but tend to remain
constant per unit as production activity changes. Examples are direct material costs,
direct labor costs, power, repairs etc. such costs are known as product costs because
they depend on the quantum of output rather than on time.
(3) Semi-variable costs are those which are partly fixed and partly variably. For
example, telephone expenses include a fixed portion of annual charge plus variable
charge according to calls; thus total telephone expenses are semi-variable. Other
examples of such costs are depreciation, repairs and maintenance of building and
plant etc.
(6) By Normality
Under this, costs are classified according to whether these are costs which are normally
incurred at a given level of output in the conditions in which that level of activity is
normally attained. On this basis, it is classified into two categories:
(a) Normal cost; it is the cost, which is normally incurred at a given level of output in the
conditions in which that level of output is normally attained. It is a part of cost of
production.
(b) Abnormal cost; It is the cost which is not normally incurred at a given level of out put
in the conditions in which that level of output is normally attained. It is not a part of cost
of production and charged to Costing Profit and Loss Account.
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(7) By Capital and Revenue or Financial Accounting Classification
The cost which is incurred in purchasing assets either to earn income or increasing the
earning capacity of the business is called capital cost.
( i ) Historical costs: The costs which are ascertained after being incurred are called
historical costs.
( ii )Predetermined costs: such costs are estimated costs i.e. computed in
advance of production taking into consideration the previous periods’ costs and the factors
affecting such costs.
(ii)Standard cost:- Budgeted costs are translated into actual operation through the
instrument of standard costs. The Institute Of Costs And Management Accountants,
London defines standard cost as “the predetermined cost based on a technical estimate for
materials, lab our and overhead for a selected period of time and for a prescribed set of
working conditions”. Thus, standard cost is a determination, in advance of production of
what should be the cost.
(9) For Managerial Decisions:- On this basis, costs may be classified into the
following costs:
1. Marginal cost is the total of variable costs i.e. prime cost plus variable overheads.
2. Out of pocket costs: This is that portion of the cost which involves payment to
outsiders i.e., gives rise to cash expenditure as opposed to such costs as depreciation,
which do not involve any cash expenditure.
3. Differential costs: The change in costs due to change in the level of activity or pattern
or method of production is known as differential cost.
4. Sunk costs: A sunk cost is an irrecoverable cost.
5. Imputed(or notional) costs: These costs are those costs which appear in cost accounts
only e.g. notional rent charged on business premises owned by the proprietor, interest on
capital for which no interest has been paid.
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6. Opportunity cost: It is the maximum possible alternative earning that might have been
earned if the productive capacity or services had been put to some alternative use.
7. Replacement cost: It is the cost at which there could be purchase of an asset or material
identical to that which is being replaced or revalued. It is the cost of replacement at
current market price.
8. Avoidable and unavoidable cost: Avoidable costs are those, which can be eliminated if
a particular product or department, with which they are directly related, is discontinued.
Unavoidable cost is that cost which will not be eliminated with the discontinuation of a
product or department.
The elements of cost consists of :- [a] Materials ; [b] Labour; and [c] Expenses. Each
element can again be divided into Direct and Indirect costs.
The above elements of cost are analysed in the chart given below:
Elements of Cost
Prime
Overheads
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[A] Materials: The substances from which the products are made are known as materials.
They may be in a raw or manufactured state. It may be of Direct as well as Indirect.
[a] Direct Materials: Direct materials are those materials, which can be identified with
the product and can be conveniently and economically measured and directly charged to
the product.
Example
i. Timber used in furniture making.
ii. Cloth used in Ready made dress making.
iii. Bricks used in building a house.
Cotton, leather timber, cloth, bricks, jute there are all materials directly entered in the
production. i.e. known as Raw Material (or) Direct Material.
[b] Indirect Materials: Indirect materials are those materials, which cannot normally
form a part of the finished product. Cost of it cannot be identified and allocated but can be
apportioned to a particular product. [e.g. lubricants, cotton waste, grease, oils etc.,]
Example:
i. Material used in maintenance of plant & machinery like, lubricant, cotton waste,
grease, oil, stationary etc.
ii. Small tools for general use.
iii. Cost of thread in dress making
iv. Cost of nails in shoe-making and furniture
[B] Labour: For conversion of materials into finished product, human effort is needed.
For such human effort the remuneration is paid, and that is called labour cost or wages.
Labour can be direct as well as indirect.
[a] Direct Labour: All labour expenses in altering, composition, construction, and
conformation etc., of the product are included in direct wages. These are the wages, which
can be identified with and allocated to cost centers and cost units.
Direct wages are also known as direct labour, productive labour, process labour or prime
cost labour.
Example:
(i) Carpenters engaged in furniture making
(ii) Workmen engaged in assembling parts.
[b] Indirect Labour: Labour employed for the purpose of carrying out work incidental to
products or services are called indirect labour. These wage cost cannot be allocated, but
which can be apportioned to or absorbed by the cost centre or cost units.
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Example:
(i) Labour cost of idle time, overtime, holidays etc.
(ii) Wages & Salaries of clerical and managerial staff, salesman, etc.
[C] Expenses: Expenditures other than material and labour is called as expense. Expenses
may be direct or indirect.
[a] Direct or Chargeable Expenses: These are expenses which can be directly,
conveniently and wholly allocated to cost centers or cost units. It is the part of prime cost.
[e.g., Excise duty, Royalty on production, cost of special drawings and designs, etc.]
[b] Indirect Expenses: These expenses are other than indirect material and indirect
labour, which cannot be directly identified and allocated but can only be apportioned to or
absorbed with cost centers or cost units.
Example:
(i) Rent rates and insurance
(ii) Power & Lighting
(iii) Depreciation and Repairs, of fixed Assets
(iv) Bank Charges.
(v) Advertisement
(vi) Employees’ welfare & medical expenditure.
(vii) Expenses of service department
INDIRECT COSTS / OVERHEADS: All expenses other than the direct material cost,
direct labour cost and direct expense are known as indirect expenses or overhead.
According to Weldon, overhead means, “the cost of indirect materials, indirect labour and
such other expenses, including services as cannot conveniently be charged direct to
specific cost units.” It is also called as “On cost” and “Burden”.
Classification of overheads
There are four types of overheads
(i) Production of overheard/ Factory overhead.
(ii) Office & Administration overhead.
(iii) Selling overhead.
(iv) Distribution overhead.
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Example
(i) Indirect Material, Indirect Labour.
(ii) Direct factory expenses, Rent, power, depression, repairs, lighting, heating incurred
in the factory.
(iii) Welfare & Medical expenses of factory employees.
Example
(i) Office expenses, including rent, tax, lighting, printing, stationary, insurance,
postage, telegram, telephone etc.
(ii) Bank charges.
[c] Selling Overhead: It is the cost of seeking to create and stimulate demand and of
securing orders. In other words, all expenses in securing and retaining customers for the
products are selling expenses, since they have been spent on creating and maintaining
demand for the product. [e.g., Salaries of sales manager, commission, traveling expenses,
show room expense, expenses of sales promotion, gifts and samples etc.]
[d] Distribution overheads: These are the expenses concerned with the delivery and
dispatch of finished goods to customers. In other words, it is expenditure incurred from
the time, the product is completed until it reaches its destination.
Example
(i) Salesmen, Salaries, commission, Bonus.
(ii) Advertising.
(iii) Warehouse rent, lightly, staff salary
(iv) Delivery van, expenses, depreciation etc.
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Check your progress 2.1
Classify the cost on the basis of its elements.
(a) Write your answer in the space given below.
(b) Check your answer with the ones given at the end of this Lesson
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Elements of Cost
By grouping the above elements of cost, the following divisions of cost are obtained:
Illustration 2.1
Ascertain the prime cost, works cost, cost of production, total cost and profit form the
under mentioned figures:
Direct Materials Rs. 5,000; Direct Labour Rs.3,000; Direct Expenses Rs.500; Factory
Expenses Rs.1,500;Administration Expenses Rs.800; Selling Expenses Rs.700 and Sales
Rs.15,000.
Solution 02.01
Particulars Rs.
Direct Materials 5,000
Direct Labour 3,000
Direct Expenses 500
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Works Cost
ADD: Administration Expenses 10,000
800
Cost of Production
ADD: Selling Expenses 10,800
700
Cost Of Sales /Total cost 11,500
Profit 3,500
Sales 15,000
The method of costing refers to a system of cost ascertainment and cost accounting.
Industries differ in their nature, in the products they produce and the services they offer.
Hence, different methods of costing are used by different industries. For example, the
method of costing employed by a building contractor is different from that of a transport
company.
Job costing and process costing are the two basic methods of costing. Job costing is
suitable to industries which manufacture or execute the work according to the
specifications of the customers. Process costing is suitable to industries where production
is continuous and the units produced are identical. All other methods are combinations,
extensions or improvements of these basic methods. The methods of costing are explained
in detail.
1. Job costing
It is also called specific order costing. It is adopted by industries where there is no
standard product and each job or work order is different from the others. The job is done
strictly according to the specifications given by the customer and usually the job takes
only a short time for completion. The purpose of job costing is to ascertain the cost of
each job separately. Job costing is used by printing presses, motor repair shops,
automobile garages, film studios, engineering industries etc.
2. Contract costing
It is also known as terminal costing. Basically, this method is similar to job costing.
However, it is used where the job is big and spread over a long period of time. The work is
done according to the specifications of the customer. The purpose of contract costing is to
ascertain the cost incurred on each contract separately. Hence a separate account is
prepared for each contract. This method is used by firms engaged in ship building,
construction of buildings, bridges, dams and roads.
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3. Batch costing
It is an extension of job costing. A batch is a group of identical products. All the units in a
particular batch are uniform in nature and size. Hence each batch is treated as a cost unit
and costed separately. The total cost of a batch is ascertained and it is divided by the
number of units in the batch to determine the cost per unit. Batch costing is adopted by
manufacturers of biscuits, ready made garments, spare parts medicines etc.
4. Process costing
It is called continuous costing. In certain industries, the raw material passes through
different processes before it takes the shape of a final product. In other words, the finished
product of one process becomes the raw material for the subsequent process. Process
costing is used in such industries.
A separate account is opened for each process to find out the total cost as well as cost per
unit at the end of each process. Process costing is applied to continuous process industries
such as chemicals, textiles, paper, soap, lather etc.
5. Unit costing
This method is also known as single or output costing. It is suitable to industries where
production is continuous and units are identical. The objective of this method is to
ascertain the total cost as well as the cost per unit. A cost sheet is prepared taking into
account the cost of material, labour and overheads, Unit costing is applicable in the case of
mines, oil drilling units, cement works, brick works and units manufacturing cycles,
radios, washing machines etc.
6. Operating costing
This method is followed by industries which render services. To ascertain the cost of such
services, composite units like passenger kilometers and tone kilometers are used for
ascertaining costs. For example, in the case of a bus company, operating costing indicates
the cost of carrying a passenger per kilometer. Operating costing is adopted by airways
railways, road transport companies (goods as well as passengers) hotels, cinema halls,
power houses etc.
7. Operation costing
This is a more detailed application of process costing. It involves costing by every
operation. This method is used where there is mass production of repetitive nature
involving a number of operations. The main purpose of this method is to ascertain the cost
of each operation. For instance, the manufacture of handles for bi-cycles involves a
number of operations such as cutting steel sheets into proper strips, moulding, machining
and finally polishing. The cost of these operations may be found out separately. Operation
costing provides a minute analysis of costs to achieve accuracy and it is applied in
industries such as spare parts, toy making and engineering.
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8. Multiple Costing
It is also known as composite costing. It refers to a combination of two or more of the
above methods of costing. It is adopted in industries where several parts are produced
separately and assembled to a single product.
In addition to different methods of costing, the following techniques are used for the
purpose of ascertaining costs.
1. Historical costing
In this, actual costs are ascertained after they have been incurred. This is a conventional
method of cost ascertainment.
2. Direct costing
The ascertainment of direct costs in respect of department, product or process. This is the
aggregate of marginal cost and a portion of fixed cost that are identifiable with the product
or process. Direct costs are, therefore, traceable costs.
3. Absorption costing
It is also known as total cost approach. Under this technique, all costs, both fixed and
variable are charged to product, process or operations. It is useful in submitting tenders,
preparing job estimates etc.
4. Uniform costing
It is the use of some costing principles and methods by several concerns for common
control or comparison of costs.
5. Marginal costing
It classifies cost into fixed and variable and only variable costs are charged to product.
This type of costing is useful in taking important decisions such as price decisions in time
of competition make or buy decisions, selecting profitable product mix etc.
6. Standard costing
Standard cot is predetermined cost. The costs are determined in advance of production.
Standard performance is set in terms of costs. Actual costs are compared with the
standards and variations are found. Then, reasons for variations are investigated and
remedial actions are taken. This system enables control of costs and also measurement of
efficiency of operations.
34
2.7 LET US SUM UP
Cost on element can be found at different levels. Cost at factory, administrative cost,
selling and distribution cost. Direct cost can be calculated in order to know the cost at
different levels for cost control purpose. Not only that cost can be classified into various
ways namely cost by time, cost by function, cost by planning and control, cost by
variability, cost by capital and revenue. Each and every classification has its own purpose.
Costing method differ from industry to industry according to the nature of productive
process.
1. Jain S.P. and Narang K.L. , Cost Accounting , Principles and Practice, Kalayani
Publishers,
2. Sexena V.K. and Vashist C.D., Advanced Cost and Management Accounting –
Textbook, Sultan Chand & Sons
3. Pillai. R.S.N. and Bagavathi V., Cost Accounting, S. Chand & Company Ltd.
4. Alex K., Cost Accounting, ARR publications
5. Horngren, Datar and Foster, Cost Accounting A managerial Emphasis, Pearson
Education.
35
LESSON-3
COST SHEET
Contents:
3.0 Aims and objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Meaning and definition of cost sheet
3.3 Purpose of cost sheet
3.4 Specimen of cost sheet
3.5 Cost sheet and production Account
3.6 Cost sheet and production statement
3.7 Treatment of stocks
3.8 Important points to be remembered
3.9 Illustrations
3.10 Let us Sum Up
3.11 Lesson-end Activities
3.12 Model Answers to “Check your Progress”
3.13 Suggested Reading/References/Sources
3.1 INTRODUCTION
36
3.2 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF COST SHEET
The expenses of a product are analysed under different heads in the form of statement.
This statement is called cost sheet.
Walter & Bigg define, “The expenditure which has been incurred upon production for a
period is extracted from the financial books and the store records, and set out in a
memorandum or a statement. If this statement is confined to the disclosure of the cost of
the units produced during the period, it is a termed as a cost sheet”. In other words cost
sheet is a statement showing the total cost under proper classification in a logical order.
37
Factory Lighting and Heating __
Power and Fuel __
Repairs and Maintenance __
Drawing Office Expenses __
Research and Experiment cost __
Depreciation of Factory Plant __
Works Stationery __
Insurance of factory __
Works Manager’s salary __
WORKS COST/FACTORY COST/ xxx xxxx
MANUFACTURING COST
Add: Office and Administrative Overheads: __
Office salaries __
Office Rent and Rates __
Lighting and Heating __
Cleaning __
Telephone and Postages __
Printing and Stationery __
Depreciation of office Furniture __
Depreciation of office Equipment __
Insurance __
Legal Expenses __
COST OF PRODUCTION xxx xxxx
Add: Selling and Distribution Overhead: __
Advertising __
Salesmen Salaries __
Samples and Free gifts __
Sales Office Rent __
Sales Promotion Expenses __
Packing and Demonstration __
Showroom Rent and Rates __
Commission __
Traveling Rent and Rates __
Warehouse Rent and Rates __
Repair of Delivery vans __
Carriage freight Outwards etc. __
COST OF SALES xxx xxxx
38
Prime cost: This is also called direct cost. It is the aggregate of direct materials direct
labour and direct expenses, which are easily identifiable with the product.
Work cost: It consists of the total of all items of expenses incurred in the manufacturing
of a product, viz., prime cost plus factory expenses. It is also known as factory cost or
manufacturing cost.
Cost of Production: This includes work cost and administration expenses. Production is
not deemed to be complete without the managerial and facilitating costs.
Cost of Sales: It represents cost of production plus selling and distribution cost incurred.
Thus, the cost of sales is the aggregate of all the direct and indirect costs connected to the
goods sold.
When profit is added to the cost of sales, sales can be found. Usually, selling prices are
fixed on the basis of the cost of sales. It ensures that all the costs are recovered and any
desired profit is also obtained.
Cost sheet is a statement of total cost under different classifications of costs. The
classification of cost is done on the basis of elements of cost, functions and behaviour of
cost. The total cost in the form of cost of sales and cost per unit is revealed.
On the other hand, the cost, sales, and profits presented in the form of a ledger account is
known as production account or manufacturing account. The debit side of the account is
shown with opening stock, expenses and the credit side is shown with closing stock and
sales. The balancing figure is either profit or loss.
The cost of output can be ascertained from the statement known as cost sheet. The items
of various costs are extracted from financial books and presented in logical order. Thus,
total cost of a cost centre or cost unit is shown in the cost sheet.
When sales, stocks and profits are included in the cost sheet it is called production
statement. Bigg has defined it as “The expenditure which has been incurred upon
production for a period is extracted from the financial books and stores records and set out
in a memorandum statement. If the statement is confined in the disclosure of the cost of
the units produced during the period it is termed as cost sheet, but where the statement
records, cost, sales and profit it is usually known as production or output statement or
account”. However the modern practice is to extend the cost sheet to show profit and sales
also and call it “statement of cost and profit”.
39
3.7 TREATMENT OF STOCKS
Rs.
Cost of production xxx
Add: Opening stock of finished goods xxx
xxx
Less: Closing stock of finished goods xxx
Cost of production of goods sold xxx
40
Statement of Cost and Profit (with stocks)
41
2 Valuation of Stocks of Finished Goods
When details of units produced and sold are available, the closing stock of finished units
can be valued at ‘current cost of production’.
Cost of production
Value of closing stock units = x Closing stock units
Units produced
If value of opening stock units is not given, they can also be valued on the current cost
basis, assuming that costs in the pervious period were similar to the current period.
42
3.9 ILLUSTRATIONS
Illustration 03.01
Calculate Prime Cost, Factory Cost, Cost of Production, Cost of Sales and Profit from the
following details:
Direct Materials Rs. 10,000
Direct Labour Rs. 4,000
Direct Expenses Rs. 500
Factory Expenses Rs. 1,500
Administrative Expenses Rs. 1,000
Selling Expenses Rs. 300
Sales Rs. 20,000
Solution 3.1
Illustration 3.2
Draw a statement of cost form the following particulars:
Opening Stock: Rs.
1. Materials 2,00,000
2. Work-in-progress 60,000
3. Finished goods 5,000
Closing Stock: 1. Materials 1,80,000
2.Work-in-progress 50,000
3. Finished goods 15,000
Materials purchased 5,00,000
Direct Wages 1,50,000
Manufacturing expenses 1,00,000
Sales 8,00,000
Selling and distribution expenses 20,000
43
Solution 3.2
Statement of Cost
Rs. Rs.
Opening stock of materials 2,00,000
Add: Purchase of materials 5,00,000
7,00,000
Less Closing stock of materials 1,80,000
Materials consumed: 5,20,000
Direct Wages 1,50,000
Prime Cost 6,70,000
Add: Manufacturing expenses 1,00,000
7,70,000
Add: Opening stock of work-in-progress 60,000
8,30,000
Less: Closing stock of work-in-progress 50,000
COST OF PRODUCTION (work cost) 7,80,000
Statement of Profit
Rs.
Good manufacture 7,80,000
Add: Opening stock of finished goods 5,000
7,85,000
Less: Closing stock of finished goods 15,000
7,70,000
Add: Selling and distribution expenses 20,000
Total Cost 7,90,000
Net Profit 10,000
Sales 8,00,000
Illustration 3.3
The following data relate to the manufacture of a product during the month of January
Raw materials consumed Rs.80,000
Direct Wages Rs.48, 000
Machine hour worked 8,000
Machine hour rate Rs.4
Office overhead 10% of works cost
Selling overhead Rs.1.50 Per unit
Unit produced 4,000
Units sold 3,600 at Rs.50 each.
Prepare cost sheet and show (a) cost per unit and (b) profit for the period.
44
Solution 3.3
Cost sheet for January (output: 4,000 Units)
Illustration 3.4
From the following particulars prepare a statement showing the components of the total
sales and the profit for the year ended 31st December.
Rs.
st
Stock of finished goods (1 Jan.) 6,000
Stock of raw materials (1st Jan.) 40,000
Work-in-progress (1st Jan.) 15,000
Purchase of raw materials 4,75,000
Carriage inwards 12,500
Factory rent, taxes 7,250
Other production expenses 43,000
Stock of goods (31st Dec.) 15,000
Wages 1,75,000
45
Work manager’s salary 30,000
Factory employees’ salary 60,000
Power expenses 9,500
General expenses 32,500
Sales for the year 8,60,000
Stock for the year [Raw Materials] 50,000
Work-in-progress (31st Dec.) 10,000
Solution 3.4
Cost Sheet for the year ending 31st Dec.
Rs. Rs.
Stock of raw materials on 1st Jan. 40,000
Add: Purchase during the year 4,75,000
5,15,000
Less: Stock of materials on 31st Dec. 50,000
Cost of materials consumed 4,65,000
Add: Wages 1,75,000
Carriage inwards 12,500
Prime Cost 6,52,500
Add: Factory on cost:
Works manager’s salary 30,000
Factory employees’ salary 60,000
Factory rent, taxes and insurance 7,250
Power expenses 9,500
Other production expenses 43,000 1,49,750
8,02,250
Add: Works-in-progress 1st Jan. 15,000
8,17,250
Less: Works-in-progress 31st Dec. 10,000
Factory Cost 8,07,250
Add: Office on cost:
General expenses 32,500
Total Cost 8,39,750
Add: Stock of finished goods 1st Jan. 6,000
8,45,750
Less: Stock of Finished goods 31st Dec. 15,000
8,30,750
Cost of sales
Profit 29,250
Total sales 8,60,000
46
Illustration 3.5
From the following particulars prepare a cost sheet showing the total cost per tonne for the
period ended 31st Dec 2007
Rs Rs.
Raw materials 33000 Water supply (works) 1200
Direct wages 38000 Rent (office) 500
Indirect wage 10500 Factory insurance 1100
Factory Rent 5000 Office insurance 500
Factory Rate 2500 Legal expenses 400
Factory lighting 2200 Rent of warehouse 300
Factory heating 1500 Depreciation of :
Motive power 4400 -Machinery 2000
Haulage (works) 3000 -Office building 1000
Directors fees 1000 - Delivery vans 200
(works)
Directors fees(office) 2000 Bad debts 100
Factory cleaning 500 Advertising 300
Office expenses 200 Salesmen’s salary 1500
Estimation expenses 800 Repairs of delivery 700
(work) vans
Factory stationary 750 Bank charges 50
Office stationary 900 Commission on sales 1500
Loose tool written off 600
The total output for the period has been 10,000 tonnes.
Solution 3.6
Cost sheet (for the year ended 31st Dec. 2007)
47
Director fees 1000
Factory cleaning 500
Estimation exp(works) 800
Factory Stationary 750
Loose tools written off 600
Water supply 1200
Depreciation of machinery 2000
Factory insurance 1100 37050
FACTORY COST 108050
Add: Office and admin expenses
Director fees 2000
Office expenses 200
Office Stationary 900
Rent and taxes 500
Office Insurance 500
Legal Expenses 400
Office building-depreciation 1000
Bank Charges 50 5550
COST OF PRODUCTION 113600
Add: Selling and Distribution expenses
Rent of Warehouse 300
Depreciation of Delivery van 200
Bad debt 100
Advertising 300
Salesmen salary 1500
Repairs of delivery van 700
Commission on sales 1500 4600
COST OF SALES 118200
Total cos t
Cost per tone =
Output (tonns )
118200
=
10000
= 11.82
48
Particulars Rs. Particulars Rs.
Direct Materials 1,00,000 Factory overheads 60,000
Direct wages paid 80,000 Administrative overheads 70,000
Direct expense 20,000 Selling and Distribution
overheads 48,000
Cost sheet shows the elements of cost at different levels. Work-in-progress at the
beginning and at the end adjusted in factory cost. We can take cost as the base for
preparing quotation foe a job. Overheads are absorbed on the basis of the information
given in cost sheet. Expenses and losses are purely financial nature, capital, expenses and
less written off and appropriations are not taken into consideration while preparing cost
sheet.
49
Rs.
st
Stock of raw materials on 1 January 25,000
Stock of raw materials on 31st January 26,200
Purchase of raw materials 21,900
Carriage on purchases 1,100
Sale of finished goods 72,300
Direct wages 17,200
Non-productive wages 800
Direct expenses 1,200
Factory overheads 8,300
Administrative overheads 3,200
Selling overheads 4,200
6. The Sivika Co. Ltd. has received an enquiry for supply of 10,000 steel folding chairs.
The costs are estimated as under:
50
Check Your Progress ‘Answers” 03.02
Prime cost Rs.2,00,000; Factory Cost Rs.2,60,000;Cost of production Rs.3,30,000;
Cost of Sales Rs. 3,78,000
1 Jain S.P. and Narang K.L. , Cost Accounting , Principles and Practice, Kalayani
Publishers,
2 Sexena V.K. and Vashist C.D., Advanced Cost and Management Accounting –
Textbook, Sultan Chand & Sons
3 Pillai. R.S.N. and Bagavathi V., Cost Accounting, S. Chand & Company Ltd.
4 Horngren, Datar and Foster, Cost Accounting A managerial Emphasis, Pearson
Education
5 Jesse T.Barfield, Cecily A. Raiborn and Michael R. Kinney, Cost Accounting
Traditions and Innovations, West Publishing company.
51
LESSON-4
TENDER & QUOTATION
Contents:
After you have studied this lesson, you should able to:
¾ Know the meaning of tender and quotation
¾ Solve the problems on tender and quotation
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Frequently the manufactures of consumer’s durables and capital goods are asked to quote
the price at which they can supply their output. The price at which the items of output are
offered for sale is known as ‘tender’ or ‘quotation’ price. The tender has to be prepared
carefully since it may be accepted and goods have to be supplied in future at the quoted
rate.
Estimation of different elements of cost has to be made. The following are the accepted
norms. Frequently a manufacture of consumer durable goods and capital goods etc. is
required to quote the price at which they can supply their output. The price at which the
items of output are offered for sale is known as ‘tender’ or ‘quotation’. A tender has to
prepare very carefully and it may be accepted and goods have to be supplied in future at
the quoted price.
52
In order to prepare a tender the following details are to be analyzed.
1. Raw material
2. Direct labour
3. Direct expenses (or) chargeable expenses
4. Factory/ work overheads
5. Office and administration overheads
6. Selling & Distribution overheads
7. Estimated profit
Estimation of different elements of cost has to be made. Direct material cost & direct
labour cost is generally estimated on the basis of cost per unit of preceding period, subject
to fluctuations is market price of material and labour rate.
Over heads are estimated on the basis of past experience as a percentage as given below.
Factory overheads
1. Percentage of factory overheads to direct wages = X 100
Direct wages
2. Percentage of office & administration overheads to works cost
office and Ad min inistration overheads
= X 100
work cos t
3. Percentage of selling and distribution overheads
Selling & Distribution Overheads
= X 100
Work cos t
Estimation of profit:
Some times profit is given as percentage of cost (profit on cost). In that cost profit for the
tender (or) question is ascertained as given below.
Percentage of profit
Profit = Cost of sales X
100
when profit is to be determined as a percentage of selling piece (profit on selling piece) of
the tender or quotation. The profit is to be calculated as given below.
Cost of sales X Rate of profit on Sales
Profit =
100 − Rate percentage on sales
Standard assumption:
In the context of tender or quotations, the following assumptions can be made if nothing
contrary is given in the problem.
(a) Factory / work overheads to direct wages ratio of the preceding period holds good
for current period also
(b) Office and Administrative overhead to work/ factory cost ratio of the previous period
is applicable in current period also.
53
4.3 ILLUSTRATION
Illustration 4.1
The accounts of a machine manufacturing company disclose the following information for
six months ending 31st December, 2005.
Particulars Rs.
Materials used 1,50,000
Direct wages 1,20,000
Factory Overheads 30,000
Administrative expenses 15,000
Prepare cost sheet of the half year and calculate the price which the company should quote
for the manufacture of a machine requiring materials value at Rs.1,250 and expenditure in
productive wages Rs.750so that the price might yield a profit of 20 % of the selling price.
Solution 4.1
Statement of Cost for the six months ending 31-12 - 2005
Particulars Rs.
Materials 1,50,000.
Direct Wages 1,20,000
Prime Cost 2,70,000
ADD: Factory Overheads 30,000
Works Cost 3,00,000
ADD: Administrative Overheads 15,000
Cost of Production 315,000
Particulars Rs.
Materials 1,250.00
Direct Wages 750.00
Prime Cost 2,000.00
ADD: Factory Overheads [25 % of
wages - Rs.750 x 25 %] 187.50
Works Cost 2,187.50
54
ADD: Administrative Overheads [5
% of Works cost Rs.2,187.50 x 5 %] 109.38
Cost of Production 2,296.88
ADD: Profit [20 % on sales or
25 % on cost 2.296.88 X 25 % ] 574.22
Sales price to be quoted 2,871.10
Illustration 4.2
From the following particulars you are required to prepare a statement showing (a) the
cost of Materials Consumed (b) Prime Cost (c) Works Cost (d) Total Cost (e) the
percentage of works overheads to productive wages and (f) the percentage of general
overheads to works cost.
The company is about to send a tender for a large plant. The Costing Department
estimated that the materials required would cost Rs.52,000 and the wages to workmen for
making the plant would cost Rs.31,200. The tender is to be made at a net profit of 20% on
the selling price. Show what the amount of tender would be if based on the above
percentages.
Solution 4.2
STATEMENT OF COST
55
---------------
(b) Prime Cost 12,74,000
Works overhead charges 1,29,220
---------------
(c) Works Cost 14,03,220
Office and General Expenses 70,161
---------------
(d) Cost of production 14,73,381
=========
(e) Percentage of Works Overhead Charges to
1,29,220
Productive Wages = ------------ x 100 = 25%
5,16,880
(f) Percentage of Office and General Expenses to
70,161
Works Cost = ------------ x 100 = 5%
14,03,220
ILLUSTRATION 4.3
On 15th August 2008, the New India Cycle Manufacturing Co., was required to quote for
a contract for the supply of 500 bicycles. From the following details, prepare a statement
showing the price to be quoted to give the same percentage of net profit on turnover as
was realized during the six months to 30th June, 2008.
Rs Rs
Stock of materials on Indirect charges during
1st Jan.2008 50,000 6 months to 30th June 2008 25,000
Stock of materials
56
30th June,2008 7,000 Completed stock-in-hand
Purchase of materials on 1st Jan.2008 Nil
during 6 months
30th June,2008 75,000 Completed stock-in-hand
on 30th June,2008 50,000
Direct wages for six months to 30th June,2008 1,50,000
The number of bicycles manufactured during the six months was 2,000 including those
sold and those in stock at the end of the period. The bicycles to be quoted for are to be of
uniform size and quality and similar to those manufactured during the six months to 30th
June,2008.As from 1st August, the cost of factory labour has increased by 10% and that of
materials by 15%.Sales during six months to 30th June,2008,were Rs 2,70,000.
SOLUTION 4.3
STATEMENT OF COST
for the half year ended 30th June,2008
(No.of cycles 2,000)
Total Per cycle
Rs Rs
Opening Stock of Material 50,000
Add: Purchase of Material 75,000
-----------
1,25,000
Less: Closing of Material 7,000
------------
Material Used 1,18,000 59.00
Direct Wages 1,50,000 75.00
------------ --------
Prime Cost 2,68,000 134.00
Indirect charges 25,000 12.50
------------- ---------
Cost of Production 2,93,000 146.50
Less: Completed stock in hand 50,000
--------------
Cost of goods sold 2,43,000
Profit(10% on sales) 27,000
--------------
Sales 2,70,000
--------------
Percentage of Indirect Charges on Direct wages =
Indirect charges 25,000
-------------------- X 100 = ----------- x 100 = 16.67%
Direct wages 1,50,000
57
STATEMENT OF COST FOR TENDER OF 500 CYCLES
Per Unit Total
Rs Rs
Material (Rs.59 + 15% of Rs.59) 67.85 33,925
Direct wages (Rs.75 + 10% of Rs.75) 82.50 41,250
----------- -----------
Prime Cost 150.35 75,175
Indirect charges (1/6 of wages) 13.75 6,875
----------- ------------
Cost of Production 164.10 82,050
Profit (10% on sales or 1/9 of cost
of production 18.23 9,117
----------- ------------
Amount of Tender 182.33 91,167
======= ======
Rs.
Stock of materials as on 1st Jan. 2003 20,000
Stock of materials as on 30th June 2003 25,000
Purchases of materials during 6 months 1,50,000
Factory wages during 6 months 1,20,000
Indirect charges during 6 months 25,000
Opening stock of completed sets Nil
Closing stock of completed sets 100
Sales during 6 months 3,24,000
The number of radio sets manufactured during these six months was 1450 sets including
those sold and those stocked at the end of the period. The radios to be quoted are of
uniform quality and size as were manufactured during the six months to 30th June 2003.
As from August 1, the cost of factory labour has gone up by 10%.
58
4.4 LET US SUM UP
The price at which, the units produced are offered for sale is known as” tender” or
‘quotation’. In tender generally we have to estimate the overhead cost based on certain
formulas. The profit for the tender is calculated as percentage of tender or quotation price.
What price should the company quote for a refrigerator? It is estimated that Rs 1,000 in
material and Rs 700 in labour will be required for one refrigerator. Absorb Factory
overheads on the basis of labour and Administration overheads on the basis of works
overheads and profit of 12 ½ % on selling price is required.
(Ans: Cost of production 7,57,080 ; % of factory O.H on Labour 30 % ; % of
administration O.H on works cost 8 % ; Selling price quoted 2357.49 )
4. From the following data prepare a cost and profit statement of Popular Stoves
Manufacturing Co. for the year 1994:
Rs Rs
Stock of materials Establishment expenses 10,000
on 1-1-1994 35,000 Completed stock in hand
Stock of materials on 1-1-1994 Nil
on 31-12-1994 4,900 Completed stock in hand
Purchase of materials 52,500 on 31-12-1994 35,000
Direct Wages 95,000 Sales 1,89,000
Factory expenses 17,500
The number of stoves manufactured during the year 1984 was 4,000.
The company wants to quote for a contract for the supply of 1,000 Electric Stoves during
the year 1995.The Stoves to be quoted are of uniform quality and make and similar to
those manufactured in the previous year; but cost of materials has increased by 15% and
cost of factory labour by 10%.
Prepare a statement showing the price to be quoted to give the same percentage of net
profit as was realized during the year 1994, assuming that the cost per unit of overheads
will be the same as in the previous year.
59
5. The account's of a manufacturing company disclose the following information for the six
months ending 31st December,1994:
Materials used 1,50,000; direct wages Rs.1,20,000;Factory overhead Rs.30,000 and
Administrative Expenses Rs.15,000.
Prepare the cost sheet of the machine and calculate the price which the company should
quote for manufacture of the machine requiring materials valued Rs.1,250 and expenditure
in productive wages Rs.750 so that the price might yield a profit of 20% on the selling
price. [Ans: Price to be quoted Rs.2,871.10]
Statement of cost and profit of Radio sets for six month ending 30th June 2003
Particulars Rs Per unit
Rs
Opening stock of raw material 20,000
(+) Purchases of material 150,000
170,000
(-) Closing stock of material 25,000
Material consumed 1,45,000 100
Factory wages 1,20,000 82.76
Prime cost 2,65,000 182.76
(+) Indirect wages 25,000 17.24
(+) Opening work-in-progress -
(-) Closing work-in-progress -
Work cost 2,90,000 200.00
(+) Administration overhead -
Cost of production 2,90,000 200.00
(+) Opening stock of finished goods -
(-) Closing stock of finished goods 20,000
(100 x 200)
Cost of goods sold 2,70,000 200
(+) Selling & Distribution overhead -
Cost of sales 2,70,000 200
Profit 54,000 40
Sales (1450-100) 324,000 240
60
Working Note
1. Profit on sales : Pr ofit 54000 16.66%
x 100 x 100
Sales 324000
Profit on costs : Pr ofit 54000 20%
x 100 x 100
Cost 270000
2. Factory wages : Per unit 82.76
(+) 10% increase : ⎛ 10 ⎞ 8.28
⎜82.76 x ⎟
⎝ 100⎠
Wages per unit for quotation 91.04
1 Jain S.P. and Narang K.L. , Cost Accounting , Principles and Practice, Kalayani
Publishers,
2 Pillai. R.S.N. and Bagavathi V., Cost Accounting, S. Chand & Company Ltd.
3 Alex K., Cost Accounting, ARR publications
61
UNIT - II
LESSON-5
MATERIALS PURCHASE PROCEDURE
Contents:
After you have studied this lesson, you should able to:
¾ Explain the meaning of material control and purchase procedure
¾ Explain the needs and objective of material control
¾ Describe the procedure relating to material control
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The major objective of cost accounting is cost control. Every element of cost as to be
effectively controlled. Out of the three elements of the cost i.e, material, labour and
overhead. Material is the first and most important elements of the cost. It is a very
important factor of production. Material account more than 50% of the cost of production.
As materials forms as major chunk of cost of production, it should be controlled
effectively.
62
5.2 MEANING OF MATERIAL CONTROL
An efficient material control system can improve the input output ratio. It is an effective
integration of various aspects and includes scheduling there requirements purchasing,
receiving and inspection, maintaining stock records and stock control.
Material control is system which ensures required quantity of malarial of the required
quality at the right time and place with minimum investment of capital. It may be defined
as “The regulations of function of all organization relating to the procurement storage and
wage of materials in such a way as to maintain an even flow of production without
excessive investment in material stock”
It also affected by establishment of functional organization and fixation of responsibilities
through standard forms of accounting records and reports.
Purchasing Department:
Purchasing is the most important function of materials management. If the size of the
business concerns permits, there should be a separate purchasing department. All types of
purchases of materials should be entrusted to this department.
63
Centralized Vs. Decentralized Purchasing:
Purchasing function may be centralized or decentralized.
Centralised purchasing refers to purchasing of requirements of the entire organization by
one particular department. It reduces the cost of administration.
Decentralised purchasing refers to each of department in an organization buying their
requirements directly.
Whether the firm should have centralized or decentralized system of purchasing is a
decision to be taken after considering the merits and demerits of both the methods.
64
Specimen of purchase requisition
SAKITHI LIMITED
Purchase requisition
PR. No: Date:
Date by which:
Materials are required:
The specimen of a tender form which is issued to the various supplies for inviting
quotations is as follows.
65
Purchasing manager
(Enclose the detailed all Description List)
S. Description of Terms of Other
Quality Quantity price
No the items delivery terms
ABC Company
Purchase order
No: Date:
To: One Ref:
Your quotations number _____ dated_____ has been accepted please supply the following
items in accordance with various terms and conditions mentioned here with
Price / Total Remarks
S. No Description Quality Unit
unit volume
66
Carriage and Freight
Terms of payment Signature
Other particulars
For office use only
Follow up: Acknowledgment
Received on
Reminder
D.O. Delivery
Invoice No Date:
67
5.5 LET US SUM UP
The effective and efficiency of industry depends upon buying right goods at right time, at
right quantity at right price. There are two kinds purchasing systems exists, viz.,
centralized and decentralized purchasing system. The purchase procedure of an purchase
departments are Receiving purchase requisitions; Exploring the sources of supply and
choosing supplier; Preparation and execution of purchase orders; Receiving and inspecting
materials; Checking and passing of bills for payment.
1. Jain S.P. and Narang K.L. , Cost Accounting , Principles and Practice, Kalayani
Publishers,
2. Sexena V.K. and Vashist C.D., Advanced Cost and Management Accounting –
Textbook, Sultan Chand & Sons
3. Pillai. R.S.N. and Bagavathi V., Cost Accounting, S. Chand & Company Ltd.
68
LESSON-6
INVENTORY CONTROL AND ITS TECHNIQUES
Contents:
6.0 Aims and objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Meaning and Classification of Inventory
6.3 Objectives of Inventory Control
6.4 Important Techniques of Inventory Control
6.5 Illustrations
6.6 Let us Sum Up
6.7 Lesson-End Activities
6.8 Model Answers to “Check your Progress”
6.9 Suggested Reading/References/Sources
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Inventories constitute major share of costs of a product. Therefore, it obvious that it needs
to controlled. There are various techniques or models or tools are available for the
inventory control management. In this lesson, we shall discuss about the various
techniques of inventory control.
ICAI has defined inventory as “ tangible property held [i] for sale in the ordinary course
of business or [ii] in the process of production for sale or [iii] for consumption in the
production fo goods or service for sale, including maintenance supplies and consumable
other than machinery spares. “
69
Classification of Inventory:
In a manufacturing concern, inventory is classified as follows:
a. Raw materials – the materials, components, fuels etc. used the manufacture of
products.
b. Work-in-Progress [WIP] – partly finished goods and materials, sub-assemblies etc.
held between manufacturing stages.
c. Finished goods – completely ready for sale or distribution.
1. The main objectives of inventory control are to achieve maximum possible inventory
turnover.
2. Optimizing investment in inventory and reducing carrying cost.
3. Keeping required materials of adequate quantity in order to avoid disruption of
production.
4. Following the policy of management by exception by relieving the top management
from involving in each and every decision relating to inventory.
70
deteriorations or obsolescence. On the other hand under stocking will hold up production
and cause idleness. Customer may turn away on account of failure of timely supply.
Therefore must fix the inventory level which is also known as the demand and supply
method of inventory control.
2. Maximum level:
It is the maximum quantity of an item of material which can be held in stock at any time.
Stock should not exceed this quantity. The maximum quantity is fixed so that there may
be no overstocking. In this method overstocking should be avoided. The maximum stock
level calculated the following formula.
Maximum stock level= (Reorder level+ Reorder quantity) - Minimum consumption x
Minimum Reorder period
4. Danger level:
This is the stock level below the minimum level. When stocks reach this level action for
immediate purchase is necessary. Issues are controlled by stopping normal issues and
issuing only on special instructions.
Danger level calculated by the following formula
Danger level= Average consumption x Maximum Reorder period for emergency
purchases.
71
5. Re-ordering Quantity (EOQ)
It is also called Economic order Quantity (EOQ)
It is not stock level. It is a quantity to be ordered when the stock reaches the minimum
level. It is the quantity of inventory which can be reasonably ordered at a time and
purchased economically. It is also know as standard order quantity. The quantity to be
ordered depends upon two factors ie, the acquisition cost and the cost of possessing
material. When order for material is placed, it must facilitate more trade discount,
economy in transport etc. and at the same time it should not incur heavy charges on
account of storage, insurance etc. Economic ordering quantity calculated by the following
formula
2 AB
EOQ =
CS
EOQ= Economic ordering quantity
A = Annual Consumption
B= Buying cost per order
C= Cost per unit
S= Storage and carrying cost.
6. Average stock:
The level indicates the average stock held by the firm. It is calculated by the following
formula
Average stock level= Maximum level + Minimum level
2
(or)
Average stock level= Minimum stock level+1/2 (Reorder Quantity)
6.5 ILLUSTRATIONS
ILLUSTRATION 6.1.
Find out the economic ordering quantity (E.O.Q) from the following particulars.
72
SOLUTION 06.01
The formula for the calculation of economic ordering quantity is :
E.O.Q = √ 2CO/I
where
C = Annual usage of material i.e, 6,000 units
O = Cost of placing one order i.e, Rs 60
I = Annual carrying cost of one unit
i.e, 20 x 10/100 = Rs 2.
Therefore
E.O.Q = √ 2 x 6,000 x 60/2 = √ 3,60,000 = 600 units
ILLUSTRATION 6.2
From the following date find out economic order Quantity:
Annual usage = 6000 units
Cost per unit = 0.30
Buying cost = 7per order
Caring cost = 15% of average inventory holding
SOLUTION 6.2
2 AB
Economic order Quantity =
CS
Here A = 6000
B = 7
C = 0.30
S = 15%
2 X 6000 X 7
EOQ =
0.30 X 15 / 100
84000
=
0.045
= 186666667
EOQ = 1366 Units
ILLUSTRATION 6.3
Calculation EOQ
(a) Annual consumption 600 units
(b) Ordering cost Rs. 12 per unit
(c) Carrying cost =20%
(d) Price per unit 20
73
SOLUTION 6.3
2 AB
EOQ = CS
Here
A = 600 units
B = Rs.12
C = 20
S = 20%
2 X 600 X 12
EOQ =
20 X 20/100
14400
=
4
= 3600
= 60 units
ILLUSTRATION 6.4
Find out EOQ
Cost or material per unit 20
Annual usage 6000 units
Cost of placing and receiving one order Rs. 60
SOLUTION 6.4
EOQ = 2 AB
CS
2 X 6000 X 60
=
20 X 10 / 100
7200000
=
2
= 36000
= 600 units
74
(b) Check your answer with the ones given at the end of this Lesson
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
ILLUSTRATION 6.5
Material is used as follows
Maximum usage in a month 600 units
Minimum usage in a month 300 units
Average usage in a month 350 units
Reorder period minimum 2 month
Maximum 6 month
Reorder Quantity 1000 units
Maximum reorder period for emergency purchases 1 month calculate:
a) Reorder level
b) Maximum level
c) Minimum level
d) Average stock level
e) Danger level
SOLUTION 6.5
(a) Reorder level = Maximum consumption x reorder period
= 600 units x 6 month
= 3600 units
(b) Maximum stock level = (Reorder level + Reorder quantity)-(Minimum
consumption x Minimum Reorder period)
= (3600+100) – (300 x 2)
= 3700-600
= 3100
(c) Minimum stock level = Reorder level – (Normal consumption X Normal
Reorder period)
= 3600 – (350 x 4)
= 3600-1400
= 2200
Normal Reorder period = Minimum Reorder period + Maximum Reorder period
2
2+6 8
= = = 4
2 2
75
(d)Average stock level =Minimum stock level + ½ (Reorder quantity)
= 2200+1/2 (1000)
= 2200+500
= 2700
ILLUSTRATION 6.6
From the following particulars, calculate (a) Reorder level (b) Minimum level (c)
Maximum level
Normal usage 100 units per day
Minimum usage 60 units per day
Maximum usages 130 units per day
Economic order quantity 5000 units
Re-order period 25 to 30 days
SOLUTION 6.6
(a) Re order level = Maximum consumption X Maximum Reorder period
= 130 x 30
= 3900 units
(b) Minimum stock level = Reorder level-(Normal consumption X Normal reorder period)
= 3900- (100 x 27.5)
= 3400 – 2750
= 650 units
Normal Reorder period = Minimum Reorder period + Maximum Reorder period
2
= 25 + 30
2
= 55
2
= 27.5
(c) Maximum stock level = (Reorder level+ Reorder quantity) – (Minimum
consumption x Minimum Reorder period)
= (3900 + 5000) – (60 x 25)
= 8900-1500
= 7400 units
ILLUSTRATION 6.7
Two components X and Y are used as follows:
Minimum usage : 50 units per week each
Maximum usage : 150 units per week each
76
Normal usage : 100 units per week each
Ordering quantity X : 600 units
Y : 1000 units
Delivery period X : 4 to 6 weeks
Y : 2 to 4 weeks
Maximum reorder period for emergency purchases:
X : 2 weeks
Y : 2 weeks
Calculate for each component:
a) Reordering level
b) Maximum level
c) Minimum level
d) Danger level.
SOLUTION 6.7
a) Re-order level= Maximum usage x Maximum reorder period
X = 150 x 6
= 900 units
Y = 150 x 4
= 600 units
b) Maximum level= (Reorder level+ Reorder quantity) – (Minimum usage
X Minimum Reorder period)
X = (900+600) – (50 x 4)
= 1500- 200
=1300
Y = (600 + 1000) – (50x2)
= 1600-100
= 1500 units
c) Minimum level = Reorder level- (Normal usage x Normal reorder period)
X = 900-(100 x 5)
= 900-500
= 400 units
Y = 600 – (100 x 3)
= 600 -300
= 300 units
Normal Reorder period = Minimum Reorder period + Maximum reorder period
2
X = 4+6
2
=5
Y = 2+ 4
2
=3
77
(d) Danger level = Average usage x Maximum reorder period for emergency purchases
X = 100 x 2 = 200 units
Y = 100 x 2 = 200 units
ILLUSTRATION 6.8
Material ‘A’ is used as follows:
Maximum usage in a month 600 Nos.
Minimum usage in a month 400 Nos.
Average usage in a month 450 Nos.
Lead Time : Maximum 6 months. Minimum 2 months
Reorder Quantity: 1,500 Nos.
Maximum reorder period for emergency purchases – 1 month
SOLUTION 6.8
The terms “lead time’ and ‘Reorder period’ mean the same thing.
“usage” and “consumption” are also used as alternative terms.
Normal reorder period = Maximum reorder period + Minimum reorder period / 2
78
[e] Danger Level:
Average consumption X Maximum reorder period for emergency purchase
= 450 units X 1 month
= 450 units
ILLUSTRATION 6.9
Two components, A and B, are used as follows:
Normal usage 50 units per week each
Minimum usage 25 units per week each
Maximum usage 75 units per week each
Re-order quantity A: 300 units; B: 500 units
Re-order period A: 4 to 6 weeks
B: 2 to 4 weeks
Calculate for each component : (a) Re-order level, (b) Minimum level,(c) Maximum level,
and (d) Average stock level.
SOLUTION 6.9
Re-order level
= Maximum consumption X Maximum re-order period
Component A = 75X6 = 450 units
Component B = 75X4 = 300 units
Minimum level
= Re-order level-(Normal consumption X Normal re-order period)
Component A = 450-(50 X 5) = 200 units
Component B = 300-(50 X 3) = 150 units
Maximum level
= Re-order level + Re-order quantity-(Minimum consumption X Minimum re-order
period)
Component A = 450+300-(25X4) = 650 units
Component B = 300+500-(25X2) = 750 units
79
ILLUSTRATION 6.10
In manufacturing its products a company uses three raw materials A,B and C in
respect of which the following applies:
Raw Usage per Re-order Price per Delivery Order mini
materials unit of quantity lb(paise) period level mum
product (lb.) (lb) level
(lb.) (lb.)
A 10 10,000 10 1 to 3 8,000
B 4 5,000 30 3 to 5 4,750
C 6 10,000 15 2 to 4 2,000
SOLUTION 6.10
Minimum stock of A
= Re-order level-(Normal consumption X Normal re-order period)
= 8,000-(200 X 10 X 2) = 4,000 units
Maximum stock of B
= Re-order level + Re-order quantity - (Minimum consumption X Minimum re-order
period)
= 4,750+5,000-(175 X 4 X 3) = 7,650 units
Re-order level of C
= maximum consumption X Maximum re-order period
= 225 X 6 X4 = 5,400 units
*Maximum level of A
= Re-order level + Re-order quantity-(Minimum consumption X Minimum re-order
period)
= 8,000 + 10,000 - (175 X 10 X 1) = 16,250 units
80
Check your progress 6.2
In a company, weekly minimum and maximum consumption of Material “AA” are 25 and
75 units respectively. The reorder quantity as fixed by the company is 300 units. The
material is received within 4 to 6 weeks from issue of supply order. Calculate various
stock levels.
Notes: (a) Write your answer in the space given below.
(b) Check your answer with the ones given at the end of this Lesson
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
% of
% of total
Category material
income
cost
A 5 - 10 80 – 90
B 15 - 25 40 – 45
C 60 - 70 10 - 20
Again the high cost items may represent 80-90% of the total cost, but their number may be
say 5- 10% under groups “A”. Some items constitute 15%-20% of the total cost, but this
number may be 40-45% of the items of all under group B. The rest of the items have low
value, but represent large number of items under group “C”. These groups will facilitate
the management to exercise control on the basis of value of material
81
Advantages of ABC Analysis
1. Closer control on the basis of investment
2. Development of scientific inventory control
3. Saving the time of management, as attention is given to high value materials
4. Ensuring minimum cost.
Under this system a continuous record of receipt and issue of materials is maintained by
the stores department and the information about the stock of material is always available.
In the method of stock records are maintained in such a way as to make an entry in the
records, the physical movement of stock on receipt and issues of material and include the
balance of each item of material in the stores at any point of time.
82
Operation of perpetual inventory system:
(a) The entries for receipt or issue of the material are made in the bin card and stores
ledger account and the balance is ascertained.
(b) Stores received but not inspected are not mixed up with regular stocks.
(c) Stock taking is done continuously. The stores records are compared and entered in
stock verification report for suitable treatment
The Inventory turnover is calculated on the sales or cost of sales. It is measured in terms
of value of materials consumed to the average inventory during a period. It indicates
number of times the inventory is consumed and replenished. If the number of days in a
year is divided by turn over ration, the number of days for which the average inventory is
held can be ascertained.
The turnover ratio differs from industry to industry. On the basis of the ratio, a decision is
made to reduce investment on slow moving materials and stop over stocking of
undesirables material.
Cost of Materials Consum
(i) Inventory Turnover Ratio =
Cost of Average Stock
(ii) Average Stock = Opening Stock of Material + Clo sin g stockof Material
2
Days in the period
(iii) Inventory Turnover in days =
Inventory Turnover Ratio
(g) Input-output-Ratio
This is yet another method of inventory control. Input output ratio is the ratio of the
quantity of material to production and standard material content of the actual output. This
is possible in industries where the product and raw material are being expressed in same
quantitative measurement such as kilograms, Metric tonnes, etc.
The Input-output ratio analysis indicates whether the consumption of actual material when
compared with standards is favorable or adverse. The raw material cost of the finished
product can be arrived at by multiplying material cost per unit by the input-output ratio.
83
The ratio is obtained as given below:
S tan dard cos t of Actual quantity
S tan dard cos t of S tan dard quantity
84
6.7 LESSON – END ACTIVITIES
[ANS:Maximium stock level 13800 units: Minimum stock level 6300 units:
Average stock level 7800 units]
85
‘A’ category consists of a few items of high value. Category ‘B’ includes more items of
medium value and category ‘C’ includes all other materials of small value.
legal requirements, nature, stock valuation, period of accounting, information recorded.
1. Jain S.P. and Narang K.L. , Cost Accounting , Principles and Practice, Kalayani
Publishers,
2. Sexena V.K. and Vashist C.D., Advanced Cost and Management Accounting –
Textbook, Sultan Chand & Sons
3. Pillai. R.S.N. and Bagavathi V., Cost Accounting, S. Chand & Company Ltd.
4. Alex K., Cost Accounting, ARR publications
5. Horngren, Datar and Foster, Cost Accounting A managerial Emphasis, Pearson
Education
86
LESSON-7
STORES LEDGER AND METHODS OF PRICING
Contents:
7.0 Aims and objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Issue Procedure
7.3 Pricing of Material Issues
7.4 Comprehensive Illustration
7.5 Let us Sum Up
7.6 Lesson-end Activities
7.7 Model Answers to “Check your Progress”
7.8 Suggested Reading/References/Sources
7.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the main objectives of cost accounting is to ascertain the accurate cost. Material
usage is a vital part of the business concerns engaged in manufacturing. The ascertainment
of accurate cost largely depends upon the correct valuation of material and labour used in
the particular product. The valuation of material is divided into two parts.
(a) Valuation of material receive
(b) Valuation of material issued
Materials are received cost should be include invoice price plus freight, carriage inward,
insurance, tax etc.
Materials are issued to different jobs from the stores. But the stock of material kept in
stores different rates and dates. Therefore it becomes necessary to decide about the price
which is to be changed from a particular job when materials are issued.
87
7.2 ISSUE PROCEDURE
The store keeper receives material and other items stores than carefully issues them for the
purpose of production. He is accountable for every item received and stored in the store,
under his case. The store keeper makes issue of materials only against proper material
requisition slip from different department. Therefore material is equivalent to cash. The
storekeeper must take as much care as a cashier in dealing with stores items.
Material Requisition
The storekeeper should always issue the material on proper authority to avoid the
misappropriation material. This authority is usually given by the foremen (or) the
production department head on a form known as material requisition. The proforma of
material requisition as follows.
To
The store keeper please issue the following materials as detailed
below
Authorized by Received by
Issued by Checked by
88
BIN Card (Bin tag or stock card)
A bin card is a record used by storekeeper for all items of material and goods in his store.
This card readily gives the in formation about the nature of contents of any particular bin.
A bin card is used for each material. Each receipt and issue is recorded on bin card in a
chronological order and the latest balance is shown after each receipt and issue. The main
feature of a bin card is that after posting a transaction, whether relating to receipt or issue,
the balance quantity is calculated and recorded. Thus a bin card is a document maintained
by the store keeper in his store to assist him to control stock form of Bin card pattern
Bin Card
89
Stores ledger:
A stores ledger is a record of stock both in quantity and value. It consists of the same
columns as a being card but in addition, there is the amount column in the values are
entered. The ledger shows the balance in hand at any time
90
Check your progress 7.1
List out any three difference between store ledger and Bin card
When materials are issued for any production work or any job they have to be valued in
the costing department of the materials can be charged to that job. But generally raw
materials are purchased in anticipation and issued whenever they are needed for
production assuming that the rate of raw materials is the same. But this notes the care
always. Prices of every thing change on the prevailing condition of the market. The stock
lying in the store consists of many purchases at deterrent rates and when issued, they
create problems as to the fixation of the price.
91
(C) Notional price method.
a) Standard price
b) Market price
c) Inflated price
Before elaborate into various methods of pricing, let us first discuss about treatment of
surplus and treatment of various losses.
92
Types of Material Losses
Waste:
Waste is inherent in any manufacturing activity. Waste is a part of raw material lost in the
process of production having no recoverable value. Waste occurs invisibly in the form of
evaporation or shrinkage. It can be visible and solid also. Examples of visible wastes are
gases, dust, valueless residue, etc. Sometimes disposal of waste entails additional
expenditure. Example: atomic waste. Loss in the form of waste increase with cost of
production.
Control of Waste: A waste report is prepared periodically. The actual waste is compared
with standard waste and remedial action is taken to control abnormal waste.
Accounting Treatment
Waste has no value. The accounting treatment differs according to waste being normal or
abnormal.
i) Normal Waste: This is the inherent waste while manufacturing. It is in the form of
evaporation, deterioration etc. The total cost of normal waste is distributed among
the good units of output.
ii) Abnormal waste: The abnormal waste is transferred to costing profit and loss A/c to
avoid fluctuation in production cost.
Scrap:
Scrap is the residue from certain manufacturing activities usually having disposable value.
It can also be the discarded materials which can fetch some income. Examples of scrap are
outlined material from stamping operations, filings, Saw dust, short lengths from wood
working operations, sprues and ’flash’ from foundry and moulding processes. Scrap may
be sold or reused.
Control of Scrap
Scrap is controlled by fixation of standards for scrap, fixation of department wise
responsibilities for scrap, etc. Keeping up proper records of scrap and periodical reporting
helps in control of scrap. Actual scrap is compared with standard scrap. Suitable action is
taken for excessive actual scrap over standard scrap.
Accounting Treatment
i) Sale value of scrap credited to profit and loss A/c: The sale value is credited to profit
and loss account as other income. The cost of output is inclusive of scrap cost. This
method of accounting treatment is adopted when the value is negligible.
93
ii) The Sale value credited to overhead or material cost: The sale value is reduced with
selling cost of scrap and the net sale value is deducted from factory overhead or from
material cost. This method is adopted when several jobs are done simultaneously and
it is not possible to segregate the scraps job wise.
iii) Crediting the sale value to the Job or process in which Scrap arises: The sale
value of scrap is credited to the job or process concerned from which the scrap has
arisen. This method is followed when identification of scrap with specific jobs of
processes is easy.
Spoilage:
Spoilage occurs when goods are damaged beyond rectification. Spoilage is disposed off
without further processing. Spoilage cost is the cost upto the point of rejection less sale
value.
The method of sale of spoilage depends on the extent of spoilage. Some of the spoilage is sold as
seconds if the extent of damage is less; rest may be sold as scrap or treated as waste.
Control of Spoilage: Spoilage is controlled through proper reporting about the extent of
spoilage. Standards are fixed as a percentage on production. Actual spoilage is compared
with standard and variance is recorded. If the actual spoilage is more than the standard,
suitable action is suggested to control it.
Defectives
It is a part of production which can be rectified and made into good units with additional
cost. The defective work occurs due to raw materials of inferior quality, bad planning and
poor workmanship. Defective units are rectified with additional cost of material, labour
and overheads and sold as ‘first quality’ or ‘seconds’.
94
If the defective work is out of abnormal circumstances the cost of rectification is
transferred to profit and loss account.
These items are part of inventory. They need suitable and timely action on the part of the
management to avoid occurrence of loss in due course and to prevent locking up of
working capital.
i) Obsolete Stocks: They are those stocks in the inventory which have been lying
unused due to change in product process and design or method of manufacturing.
They are generally out of date.
ii) Slow moving Materials: They are items in stock used at long intervals and thus
lying idle for long periods.
iii) Dormant Stocks: They are items in stock not at all in use for a significant period of
time.
The store keeper should highlight such items in his periodical reports so that the
management may try (a) to dispose them off at any price or (b) clear them out to save
space in the stores (c) exercise caution in future purchase of such items of materials.
PRICING METHODS
95
Disadvantages of FIFO method
1. Possibility of more clerical errors due to more number of calculations.
2. The cost of similar jobs differ in the price fluctuate.
3. In times of rising prices, the cost of jobs does not reflect current market prices. This
inflates the profit unnecessarily resulting in higher takes.
ILLUSTRATION 7.1
Prepare a stoners ledger on FIFO method from the following information.
1st Jan 2008 opening balance 1500 units @ Rs. 5
5th Jan 2008 Received 400 units @ Rs. 10
6th Jan 2008 Received 300 units @ Rs. 3
10th Jan 2008 Issued 500 units
11th Jan 2008 Received 1000 units @ Rs. 5
16th Jan 2008 Issued 1800 units
SOLUTION 7.1
Stores ledger (Method of issue-FIFO)
Bin No. Maxi level
Name of material Minimum level
Material code Ordering level
Ordering quantity
Name of material
Unit
Date Particular Receipts Issues Balance
Unit CPU Cost Unit CPU Cost Unit CPU Cost
1.1.2008 Balance 1500 7500
b/d 5
5.1.2008 GRN no 400 10 4000 1500 5 7500
400 10 4000
6.1.2008 GRN no 300 3 900 1500 5 7500
400 10 4000
300 3 900
10.1.2008 RN no 500 5 2500 1000 5 5000
400 10 4000
300 3 900
11.1.2008 GRN no 1000 5 5000 1000 5 5000
400 10 4000
300 3 900
1000 5 5000
16.1.2008 RN no 1000 5 5000
400 10 4000
300 3 900
100 5 500 900 5 4500
96
Closing Stock 900 unit at Rs.4500
[GRN - Good Received Note and MRN / RN – [Material] Requisition Note]
Last in First Out(LIFO)
Under this method the latest receipts of materials are issued first and earlier receipts are
issued last of production.
ILLUSTRATION 7.2
See problem Illustration No 7.1
Solution 7.2
97
5.1.2008 GRN no 400 10 4000 1500 5 7500
400 10 4000
10
11.1.2008 GRN no 100 5 5000 1500 5 7500
0 200 10 2000
1000 5 5000
Advantages
1. It is simple and easy to calculate the issues price
2. This method reduces the effect of fluctuation of prices by averaging the prices.
Disadvantages:
1. This method does not take into account the quantity purchased at each price this may
lead to absurd results.
2. As the actual price is not used, profit or loss on material will usually arise.
3. The value of closing stocks under this method is absurd. When price fluctuates
sharply, the closing stock will not show real value.
98
ILLUSTRATION 7.3
(See problem Example No 7.1)
Solution 7.3
Stores ledger (Simple average method)
Bin No. Maxi level
Name of material Minimum level
Material code Ordering level
Ordering quantity
Name of material
Unit
The weighted average price is calculated by dividing the value of stock in the stores by the
quantity in the stock form which material are to be issued. As this method takes into
account the relative weights it reduces the effect of fluctuations in prices.
The method is different from all other method because in this method prices are calculated
on receipt of material and not at time of issue of materials.
99
Advantages:
1. The method is suitable where the prices very much from one purchase to another. As
it uses quantities for calculation of averages prices. The fluctuations are eventual out.
2. The basis of calculation in the method is simple as the prices is calculated by
dividing the value of materials by this quantity
3. The new prices is calculated when new materials are purchased. All the subsequent
issues are made at the price calculated units next lot is received. Thus the clerical
work is simplified and reduced.
Disadvantages:
1. This method is more complicated than simple average price as it takes into account
the total quantity and value.
2. Since actual price is not used, profit or loss may arise in material cost my using the
method.
3. Where receipts are numerous calculation will be many and may result in errors.
4. The prices may have to be taken upto three or four decimal places to calculate the
correct value of large quantities. Other wise, approximation may lead to difference in
accounts.
ILLUSTRATION 7.4
(See problem Example No 7.1)
SOLUTION 7.4
Stores ledger (Weighted average method)
100
6.1.2008 GRN no 300 3 900 2200 5.64 12400
10.1.2008 RN no 500 5.64 2820 1700 5.64 9580
ILLUSTRATION 7.5
Prepare stores ledger (FIFO) A/C from the following information
Dec 4 Purchased 500kg at Rs 20 per kg
Dec 10 Purchased 300kg at Rs 21 per kg
Dec 15 Issued 600kg
Dec 20 Received 1000kg at Rs 15 per kg
Dec 25 Received 500kg at Rs 25 per kg
Dec 28 Issued 800kg
Dec 31 Issued 200kg
Adopt the base stock method of issue and ascertain the value of closing stock base stock
200kg.
101
SOLUTION 7.5
Dec 15 MR no 600
300 20 6000
300 21 6300 200 20 4000
Dec 20 GRN no 1000 15 15000 200 20 4000
1000 15 15000
Dec 25 GRN no 500 25 12500 200 20 4000
1000 15 15000
500 25 12500
Dec 28 MR no 800 200 15 3000
800 15 12000 500 25 12500
Dec 31 MR no 800 200 15 3000
200 25 5000 300 25 7500
Closing stock 300 unit at amount Rs.7500
102
Advantages:
1. It is simple in working
2. Material cost can be fixed in advance
3. Comparison of jobs becomes easy.
4. Control over purchase in possible.
Disadvantages:
1. Some times it fails to recover the cost of materials.
2. It will reflect the market price
3. Price variance account has to be created in addition.
ILLUSTRATION 7.6
Prepare a stores ledger for the following receipts and issues order standard price method.
The standard price per unit of material is Rs.20 Fixed for the year.
Jan 3 Purchases 800 units @ Rs. 25
Jan8 Purchases 900 units @ Rs. 30
Jan 9 Issue 600 units
Jan 15 Issue 200 units
Jan21 Received 800 units @ Rs. 22
Jan 26 Received 500 units @ Rs. 25
Jan 28 Issue 1000 units
Jan 31 Issue 55 units
Solution 7.6
Stores ledger (Standard price method)
Receipts
Issues Balance
Particulars
Date Rate Rate Rate
Qty Cost Qty Cost Qty Cost
Rs. Rs. Rs.
Jan
GRN No 800 25 20000 800 20,000
3
Jan
GRN No 900 30 27000 1700 47000
8
Jan
MR No 600 20 12000 1100 35000
9
Jan
MR No 200 20 4000 900 31000
15
Jan
GRN No 800 22 17600 1700 48600
21
103
Jan
GRN No 500 25 12500 2200 61100
26
Jan
MR No 1000 20 20000 1200 41100
28
Jan
MR No 55 20 1100 1145 40000
31
ILLUSTRATION 07.07
From the following transactions prepuce stokes ledger account (Using FIFO and LIFO
method)
Jan 1 2008 opening balances 100 units @ Rs. 5
Jan 15 2008 Received 500 units @ Rs. 4
Jan 31 2008 Issued 200 units
Feb10 2008 Received 700 units @ Rs. 6
Feb 25 2008 Issued 800 units
Mar 22 2008 Received 1500 units @ Rs. 7
April 25 2008 Issued 500 units
May 10 2008 Material Returned to stores 100 (Issued on Feb 25 @ Rs.4)
June 30 2008 Issued 200 units
SOLUTION 7.7
Stores ledger (FIFO method)
Receipts
Date Particulars Issues Balance
Balance
1.1.2008 100 5 500 100 5 500
bld
100 5 500
15.1.2008 GRN No 500 4 2000
500 4 200
200
5 500
31.1.2008 MR No 100 400 4 1600
4 4000
100
104
4
400 1600
10.2.2008 GRN No 700 6 4200 6
700 4200
800
4 1600
25.2.2008 MR No 400 300 6 1800
6 24000
400
300 6 1800
22.3.2008 GRN No 1500 7 10500
1500 7 10500
500 6
1800
25.4.2008 MR No 300 7 1300 7 9100
1400
200
100 4 400
10.5..2008 Returned 100 4 400
1300 7 9100
200
4 400
30.6.2008 MR No 100 1200 7 8400
7 700
100
Receipts
Issues Balance
Particular
C
Date s CP
Qty Cost Qty P Cost Qty CPQ Cost
Q
Q
Balance
1.1.2008 100 5 500 100 5 500
bld
100 5 500
15.1.2008 GRN No 500 4 2000
500 4 2000
200 100 5 500
31.1.2008 MR No 4 800
200 300 4 1200
100 5 500
10.2.2008 GRN No 700 6 4200 300 4 1200
700 6 4200
800
6 4200 100 5 500
25.2.2008 MR No 700
4 400 200 4 800
100
100 5 500
22.3.2008 GRN No 1500 7 10500 200 4 800
1500 7 10500
105
100 5 500
500
25.4.2008 MR No 7 3500 200 4 800
500
1000 7 7000
100 5 500
200 4 800
10.5..2008 Returned 100 4 400
1000 7 7000
100 4 400
100
200 5 500
4 400 200
30.6.2008 MR No 100 4 800
7 700 900
100 7 6300
ILLUSTRATION 7.8
The following particulars have been extracted in respect of material x Prepare stores
ledger A/c showing the receipts and issues pricing the material issued on the basis of
(a) Simple Average method
(b) Weighted Average method
Receipts:
1.4.2008 Purchased 500 units @ Rs. 4
13.4.208 Purchased 900 units @ Rs 5
23.4.2008 Purchased 600 units @ Rs. 6
Issues:
5.4.2008 Issued 400 units
15.4.2008 Issued 400 units
25.4.2008 Issued 600 units
SOLUTION 7.8
Stores ledger (Simple Average method)
Receipts
Issues Balance
Particu R R
Date lars at at
Rate
Qty e Cost Qty Cost Qty e Cost
Rs.
R R
s. s.
GRN
1.4.2008 500 4 2000 500 4 200
No
106
5.4.2008 MR
400 4 1600 100 4 400
No
13.4.2008 GRN
900 5 4500 1000 4900
No
15.4.2008 4+5
=
MR 2
400 1800 600 3100
No
4.5
23.4.2008 GRN
600 6 3600 1200 6700
No
25.4.2008 6+5
=
MR 2
600 3300 600 3400
No
5.5
Stores ledger is a ledger where in we records the details of materials stored. In addition to
that bin card is maintained in which details of materials in a particular bin is recorded. As
and when the material requisition received from production department, the store keeper is
need material. Some times Production Company may send bill of materials, in that
materials required completing a particular job is specified. After a particular job is over
excess materials may be returned to store, that is recorded in materials return note.
Wastage may be classified as normal, abnormal, scrap, and spoilage and suitable
controlling measures must be taken in order to control wastage and properly recorded into
accounts.
107
7.6 LESSON – END ACTIVITIES
1. Explain the need for pricing of material issues
2. What are the methods of pricing materials issues?
3. What is bin card?
4. What do you mean by Stores Ledger?
5. Differentiate between Bin Card and Stores Ledger.
6. Compare and contrast:
[a] FIFO and LIFO methods of pricing of materials
[b] Simple and Weighted average method of pricing of materials issues
7. Prepare a stores ledger account form the following information adopting FIFO
method of pricing of issues of materials.
108
7.8 SUGGESTED READING/REFERENCES/SOURCES
1 Jain S.P. and Narang K.L. , Cost Accounting , Principles and Practice, Kalayani
Publishers,
2 Sexena V.K. and Vashist C.D., Advanced Cost and Management Accounting –
Textbook, Sultan Chand & Sons
3 Sexena V.K. and Vashist C.D., Cost Audit and Management Audit, Sultan Chand &
Sons
4 Pillai. R.S.N. and Bagavathi V., Cost Accounting, S. Chand & Company Ltd.
5 Alex K., Cost Accounting, ARR publications
109
LESSON-8
LABOUR COST ANALYSIS AND WAGES SYSTEM
Contents:
After you have studied this lesson, you should able to:
¾ Explain the objectives of labour cost analysis and various types of Labour cost
¾ Describe the various methods of remunerations.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Labour cost is an important element of cost. It also forms significant part of prime cost
and total cost. Labour costs are associated with human beings. Labour cost associated
with human beings. The human element makes the control of labour cost difficult.
Labour is the most perishable commodity. Once labour efforts are not utilized fully it
cannot be recovered and the labour cost is bound to increase cost of production. At the
same time labour is the only factor which has the unlimited productive capacity. In many
instances labour can achieve wonders in regard to the amount and quality of work
performed by them. However, labour is complex and therefore it requires systematic
planning and control.
110
8.2 TYPES OF LABOUR COST
For the purpose of accounting labour costs, labour cost is classified into [i] Direct Labour
and [ii] Indirect labour.
111
8.4 METHODS OF REMUNERATION
The first method is known as Time Rate and the second as Piece Rate. Most of wage
systems in use these days are modifications or combinations of these two methods. The
various incentive schemes also take into consideration the primary principles of these two
systems
The various methods of labour remuneration may be classified according to their
characteristics under the following broad categories:
(1) Time Rates;
(2) Piece Rates;
(3) Bonus Systems or Incentive Schemes;
(4) Indirect Monetary Incentive; and
(5) Non-monetary Incentives.
112
8.4.1 ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD WAGE SYSTEM
The features of a good wage system are listed below:
(1) The wage system has to be fair to employees and the employer.
(2) The workers are to be assured of minimum guaranteed wages irrespective of
work done.
(3) Workers are to be compensated on the basis of their relative efficiency.
(4) The wage system should be fleixble to incorporate future changes.
(5) The wage system should encourage higher productivity and reduce labour turnover.
(6) The wage system should be as per the labour policy of the government and
follow the legislations applicable.
(7) The wage system should equate with industry wage levels.
(8) The method of calculation of wages, wage rates and incentive system should
be simple and easy for workers to understand.
Time rate is simple and easy to calculate. The worker is assured of payment for time spent
in the factory. However, this method has the following disadvantages, which far outweigh
its advantages:
(1) Employees are not rewarded on the basis of merit as both inefficient and efficient
workers are paid at the same rate.
(2) Employees are paid wages for idle time also, since they are not paid on the basis of
output.
(3) The labour cost per unit does not remain constant as the output fluctuates and this
makes it difficult to prepare tenders or quotations.
(4) Supervision cost may go up, as strict supervision is essential to get the work done.
(5) The workers may go slow on work to create scope for overtime, which doubles the
labour cost.
To conclude the flat time rate does not recognize effort and it is not helpful in
increasing output.
113
8.4.3 PIECE RATE SYSTEM
This is also called ‘payment by results’. The workers are paid on the basis of output
produced by them. The earnings of the workers depend on the number of units of output
produced.
Advantage
(1) Employees are paid according to merit as the efficient workers earn more
wages, as their output is more. In this way it distinguishes between efficient
and ordinary workers.
(2) Piece rate acts as incentive to induce the workers to produce more.
(3) Higher output brings down the cost per unit and increases the profit margin of
employers.
(4) Under this method employer has no worries about payment for idle time and more
over it reduce idle time, thus ensuring effective usage of available time.
(5) Submitting of tenders does not create any difficulty as the labour cost per unit is
constant.
(6) Machinery and tools are taken care of by the workers as they are aware that the
defects or breakdown will reduce their chances of higher production and higher
wages.
(7) The supervision cost is low. It is in the workers’ interest to work sincerely and close
supervision is not required.
(8) There is inducement or encouragement to average workers also to produce more and
earn more wages.
114
Disadvantage
(1) Fixing of straight piece rate is difficult. If low piece rate is fixed it will
frustrate the workers. Thus, ‘equitable piece rates’ are to be fixed to induce
the workers.
(2) Flat piece rate being uniform piece rate paid to the employees irrespective of level of
output, it may not induce efficient workers to produce more and reach higher levels
of effectiveness.
(3) The wages of employees may reduce considerably due to the fault of employer or
co-workers in many instances.
(4) In situations of declining demand for goods, the production may go on increasing,
embarrassingly.
(5) Workers will always be aiming to produce more and their anxiety may cause more
accidents and undue haste and strain may prove to be injurious to the worker’s
health.
(6) The workers’ anxiety for higher production may lead to more defective goods,
spoilage, and wastage of raw materials.
115
ILLUSTRATION 8.1
Calculate the earnings of workers A and B under Straight Piece-rate System and Taylor's
Differential Piece-rate System from the following particulars:
Normal rate per hour = Rs.1.80
Standard time per unit = 20 seconds
Differentials to be applied:
80% of piece rate below standard
120% of piece rate at or above standard.
Worker A produces 1,300 units per day and worker B produces 1,500 units per day.
SOLUTION 8.1
Standard production per 20 seconds = 1 unit
Standard production per minute = 60 /20 = 3 units
Standard production per hour = 3 x 60 = 180 units
Standard production per day of 8 hours = 180 x 8 = 1440 units
Normal rate per hour = Rs.1.80
Rs.1.80
Therefore, Normal Piece rate = ----------- = 1 paise
180 units
1 P. x 80
Low piece rate below standard production------------ = 0.8 paise
100
1 P.x 120
High piece rate at or above standard -------------- = 1.2 paise
100
Earnings of Worker A:
1,300 x 1
1,300 units @ 1 P.= ------------- = Rs.13
100
Under Taylor's Differential Piece System
1,300 x 0.8
1,300 units @ 0.8 P = -------------- = Rs.10.40
100
Low piece-rate has been applied because worker A's daily production of 1,300 units is less
than the standard daily production of 1,440 units.
116
Earnings of Worker B:
1,500 x 1
1,500 units @ 1 P.= ------------- = Rs.15
100
Under Taylor's Differential Piece System
1,500 x 1.2
1,500 units @ 1.2 P = --------------- = Rs.18
100
High piece-rate has been applied because worker B's daily production of 1,500 units is
more than the standard daily production of 1,440 units.
In a particular day of 8 hours, the worker “A” produced 30 units and worker ‘B’ produced
50 units.
Notes: (a) Write your answer in the space given below.
(b) Check your answer with the ones given at the end of this Lesson
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
117
ILLUSTRATION 8.2
Calculate the earnings of workers A,B and C under straight piece rate system and
Merrick's multiple piece rate system from the following particulars:
Normal rate per hour Rs.1.80
Standard time per unit 1 minute
Output per day is as follows:
Worker A : 384 units
Worker B : 450 units
Worker C : 552 units
Working hours per day are 8.
SOLUTION 8.2
Standard output per minute = 1 unit
Standard output per hour = 60 units
Standard production per day of 8 hours = 60 x 8 = 480 units
Normal rate per hour = Rs.1.80
Normal output per hour = 60 units
1.80
Normal piece rate = ------ = 3 paise
60
Earnings of Worker A:
118
Under Merrick's multiple piece rate system:
3
For 384 units @ 3 paise per unit = 384 x ----- = Rs.11.52
100
Normal piece rate has been applied because worker A's level of performance is 80%
which is below 83%.
Earnings of Worker B:
Under straight piece rate system:
3
For 450 units @ 3 paise per unit = 450 x ----- = Rs.13.50
100
Under Merrick's multiple piece rate system:
3.3
For 450 units @3.3 paise per unit = 450 x ----- = Rs.14.85
100
Worker A's level of performance is 93.75% which is between 83% and 100%;so he is
entitled to get 110% of normal piece rate(i.e.,110% of 3 paise or 3.3 paise per unit).
Earnings of Worker C:
Under straight piece rate system:
3
For 552 units @ 3 paise per unit = 552 x ----- = Rs.16.56
100
Under Merrick's multiple piece rate system:
3.6
For 552 units @3.6 paise per unit = 552 x ----- = Rs.19.87
100
Worker C's level of performance is 115% which is more than 100% of standard output; so
he is entitled to get 120% of normal piece rate(i.e.,120% of 3 paise or 3.6 paise per unit).
3. Grant's Task and Bonus Plan.
This plan is based on careful time and motion study. A standard time is fixed for doing a
particular task, worker's actual performance is compared with the standard time and his
efficiency is determined. If a worker takes more time than the standard time to complete
the task (i.e., efficiency is below 100%) he is given the wages for the time taken by him
and if a worker takes the standard time to perform the task(i.e efficiency is 100%) he is
given wages for the standard time and a bonus of 20% on the wages earned. If the worker
completes the task in less than the standard time he is given wages for the standard time
plus a bonus of 20% of the wages for the standard time. In other words , if a worker's
performance is more than 100% he is given piece wages plus bonus at 20% of piece
wages. Thus, with every reduction in time, the plan ensures progressive increase in total
wages. For this reason, the plan is also known as "Progressive Rate System".
119
ILLUSTRATION 8.3
From the following data, calculate total monthly remuneration of three workers A,B and
C under the "Grants Task and Bonus Scheme".
(i) Standard production per month per worker is 1000 units
(ii) Actual production during the month:
A - 850 units, B-1000 units and C - 1100 units.
(iii) Piece work rate - 50 Paise per unit.
SOLUTION 8.3
Standard production per month is 1000 units and piece work rate is 50 paise per unit: So
guaranteed monthly payment is Rs. 500 (i.e 1000 units @ 50 paise).
Level of performance:
Standard output per month = 1000 units.
Worker A's output = 850 units.
Earnings of Worker A:
Worker A's level of performance is 85% which is below the standard performance; so he
will get Rs.500 - the guaranteed monthly payment.
Earnings of Worker B:
Worker B's level of performance is 100%; so he will get wages for the standard time and a
20% bonus. Thus, his earnings will be as follows:
Rs.
Wages for 1000 units @ 50 paise per unit 500
Add: 20% bonus 100
--------
600
--------
120
Earnings of worker C:
Worker C's level of performance is 110% which is more than the standard performance: so
he will get piece wages plus 20% bonus.
Thus, his earnings are as follows:
Rs.
Piece wages for 1100 units @ 50 paise per unit 550
Add: 20% bonus (i.e 550 x (20/100)) 110
--------
Total earnings 660
--------
Labour costs represent not only basic wages but also a number of other expenses such as
dearness allowance, employer's contribution to provident fund and E.S.I scheme,
production bonus, holiday pay etc. Such expenses may be included in overheads, but it is
better if these expenses are treated as direct. All these expenses are added to the basic
wages and then divide the total by the effective hours worked. The resulting figure will be
the labour cost per hour and a job should be charged with the amount, which is arrived at
by multiplying the hours worked with such a figure.
ILLUSTRATION 8.4
From the following data, prepare a statement showing the cost per day of 8 hours
engaging a particular type of labour:
[a] Monthly salary [Basic plus dearness allowance] Rs.400
[b] Leave salary payable to workman 15% of basic and dearness allowance
[c] Employee’s contribution to Provident fund 8 % of salary [item (a) and (b)]
[d] Employer’s contribution to E.S.I. 5 % of salary [item (a) and (b)]
[e] pro rata expenditure on amenities to labour Rs.25 per head per month.
[f] Number of working hours in a month 200.
Solution 8.4
Working Note:
No. of working hours in a month = 200
Working hours per day =8
Working days in a month = 200/8 = 25 days
121
Statement of showing Labour Cost [per man day of 8 hours]
Particulars Rs.
[a] Monthly Salay [Basic + DA] Rs.400/25 16.00
[b] Leave salary –[ 15 % of Basic + DA ]16 X 15 %] 2.40
[c] Employer’s contribution to E.S.I.
5 % of [a] + [b] = [16+2.40] X 5% 092
[d] Amentities to labour at Rs.25 per month [Rs.25/25 days] 1.00
Cost per man day 20.32
ILLUSTRATION 8.5
Find out the labour cost per hour if a worker is paid Rs.200 per month in addition to D.A.
of Rs.50 per month. He is entitled to bonus @ 10% on wages. Employer's contribution is 8
1/3% of wages towards contributory provident fund and 1% towards E.S.I scheme. The
employee's contribution towards E.S.I.scheme is 1/2%. The worker is entitled to leave on
full pay for 1/20 of days worked. The employer maintains a canteen where subsidised tea
and lunch are provided to workers and a monthly subsidy of Rs.1000 is provided to the
canteen. The total number of the employees who take advantage of this canteen is
200.normal idle time amounts to 20%. The average working days in a month are 25 of 8
hours each.
SOLUTION 8.5
Total expenses incurred per month: Rs
Wages = 200.00
Dearness Allowance = 50.00
200 x 10
Bonus 10% of Wages ------------ = 20.00
100
Contribution towards contributory
200 x 25
Provident fund @ 8 1/3% of wages ----------- = 16.67
100 x 3
200 x 1
Contribution towards E.S.I scheme ---------- = 2.00
100
Proportion of Canteen's Subsidy 1,000/200 = 5.00
------------
Total 293.67
------------
Number of working hours:
Working days in a month = 25 x
122
Working hours per day = 8
-----
Total working hours in a month = 200
Less: 1/20 for Leave (200 x 1/20) = 10
-----
190
Less: 20% for Normal Idle Time (190x20/100) = 38
-----
Effective hours in a month = 152
-----
Total expenses per month (as calculated) = Rs.293.67
Therefore, Labour cost per hour = 293.67/152 = Rs.1.93
ILLUSTRATION 8.6
From the particulars given below, prepare labour cost per man-day of 8 hours:
(a) Basic salary Rs.2 per day
(b) Dearness Allowance 25 paise per every point over
100 cost of living index for
working class.Current cost of
living index is 700 points.
(c) Leave Salary 10 % of (a) and (b)
(d) Employer's contribution 8 % of (a),(b) and (c)
to Provident fund
(e) Employer's contribution 2.5% of (a),(b) and (c)
to State Insurance
(f) Expenditure on ameni- Rs.20 per head per mensem
-ties to labour
(h) Number of working days 25 days of 8 hours each
in a month
SOLUTION 8.6
STATEMENT OF LABOUR COST
(per man-day of 8 hours)
Rs
(a) Basic Salary 2.00
(b) Dearness Allowance @ 25 paise per every point
over 100 cost of living index for a month of
600 x 25 1
25 days -------------- x ------ = 6.00
100 25
123
8 x 10
(c) Leave Salary-10% of (a) and (b) -------- = 0.80
100
(d) Employer's contribution to Provident fund:-
8.80 x 8
8% of (a),(b) and (c) = ------------ = 0.70
100
(e) Employer's contribution to State Insurance-
8.80 x 2.5
2.5% of (a),(b) and (c) = -------------- = 0.22
100
The attendance time should agree with job time. Generally it does not happen on account
of many reasons. For example, time required for walking from factory gate to the
department, time lost in waiting for materials, tools, time lost due to break-down of machinery,
power failure, etc. This time, which is wasted, is termed as idle time. It is the time for which payment
is made but no production is obtained. Idle time arises only when the wages are paid on time basis.
It does not arise when the wages are paid on piece rate basis.
124
Accounting Treatment of Normal Idle Time:
The cost of labour idle time can be treated in two ways.
[a] A worker has to work for, say 8 hours a day; but he actually puts in only 7 ½ hours
on jobs and half an hour is wasted. The labour cost of the normal idle time [here
half an hour], may be charged to factory overhead and 7 ½ ;hours to the job
concerned.
[b] The hourly rate may be raised and the cost of complete labour may be charged to the
job concerned. For example. A worker has to work for 8 hours. He actually spends 7
½ hours and his hourly waqge rate is Rs.3. The wage rate may be inflated as
follows:
8 hours X Rs.3/ 7 ½ hours = Rs.3.20
8.7 OVERTIME
Usually the workers are supposed to work for a given time per day or per week. It is called
the normal work period. Whereas overtime is the work done beyond the normal work
period, for which extra remuneration will be paid. If a worker works more than 9 hours on
any day or 48 hours in a week, the worker is entitled for overtime payment. According to
Factories Act, 1948, overtime has to be paid at double the normal rate. If the Factory Act
does not apply, Establishment Act will apply. According to this Act, overtime has to be
paid at 1 ½ times the normal rate of wages. The excess paid over usual normal rate is
called overtime premium.
8.7.1 Accounting Treatment:
The treatment of overtime depends upon the circumstances under which it arises:
1. If the overtime is paid on the instruction of a customer then the additional amount is
charged directly to the job;
2. If the overtime wages paid duie to negligence or delay of worker or of a particular
department, it may be charged to the concerned department.
125
3. The extra amount may be charged to prime cost, if there is rush of seasonal work.
4. If the overtime premium is paid due to abnormal causes like fire, accidents, etc., it
should be charged to Costing Profit and Loss Account.
ILLUSTRATION 8.7
Calculate the normal and overtime wages payable to a workman from the following data:
Days Hours Worked
Monday 8 hrs.
Tuesday 10 hrs.
Wednesday 9 hrs.
Thursday 11 hrs.
Friday 9 hrs.
Saturday 4 hrs.
------------
Total 51 hrs.
------------
Normally working hours 8 hours per day
Normal rate Re 1 per hour
Overtime rate upto 9 hours in a day at single rate and over 9 hours in a day at double rate;
or upto 48 hours in a week at single rate and over 48 hours at double rate whichever is
more beneficial to the workmen.
SOLUTION 8.7
Days Total Hours Normal Overtime Hours
Working Hours
At single rate At Double rate
Monday 8 8 ----- -----
Tuesday 10 8 1 1
Wednesday 9 8 1 -----
Thursday 11 8 1 2
Friday 9 8 1 -----
Saturday 4 4
Total 51 44 4 3
126
Normal Wages for 48 hours @ Re.1 per hour = Rs. 48
Overtime wages for 3 hours @ Rs.2 per hour = Rs. 6
--------------
Total Wages Rs. 54
--------------
Therefore whichever method is followed; the amount of the wages payable to the worker
is Rs. 54.The method favorable to the worker will be acceptable.
Labour cost refers to remuneration paid for human effort in an organization. There are
two wages systems of payment is used by industries. They are time wage system and
piece rate system. Piece rate system is further classified into straight piece rate system
and differential piece rate system.
127
Production of workers on a particular day:
A 120 units , B 140 units ,C 160 units
[Ans:- Earnings of worker A = Rs.60
Earnings of worker B = Rs.77
Earnings of worker C = Rs.96]
10. From the following data, prepare a statement showing the cost per day of 8 hours of
engaging a particular type of labour:
(a) Monthly salary (Basic plus dearness allowance) Rs.400
(b) Leave salary payable to workman 15% of basic and dearness allowance.
(c) Employee’s contribution to provident fund 8% of salary (item a and b).
(d) Employer’s contribution to E.S.I 5% of salary (item a and b)
(e) Pro rata expenditure on amenities to labour Rs.25 per head per month
(f) No. of working hours in a month 200.
[Ans :- Cost per man day = Rs.20.32 ]
1. Jain S.P. and Narang K.L. , Cost Accounting , Principles and Practice, Kalayani
Publishers,
2. Sexena V.K. and Vashist C.D., Advanced Cost and Management Accounting –
Textbook, Sultan Chand & Sons
3. Sexena V.K. and Vashist C.D., Advanced Cost and Management Accounting –
4. [Problems and Solutions] Sultan Chand & Sons
5. Sexena V.K. and Vashist C.D., Cost Audit and Management Audit, Sultan Chand &
Sons
6. Pillai. R.S.N. and Bagavathi V., Cost Accounting, S. Chand & Company Ltd.
7. Alex K., Cost Accounting, ARR publications
8. Ravi M. Kishore, Cost and Management Accounting, Taxmann’s Allied services
Pvt. Ltd.,
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LESSON-9
LABOUR COST – INCENTIVE SCHEMES
Contents:
9.0 Aims and objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Premium and Bonus Plans –Incentive Plans
9.3 Labour Turnover
9.4 Let us Sum Up
9.5 Lesson-end Activities
9.6 Model Answers to “Check your Progress”
9.7 Suggested Reading/References/Sources
After you have studied this lesson, you should able to:
¾ Elaborate the various incentive schemes
¾ Explain the meaning and methods of labour turnover
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The system of wage payment is of two types – time rate system and piece rate system. In
the plan of incentive wage payment, both time and piece rate are blended together. The
purpose of incentive system is to overcome the limitations of both systems and combine
the advantages of both the systems. In order to increase the production through
encouragement the benefits are shared by employer and the employee.
The object of a premium plan is to increase the production by giving an inducement to the
workers in the form of higher wages for less time worked.
Under a premium plan, a standard time is fixed for the completion of a specific job or
operation and the worker is paid for the time taken by him to complete the job or operation
at an hourly rate plus wages for a certain fraction of the time saved on the standard by way
of a bonus.
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9.2.1 Halsey Premium Plan
Under this method, standard time for doing each job is fixed and the worker is given
wages for the actual time he takes to complete the job at the agreed rate per hour plus a
bonus equal to (usually) one-half of the wages of the time saved. In practice, the bonus
may vary from 33 1/3% to 66 2/3% of the wages of the time saved. Thus, if S is standard
time, T the time taken, R the labour rate per hour, and % the percentage of the wages of
time saved to be given as bonus, total earnings of the worker will be :
T x R + % ( S-T ) R .
Under Halsey-Weir plan, the premium is set at 50% of the time saved.
Merits
(1) It is simple to understand and easy to calculate.
(2) Standard time is fixed for each job.
(3) Both employer and employee get benefited equally from the time saved by the
worker
(4) Introducing this method is easy.
(5) It provides incentive for efficient workers. At the same time below average
workers are not penalized.
(6) The time saved has the effect of reducing labour cost and overhead.
Demerits
(1) Fixation of standard time, which is to be uniform, is very difficult.
(2) If wage rates are low incentive value may be low.
(3) Earnings are reduced at high level of efficiency.
Illustration 9.1
Rate per hour = Rs.1.50 per hour
Time allowed for job = 20 hours
Time taken = 15 hours
Calculate the total earnings of the worker under the Halsey Plan. Also find out effective
rate of earning.
Solution 9.1
S (Standard Time) = 20 hours
T (Time taken) = 15 hours
R (Rate) = Rs.1.50 per hour
Total Earnings = T x R + 50% (S-T) x R
= 15 x 1.50 + (50/100)(20-15) x 1.50
= 22.50 + 3.75 = Rs.26.25
Total wages for 15 hours = Rs.26.25
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Therefore, effective rate of earning per hour
Merits
(1) Time wages are guaranteed to the worker.
(2) It is suitable for learners and beginners.
(3) Both the workers and employers are benefited.
(4) It pays higher bonus to workers when compared with Halsey scheme upto a
specific level of time saved.
Demerits
(1) It is difficult to understand and calculate for the ordinary workers.
(2) Efficiency beyond certain point is not rewarded.
(3) The system is more complex and expensive.
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Illustration 9.2
A worker completes a job in a certain no of hours. The standard time allowed for the job is
10 hours,and the hourly rate of wages is Re.1. The worker earns at the 50% rate a bonus of
Rs.2 under Halsey Plan.
Ascertain his total wages under the Rowan Premium Plan.
Solution 9.2
The worker earns Rs.2 as bonus at 50% ; so total bonus at 100% should be Rs.4.The
hourly rate of wages being Re.1,the time saved should be 4 hours.
Standard time allowed 10 hours
Less : Time saved 4 hours
------------
Time taken 6 hours
------------
Earnings under the Rowan Premium Plan
S-T
Earnings = T x R + ----- x T x R
S
where T = Time taken i.e., 6 hours
S = Standard Time i.e., 10 hours
R = Rate per hour i.e., Re.1
10-6
Earnings = 6 x 1 + -------- x 6 x 1
10
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Illustration 9.3
Standard output per day of 8 hours is 16 units. Actual output of a worker for 8 hours is 20
units. Rate per hour is Rs.2.50. Calculate the wages payable to the worker according to the
Emerson's Efficiency Plan.
Solution 9.3
Actual Output
Level of Performance = ---------------------- x 100
Standard Output
20 units
= ------------ x 100 = 125%
16 units
An hour is taken as sixty minutes. Each minute at standard time is called a point –
Bedaux’s point or ‘B’. The number of points has to be determined in respect of each job.
If actual time is more than standard time the worker is paid on hourly basis. Excess
production is counted in points, for which a bonus of 75% is allowed to the worker and
remained 25% goes to the foremen, which itself is a novel feature.
133
75 BS x RH
Earnings = Hours worked x Rate per hour + ------ x --------------
100 60
where
B.S. = Number of points saved, i.e., number of points actually earned less the standard
number of points for the job.
R.H. = Basic Rate per hour.
9.3.1 Meaning:
Labour turnover denotes the percentage of change in the labour force of an organisation.
High percentage of labour turnover denotes that labour is not stable and there are frequent
changes in the labour force because of new workers engaged and workers who have left
the organisation. A high labour turnover is not desirable. At the same time very low labour
turnover indicates inefficient workers are being retained in the organization.
9.3.2 Methods of Measurement of Labour Turnover:
There are three methods for the measurement of labour turnover and they are:
(1) Labour turnover according to separation method
This definition does not take into consideration the fact of surplus labour.This definition
will give incorrect result when the surplus workers are discharged. So labour turnover
calculated in this way will be high.
This definition will not be applicable when the organization is expanding. In such a case,
many new workers are engaged and there may be no separation; even then labour turnover
calculated will be high.
(3) Labour turnover according to replacement method
Number of workers replaced during a period
= ------------------------------------------------------------- x 100
Average number of workers during the period
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This definition takes into account the surplus labour. This definition will also give
correct labour turnover when the factory is expanding because all additions are not to be
taken; only workers replaced due to leavers are to be taken.
Illustration 9.4
From the following information, calculate the labour turnover rate and labour flux rate:
Number of workers at the beginning of the year 3,800
Number of workers at the end of the year 4,200
During the year 40 workers leave while 160 workers are discharged. 600 workers are
required during the year, of these 150 workers are recruited because of leavers and the rest
are engaged in accordance with an expansion scheme.
Solution 9.4
3,800 + 4,200
Average no. of workers during the year = ------------------- = 4,000
2
Labour turnover rate:
Number of workers replaced during the year
= ---------------------------------------------------------- x 100
Average no.of workers during the year
150
= ------- x 100 = 3.75%
4,000
600 + 200
= -------------- x 100 = 20%
4,000
Labour flux rate denotes total change in the composition of labour force due to additions
and separations of workers.
135
Notes: (a) Write your answer in the space given below.
(b) Check your answer with the ones given at the end of this Lesson
…………………………………………………………………………
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In order to increase the production and productivity of the industry, the incentives are
given to the workers. The popular methods of incentive are Halsey Plan and Rowan Plan.
Apart from the above two plans we have Emerson Efficiency plan and Bedeaux plan.
Ascertain the earnings of workers under Emerson’s efficiency plan. You may assume . 6%
as bonus for every additional 1% efficiency between 66 2/3 % and 100%.
136
8. From the following data given by the Personal Department, calculate the labour
turnover rate by applying:
(a) Separation method
(b) Replacement method
(c) Flux method
No. of workers on the payroll:
At the beginning of the month 900
At the end of the month 1,100
During the month 10 workers left; 40 workers were discharged and 150 workers were
recruited. Of these, 25 workers are recruited in the vacancies of those leaving while the
rest were engaged for an expansion scheme.
Ans: - Separation method = 5% Replacement method = 2.5% Flux method = 20%
1. Jain S.P. and Narang K.L. , Cost Accounting , Principles and Practice, Kalayani
Publishers,
2. Pillai. R.S.N. and Bagavathi V., Cost Accounting, S. Chand & Company Ltd.
3. Alex K., Cost Accounting, ARR publications
4. Horngren, Datar and Foster, Cost Accounting A managerial Emphasis, Pearson
Education
137
UNIT - III
The third unit exposes the students to the two important management accounting tool.
Before that introduction to management accounting is given to have a basic knowledge on
management accounting even though it is part of Unit I
LESSON-10
NATURE AND SCOPE OF MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING
Contents:
10.0 Aims and objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Definitions
10.3 Objectives of Management According
10.4 Scope of Management According
10.5 Functions of Management Accounting
10.6 Advantages of Management Accounting
10.7 Limitations of Management Accounting
10.8 Distinguish between Management Accounting and cost accounting
10.9 Distinguish between management accounting and financial accounting
10.10 Let us Sum Up
10.11 Lesson-end Activities
10.12 Model Answers to “Check your Progress”
10.13 Suggested Reading/References/Sources
138
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The term management accounting refers to accounting for the management. Management
accounting provides necessary information to assist the management in the creation of
policy and in the day-to-day operations. It enables the management to discharge all its
functions i.e. planning, organization, staffing, direction and control efficiently with the
help of accounting information.
10.2 DEFINITIONS
“Management accounting is concerned with accounting information that is useful to
management”. – R.N. Anthony.
“Management accounting is the presentation of accounting information is such a way as to
assist management in the creation of policy and in the day-to-day operations of an
undertaking”.- Anglo American Council of Productivity.
Management accounting has various facets. The field of management accounting is very
wide. The main purpose of management accounting is to provide information to the
management to perform its functions of planning directing and controlling. Management
accounting includes various areas of specialization to render effective service to the
management.
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10.4.1 Financial Accounting
Financial Accounting deals with financial aspects by preparation of Profit and Loss
Account and Balance Sheet. Management accounting rearranges and uses the financial
statements. Therefore management accounting does not exclusively maintain factual data
for itself. It is closely related and connected with financial accounting. thus, management
accounting is dependent on financial accounting which limits its scope.
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10.4.8 Tax Accounting:
Tax liability is ascertained from income statements. Tax planning in done by following the
various tax incentives offered by the Central and State Governments. Knowledge of tax
provisions helps the management in meeting the tax liabilities and complying with other
legislations like Sales tax, Companies Act and MRTP Act.
1 Presentation of Data
Traditional Profit and Loss Account and the Balance Sheet are not analytical for decision
making. Management accounting modifies and rearranges data as per the requirements for
decision making through various techniques.
3 Decision Making
Management accounting provides comparative data for analysis and interpretation for
effective decision making and policy formulation.
5 Effective Controls
Standard costing and budgetary control are integral part of management accounting. These
techniques lay down targets, compare actual with standards and budgets to evaluate the
performance and control the deviations.
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6 Incorporation of non-financial information
Management accounting considers both financial and non-financial information for
developing alternative courses of action which leads to effective and accurate decisions.
7. Coordination
The targets of different departments are communicated to them and their performance is
reported to the management from time to time. This continual reporting helps the
management in coordinating various activities to improve the overall performance.
2 Helps in Planning
Planning includes profit planning, preparation of budgets, programmes of capital
investment and financing. Management accounting assists in planning through budgetary
control, capital budgeting and cost-volume-profit analysis.
3 Helps in Organizing
Management accounting uses various tools and techniques like budgeting, responsibility
accounting and standard costing. A sound organizational structure is developed to
facilitate the use of these techniques.
4 Facilitates Communication
Management is provided with up-to-date information through periodical reports. These
reports assist the management in the evaluation of performance and control.
5 Helps in coordinating
The functional budgets (purchase budget, sales budget, and overhead budget etc.) are
integrated into one known as master budget. This facilitates clear definition of department
goals and coordination of their activities.
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7 Interpretation of Financial Information
Management accounting presents information in a simple and purposeful manner. This
facilitates quick decision making.
8 Economic Appraisals
Management accounting includes appraisal of social and economic forces and government
polices. This appraisal helps the management in assessing their impact on the business.
2 Wide scope
Management accounting has a very wide scope incorporating many disciplines. This
results in inaccuracy and other practical difficulties.
3 Costly
The installation of management accounting system requires a large organization. Hence, it
is very costly and only big concerns can afford to adopt it.
4 Evolutionary Stages
Management accounting is still in its initial stages. Tools and techniques are not fully
developed. This creates doubts about the utility of management accounting.
5. Opposition to Change
Introduction of management accounting system requires a number of changes in the
organization structure, rules and regulations. This rearrangement is not generally liked by
the people involved.
6 Intuitive Decisions
Management accounting helps in scientific decision making. Yet, because of simplicity
and personal factors the management has a tendency to arrive at decisions by intuition.
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10.8 DISTINGUISH BETWEEN MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND COST
ACCOUNTING
Cost accounting and Management accounting are tow modern branches of accounting.
Both the systems involve presentation of accounting data for the purpose of decision
making and control of day-to-day activities. Cost accounting is concerned not only with
cost ascertainment, but also cost control and managerial decision making. Management
accounting makes use of the cost accounting concepts, techniques and data. The functions
of cost accounting and management accounting are complimentary. In cost accounting the
emphasis is on cost determination while management accounting considers both the cost
and revenue. Though it appears that there is overlapping of areas between cost and
management accounting, the following are the differences between the two systems.
1 Purpose
The main objective of cost accounting is to ascertain and control the cost of products or
services. The function of management accounting is to provide information to
management for efficiently performing the functions of planning, directing, and
controlling.
2 Emphases
Cost accounting is based on both historical and present data, whereas management
according deals with future projections on the basis of historical and present cost data.
3 Principles and Procedures
Established procedures and practices are followed in cost accounting. No such prescribed
practices are followed in Management accounting. The analysis is made and the resulting
conclusions are presented in reports as per the requirements of the management.
4 Data Used
Cost accounting uses only quantitative information whereas management accounting uses
both qualitative and quantitative information.
5 Scope
Management accounting includes, financial accounting, cost accounting, budgeting, tax
planning and reporting to management, whereas Cost accounting is concerned mainly with
cost ascertainment and control.
The following are the main differences between financial accounting and management
accounting.
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1. Objectives
The main objective of financial accounting is to supply information in the form of profit
and loss account and balance sheet to outside parties like shareholders, creditors,
government etc. But the objective of management accounting is to provide information for
the internal use of management.
2 Performance Analyses
Financial accounting is concerned with the overall performance of the business. On the
other hand management accounting is concerned with the departments or divisions. It
report about the performance and profitability of each of them.
3 Data Used
Financial accounting is mainly concerned with the recording of past events whereas
management accounting is concerned with future plans and policies.
4. Nature
Financial accounting is based on measurement while management accounting is based on
judgment. Because of this, financial accounting is more objective and management
accounting is more subjective.
5. Accuracy
Accuracy is an important factor in financial accounting. But approximations are widely
used in management accounting. This is because most of the information is related to the
future and intended for internal use.
6. Legal Compulsion
Financial accounting is compulsory for all joint stock companies but management
accounting is only optional.
7. Monetary Transactions
Financial accounting records only those transactions which can be expressed in terms of
money. On the other hand, management accounting records not only monetary
transactions but also non- monetary events, namely technical changes, government polices
etc.
8. Control
Financial accounting will not reveal whether plans are properly implemented.
Management accounting will reveal the deviations of actual performance from plans. It
will also indicate the causes for such deviations.
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Check your progress 10.01
What are the advantages of the management accounting?
Notes: (a) Write your answer in the space given below.
(b) Check your answer with the ones given at the end of this Lesson
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10.13 SUGGESTED READING/REFERENCES/SOURCES
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LESSON-11
FINANCIAL STATEMENT ANALYSES
Contents:
148
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Smith and Ashburne , defines, ‘financial statements as ‘ the end product of financial
accounting is a set of financial statements – prepared by the accountant of a business
enterprise – that purport to reveal the financial position of the enterprise, the result of its
recent activities, and an analysis of what has been done with earnings”
According to American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, “financial statements
are prepared for the purpose of presenting a periodical review or report on the progress by
the management and deal with [i] the Status of Investments in the business and [ii] the
results achieved during the period under review.
According to the above definitions, ‘Financial statements are the outcome of preparing
financial accounts and these statements reveal financial position and profitability of the
concern and the utilization of retained earnings.
Financial statements are prepared for the purpose of presenting a periodical review or
report on progress by the management and deal with the status of investment in the
business and the results achieved during the period under review. According to American
Institute of Certified Public Accountants financial statements reflect, ‘a combination of
recorded facts, accounting conventions applied affect them materially”. This implies that
data exhibited in the financial statements are affected by recorded facts, accounting
conventions and personal judgments. The following points explain the nature of financial
statements:
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[1] Recorded Facts
Record is made only of those facts which can be expressed in monetary terms. Facts
which have not been recorded in the financial books are not depicted in the financial
statements. Thus, the recorded facts consist of such data as the amount of cash on hand
and in the bank, the amount due from customers, the cost of fixed assets, the amount
payable to creditors etc. Facts which cannot be recorded in books are not disclosed by the
financial statements. However, recently such facts are mentioned as footnotes to make the
financial statements more meaningful and useful.
[3]Personal Judgment
Personal judgment plays a great part while dealing in various questions like method and
rate of depreciation to be adopted, valuation of inventories, provision for bad and doubtful
debts, amortization of fictitious assets, etc. Accountant is free to exercise his discretion on
many matters on accounting.
[4] Postulates
Rupee values show in the statements are not precise measurement of items incorporated in
them. That is, these values do not represent the market or saleable value of items. Data
disclosed by the financial statements are useful and meaningful only till concern survives.
Thus, accountants always take some assumption and these assumptions are reflected in the
financial statements.
The financial statements are prepared with a view to depict financial position of the
concern. A proper analysis and interpretation of these statements enables a person to
judge the profitability and financial strength of the business. The ideal/good financial
statements should have the following characteristics:
1. Figures which are incorporated in financial statements should be readily and easily
available from the books of accounts of the concern. The size of the form of
financial statements should not be abnormally too large.
150
2. The form should not be complex in nature. The various terms used should be in
simple and common language. The form should have suitable columns for additions
and deductions and it must arrest and retain the attention of users.
3. Financial statements must facilitate easy comparison. In addition to the figures of
previous years, it is also essential that uniformity in the form is maintained from year
to year. This is for easy comparison.
4. The form and contents of the form should be designed in such a way that the
attention of the readers is automatically drawn and directed to most significant items.
5. All facts should be presented in such a way that required items and figures are easily
obtained for calculating various accounting ratios, to be used by the analysts.
6. The information contained in the financial statements should be such that a true and
correct idea is taken about the financial position of the concern.
7. The comparable figures will make the statements more useful. The results of
financial analysed should be in a way that can be compared to the previous years’
statements. The comparison will enable a proper assessment for the working of the
concern.
2. Balance Sheet
The Balance Sheet is one of the vital financial statements depicting the financial strength
of the concern. It shows on the one hand the properties that it utilizes and on the other
hand the sources of those properties. The balance sheet shows all the assets owned by
the concern and all the liabilities and claims it owes to owners and outsiders. The balance
sheet is prepared on a particular date. The right hand side shows properties and assets.
Normally, there is no particular sequence for showing various assets and liabilities.
However, if any Act/ Law govern, according to that particular Act, the format for the
Balance Sheet will be prepared.
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3. Statement of Retained Earnings
A statement of retained earnings is also known as Profit and Loss Appropriation Account
or Income Disposal Statement. As the name suggests it shows appropriations of earnings.
The previous year’s balance is first brought forward. The net profit during the current
year is added to this balance. On the debit side, appropriations like interim dividend paid,
proposed dividend on preference and equity shares capital, amounts transferred to
debenture redemption fund, general reserves, etc., are shown. The balance in this account
will show the amount of profit retained in hand and carried forward. The appropriation
can not be more than the profits, so this account will not have a debit balances. There
cannot be appropriations without profits.
6. Schedules
A number of schedules are prepared to supplement the information supplied in the form of
balance sheet and income statements. The schedules are prepared to give details about
theses balance sheet and income statement transactions. The Banking/Insurance
companies prepare detailed schedules as specified in respective Acts. All these schedules
are used as part of financial statements.
The financial statements are a mirror which reflects the financial position and operating
strength or weakness of the concern. These statements are useful to management,
investors, creditors, bankers, workers, Government and public at large. George O. May
points out the following major uses of financial statements:
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i. As a report of stewardship;
ii. As a basis for fiscal policy;
iii. To determine the legality of dividends;
iv. As guide to wise dividend action;
v. As a basis for the granting of credit;
vi. As informative for prospective investors in an enterprises;
vii. As a guide to the vale of investment already made;
viii. As an aid to Government supervision;
ix. As a basis for price or rate regulations;
x. As a basis for taxation.
1. Management
The financial statements are useful for assessing the efficiency of different cost centres.
The management is able to exercise cost control through theses statements. The efficient
and inefficient spots are brought to the notice of the management. The management is able
to decide the course of action to be adopted in future.
2. Creditors
The trade creditors are to be paid in a short period. This liability is met out of current
assets. The creditors will be interested in currency solvency of the concern. The
calculation of current ratio and liquid ratio will enable the creditors to assess the current
financial position of the concern in relation to their debts.
3. Bankers
The banker is interested to see that the loan amount is secure and the customer is also able
to pay the interest regularly. The banker will analyse the balance sheet to determine
financial strength of the concern and profit and loss account will also be studied to find
out the earning position. A banker has a large number of customers and it is not possible
to supervise their business activities. It is through the financial statements that a banker
can keep a watch on the business plans and performance of its customers. These
statements also help the banker to determine the amount of securities it will ask from the
customers as a cover for the loans.
4. Investors
The investors include both short-term and long term investors. They are interested in the
security of the principal amount of loan and regular interest payments. The investors will
study the long-term solvency of the concern with the help of financial statements. The
investors will not only analyse the present financial position but will also study the
prospects and expansion plans of the concern. The possibility of paying back the loan
amount in the space of liquidation of the concern is also taken into consideration.
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5. Government
The financial statements are used to assess tax liability of business enterprises. The
Government studies economic situation of the country from these statements. Theses
statements enables the Government to find out whether business is following various rules
and regulation or not. These statements also become a base for framing and amending
various laws for the regulation of business.
Though financial statements are relevant and useful for the concern, still they do not
present a final picture of the concern. The utility of these statements is dependent upon a
number of factors. The analysis and interpretation of these statements should be done very
carefully; otherwise misleading conclusions may be drawn. The financial statements
suffer from the following limitations:
(i) Information shown in financial statement is not precise since it is based on practical
experience and the conventions and rules developed there from.
(ii) Financial statements do not always disclose the correct financial position of business
concern as they are influence by the personal opinions, judgment, subjective views
and whims of accountants of each concern.
(iii) Balance Sheets of a concern is a static document as it discloses the financial position
of concern on a particular date. But the values shown and composition of items keep
changing day-do-day. Therefore, the data and information does not disclose current
realities.
(iv) Information disclosed by profit and loss account may not be real profits as many
items shown in the profit and loss account are not real but estimated.
(v) Financial statements are dumb, because they cannot speak themselves. The
statements require further detailed analysis and interpretation.
(vi) Financial statements of one period may not be comparable as such with statements
of other periods due to differences in conditions and changes in economic situations.
Statements of one concern cannot be compared with those of other concern as the
accounting practices differ.
(vii) Financial statements do not disclose the contribution of man towards the efficiency
of the business. The ability, energy and efficiency of the management is mainly
responsibly for the success of a business, the monetary value of which is not
disclosed in the financial statements.
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11.8 MEANING OF FINANCIAL STATEMENT ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATIONS
The preparation of financial statements is not the end and it is only a beginning. Financial
statements are prepared primarily for decision making for the various parties interested in
the business concern. In order to have meaningful decisions, the statements have to be
analysed and interpreted.
Financial analysis is the process of determining the significant operating and financial
characteristics of a firm from accounting data. The Profit and Loss Account and Balance
Sheet are indicators of two significant factors –Profitability and Financial Soundness.
Analysis of statement means such a treatment of the information contained in the two
statements as to afford a full diagnosis of the profitability and financial position of the
firm concerned.
Financial statement analysis is largely a study of relationship among the various financial
factors in a business as disclosed by a set of statements and a study of the trends of theses
factors as shown in a series of statements.
The main function of financial analysis is the pinpointing of the strength and weakness of
a business undertaking by regrouping and analysis of figures contained in the financial
statements, by making comparisons of various components and examining their content.
The financial statements are the best media of documenting the results of managerial
efforts to the owners of the business, its employees, its customers and the public at large,
and thus become excellent tools of the public relations.
Thus, the financial statements analysis is largely a study of relationship among various
financial factors as shown by different statements.
After making analysis of the financial statements, the next step is to use mind for forming
an opinion about the enterprise. This is the interpretation stage. The technique is called
“Analysis and Interpretation” of financial statements. Analysis consists in breaking down
a complex set of facts or figures into simple elements. Interpretation, on the other hand,
consists in explaining the real significance of these simplified statements.
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Interpretation means putting the meaning of the statements into simple terms for the
benefits of interested parties. Interpretation is to explain in such a simple language the
financial position and earning capacity of the company which may be understood even by
a layman, who does not know accounting.
In simple words, analysis refers to the process of fact finding and breaking down complex
set of figures into simple components while interpretation standards for explaining the real
significance of theses simplified components. Interpretation is a mental process based on
analysis and criticism.
The users of financial statements have definite objectives to analyse and interpret.
Therefore, there are various in the objectives of interpretation by various classes of people.
However, there are certain specific and common objectives which are listed below:
a. To interpret the profitability and efficiency of various business activities with help of
profit and loss account;
b. To assess the financial position of the firm;
c. To measure managerial efficiency and progress of the firm;
d. To judge the solvency - short-term and long-term solvency of the business;
e. To ascertain earning capacity in the future period;
f. To determine future potential of the concern;
g. To help in making future plans;
h. To measure utilization of various assets during the period; and
i. To compare operational efficiency of similar concerns engaged in the same industry.
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11.10 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATIONS
Certain preliminary steps are required to be completed before attempting analysis and
interpretation of financial statements.
1. Ascertain the purpose and the extent of analysis and interpretation;
2. The objective of analysis of statements have to be decided as the techniques of
analysis are to be selected on the basis of objectives;
3. The assumptions, principles, practices etc., followed in the preparation of the
financial statements are to be ascertained to understand their significance;
4. Study the available data contained in the financial statements;
5. Additional information and data required are to be gathered, if needed;
6. The data collected has to be presented in a logical sequence by rearranging and
readjusting according to objectives set out;
7. The data is to be analysed for making comparative statements, for computation of
ratios and for ascertaining averages and for estimating trends;
8. Facts gathered from analysis are to be interpreted by considering the general state of
the market and economy also;
9. The interpreted data and information has to be presented in a suitable form.
The process of financial statement analysis is of different types. The process of analysis is
classified on the basis of information used and ‘modes operandi’ of analysis. The
classification is as under:
External Analysis
This analysis is based on published financial statements of a firm. Outsiders have limited
access to internal records of the concern. Therefore, they depend on published financial
statements. Thus, the analysis done by outsiders namely, a creditor, suppliers, investors
and government agencies is known as external analysis. This analysis serves a very
limited purpose.
157
Internal Analysis
This analysis is done on the basis of internal and unpublished records. It is done by
executives or other authorized officials. It is very much useful and significant to
employees and management.
Horizontal Analysis
This analysis is also known as ‘dynamic’ or ‘trend’ analysis. The analysis is done by
analyzing the statements of a number of years. According to John N. Myer, ‘the
horizontal analysis consists of a study of the behaviour of each of the entities in the
statement.” Thus, under horizontal analysis we study the behaviour of each item shown
in the financial statements. We examine as to what has been the periodicals trends of
various items shown in the statements i.e., whether they have increased or decreased over
a period of time. If the comparative statements are prepared for more than two periods,
then one of the years is taken as basis to calculate the percentage of increase or decrease.
Some analysts prefer to choose earlier year as basis, while some others prefer to take just
the preceding year as basis. Cash Flow and Fund Flow analysis falls under this category of
analysis.
Vertical Analysis
Vertical analysis is also known as ‘Static Analysis’ or ‘structural analyses. This analysis
is made on the basis of a single set of financial statements prepared at a particular date. Under
vertical analysis, quantitative relationship is established between different items shown in a
particular statement. Common-size statements are a form of vertical analysis. Different items
shown in the statement are expressed as a percentage to any one item as base.
Each method of analysis provides specific type of information and in fact all these
methods constitute the backbone of financial analysis.
A Financial Analyst can adopt the following tools for analysis of the financial statements.
These are also termed as methods or techniques of financial analysis.
1. Comparative Financial statement;
2. Common Size or measurement statements;
3. Trend Analysis;
4. Ratio Analysis ;
5. Funds Flow Analysis ;
6. Cash Flow Analysis ; and
7. Cost-Volume Profit Analysis.
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11.12.1 COMPARATIVE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
Comparative Financial statement is an important device of horizontal financial analysis.
Financial statements are presented as on a particular date or for a particular period. But a
financial analyst is interested in knowing whether there business is moving in a right
direction or not. For this purpose comparative financial statements are prepared. As the
very name suggest, comparative financial statements provide information to assess the
direction of change in the business from the previous year[s]. Thus, theses statements
render comparison between two periods of time and exhibit the magnitude and direction of
historical changes in the operating results and financial status of a business. When
financial statements of two or more firms are compared for drawing inferences and are
called as inter-firm comparison. Generally, Balance Sheet and Income Statement are
prepared in a comparative form because they are the most important statements. The
comparative statement also provides for columns to indicate the change from one year to
another in absolute terms and also in percentage form.
Illustration 11.1
From the following Profit and Loss Account and Balance Sheet of Swadeshi Ltd., for the
year ended 31st December 2007 and 2008, you are required to prepare a Comparative
Income Statement and a Comparative Balance Sheet.
159
BALANCE SHEET
as on 31st December [Rs. In Lakhs]
2007 2008 2007 2008
Liabilities Assets
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
Sundry Creditors 200 275 Cash 100 140
Tax Payable 100 150 Debtors 200 300
6 % Debentures 100 150 Stock 200 300
Equity Capital 700 700 Land & Buildings 400 370
Reserves 200 245 Plant 300 270
Furniture 100 140
1,300 1,520 1,300 1,520
Solution NO.11.1
Swadeshi Limited
COMPARATIVE INCOME STATEMENT
For the year ended December 2007 and 2008
[Rs. In Lakhs]
Absolute Percentage
Particulars 2007 2008 Increase or Increase or
decrease in 2008 decrease in 2008
Net Sales 800 1,000 + 200 + 25
Cost of Goods Sold 600 750 - 150 + 25
Gross Profit 200 250 + 50 + 25
Operating Expenses:
Administrative Exps. 20 20 - -
Selling Expenses 30 40 + 10 + 33.33
Total Operating Expenses 50 60 + 10 + 20
Operating Profit 150 190 + 40 + 26.67
160
Swadeshi Limited
COMPARATIVE BALANCE SHEET
For the year ended December 2007 and 2008
[Rs. In Lakhs]
Absolute Percentage
Increase [+] or Increase [+] or
Particulars 2007 2008
Decrease [-] in Decrease [-] in
2008 2008
Assets:
Current Assets:
Cash 100 140 + 40 + 40
Debtors 200 300 +100 + 50
Stock 200 300 + 100 + 50
Total Current Assets 500 740 + 240 + 48
Fixed Assets:
Land & Buildings 400 370 - 30 - 7.50
Plant 300 270 -30 - 10
Furniture 100 140 + 40 + 40
Total Fixed Assets 800 780 - 20 - 2.50
TOTAL ASSETS 1,300 1,520 + 220 + 2.50
Liabilities and Capital:
Current Liabilities:
Sundry Creditors 200 275 +75 + 37.50
Tax payable 100 150 + 50 + 50
Total Current Liabilities 300 425 +125 +41.66
Long-term Liabilities:
6 % Debentures 100 150 +50 +50
Total Liabilities 400 575 +175 +43.75
Capital & Reserves:
Equity Capital 700 700 - -
Reserves 200 245 +45 +22.50
Total Shareholder’s Funds 900 945 +45 +5
TOTAL LIABILITIES AND
1,300 1,520 +220 +17
CAPITAL
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Generally, common size statements are common size balance sheet and income statements
are prepared. In the income statement, the sales figures are taken as basis and all other
figures are expressed as percentage of sales. Similarly, in the balance sheet the total assets
and liabilities is taken as base and all other figures are expressed as percentage of this
total. The percentages so calculated are compared with corresponding percentages in other
period or other firms and meaningful conclusions are drawn.
Illustration 11.2
The Profit and Loss Account Akhil Kumar Ltd. are given for the years 2004 and 2005.
Convert them into Common-size Income Statement and interpret the changes.
Solution NO.11.2
2004 2005
Particulars
Rs. % Rs. %
Net Sales 7,00,000 100.00 8,00,000 100.00
Less: Cost of Goods Sold 5,95,000 85.00 6,15,000 76.87
Gross Profit 1,05,000 15.00 1,85,000 23.13
Operating Expenses:
Selling and Distribution Exps. 23,000 3.29 24,000 3.00
162
Administration Expenses 12,700 1.81 12,500 1.56
Total Expenses 35,700 5.10 36,500 4.56
Operating Income 69,300 9.90 1,48,500 18.56
Other Income 1,200 0.17 8,050 1.00
Total Income 70,500 10.07 1,56,550 19.56
Less: Non-Operating Expenses 1,750 0.25 1,940 0.24
Net Profit during the year 68,750 9.82 1,54,610 19.32
Interpretation
1. The Gross profit ratio has improved in 2005 because the company has been able to
reduce the cost of sales. The Cost of Sales which was 85 % of sales in 2004 was
brought down to 76.87%.
2. The firm has been able to recduce operational expenses too, this has helped the
company to increase operating profit from 9.90 % to 18.56 %.
3. Net profit ratio has almost doubled from 9.82 % to 19.32 % in just one year period.
4. Profitability of the company has improved a lot in 2005. this has been possible for
two reasons, one is that the company increased the sales by Rs.1,00,000 in 2005
from 2004, the second reason is that the company has not only controlled but
reduced its operating costs.
BALANCE SHEET
as on 31st December 2005
Exe Ltd. Yee Ltd. Exe Ltd. Yee Ltd.
Liabilities Assets
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
Equity Capital 2,50,000 1,70,000 Land and Building 3,50,000 2,75,000
Pref. Share Capital 1,20,000 80,000 Plant & Machinery 2,70,000 3,00,000
Investment
Reserves 50,000 70,000 72,000 12,000
[Temporary]
Loans 3,50,000 2,79,000 Book-Debts 47,500 25,000
Bills Payables 25,000 14,000 Prepaid Exps. 35,400 -
Sundry Creditors 18,000 8,000 Cash and Bank 48,690 21,000
Outstanding Exps. 8,590 4,500
Dividend Declared 2,000 7,500
8,23,590 6,33,000 8,23,590 6,33,000
163
Present the data in such a way that proper analysis is possible.
Notes: (a) Write your answer in the space given below.
(b) Check your answer with the ones given at the end of this Lesson
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
Illustration 11.3
From the following data relating to the purchase of a firm, prepare Trend Percentages.
Solution NO.11.3
Year Trend Percentages [%]
2003 100
2004 107
2005 112
2006 115
2007 127
2008 87.5
Thus, comparative statements, common-size statements and trend analysis present the
information contained in balance sheet and income statement in a form suitable for
analysis. Such presentation helps in better understanding of the financial statements.
Apart from above, there are some important tools are used by the financial analyst and
they are discussed in the following sections.
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11.12.4 RATIO ANALYSIS
Ratio analysis is the most important tool available to financial analysts. A ratio analysis is based on
ratios. A ratio is a mathematical relationship between two or more items taken from the financial
statements. Ratio analysis is the process of computing, determining, and presenting the relationship
of items. It also includes comparison and interpretation of ratios and using them as basis for the
future projections. Ratio analysis is helpful to management and outsiders to diagnose the financial
health of a business firm. The financial analysts may calculate different accounting ratios for
different purposes like profitability, solvency, and activity ratios of the firm. This has been discussed
in detail in the next lesson.
165
11.14 LESSON – END ACTIVITIES
1. Discuss the various types of financial statement analysis and also its tools.
166
11.16 SUGGESTED READING/REFERENCES/SOURCES
167
LESSON-12
RATIO ANALYSIS
Contents:
12.0 Aims and objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Concept of Ratio Analysis
12.3 Steps in Ratio Analysis
12.4 Importance of Ratio Analysis
12.5 Limitations of Ratio Analysis
12.6 Classifications of Ratios
12.7 Rearrangements of Financial Statements
12.8 Profitability Ratio
12.9 Financial Ratios / Solvency Ratios
12.10 Activity Ratios / Turnover Ratios
12.11 Comprehensive Illustration
12.12 Let us Sum Up
12.13 Lesson-end Activities
12.14 Model Answers to “Check your Progress”
12.15 Suggested Reading/References/Sources
12.1 INTRODUCTION
The basic financial statements, the Balance Sheet and Profit and Loss account, are
undoubtedly provides useful financial data regarding the operation of the firm. Theses,
financial statements provide only a summarized view of the operations of a firm. Apart
from that theses Financial Statements contain a wealth of information which, if properly
analysed and interpreted, can provide valuable insights into a firm’s performance and
position. For that various tools are employed. One of the various methods of financial
statement analysis, as discussed in the previous lesson, is the Ratio analysis and by far
168
ratio analysis the most widely used tool. Ratio analysis was pioneered by Alexander Wall
who presented a system of ratio analysis in the year 1909. His contention was that
interpretation of financial statements can be made easier by establishing quantitative
relationship between various items of financial statements. Ratio analysis is based on
different ratios which are calculated from the accounting data contained in the financial
statements. Different ratios are used for different purposes. Financial analysts depend to
a very large extent on the use of ratios though there are other equally important tools are
used. Let us in this lesson we will discuss about the concept ratio analysis and various
types.
Ratio Analysis is the process which involves computing, determining and presenting the
relationship of items or groups of items of financial statements. Ratio analysis is an
important and age old technique of financial analysis. The data given in the financial
statements, in absolute form, are dump and are unable to communicate more purposefully.
Ratios are relative form of financial data and very useful technique to check upon the
efficiency, trend or progress of firms.
Mode of Expression
Ratios may be expressed in any one or more of the following ways:
[i] In Proportion:
In this type of expression the amounts of two items are expressed in a common
denominator. In other words, it is arrived by the simple division of one number by
another, for example Current Assets to Current Liabilities ration is 2:1.
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[iii] In Percentage:
In this type of expression, a quotient obtained by dividing one item by another is
multiplied by one hundred to show the relationship in terms of percentage. For example,
the relationship between net profit and sales may be expressed as say 25 %.
Theses alternative methods of expressing items which are related to each other are, for
purposes of financial analysis, referred to as ratio analysis. Each method of expression
has a distinct advantage over the other. The analyst will select that mode which will best
suit his purpose and convenience.
As explained in the previous section the ratio analysis is the process of establishing and
interpreting various ratios for helping the management to take certain decisions and it
involves four steps:
A single ratio in itself does not convey much of the sense. To make ratios useful, they have to be
further interpreted. The interpretation f the ratios can be made in the following ways:
170
[b] Group of Ratios
Ratios may be interpreted by calculating a group of related ratios. A single ratio
supported by other related additional ratios becomes more understandable and meaningful.
For example, the ratio of current assets to current liabilities may be supported by the ratio
of liquid assets to liquid liabilities to draws more dependable conclusions.
[e]Inter-firm Comparison
Ratios of one firm can also be compared with the ratios of some other selected firms in the
same industry at the same point of time. This kind of comparison helps in evaluating
relative financial position and performance of the firm. But while making use of such
comparison one has to be very careful regarding the difference of accounting methods,
policies and procedures adopted by different firms.
Based on the interpretations, the report may prepared and may recommend specific action
in the matter of the decisions, situation or may present alternatives with comparative
merits or it may just state the facts and interpretation.
Ratio analysis caters to the needs of various parties, mainly, shareholders, creditors,
financial executives etc. Shareholders are interested with earning capacity of the firm;
creditors are interested in knowing the ability of firm to meet its financial obligations; and
financial executives are concerned with evolving analytical tools that will measure and
compare costs, efficiency, liquidity and profitability with a view to making intelligent
decisions. The importances of ratio anlysis are discussed below, in brief:
171
1. Aid to measure General Efficiency
Ratio enables the mass of accounting data to be summarized and simplified. They act as
an index of the efficiency of the enterprise. As such they serve as an instrument of
management control.
4. Facilitates decision-making
Ratio analysis help management in decision making from the information provided in the
financial statements.
5. Helps in Control
Ratio analysis also helps in making effective control of the business. Standard ratios can
be based upon Performa financial statements and variance or deviations, if any, can be
found by comparing the actual with the standards so as to take a corrective action at the
right time. The weaknesses or other wise if any, come to the knowledge of the
management which helps in effective control of the business.
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12.5 LIMITATIONS OF RATIO ANALYSIS
Ratios are precious tools in the hands of management but the utility lies in the proper
utilities of ratios. Mishandling or misuse of ratios and using them without proper context
may lead the management to a wrong direction. The financial analyst should be well
versed in computing ratios and proper utilization of ratios. Like all techniques of control,
ratio analysis also suffers from several ‘ifs and buts’ and for proper computation and
utilization of ratios the analyst should be aware of the limitations of ratio analysis, The
following are the limiting factors which minimize or reduce the value of ratio analysis.
1. Practical knowledge
The analyst should have through knowledge and experience about the firm and
industry.
2. Ratios and means
Ratios are not an end in themselves but they are means to achieve a particular
purpose or end.
3. Inter-relationship
Ratios are inter-related and therefore a single ratio cannot convey any meaning. It
has to be interpreted with reference to other related ratios to draw meaningful
conclusions.
4. Non-availability of Standards or Norms
Ratios will be meaningful if they can be compared with standards or norms. Except
for a few financial ratios, other rations lack standards which are universally
recognized.
5. Accuracy of Financial information
The accuracy of a ratio depends on the accuracy of a ratio depends on the accuracy
of information derived from financial statements. If the statements are inaccurate,
same will be the result with ratios.
6. Consistency in preparation of financial statements
Ratios are not substitutes to financial statements. They can be meaningful only if
they are read along with information with which they are prepared. If the
information is detached, ratios themselves cannot convey much useful message.
7. Time lag
Ratio analysis will be fruitful only if the conclusions are conveyed quickly to the
management. If there is a delay, the utility of the data is diminished and the purpose
itself may be defeated.
8. Change in price level
Ratio analysis becomes redundant during periods of heavy price fluctuations.
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12.6 CLASSIFICATIONS OF RATIOS
Financial Ratios have been classified in several ways. A number of standpoints may be
used as base for classifying the ratios. It is a matter of great surprise that no uniformity
has been achieved in this regard. Different authors have classified the ratios in varying
groups. To illustrate, the short-term creditors’ main interest is in the liquidity position or
short-term solvency of the firm; long term creditors are more interested in the long-
term solvency and profitability analysis and the analysis of the firm’s financial conditions;
management is interested in evaluating every activity of the firm because they have to
protect the interests of all parties. Thus, important accounting ratios among them are
stated below:
174
Ratios] 3. Operating Profit Ratio
4. Expenses Ratios
5. Net Profit Ratio
In relation to
Investments
[Overall Profitability 1. Return on Investment
Ratios] [ROI]
2. Return on Equity Capital
3. Return on shareholders’
Funds
4. Return on Total Assets
5. Earning per share
6. Price Earning Ratio
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12.7 REARRANGEMENT OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
Before discussing the above classified ratios in detail, first we should know how to
rearrange the financial statements. For the purpose of analyzing the balance sheet and the
profit and loss account to compute ratios, it is useful to rearrange and redraft them. In the
process of rearrangement, several useful items of information emerge which facilitate the
calculation of different ratios.
With the rearranged income statement, the following additional items of information are
available, which are not usually found directly in the ordinary trading and profit loss
account:
1. Credit Sales; 2. Materials consumed; 3. cost of production; 4. Cost of goods sold; 5.
operating expenses; 6. Operating profit [Profit before interest and tax]; 7. Non-operating
incomes and expenses; and 8. Profit before tax.
The following are the rearranged trading and profit and loss account with imaginary
figures:
Income Statement
Particulars Rs. Rs. Particulars Rs. Rs.
To Opening Stock of 30,000 By
Sales
materials
Add: Purchases 1,50,000 Credit
5,00,000
Sales
1,80,000 Less: Sales
20,000
Returns
Less: Closing Stock 20,000 Net Credit
4,80,000
of materials Sales
Materials consumed 1,60,000 Cash Sales 40,000 5,20,000
To Wages 40,000
To Manufacturing
30,000
expenses
Cost of Production 2,30,000
Add: Opening stock
80,000
of Finished Stock
3,10,000
Less: Closing stock
40,000
of Finished Stock
Cost of Goods Sold 2,70,000
To Gross profit c/d 2,50,000
5,20,000 5,20,000
To Operating Expenses: By Gross
2,50,000
Profit b/d
Administrative 50,000
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Expenses
Selling Expenses 30,000
Distribution 20,000
1,00,000
Expenses
To Operating Profit C/d 1,50,000
2,50,000 2,50,000
To Non-Operating By Operating
1,50,000
Expenses: Profit b/d
Interest on 20,000 By Non-
Debentures Operating
incomes:
Interest on bank 30,000 Interest on
10,000
loans Investments
Goodwill written off 10,000 Profit on
sale of 40,000 50,000
machinery
Loss on sale of 10,000
70,000
buildings
To Profit Before Tax
1,30,000
c/d
2,00,000 2,00,000
To Provision for tax By Profit
before Tax 1,30,000
30,000
b/d
To Net Profit c/d 1,00,000
1,30,000 1,30,000
The following is the rearranged Balance Sheet for Ratio Analysis, which provides the
following additional information which is not usually found in an ordinary Balance Sheet:
177
Inventories [stock of materials,
Work-in-progress and Finished goods] 1,80,000
Current Assets 3,80,000
Less: Current Liabilities 1,80,000
WORKING CAPITAL 2,00,000
CAPITAL EMPLOYED 7,00,000
Less: Long-term borrowings/External Equities:
Debentures 1,00,000
Long-term borrowings from banks etc. 1,00,000 2,00,000
Shareholders’ Funds 5,00,000
Less: Preference Share Capital 1,00,000
Equity Shareholders’ funds/ Net Worth/Equity 4,00,000
The primary objective of a business undertaking is to earn profits. Profits earnings are
considered essential for the survival of the business. Profit is the engine that drives the
business firms. Profits to the management are the test of efficiency and a measurement of
control; to the owners, a measure of worth of their investments; to the creditors, the
margin of safety; to employees, a source of fringe benefits; to Government, a measure of
tax paying capacity and the basis of legislative action; to customers, a hint to demand for
better quality and price cuts; to an enterprise, less cumbersome source of fiancé for growth
and existence and finally to the country, profits are an index of economic progress. Ability
to make maximum profit from optimum utilization of resources by a business concern is
termed as “profitability”. Profit is an absolute measure of earning capacity. Profitability
depends upon sales, cost of utilization of resources, investments etc and a most
meaningful relative term. Thus, profitability ratios are calculated to measure the overall
efficiency. Generally, the profitability ratios are calculated either in relation to sales or in
relation to investment. The various profitability ratios are discussed below:
178
1. Gross Profit Ratio
Gross Profit ratio indicates the difference between sales and direct costs. It explain the
relationship between gross profit and net sales. It is also known as Gross Margin or
Trading margin ratio.
Formula
2. Operating Ratio
This ratio matches cost of goods sold and other operating expenses with sales. Operating ratio
measures the amount of expenditure incurred in production, sales and distribution of output. It
indicates operational efficiency of the firm. Lower the ratio is more is the efficiency. The ratio should
be low enough to provide fair return to the shareholders and other investors.
Formula
Total Operating expenses here include cost of goods sold administrative expenses and
selling and distribution expenses. Generally finance expenses like interest are not
included under operating expenses.
Net sales mean total sales minus sales returns.
Formula
Operating Profit Ratio = Operating Profit x 100
Net Sales
179
4. Expenses Ratio
The expenses ratios are also known as supporting ratios to operating ratio. They indicate
the efficiency with which business as a whole functions. It is better for the concern to
know how it is able to save or waste over expenditure in respect of different items of
expenses. Therefore, each aspect of Cost of Goods Sold and operating expenses are
analysed. The formulas for some of the expenses are given below:
Formula
Selling and Distribution Expenses Ratio = Selling and Distribution Expenses x 100
Net Sales
Similar ratios can also be calculated for each item of cost, namely, direct material
expenses ratio, direct wage cost etc. where each item of cost/expense is the numerator and
net sales is the denominator.
Formula
180
Illustration 12.1
Profit and Loss Accounting of Greenville Ltd. us given below:
Particulars Rs. Particulars Rs.
To Opening Stock 2,00,000 By Sales 16,00,000
To Purchases 12,00,000 By Closing Stock 3,20,000
To Administration Expenses 1,20,000 By Dividend 4,000
To Selling Expenses 80,000
To Financial Expenses 40,000
To Loss on Sale of Assets 5,000
To Net profits 2,79,000
19,24,000 19,24,000
Solution 12.1
It is appropriate to redraft the Profit and Loss Account given before calculating
profitability [general] ratios:
181
Operating Pr ofit
3,20,000
[3] Operating Profit Ratio = x100 = × 100 = 20.00 %
16,00,000
Net Sales
Selling Expesnes
80,000
b. Selling Expenses Ratio = x100 = × 100 = 5.00 %
16,00,000
Net Sales
Finance Expesnes
40,000
c. Finance Expenses Ratio = x100 = × 100 = 2.50 %
16,00,000
Net Sales
182
Illustration 12.2
NSG Enterprises present you the following income statement and request you to calculate
[1] Operating Ratio; [2] Expenses Ratio; [3] Operating Profit Ratio; [4] Gross Profit Ratio
and [5] Net Profit Ratio.
Income Statement
Particulars Rs. Rs.
Sales 8,60,000
Less: Sales Returns 60,000
Net Sales 8,00,000
Less: Cost of Goods Sold 3,50,000
Gross Profit 5,00,000
Add: Non-Operating Incomes:
Profit on Sale of Investments 30,000
Income from Investments 20,000 50,000
4,50,000
Less: Operating Expenses:
Administrative Expenses 40,000
Selling Expenses 60,000
Distribution Expenses 20,000
Non-Operating Expenses:
Finance Expenses 30,000
Loss on Sale of Plant 20,000
Provision for Income Tax 30,000
Net Profit 3,00,000
Solution 12.2
Administrative, selling and Distribution are the operating expenses. Finance expenses are
generally regarded as non-operating. Similarly provisions for tax, loss on sale of plant are
also non-operating losses or expenses.
183
Selling Expesnes
60,000
b. Selling Expenses Ratio = x100 = × 100 = 7.50 %
8,00,000
Net Sales
c. Distribution Expenses Ratio =
Distribution Expesnes
20,000
= x100 = × 100 = 2.50 %
8,00,000
Net Sales
Finance Expesnes
30,000
d. Finance Expenses Ratio = x100 = × 100 = 3.75 %
8,00,000
Net Sales
Operating Pr ofit
3,30,000
3. Operating Profit Ratio = x100 = × 100 = 41.25 %
8,00,000
Net Sales
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possible that profit in terms of sales may be sufficient but sales and/or profits with regard
to capital may be inadequate. Therefore, the state of efficiency cannot not be judged by
the volume of profits alone; we have to consider the size of investment along with profit.
The shareholders can measure the success of a firm in terms of profit related to capital
employed. The efficiency can only be judged by calculating return on capital employed or
with investments. The volume of profit depends to a great extent upon the volume of
investments. Investments are represented by those assets which are acquired for
conducting the business operations, mainly production and sales and the size of
investments [assets] certainly affects the volume of profit. The important categories of
such ratios are discussed below:
1. Return on Investment [ROI]
2. Return on Shareholders’ Funds
3. Return on Equity Shareholders’ Funds
4. Return on Total Assets
5. Earning per share
6. Price Earning Ratio
The term operating profits means profit before interest and tax.
The term capital employed has been interpreted in different ways by different accountants
and authors. Some of the different meanings of capital employed are given below:
[a] Total of all assets i.e., fixed as well as current assets
[b] Total of Fixed Assets
[c] Total of Long-term funds employed in the business i.e.,
[Share capital + Reserves and Surplus + Long-term loans] – [Non-business assets +
Fictitious assets]
[d] Net Working Capital + Fixed Assets
185
The term ‘Operating Profit’ means ‘Profit before Interest and Tax’. The term ‘Interest’
means ‘Interest on long-term borrowings’. Interest on short-term borrowings will be
deducted for computing operating profit. Non-trading incomes or non-trading losses or
expenses such as loss on account of will also be excluded.
Return on Shareholders’ Fund = Net Profit after Interest and Tax x 100
Shareholders’ Funds
The term Net Profit after Interest and Tax as used here, means net income after payment
of interest and tax including net non-operating income [i.e., Non-operating income minus
non-operating expenses]. It is the final income that is available for distribution as
dividends to shareholders. Shareholders’ funds include both preference and equity share
capital and all reserves and surplus belonging to shareholders.
Formula
The term equity shareholders funds [or] Equity or Net Worth refers to equity share capital
+ Reserves and Surplus + Profits – Accumulated Losses.
186
Formula
The inclusion of interest is conceptually sound because total assets have been financed
from the ‘pool’ of funds supplied by the creditors and the owners. It will be proper to
exclude fictitious assets as they represent debit balance of P/L Account, preliminary
expenses etc.
Formula
In the share market, generally, investors are accustomed to judge companies on the basis
of EPS.
Formula
Generally, higher the price-earning ratio the better it is. If the P/E ratio falls, the
management should look into the causes that have resulted into the fall of this ratio.
187
Illustration 12.3
The following information is extracted from the books of Confident Co. Ltd. You are
required to rearrange the information for Finance Analysis and calculate [1] Return on
Investment [ROI] or Return on Capital Employed; [2] Return on Shareholders’ Funds [3]
Return on Equity Shareholders’ Funds and [4] Return on Total Assets.
Solution 12.3
188
Less: Debentures 2,50,000
Shareholders Funds 12,50,000
Less: Preference Share Capital 2,00,000
Equity Shareholder Funds 10,50,000
Represented by:
Equity Share Capital 3,00,000
Retained Earning 7,50,000 10,50,000
[4,00,000+2,00,000+1,50,000] -
= × 100
Equity Shareholders ' Funds
189
Net Pr ofit after Tax + Interest
× 100
Total ' Assets
1,50,000 + 25,000 1,75,000
= × 100 = = 10.77 %
10,75,000 + 5,00,000 + 50,000 16,25,000
Illustration 12.4
Calculate the Earnings per Share from the following information:
Net Profit before Tax Rs.10,00,000
Tax on Profits 50 %
15 % Preference Share Capital [Rs.10 each] Rs.2,00,000
Equity Share Capital 4,700 shares of Rs.10 each Rs.4,70,000
Solution 12.4
Calculation of Net Profits after Tax and Preference Dividend
Particulars Rs.
Net Profit before Tax 10,00,000
Less: Tax on Profit at 50 % [10,00,000 x 50 /100] 5,00,000
Profit After Tax 5,00,000
Less: Preference Dividend [2,00,000 x 15/100] 30,000
Profit after Preference Dividend 4,70,000
4,70,000
= = = Rs.100 per Share
4,700
Number of Equity Shares
Earnings per share indicate the profits available for equity shareholders. The market price
of a company’s share is more or less in consonance with EPS. A higher EPS invariable
pushes up the share price in the stock exchanges, thus increasing the shareholders’ wealth.
Illustration 12.5
The following information is obtained from the books of Bolt Enterprises Ltd.
Profit after Tax Rs.2,77,000
Equity Dividend paid 20 %
Market price of equity shares Rs.50 per share
190
The company’s share capital consists of the following:
40,000 Equity Shares of Rs.20 each
30,000 9 % Preference Shares of Rs.10 each.
Calculate Price Earning Ratio.
Solution 12.5
Calculation of Earning per Share:
Particulars Rs.
Profit After Tax 2,77,000
Less: Preference Dividend [3,00,000 x 9/100] 27,000
Profit after Preference Dividend 2,50,000
Financial or Solvency ratios include all those ratios which express financial position of the
business. Financial position may mean differently to different persons interested in the
business concern. Short term Creditors are interested in liquidity position of the business
whereas long-term creditors are more concerned about debit-equity or solvency position of
the concern. The proprietors/investors are more interested about their capital intactness.
Thus, the term financial position generally refers to short-term and long-term solvency of
the business concern, indicating safety of different interested parties. It is sound
principle of finance that the short-term requirements of the funds should be met out of
short-term funds and long-term requirements should be out of long-term funds. Financial
ratios are calculated on the basis of items of the Balance Sheet. Therefore they are also
called Balance Sheet Ratios. The significant financial ratios classified into three broad
categories:
191
12.9.1 Proprietary Ratios / Overall Solvency Ratios
1. Proprietary Ratio;
2. Solvency Ratio.
1. Proprietary Ratio
Proprietary ratio is also known as Equity Ratio or Shareholders’ to Total Assets Ratio or
Net worth to Total Assets Ratio. This ratio establishes the relationship between
shareholders’ funds and total assets of the firm. The components of this ratio are
shareholders’ fund or Proprietors’ funds and Total Assets. The shareholders’ funds are
equity share capital, preference share capital, undistributed profits, reserves and surplus.
Out of this amount, accumulated losses should be deducted. The Total assets on the other
hand denote total resources of the assets.
Formula
This ratio shows the general soundness of the company. As this ratio represents the
relationship of owners’ funds to total assets, higher the ratio or the share of the
shareholders in the total capital of the company, better is the long-term solvency position
of the business. This ratio indicates the extent to which the assets of the company can be
lost without affecting the interest of the creditors of the company. A ratio below 50 % may
be alarming for the creditors since they may have to lose in the event of company’s
liquidation on account of heavy losses.
192
2. Solvency Ratio / Total Debt Ratio
It is a ratio which relates the total tangle assets with the total borrowed funds. In a sense,
it is the ‘other side of the coin’ for proprietary ratio. Simply it can be calculated as 100-
proprietary ratio.
Formula
Illustration 12.6
From the following balance sheet of a company you are required to calculate Proprietary
Ratio and Solvency Ratio.
Solution 12.6
Proprietary ratio = Shareholders’ funds x 100
Total Tangible Assets
193
Illustration 12.7
From the balance Sheet given below calculate the Proprietary ratio and solvency Ratio.
Solution 12.7
194
12.9.2 Liquidity Ratios Short-term Solvency Ratio
Liquidity refers to the ability of a concern to meet its current obligations as and when they
become due. The short-term obligations of a firm can be met only when there are
sufficient liquid assets. Therefore, a firm must ensure that it does not suffer from lack of
liquidity or the capacity to pay its current obligations. To measure the liquidity of a firm,
the following ratios are calculated:
1. Current Ratio
2. Quick Ratio
3. Cash Position Ratio [Absolute Liquid Ratio]
1. Current Ratio
The ratio of current assets to current liabilities is called ‘Current Ratio’. In order to
measure the short-term liquidity or solvency of a concern, comparison of current assets
and current liabilities is inevitable. Current ratio indicates the ability of a concern to meet
its current obligations as and when they are due for payment.
Formula
The term current assets includes sundry debtors, stock, bills receivables, bank and cash
balances, prepaid expenses, income due and short-term investments.
The term current liabilities include creditors, bank overdraft, bills payable, outstanding
expenses, income received in advance etc.
Standard:
Internationally accepted current ratio is 2:1 i.e., current assets shall be 2 times to current
liabilities.
The ability of the current concern also depends on composition of current assets. If current
assets have more of stock, debtors, other than cash and bank, it may be difficult to meet
current obligations. But at the same time most of the current assets consist of bank and
cash, it is easier to meet the obligations. A very high current ratio also does not indicate
efficiency since it means less efficient use of funds. A high current ratio also indicates
dependence on long-term sources of raising funds. Long-term funds are more expensive
than current liabilities. A ratio of less than 2 indicates inadequate current assets to meet
current liabilities. Ideal ratio of ‘2’ is insisted because even if current assets are reduced to
half i.e., ‘1’ instead of ‘2’, creditors will be able to get their dues in full. The difference
between the current assets and current liabilities acts as ‘Cushion’ and provides flexibility
for payments.
195
2. Quick Ratio / Liquid Ratio
Quick ratio also known as Acid test or Liquid Ratio is a more rigorous test of liquidity
than the current ratio. Current assets include inventories and prepaid expenses which are
not easily convertible into cash within a short period. Quick ratio may be defined as the
relationship between quick/liquid assets and current liabilities. An asset is said to be
liquid if it can be converted into cash within a short-period without a loss of value. In that
sense, cash in hand and cash at bank are the most liquid assets. The other assets which
can be included in the liquid assets are bills receivables, sundry debtors, marketable
securities and short-term or temporary investments. Inventories cannot be termed to be a
liquid asset because they cannot be converted into cash immediately without a sufficient
loss of value. In the same manner, prepaid expenses are also excluded from the list of
quick/liquid assets because they are not expected to be converted into cash. The quick
ratio can be calculated by dividing the total of the quick assets by total current liabilities.
Thus,
Formula
Formula
196
Formula
Illustration 12.8
You are given the following information:
Rs.
Cash 18,000
Debtors 1,42,000
Closing Stock 1,80,000
Bills Payable 27,000
Creditors 50,000
Outstanding Expenses 15,000
Taxes payable 75,000
Calculate [a] Current Ratio; [b] Liquidity Ratio; and [c] Absolute Liquidity Ratio.
Solution 12.8
Current Assets = Cash + Debtors + C losing Stock
= 18,000+1,42,000+1,80,000
= Rs.3,40,000
Current Liabilities =Bills Payable + Creditors + Outstanding Expenses + Tax payables
= 27,000+50,000+15,000+75,000
= Rs.1,67,000
197
[c] Absolute Liquid Ratio = Absolute Quick Assets
Current Liabilities
Absolute Quick Assets = Cash and Bank Balances + Marketable Securities
= Rs.18,000
18,000
= 0.11 Times
1,67,000
Illustration 12.9
The following is the Balance Sheet of New India Ltd.
Solution 12.9
198
[a] Current Ratio = Current Assets
Current Liabilities
2,65,000
= = 1.61 Times
1,65,000
2,30,000
Acid-Test Ratio = = 1.704 Times
1,35000
Illustration 12.10
From following information given to you, find out [a] Current Assets and [b] Current
Liabilities.
[i] Current Ratio = 2.5
[ii] Liquid Ratio = 1.5
[iii] Working Capital = Rs.90,000.
199
Solution 12.10
Working Capital = Current Assets – Current Liabilities
Current Ratio = Current Assets / Current Liabilities
= 2.5 :1
Let current liabilities be x then current assets will be 2.5x
Working Capital = 2.5x-1.0x
Rs.90,000 = 1.5 x
x = Rs.90,000 / 1.5 = Rs.60,000
[a] So Current Liabilities Rs.60,000
[b] Current Assets Rs.1,50,000 [60,000 x 2.5]
Illustration 12.11
The following information of a company is given:
Current Ratio -2.5:1 ; Acid-Test Ratio – 1.5:1; Current Liabilities Rs.50,000
Find out:
[a] Current Assets; [b] Liquid Assets; and [c] Inventory
Solution 12.11
Current Assets Current Assets
Current Assets = = 2 .5 =
50,000
Current Liabilities
200
12.9.3 Long-term Solvency Ratios
The long-term indebtedness of a firm includes debenture holders, financial institutions
providing medium and long-term loans and other creditors. Long-term creditors are
primarily interested in knowing the firm’s ability to pay regularly interest on long-term
borrowings, repayment of the principal amount at the maturity and the security of their
loans. Accordingly, long-term solvency ratios indicate a firm’s ability to meet the fixed
interest and costs and repayment schedules associated with its long-term borrowings. The
following ratios serve the purpose of determining the solvency of the concern;
1. Debt-Equity Ratio
2. Fixed Assets Ratio
3. Capital Gearing Ratio
4. Interest Coverage Ratio [Debt Service Ratio]
1. Debt-Equity Ratio
Debt-Equity ratio also known as External –Internal Equity Ratio is calculated to measure
the relative claims of outsiders [i.e., shareholders] against the firm’s assets. This ratio
indicates the relationship between the external equities or the outsiders’ funds and the
internal equities or the shareholders’ funds. It may be calculated as follows:
Formula
201
Ratios [i] and [ii] may be taken as ideal if they are 0.5 each, while the ratio [iii] may be
taken as ideal if it is 1. In other words, the investor may take debt-equity ratio as quite
satisfactory if shareholders’ funds and 1/3rd owned funds, may also not be considered as
unsatisfactory if the business needs heavy investments in fixed assets and has an assured
return on its investment e.g., in the case of public utility concerns. Thus, interpretation of
the ratio depends upon the purpose of analysis, the financial policy and the nature of
business of the firm.
Illustration 12.12
From the following balance sheet of Singur Nano Industries Ltd., you are required to
calculate debt equity ratio.
Solution 12.12
Debt Equity ratio is a very vital ratio for financial analysis but different experts on finance
attribute different meanings to it. There are four variations of the ratio in practice. From
the above data, debt equity ratio is calculated under all the four variations:
202
This variation of debt equity ratio shows the proportion of outsiders’ funds in retaliation to
owners’ funds.
1,20,000
Debt-Equity Ratio = = 0.80
1,50,000
In this variation, total long term funds are contrasted with the owners funds.
203
This variation of debt equity ratio, long-term borrowings are shown as a proportion of
owners’ funds. Among all the four variations of debt-equity ratio, this last variation
showing long-term debt as a proportion of owners’ funds is the most popular one.
Formula
The ratio should not generally be more than ‘1’. If the ratio is less than one it indicates
that a portion of working capital has been financed by long-term funds. It is desirable in
that part of working capital is core working capital and it is more or less a fixed item.
An ideal Fixed Assets Ratio is 0.67.
Fixed assets ratio of more than ‘1’ implies that fixed assets are purchased with short-term
funds, which is not a prudent policy.
Capital Gearing Ratio = Long term loans + Debentures + Preference Share Capital
Equity shareholders’ funds
Capital gearing ratio shows the proportion of various items of long-term finance employed
in the business. Its main emphasis is on indication of the proportion between owners’
funds and non owners’ funds. This proportion is called leverage. If the ratio is high, the
capital gearing is said to be high and if the ratio is low the capital gearing is said to be low.
The implication is that high gearing is trading on thin equity and low gearing is trading on
thick equity. Further highly geared capital structure is the indication for under
204
capitalization which means that amount of capital is disproportionate to the needs
measured by the volume of activity. A low gearing ratio indicates over capitalization.
The aim should be to avoid both high gearing and low gearing and achieve ‘Fair
capitalization”.
This ratio is meaningful to debenture holders and lenders of long-term loans. It highlights
the ability of the concern to meet interest commitments and its capacity to raise additional
funds in future. Higher the ratio better is the position of long-term creditors and the
company’s risk is lesser.
Illustration 12.13
Find out [1] Fixed Assets Ratio and [2] Capital Gearing Ratio
Solution 12.13
205
3,60,000
Fixed Assets Ratio = = 0.81
4,40,000
The fixed assets ratio shows the long-term funds used for financing fixed assets. The ratio
should not be more than 1. If it is less than 1, it shows that part of working capital has
been financed by long-term funds. If it is more than one [1], it means parts of the fixed
assets are financed with current funds. The former is desirable whereas the latter is
dangerous which may lead to liquidity crisis.
[ii]Capital Gearing Ratio = Long term loans + Debentures + Preference Share Capital
Equity shareholders’ funds
Capital gearing ratio refers to the proportion between fixed interest and dividend bearing
funds and equity shareholders funds in the capital employed. If the fixed interest and
fixed dividend bearing funds are more than equity shareholders funds the capital structure
is said to be high geared. If equity shareholders funds are more the capital is said to be
low geared. If the two are equal the capital structure is said to be evenly geared.
Illustration 12.14
Comment on the financial position of the company from the following balance sheets.
206
Solution 12.14
When comments on financial position of a company are invited, it implies a critical
examination of the solvency position of the company – both short-term solvency and long-
term solvency.
Short-term solvency is generally assessed on the basis of [1] Current Ratio and [2]
Liquidity Ratio.
Long-term solvency is assessed on the basis of [1] Debt-equity ratio; [2] Fixed Assets
Ratio; [3] Proprietary Ratio and [3] Solvency Ratio.
207
[B] LONG-TERM SOLVENCY RATIOS:
[1] Debt Equity Ratio
208
Shareholders ' Funds 3,00,000
= x100 = = x100 = 62.50 %
4,80,000
Total ' Tangible Assets
Comment:
Long-term solvency position of the company is good. Debt equity ratio of 0.53 shows
negligible risk. 60 % of the long term funds are invested in fixed assets which means a
reasonable position of long-term funds is used to finance the fixed portion of working
capital. Proprietary and solvency ratios are comfortable position of tangible assets.
Illustration 12.15
The following is the Balance Sheet of a Big Bang Ltd. as on 31st March:
Calculate : [1] Current Ratio; [2] Quick Ratio; [3] Inventory to Working Capital; [4] Debt
to Equity Ratio; [5] Proprietary Ratio; [6] Capital Gearing Ratio; and [7] Current Assets to
Fixed Assets.
209
Solution 12.15
[1] Current Ratio
Current Assets = Stock + Sundry Debtors + Bills Receivable + Bank
= 2,00,000+1,00,000+10,000+40,000
= Rs.3,50,000
Current Liabilities = Sundry Creditors + Bills Payable
= 1,00,000 + 50,000
= Rs.1,50,000
3,50,000
Current Ratio = = 2.33 : 1
1,50,000
[2] Quick/Liquid Ratio = Quick or Liquid Assets
[Acid-test Ratio] Current Liabilities
210
[5] Proprietary ratio = Shareholders’ funds
Total Tangible Assets
Total Tangible Assets = Total Assets
= Rs.8, 40,000
2,70,000
Proprietary Ratio = = 032 : 1
8,40,000
[6]Capital Gearing Ratio = Long term loans + Debentures + Preference Share Capital
Equity shareholders’ funds
These ratios are also called performance ratios or efficiency ratios. Activity ratios
highlight the operational efficiency of the business concern. The term operational
efficiency refers to effective, profitable and rational use of resources available to the
concern. In order to examine the judicious utilization of resources as well as the wisdom
and farsightedness in observing the financial policies laid down in this regard certain
ratios are computed and they are collectively called turnover or activity performance
ratios.
He ratios comprising this category are calculate with reference to sales or Cost of Goods
Sold and expressed in number of times i.e., rate of turning over or rotation. The activity
ratios indicate the briskness with which the business being carried on. Therefore, they are
also called ‘velocities’. Following are the activity ratios.
211
5. Creditors’ Turnover Ratio
6. Average Payment Period
7.Working Capital Turnover Ratio
8. Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio
9.Total Assets Turnover Ratio
Formula
Or
[iii] Stock Turnover Ratio = Net Sales__________
Average Inventory at selling price
Or
[vi] Stock Turnover Ratio = No. of units sold___
Average no of units in stock
The first and the third are mostly in use. The second formula can be used when cost of
goods sold is not available. Forth formula is used to eliminate the effect of changing
prices.
Cost of Goods sold = [Opening Stock + Purchases + Direct Expenses] – Closing stock
212
[b] In case of manufacturing concerns:
Cost of Goods Sold = [Total Cost of Production + opening stock of finished goods] –
Closing stock of finished goods]
Average stock may be taken as the average of stocks at the beginning and end of
the accounting period.
Stock turnover ratio indicates whether the investment in inventory is optimum. The
quantity of stock should be enough to meet the requirements of the business but it should
not be too excessive which locks up too much capital and may also lead to different types
of stock losses.
To judge the efficiency of stock turnover ratio it should be compared over a period of
time. A high inventory turnover ratio indicates efficient inventory management and
efficiency in business operations.
Inventory turnover ratio can be related to ‘time’. The ratio can be expressed in terms of
days or months.
Formula
213
The stock velocity of 73 days or 2.4 months conveys that on average every item of stock
remains in the store or 73 days or 2.4 months before it is sold or used. The general
objective is to increase the stock velocity as much as possible or in effect decrease the
days or months for which items remain in stock.
Illustration 12.16
From the following details of a trader you are required to calculate stock turnover ratio.
Rs.
Salas 39,984
Sales Returns 380
Opening Stock of Cost 1,378
Closing Stock of Cost 1,814
Total Gross Profit for the year 8,068
Solution 12.16
Stock Turnover Ratio = Cost of Goods Sold
Average Inventory
Cost of Goods Sold = Sales – Gross Profit
= [39,984-380] -8,068
= Rs.31,536
Illustration 12.17
Calculate stock turnover ratio and stock turnover period from the following:
Sales Rs.10,00,000; Gross Profit ratio 20 % ; Stock at the beginning of the year
Rs.1,75,000; stock at the end of the year Rs.1,45,000.
214
Solution 12.17
Formula
The term accounts receivables include ‘Trade Debtors’ and ‘Bills Receivables”.
215
The objective of this ratio is to measure the liquidity of receivables or obtaining the
average period over which receivables are uncollected.
If the information relating to credit sales and average debtors is not available, the
alternative is to calculate the debtors’ turnover ratio is:
However, it is to be noted that the first approach to the computation of the debtors’
turnover is superior. In case of the second approach the effect is that debtors’ turnover
ratio is inflated.
Formula
The higher the turnover ratio and shorter the average collection period, better is the
liquidity of debtors.
Illustration 12.18
Pink Ltd. sells goods on cash as well as on credit basis. The following information is
extracted from their books of accounts for 2008:
Rs.
Total Sales 1,00,000
Cash Sales [included in the above] 20,000
Sales Returns 7,000
Total debtors for sales as on 31st December 2008 9,000
Bills receivables as on 31st December 2008 2,000
216
You are required to calculate:
[a] Debtors/Receivable Turnover Ratio;
[b] The average Collection Period.
Solution 12.18
= Rs.9,000+Rs.2,000 = Rs.11,000
73,000
Debtors Turnover Ratio = = 6.636 times
11,000
365
Average Collection period in days = = 55 days
6.636
12
Average Collection period in months = = 1.8 months
6.636
9,000 + 2,000
Collection period in days = x365 = 55 days
73,000
217
9,000 + 2,000
Collection period in month = x12 = 1.8 months
73,000
Creditors’ turnover ratio indicates the number of times the payable rotate in a year. The
term accounts payable includes sundry creditors and bills payable. Payable turnover
indicates the relationship between net purchases for the whole year and total payables.
Formula
In case the details regarding credit purchases, opening and closing accounts payable have
not been given, the ratio may be calculated as follows:
Formula
218
[b] Average Payment Period
= Average Accounts Payable x Months[or] days in a year
Net Credit purchases for the year
A higher ratio indicates that creditors are not paid in time. A lower ratio indicates
payment of creditors promptly. Depending on the liquidity position of the firm, the kind of
payable turnover desirable can be planned.
Illustration 12.19
From the following information calculate creditors turnover ratio and average payment
period:
Rs.
Total Purchases 4,00,000
Cash purchases [included in above] 50,000
Purchases returns 20,000
Creditors at the end 60,000
Bills Payable at the end 20,000
Reserve for discount on creditors 5,000
Take 365 days in a year
Solution 12.19
219
= [Opening Creditors + Bills payable] + [Closing Creditors + Bills Payable ]
2
Since opening items are not given, closing creditors and bills are to be taken as average
payable.
= Rs.60,000+Rs.20,000 = Rs.80,000
3,30,000
Creditors Turnover Ratio = = 4.13 times
80,000
365
Average Payment period in days = = 88 days
4.13
12
Average Payment period in month = = 2.91 months
4.13
Alternatively:
60,000 + 20,000
Average Payment period in days = x365 = 88 days
3,30,000
Formula
Working capital Turnover Ratio = Cost of Goods Sold or[ Net Sales]
Net Working Capital
220
Illustration 12.20
Rs.
Cash 10,000
Bills Receivables 5,000
Sundry Debtors 25,000
Stocks 20,000
Sundry Creditors 30,000
Cost of Sales 1,50,000
Solution 12.20
Working capital Turnover Ratio = Cost of Goods Sold or[ Net Sales]
Net Working Capital
1,50,000
Working Capital Turnover Ratio = = 5 times
30,000
Formula
221
Here net fixed assets mean fixed assets minus depreciation.
The former formula which relates the fixed assets to the Cost of Goods Sold is more
popular and preferable.
Illustration 12.21
Following is the Balance Sheet of Alpha Ltd. as on 31st December 2008:
Sales for the year were Rs.14,00,000. Calculate fixed assets turnover ratio. Gross profit
ratio is 20 %.
Solution 12.21
14,00,000
Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio on Sales = = 2 times
7,00,000
Fixed Assets turnover ratio indicates the extent of utilization of fixed assets. Achieving
high turnover ratio with a given amount of fixed assets indicates efficiency in
management. A steadily growing fixed assets turnover ratio is the ideal.
222
9. Capital Turnover Ratio
Managerial efficiency is also calculated by establishing the relationship between Cost of
Goods Sold or sales with the amount of capital invested in the business. Capital turnover
ratio is calculated with the help of the following formula:
Formula
Formula
Higher ratio indicates higher efficiency and lower ratio indicates ineffective usage of
capital.
Illustration 12.22
Solution 12.22
223
Cost of Goods Sold = Sales – Gross Profit
= Rs.3,20,000 – [3,20,000 X 25 %]
= Rs. 2,40,000
Capital employed = Rs.1,20,000
Capital Turnover Ratio
2,40,000
= = 2 times
1,20,000
Illustration 12.23
Green Mango sells goods on cash and credit terms and also purchased goods on cash and
credit terms. The following particulars are obtained from their books:
Rs. Rs.
Total sales 5,00,000 Cash purchases 50,000
Cash sales 40,000 Purchases returns 10,000
Sales Returns 20,000 Creditors at the end 60,000
Debtors at the end 80,000 Bills payable at the end 20,000
Bills Receivables at the end 20,000 Opening stock 50,000
Reserve for doubtful debts 1,000 Closing stock 40,000
Reserve for discount on creditors 2,000 Gross profit 1,00,000
Total purchases 3,00,000 Fixed assets 10,00,000
Solution 12.23
224
[2] Stock Turnover Period = Days or months in the year
Inventory Turnover Ratio
= Rs.80,000+Rs.20,000 = Rs.1,00,000
4,40,000
Debtors Turnover Ratio = = 4.4 times
1,00,000
225
[Accounts payable include creditors and bills payable]
Illustration 12.24
The following information is given about M/s. White and Rose Ltd., for the year ending
December 31, 2007.
[i] Stock turnover ratio = 6 times
[ii] Gross profit ratio = 20 % on sales
[iii] Sales for 2007 = Rs.3,00,000
[iv] Closing stock is Rs.10,000 more than the opening stock.
[v] Opening Creditors = Rs.20,000
[vi] Closing Creditors = Rs.30,000
[vii] Trade debtors at the end = Rs.60,000
[viii] Net working capital = Rs.50,000
Find out :
[a] Average stock
[b] Purchases
[c] Creditors turnover ratio
[d] Average Payment period
[e] Average Collection period
[f] Working capital turnover ratio.
226
Solution 12.24
2,40,000
Stock Turnover Ratio 6=
Average Stock
2,40,000
Average Stock = Average Stock = = Rs.40,000
6
Rs.70,000
Opening Stock = = Rs.35,000
2
Closing Stock = Rs.35,000+10,000 = Rs.45,000
227
2
= Rs.20,000+ Rs.30,000 = Rs.25,000
2
2,50,000
Creditors Turnover Ratio = = 10 times
25,000
[d] Average Payment Period = Months[or] days in a year_
Creditors Turnover
365
Average Payment period in days = = 37 days
10
[e] Debtors Collection Period = Average Debtors x 365r_
Net Credit Sales r
60,000 x 365
Average Collection period in days = = 73 days
3,00,000
[f] Working capital Turnover Ratio = Cost of Goods Sold or[ Net Sales]
Net Working Capital
2,40,000
Working Capital Turnover Ratio = = 4.8 times
50,000
Illustration 12.25
Given below is the summarized balance sheet and profit and loss of Satin Ltd. the as on
31st December 2007. You are required to calcualte
[1] Current Ratio; [2] Quick Ratio; [3] Fixed Assets ratio; [4] Debt-equity Ratio;
[5] Proprietary Ratio; [6] Stock Turnover Ratio; [7] Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio;
[8] Return on capital employed; [9] Debtors turnover ratio; [10] Creditors turnover ratio ;
[11] Net Profit ratio and [12] Operating ratio.
228
Profit and Loss Account
Particulars Rs. Particulars Rs.
To Opening Stock 19,90,000 By Sales 1,70,00,000
To Purchases 1,09,05,000 By Closing Stock 29,80,000
To Direct Expenses 2,85,000
To Gross Profit c/d 68,00,000
1,99,80,000 1,99,80,000
To Administrative Expenses 30,00,000 By Gross Profit b/d 68,00,000
To Selling & Distribution Expes. 6,00,000 By Non-Operating
To Financial Expenses 3,00,000 Income 1,80,000
To Other non-operating expenses 80,000
To Net profits 30,00,000
69,80,000 69,80,000
Solution 12.25
229
= Rs.46,00,000
Long-term Funds = Share capital +Reserves & L A/c +Debentures
= 40,00,000+18,00,000+6,00,000+6,00,000
= Rs.70,00,000
46,00,000
Fixed Assets Ratio = = 0.66 times
70,00,000
230
[7] Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio = Cost of Sales __
Net Fixed Assets
Cost of goods sold = Rs.1,02,00,000
Fixed assets = Rs.46,00,000
1,02,00,000
Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio = = 2.22 times
46,00,000
1,09,05,000
Creditors Turnover Ratio = = 4.19 times
26,00,000
231
Average Payment Period
= Average Accounts Payable x Months[or] days in a year
Net Credit purchases for the year
26,00,000
Creditors’ payment period in months = x12 = 2.86 month
1,09,05,000
26,00,000
Creditors’ payment period in days = x365 = 87 days
1,09,05,000
[11] Net Profit Ratio = Net Profit x 100
Net Sales
30,00,000
Net Profit Ratio = x100 = 17.64 %
1,70,00,000
[12] Operating Ratio = Cost of Goods old + Operating Expenses x 100
Net Sales
Cost of Goods Sold = Sales – Gross Profit
= 1,70,00,000-68,00,000
= Rs.1,02,00,000
Operating Expenses = Administrative Expenses and selling Expenses
= 30,00,000+6,00,000
= Rs.36,00,000
1,02,00,000 + 36,00,000 1,38,00,000
Operation Ratio = x100 = x100 = 81.17 %
1,70,00,000 170,00,000
Illustration 12.26
232
Other Information:
Total Sales Rs.4,00,000 ; 20 % of which is made on credit. Gross profit and Net profit
[after tax] for the year ended amounted to Rs.80,000 and Rs.20,000 respectively.
Solution 12.26
Workings:
1. Current Assets = Stock +Debtors + Cash at Bank
= 90,000+21,000+5,000
= Rs.1,16,000
2. Current/Liquid Liabilities = Sundry Creditors + Bills Payable
= 28,000+12,000
= Rs.40,000
3. Liquid Assets = Sundry Debtors + Cash at bank
= 21,000+5,000
= Rs.26,000
4. Fixed Assets = Land and Buildings +Machinery +Furniture
= 2,50,000+1,75,000+10,000
= Rs.4,35,000
5. Shareholders’ Funds = Equity Share Capital + Preference Share
[Proprietors’ funds] Capital + General Reserve + P / L A/c less
Goodwill + preliminary Expenses]
= 2,50,000+1,50,000+20,000+15,000-
[20,000+4,000]
= Rs.4,11,000
6. Total Debts/Outside Liabilities = 5 % Debentures + Current liabilities
= 1,00,000+40,000
= Rs.1,40,000
7. Equity Shareholders’ Funds = Shareholders’ Funds –preference Share capital
= 4,11,000-1,50,000
= Rs.2,61,000
8. Total Assets = Fixed Assets + Total Current Assets
= 4,35,000+1,16,000
= Rs.5,51,000
9. Cost of Goods Sold = Sales – Gross Profit
= Rs.4,00,000-80,000
= Rs.3,20,000
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[A] Short-term Solvency Ratios:
Current Assets
1,16,0000
[1] Current Ratio = = = 2.9 times
40,000
Current Laibilities
Liquid Assets
26,000
[2] Liquid Ratio = = = 0.65 times
40,000
Liquid [or ] Current Laibilities
Fixed Assets
4,35,000
[6] Fixed Assets Ratio = = = 0.81 times
5,35,000
Total Long − term Funds
234
Net Pr ofit
20,000
[9] Net Profit Ratio = x100 = x100 = 5 %
4,00,000
Net Sales
Credit Sales
80,000
[12] Debtors Turnover Ratio = = = 3.81 times
21,000
Average Accounts Re ceivables
365 365
Debtors Collection Period = = = 96 days
3.81
Debtors Turnover Ratio
The following is the Balance Sheet of Dhoni Ltd. as on 31st March 2008.
235
Other Information:
[1] Net Sales Rs.6,00,000
[2] Cost of Goods Sold Rs.5,16,000
[3] Net Income before Tax Rs.40,000
[4] Net Income after Tax Rs.20,000
Accounting ratios establishes quantitative relationship between two or more items of the
financial statements connected with each other and it may be expressed either in
proportion or in times or at percentages. On function wise ratios can be classified into
three viz., Profitability Ratios, Solvency or financial Ratios and Activity ratios.
236
4. Shareholders’ Funds = Equity Share capital+ Preference Share Capital+
[Proprietary Funds] Reserves & Surplus
= 1,00,000+20,000+80,000
= Rs.2,00,000
5. Total Tangible Assets = Rs.4,00,000
6. Gross Profit = Sales – Cost of Goods sold
= 6,00,000-5,16,000
= Rs.84,000
7. Net Capital employed = [Share Capital+7% Preference Share Capital +
Reserves and Surplus+6 % Debentures] minus
investments outside the business]
= [1,00,000+20,000+80,000+1,40,000]-30,000
= Rs.3,10,000
8. Average Capital employed= Net Capital employed at the end – ½ net profit after
tax
= 3,10,000-[1/2of Rs.20,000]
= Rs.3,00,000
Liquid Assets
80,000
[2] Liquid Ratio = = = 1.33 : 1
60,000
Liquid [or ] Current Laibilities
External Equities
2,00,000
= = = 1:1
[4] Debt-Equity Ratio 2,00,000
Internal ' Equities
237
[5] Ratio of Fixed Assets to Proprietors’ Funds
Fixed Assets
2,60,000
= = = 1.3 : 1
2,00,000
Shareholders ' Funds
Net Pr ofit
20,000
[8] Net Profit Ratio = x100 = x100 = 3.33 %
6,00,000
Net Sales
238
[D] ACTIVITY RATIOS:
Cost of Goods Sold Pr ofit
5,16,000
[11] Stock Turnover Ratio = = = 8.6 times
60,000
Average Stock
Note: As there is no opening stock, closing stock is taken as the average stock.
239
UNIT - IV
This unit gives the conceptual and practical input on flow of funds
LESSON-13
FUNDS FLOW ANALYSIS
Contents:
13.0 Aims and objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Concepts of Funds Flow Statement
13.3 Objectives of Funds Flow Statement
13.4 Current and Non-current items
13.5 Procedure for Knowing Flow of Funds
13.6 Funds Flow Statement Vs Income Statement and Balance Sheet
13.7 Importance or Uses Or Benefits Of Funds Flow Statement
13.8 Limitations of Funds Flow Statement
13.9 Steps in Preparation of Funds Flow Statement
13.10 Preparation of Statement of Changes in Working Capital
13.11 Preparation of Non-Current Accounts
13.12 Calculation of Funds from Operation
13.13 Preparation of Funds Flow Statement
13.14 Comprehensive Illustrations
13.15 Let us Sum Up
13.16 Lesson-end Activities
13.17 Model Answers to “Check your Progress”
13.18 Suggested Reading/References/Sources
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13.1 INTRODUCTION
Every firm prepares customarily prepares its balance sheet at the end of its accounting
year. It is a statement of assets and liabilities of the company, as on a particular date. The
Balance Sheet reveals the financial position of the firm. However, it has limited role to
play in financial analysis, as it does not present a detailed analysis. Normally, balance
sheet portrays the financial position of the undertakings, the asset side showing the
development of resources in various types of properties and the liability side indicating the
manner in which these resources were obtained. Thus, balance Sheet is merely a static
statement and it does not show the movement of funds. However, in business concerns,
funds flow from different sources and similarly funds are invested in various sources of
investment continuously. The study and control of this funds flow process is the one of
the core objective of financial management to assess the soundness and the solvency of a
business firm. Hence, another statement has become necessary to show the changes in
funds during a period and explain them. The statement is called Funds Flow Statement.
Meaning of Fund
The term “Funds” conveys different meanings to different experts. It’s meaning spans
from “Total resources of a business firm” to “Cash and near cash items”.
[a] In a narrow sense, it means cash only and a funds flow statement prepared on this
basis is called as Cash Flow Statement.
[b] In a broader sense, the term ‘funds’ refers to money values in whatever form it may
exist. Here, ‘funds’ means all financial resources, used in business whether in the form of
men, materials, money, machinery and others. The statement prepared based on this
broader sense is refereed as “Statement of Changes in Financial Position”.
[c] In a popular sense, the most acceptable meaning of the “fund” is ‘working capital’.
Working capital is the excess of Current Assets over Current Liabilities. While attempting
to understand the concept of Funds Flow Analysis, we shall also abide by the popular
definition of funds, meaning working capital. Therefore, in this lesson, we shall generally
refer to ‘funds’ as working capital and a funds flow statement as a statement of sources
and application of funds.
Concept of Flow of Funds
The term ‘Flow” means movement and includes both ‘inflow’ and ‘outflow’. The term
‘flow of funds’ means transfer of economic values from one asset of equity to another.
Flow of funds is said to have taken place when any transaction makes changes in the
amount of funds available before happening of the transaction. If the effect of transaction
results in the increase of funds, it is called a source of funds and if it results in decrease of
funds, it is known as an application of funds.
241
According to the working capital concept of funds, the term ‘flow of funds’ refers to the
movement of funds in the working capital. If any transaction results in the increase in
working capital, it is said to be a source or inflow of funds and if it results in decrease of
working capital, it is said to be an application or out flow of funds.
Definition
242
13.4 CURRENT AND NON-CURRENT ITEMS
WORKING CAPITAL
Funds flow statement is based on the working capital concept of funds. However,
working capital is also a debatable term. The working capital broadly classified into two
on the basis of its concept. ‘Gross working capital” concept refers to the total of current
assets. Another concept is “Net Working Concept”. It is the excess of Current Assets
over Current Liabilities. Funds flow statement is generally prepared and interpreted the
basis of ‘Net Working Capital”
To understand flow of funds, it is essential to classify various accounts and balance sheets
items into current and non-current categories.
Current accounts can either be current assets or current liabilities. Current assets are those
assets which in the ordinary course of business can be or will be converted into cash
within a short period of normally one accounting year.
Current liabilities are those liabilities which are to be paid in the ordinary course of
business within a shot period of normally one accounting year out of the current assets or
the income of the business.
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- Work-in-Progress 6. Tax payables
- Stores and Spares 7. Dividend payable
- Finished Goods 8. Provision for Taxation,
4. Temporary or Marketable Investments [if it does not amount to
5. Short term loans and Advances appropriation of profit]
6. Prepaid Expenses
7. Accrued Incomes
8. Advances recoverable in cash
- Advances and loans to employees,
- Advances to suppliers, etc
Non-Current Assets
All assets other than the current assets can be termed as non-current assets. They include
the following:
[a] Fixed assets like land, buildings, machinery, furniture, loose tools, etc.
[b] Intangible assets like goodwill, patents, copyrights, Trade marks etc.
[c] Long term investments in shares of other companies, Govt. Bonds etc.
[d] Miscellaneous Expenditure debit balance of profit and loss account,
discount on issue of shares, debentures, preliminary expenses, etc.
Non-Current Liabilities
All those liabilities, which are not included under ‘Current Liabilities” may be termed as
‘Non-Current Liabilities”.
Equity, preference Share Capitals, Debentures, Long-term loans, Share premium account,
share forfeited account, Capital Reserve Capital Redemption Reserve, Provision for
depreciation against fixed assets, and all appropriation of Profits like General Reserve,
Dividend Equalization Fund, Provision for Taxation, proposed Dividend etc.
244
13.5 PROCEDURE FOR KNOWING FLOW OF FUNDS
1. Analyse the transactions and find out the two accounts involved;
2. Make Journal Entry of the transaction;
3. Determine whether the accounts involved in the transaction are current or non-
current;
4. If both the accounts involved are current i.e., either current assets or current
liabilities, it does not result in the flow of funds;
5. If both the accounts involved are of non-current nature, i.e. either permanent assets
or permanent liabilities, it does not result in the flow of funds;
6. If the accounts involved are such that one is a current account while the other is a
non-current account, i.e., current assets and permanent liability, or current assets and
fixed asset, or current liability and fixed asset or current liability and permanent
liability then it results in the flow of funds.
[a] Any transaction between a current account and another current account does
not affect funds:
Thus
1. A transaction involving two current assets does not affect funds;
2. A transaction involving two current liabilities does not affect funds;
3. A transaction involving a current asset and a current liability does not affect funds.
[b] Any transaction between a non-current account and another non- current
account does not affect funds:
Thus
1. A transaction involving two non-current or fixed assets does not affect funds;
2. A transaction involving two long term or non-current liabilities does not affect
funds;
3. A transaction involving a non-current asset and a non-current liability does not affect
funds.
[c] Any transaction between a current account and a non - current account affect
funds:
Thus
1. A transaction involving a long term liability [non-current liability] and a current
asset affect funds;
2. A transaction involving a long term liability [non-current liability] and a current
liability affect funds;
245
3. A transaction involving a non-current assets and a current asset affect funds;
4. A transaction involving a non-current asset and a current liability affect funds.
From the above discussion we can come to conclusions:
Transaction between two current items or two non current [long-term] items does not
affect funds or working capital.
246
Differences between Funds Flow Statement and Balance Sheet
Funds flow statement is an important tool in the armory of the finance manager. It helps
in the planning, deployment and controlling of funds year after year. The following are
the benefits or uses of funds flow statement.
1. Funds flow statement determines the financial consequences of business operations.
It shows how the funds were obtained and used in the past. Financial manager can
take correcting actions.
2. The management can formulate its financial policies – dividend, reserve etc. on the
basis of the statement.
3. It serves as a control device, when comparing with budgeted figures. The financial
manger can take remedial steps, if there is any deviation.
4. It points out the sound and weak financial position of the enterprise.
5. It points out the causes for changes in working capital.
247
6. It enables the Bankers, Creditors, or financial institutions in assessing the degree of
risk involved in granting credit to the business.
7. The management can rearrange the firm’s financing more effectively on the basis of
the statement.
8. Various uses of funds can be known and after comparing them with the uses of
previous years, improvement or downfall in the firm can be assessed.
9. The statement compared with the budget concerned will show to what extent the
resources of the firm were used according to plan and what extent the utilization was
unplanned.
10. It tells whether sources of funds are increasing or decreasing or constant.
1. The Funds Flow Statement lacks originality because it is only rearrangement of data
appearing in accounts books.
2. It is historical in nature. It shows what happened in the past. So, necessarily, its
value is limited from the point of view of future operations.
3. It indicates Funds Flow in a summary form and it does not show various changes
which take place continuously.
4. When both the aspects of a transaction are current, they are not considered.
5. When both the aspects of a transaction are non-current, even then they are not
included in this statement.
6. It is not an original statement but simply a rearrangement of data in the financial
statements.
7. It is a summarized presentation of figures and cannot provide information about
changes on a continuous basis.
8. It also ignores transactions between long term assets and liabilities.
9. It is not generally considered as sophisticated techniques of financial analysis.
Funds flow analysis consists of four steps. The output of funds flow analysis is Funds
Flow Statement. Following are the steps followed in the preparation of Funds Flow
Analysis:
248
13.10 PREPARATION OF STATEMENT OF CHANGES IN WORKING
CAPITAL
Working capital is the difference between current assets and current liabilities. The
statement of changes in working capital is concerned with the current assets and current
liabilities and alone, which are shown in the Balance Sheets of the current year and the
previous year. The schedule of changes in working capital is prepared to find out the
increase or decrease in working capital during the current year.
Current assets and current liabilities are taken to the Schedule of Working Capital. Each
current assets and current liabilities in the period’s Balance Sheet is compared with those
show in the previous period’s Balance Sheet. Then, we have to find out the changes in
them on working capital. Increase or decrease in each of the current assets and current
liabilities are noted.
Increase in current assets will lead to increase in working capital and vice versa. On the other hand,
increase in current liabilities will lead to decrease in working capital, and vice versa.
The following are the “Principles” for preparation of Schedule of Changes in Working
capital.
249
Current Liabilities:
Creditors xxx xxx xxx
Bills Payable xxx xxx xxx
Outstanding Expenses xxx xxx xxx
Short Term Loans xxx xxx xxx
Bank Overdraft xxx xxx xxx
Illustration 13.1
You are given the following Balance Sheets of a Jupiter Ltd.
31st December
Particulars 2007 2008
Rs. Rs.
Assets:
Cash 30,000 47,000
Accounts Receivable 1,20,000 1,15,000
Land 50,000 66,000
Stock 80,000 90,000
2,80,000 3,18,000
Liabilities:
Accounts Payable 70,000 45,000
Capital 2,00,000 2,50,000
Retained Earning 10,000 23,000
2,80,000 3,18,000
250
Solution 13.1:
Changes in Working
2007 2008
Capital
Particulars
Increase Decrease
Rs. Rs.
[Rs.] [Rs.]
Current Assets:
Cash 30,000 47,000 17,000
Accounts Receivable 1,20,000 1,15,000 5000
Stock 80,000 90,000 10,000
Total [A] 2,30,000 2,52,000
Current Liabilities:
Accounts Payable 70,000 45,000 25,000
Total [B] 70,000 45,000
Working Capital [A- B] 1,60,000 2,07,000 52,000 5000
Illustration 13.2:
From the following figures prepare a statement of showing changes in working capital
during 2007.
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Solution 13.2
Schedule of Changes in Working Capital
Changes in Working
2006 2007
Capital
Particulars
Increase Decrease
Rs. Rs.
[Rs.] [Rs.]
Current Assets:
Stock 2,40,000 3,70,000 1,30,000
Book Debts 2,50,000 2,30,000 20,000
Cash in hand 80,000 60,000 20,000
Total [A] 5,70,000 6,60,000
Current Liabilities:
Creditors 1,70,000 1,60,000 10,000
Provision for Tax 60,000 80,000 20,000
Total [B] 2,30,000 2,40,000
Working Capital [A- B] 3,40,000 4,20,000 1,40,000 60,000
Illustration 13.3
The following are the summarized Balance Sheets of Lotus Ltd. As at 31st December 2003
and 2004
2003 2004 2003 2004
Liabilities Assets
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
Capital: Fixed Assets 95,000 1,20,000
Equity Capital 1,00,000 1,00,000 Investments - 10,000
Preference Shares - 50,000 Current Assets:
General Reserve 30,000 40,000 Stock 40,000 60,000
Profit and Loss A/c 25,000 70,000 Debtors 20,000 40,000
Current Liabilities Bills Receivable 5,000 2,000
Creditors 20,000 10,000 PrepaidExpenses 5,000 18,000
Bills Payables - 2,000 Cash 20,000 10,000
Overdraft 3,000 - Advances 10,000 40,000
Taxation Provision 7,000 12,000
Proposed Dividend 10,000 16,000
1,95,000 3,00,000 1,95,000 3,00,000
252
Solution 13.3
Changes in Working
2003 2004
Capital
Particulars
Increase Decrease
Rs. Rs.
[Rs.] [Rs.]
Current Assets:
Stock 40,000 60,000 20,000 -
Debtors 20,000 40,000 20,000 -
Bills Receivable 5,000 2,000 - 3,000
Prepaid Expenses 5,000 18,000 13,000 -
Cash 20,000 10,000 - 10,000
Advances 10,000 40,000 30,000 -
Total [A] 1,00,000 1,70,000
Current Liabilities:
Creditors 20,000 10,000 10,0000 -
Bills Payable - 2,000 - 2,000
Overdraft 3,000 - 3,000 -
Taxation Provision 7,000 12,000 - 5,000
Proposed Dividend 10,000 16,000 - 6,000
Total [B] 40,000 40,000
Working Capital [A- B] 60,000 1,30,000 96,000 26,000
Increase/Decrease in working capital 70,000 70,000
1,30,000 1,30,000 96,000 96,000
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Notes: (a) Write your answer in the space given below.
(b) Check your answer with the ones given at the end of this Lesson
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
While preparing a funds flow statement, one has to analyse the given balance sheets.
Items relating to current accounts, i.e., current assets and current liabilities have is shown
in the schedule of changes in working capital, that part we have discussed in the previous
section.
But, the non-current assets and non-current liabilities have to be further analyzed to find out the
hidden information with regard to sale or purchase of non-current assets [they are respectively source
and application of funds] , issue or redemption of share capital, debentures, raising or repayment of
long-term loans, transfer to reserves and provisions etc.
Likewise, fixed assets account will show how much depreciation has been provided during
the period. In the same way Reserves accounts are prepared to known how much is
transferred from profit and loss as an appropriation. All these are mere book entries, does
not involve in any funds flow. Therefore, they have to be added back to net profits in
order to find out funds from operation.
Therefore, non-current Accounts are prepared [wherever necessary] to ascertain the source
or application of funds and also items to be added or deducted from the net profit for
calculating Funds From operation.
For example, the opening balance sheet value of a Building is Rs.1,00,000 and closing
balance sheet value is Rs.90,000 and no other additional information is given. Then,
Building Account being non-current item is prepared to find additional information.
Building Account
Rs. Rs.
[+]
To Balance b/d 1,00,000 By Depreciation a/c 10,000*
254
The balancing figure represents depreciation being building is a depreciable on asset and
credit side balance generally may be considered as depreciation. Depreciation being a
non-fund item, while calculating funds from operation, it will added to net profits.
Consider another example, the value of plant as per opening and closing balance sheets are
Rs.20, 000 and 25,000 and deprecation charged during the year is Rs.5, 000. Then we
have to prepare, non-current account i.e., plant account in order to know whether there is
any sources or application of funds occurred or not.
Plant Account
Rs. Rs.
[+]
To Balance b/d 20,000 By Depreciation a/c 5,000
[A]
To Bank [Bal. Figure] * 10,000
[Purchase]
By Balance c/d 25,000
30,000 30,000
Consider another example, where opening and closing Furniture and Fixtures value as per
respective balance sheets are Rs.1,50,000 and Rs.1,00,000. Depreciation for the year is
Rs.10,000. By preparing non-current account i.e., Furniture and Fixtures account we may
find some other additional information.
The balancing figure represents sources of fund, as sales made during the period. Thus,
the opening accounts for or by comparing non-current items, sources and application of
funds are found out.
255
Let us consider another example of non-current liabilities item, suppose opening and
closing balance of General Reserve is Rs.25,000 and 55,000. Then by preparing General
Reserve Account, we will get how much amount is transferred from profit and loss
account during the period.
The balancing figure represents how much amount transferred from profit and loss
account to general reserve. It being a mere book entry, it does not involve any fund flows;
it will be added back to the net profit for calculating funds from operation.
Likewise we have to prepare non-current assets and liabilities accounts, in order to find
out sources [S]or application [A]and also items to be added [+]or deducted [-] from net
profits while calculating funds from operation.
Trading profits or the profit from the operations of the business is the most important
major source of funds. Sales are the main source of inflow of funds into the business as
they increase current assets [cash, debtors or bills receivable] but at the same time funds
flow out of business for expenses and cost of goods sold. Thus, the effect of operations
will be a source of funds if inflow from sales exceeds the outflow for expenses and cost of
goods sold and vice-versa. But it must be remembered that funds from operation do not
necessarily mean the profit as shown by the profit and loss account of a firm, because
there are many non-fund or non-operating items which may have been either debited or
credited to profit and loss account like amortization of fictitious assets; appropriation of
profits etc. Apart from the above, the non-fund items are those which may be operational
expenses but they do not affect funds of the business e.g., depreciation which do not move
out of business. Non-operating items are those which although may result in the outflow
of funds but are not related to the trading operations of the business, such as loss on sale of
machinery or payment of dividends.
Following are the adjustments require special attention while calculating Funds From
Operation.
256
[a] ITEMS TO BE ADDED BACK TO THE NET PROFIT:
i. Non-Fund Items
Items which do not increase the current liability or decrease the current asset are non-fund
items. They are in brief:
Items which are not trading charges or losses are called non-trading charges or losses.
They are:
Transfer for profits to certain reserves, such as General Reserve, Dividend Equalization
Reserve, Singing Fund, Reserve for Contingencies or any other reserves; do not affect the
current assets or current liabilities. So, they will be added back to the net profits.
257
[b] Proposed Dividend on Shares
Dividend is an appropriation of profits and not a charge on profit and it does not change
the current assets or current liabilities. So, the current year’s appropriation towards
proposed dividend will be added back to profits.
258
1. Statement Form
The first method –Statement form method- generally used is to proceed from the figures
of net profit or net loss as arrived from the profit and loss account already prepared. Funds
from operation by this method can be calculated as under:
CALCULATION OF FUNDS FROM OPERATION
Rs. Rs.
Closing Balance of P & L A/c or Retained Earning xxx
Less: Opening Balance of P & L A/c or Retained Earning xxx
[ as given in the Balance Sheet] OR
Net Profit for the Year XXX
ADD: NON-FUND and NON-OPERATING ITEMS
which have been already debited to P & L A/c:
1. Depreciation and Depletion xxx
2. Amortization of fictitious and Intangible Assets :
Goodwill written off xxx
Trade Marks xxx
Patents xxx
Preliminary Expenses xxx
Discount on Issue of Shares etc. xxx
Premium on Redemption of Debentures etc. xxx
3. Appropriation of Retained Earnings
Transfer to General Reserve xxx
Dividend Equalization Fund xxx
Transfer to Singing Fund xxx
4. Loss on Sales of any non-current [Fixed] Assets xxx
5. Dividends :
Interim Dividend xxx
Proposed Dividend [if it is an appropriation of profit
and not taken as current liability] xxx
6. Provision for Taxation [If it is not taken as current liability] xxx XXX
XXXX
LESS:NON-FUND or NON-OPERATING ITEMS
which have been already Credited to P & L A/c:
1. Profit or Gain from the sales of Non-Current [fixed] assets xxx
2. Dividend Received xxx
3. Excess provision written back xxx
4. Profit on revaluation of Non-Current [fixed] assets xxx XXXX
Funds From /Lost From Operation XXXXX
259
2. ACCOUNT FORM
The second method – Account form method – is prepared by rearranging and organizing
profit and loss account, by considering only fund and operational items which involve
funds and are related to the normal operation of the business. This balancing figure in this
method will be either funds generated from operation or funds lost in operations
depending upon whether the income or credit side of profit and loss account exceeds the
expense or debit side of profit and loss account or vice-versa.
Alternatively, an Adjusted Profit and Loss Account may be prepared as follows and the
balancing figure thus represents Funds From operation as indicated below
Illustration No.13.04
Calculate funds from operations from the following Profit and Loss Account.
260
Solution No.13.4:
Statement showing Funds from Operation
Particulars Rs. Rs.
Net Profit as per Profit and Loss Account 1,15,800
ADD: Items which do not decrease funds:
From Operations but debited to P & L A/c
Depreciation 70,000
Loss on sale of Machine 4,000
Goodwill written off 20,000 94,000
2,09,800
LESS: Items which do not increase funds:
Gain on Sale of Land 60,000
Funds From Operation 1,49,800
Rs. Rs.
Net Profit for the Year [as given] 52,000
ADD: NON-FUND and NON-OPERATING ITEMS
which have been already debited to P & L A/c:
1. Depreciation 40,000
261
2. Loss on sale of Buildings 10,000
3. Advertisement Suspense Account written off 5,000
4. Discount on Issue of shares written off 500
5. Goodwill written off 12,000 67,500
1,19,500
LESS:NON-FUND or NON-OPERATING ITEMS
which have been already Credited to P & L A/c:
1. Profit or Gain from the sales of plant 20,000
2. Dividend Received 10,000 30,000
Funds From Operation 89,500
Illustration No.13.6
From the following balance sheets and additional information given, you are required to
calculate funds from operation for the year ended 2007.
262
Cash 10,000 10,000
Goodwill 20,000 10,000
3,00,000 3,50,000 3,00,000 3,50,000
Additional Information:
1. During 2007, dividends of Rs.15,000 were paid;
2. Depreciation written off plant and machinery amounted to Rs.6,000 and depreciation
has been charged on land and buildings.
Instead of preparing land and building account, by experience, you may able find out
depreciation amount by simple subtraction [ 1,00,000 – 95,000] Rs.5,000 provided there
is no other adjustment or additional information is given in your problem.
*denotes balancing figure; [+] refers amount to be added to net profit and [A].refers
application of funds
263
CALCULATION OF FUNDS FROM OPERATION
Rs. Rs.
Closing Balance of P & L A/c 22,000
Less: Opening Balance of P & L A/c 20,000
Net Profit for the Year 2,000
ADD: NON-FUND and NON-OPERATING ITEMS
which have been already debited to P & L A/c:
1. Depreciation on Plant and Machinery 6,000
[1+]
2. Depreciation on Land and Buildings 5,000
2. Dividends 15,000
4. Goodwill written off [20,000-10,000] 10,000 36,000
38,000
LESS:NON-FUND or NON-OPERATING ITEMS
which have been already Credited to P & L A/c:
-
Funds From Operation 38,000
Additional Information:
i. Depreciation charged on assets Rs.5,000
ii. Preliminary expenses written off Rs.2,500
iii. Amount transferred to Dividend Equalization Fund Rs.7,500
iv. A plant having a book value of Rs.30, 000 was sold for Rs.32,500
v. Interim dividend paid Rs.5,000
Calculate Funds From operation
The above three steps i.e., statement of changes in working capital, opening of Accounts
for Non-current items and calculation of funds from operation are incorporated in the
preparation of funds flow statement.
Funds flow statement is a statement which indicates various sources from which funds
[working capital] have been obtained during a certain period and the uses or applications
to which these funds have been put during the period.
264
For preparing Funds Flow Statement, Sources of funds and decrease in working capital are
entered on the source side. Application or uses of funds and increases in working capital
are entered on the application side. This completes the preparation of funds flow
statement. The specimen of Funds Flow Statement is given below:
Note: # If Payment of dividend and Tax are treated as non-current items, and then it will
appear in the Sources and Application Statement otherwise it would not.
Illustration No.13.7
From the following balance sheets of Balky for the year ended 31st December 2000 and
2001, prepare schedule of changes in working capital and statement showing sources and
application of fund:
265
Solution No.13. 7
Step 1 Preparation of Schedule of Changes in Working Capital
266
Working Notes No.2
*denotes balancing figure; and [A].refers application of funds shown in the application side
of Funds Flow Statement.
*denotes balancing figure; and [S].refers application of funds shown in the sources side of
Funds Flow Statement.
267
Step 4: Preparation of Funds Flow Statement
FUNDS FLOW STATEMENT
Sources Rs. Applications Rs.
Purchase of Plant &
Issue of share capital 1,00,000 10,0001
Machinery
Purchase of Furniture and
Funds From Operation 15,000 5,0002
Fixtures
Increase in Working capital 1,00,000
1,15,000 1,15,000
If on the other hand, investments are of a permanent nature i.e., trade investments or long
term investments, they should be treated as fixed assets. If it is considered as a non-
current assets, the actual sale proceeds, without considering profit or loss on sale should
be taken to the Funds Flow statement as a Source of Fund[ profit or loss will be
considered while preparing Funds From operation as discussed earlier] and the figure of
purchase as Application of funds.
Illustration No.13.8
Sunith Williams presents the following financial statements for 2008 and 2009. Prepare a
Sources and Application of funds Statement.
268
During the year investments costing Rs.30,000 were sold for Rs.27,000. A new
machinery was bought for Rs.1,40,000 for cash.
Solution No.13.8
If Investments are treated as Current Assets
269
Step 3 Calculations of Funds From Operation
CALCULATION OF FUNDS FROM OPERATION
Rs. Rs.
Closing Balance of P & L A/c or Retained Earning 50,000
Less: Opening Balance of P & L A/c or Retained
60,000
Earning [ as given in the Balance Sheet]
Net Profit for the Year 10,000
ADD: NON-FUND and NON-OPERATING ITEMS
which have been already debited to P & L A/c:
[+]
1. Depreciation on Machinery [as per W.N.1] 50,000
2. Transfer to General Reserve 50,000
3. Goodwill written off 20,000 1,20,000
270
Step 1 Preparation of Schedule of Changes in Working Capital
Machinery Account
Rs. Rs.
[+]
To Balance b/d 2,20,000 By Depreciation 50,000*
To Bank [Purchases-given] 1,40,000
271
Note: Investments costing Rs.30,000 were sold for Rs.27,000, therefore the loss of
Rs.3,000 [+] [30,000 – 27,000] will be credited in investments account and debited in profit
and loss account while finding Funds from operation. Rs.27,000 is source of funds [s]
272
calculating funds from operation or debited to adjusted profit and loss account. It is also
shown as application in funds flow statement. It is presumed that provision is made and
payment is also made immediately.
[ii] If provision for tax and proposed dividend are given in the balance sheets alone and
nothing is mentioned in the adjustments:
The opening balance of these items can be assumed to have been paid in cash during the
current year. The opening balances are shown as application of funds. The closing
balances are debited to the adjusted profit and loss account i.e., added to the net profits
while calculating funds from operation, as provision made in the current year.
[iii] If provision for tax and proposed dividend are given in the balance sheet as well as in
adjustments:
It is necessary to prepare separate ledger accounts for them. From those accounts, the tax
paid and dividend paid are shown as application of funds. The provisions made are shown
in the debit side of adjusted profit and loss account i.e., added to the net profits while
calculating funds from operation.
[iv] Interim dividend should be treated separately from proposed dividend. Interim
dividend will appear as an application in the Funds flow statement and on the debit side of
Adjusted Profit and Loss account i.e., added to the net profits while calculating Funds
from operation. No adjustment is necessary for interim dividend paid if funds from
operation are being determined on the basis of ‘net profit for the current year before for
interim dividend”.
Provision for taxation will be simply shown in the schedule of changes in working capital
and it will not have any further effect on the funds flow statement.
273
Schedule of Changes in Working Capital
Changes in Working
2007 2008
Capital
Particulars
Increase Decrease
Rs. Rs.
Rs. Rs.
Current Liabilities:
Provision for Taxation 30,000 40,000 10,000
application of funds.
1. Provision for taxation made during the year Rs.35,000 will be added back while
finding funds from operation.
CALCULATION OF FUNDS FROM OPERATION
Rs. Rs.
Closing Balance of P & L A/c or Retained Earning xxx
Less: Opening Balance of P & L A/c or Retained xxx
Earning [ as given in the Balance Sheet]
Net Profit for the Year XXX
ADD: NON-FUND and NON-OPERATING ITEMS
which have been already debited to P & L A/c:
Provision for taxation 35,000
274
2. Taxes paid during the year Rs.25,000 is an application of funds and will appear on
the application side of funds flow statement .
4. Provision for taxation made during the year Rs.75,000 will be added back while
finding funds from operation.
275
CALCULATION OF FUNDS FROM OPERATION
Rs. Rs.
Closing Balance of P & L A/c or Retained Earning 2,00,000
Less: Opening Balance of P & L A/c or Retained
2,00,000
Earning [ as given in the Balance Sheet]
Net Profit for the Year 1,00,000
ADD: NON-FUND and NON-OPERATING ITEMS
which have been already debited to P & L A/c:
Provision for taxation 75,000 75,000
Funds From Operation 1,75,000
5. Taxes paid during the year Rs.25,000 is an application of funds and will appear on
the application side of funds flow statement .
The students may note that the treatment of proposed dividend is much similar to the
provision for taxation. Like Provision for taxation, proposed dividend problems are
generally of two types. They are
1. The balances of proposed dividends are given in the balance sheets alone and
nothing is mentioned in the adjustments.
2. The Proposed Dividends’ balances are given in the Balance Sheets along with some
additional information.
1. The Proposed Dividends’ balances are given in the Balance Sheets along with some
additional information.
31-3-2007 31-3-2008
Proposed Dividend 50,000 70,000
Profit and Loss A/c [Cr] 2,00,000 3,00,000
276
How will you treat proposed dividend, if is considered as current liability as well as non-
current liability?
Proposed Dividend will be simply shown in the schedule of changes in working capital
and it will not have any further effect on the funds flow statement.
In this problem, opening and closing balance of Proposed Dividend and additional
information is given. Therefore we have to prepare Proposed Dividend account in order to
find out how much provision made during the year and/or how much tax paid during the
period, as it is treated as non-current item.
application of funds.
3. Proposed Dividend made during the year Rs.80,000 will be added back while
finding funds from operation.
277
CALCULATION OF FUNDS FROM OPERATION
Rs. Rs.
Closing Balance of P & L A/c or Retained Earning 3,00,000
Less: Opening Balance of P & L A/c or Retained
2,00,000
Earning [ as given in the Balance Sheet]
Net Profit for the Year 1,00,000
ADD: NON-FUND and NON-OPERATING ITEMS
which have been already debited to P & L A/c:
Proposed Dividend 80,000 80,000
Funds From Operation 1,80,000
4. Taxes paid during the year Rs.25,000 is an application of funds and will appear on
the application side of funds flow statement .
2. The balances of proposed dividends are given in the balance sheets alone and
nothing is mentioned in the adjustments.
278
[Appropriation made]
By Balance b/d
75,000
[Closing]
1,25,000 1,25,000
[+] [A]
refers amount to be added to net profit and .refers application of funds.
3. Appropriation made for Proposed Dividend during the year is Rs.75,000 and will be
added back while finding funds from operation.
4. Dividend distributed during the year Rs.50,000 is an application of funds and will
appear on the application side of funds flow statement .
From the following summarized Balance Sheets of Jasmine Ltd. for two years on 31st
March 2002 and 2003.
279
Machinery
P/L A/c 4,00,000 7,00,000 Stock 1,75,000 3,00,000
Trade Creditors 2,50,000 3,00,000 Debtors 2,25,000 3,50,000
Bank Overdraft - 1,00,000 Cash 2,00,000 50,000
Bills Payable 50,000 50,000
18,00,000 28,00,000 18,00,000 28,00,000
Sales 18,00,000 28,00,000
Solution No.13.12
Step 1 Preparation of Schedule of Changes in Working Capital
Schedule of Changes in Working Capital
Changes in Working
31/03/2002 31/03/2003
Capital
Particulars
Increase Decrease
Rs. Rs.
[Rs.] [Rs.]
Current Assets:
Stock 1,75,000 3,00,000 1,25,000
Debtors 2,25,000 3,50,000 1,25,000
Cash 2,00,000 50,000 1,50,000
Total [A] 6,00,000 7,00,000
Current Liabilities:
Trade Creditors 2,50,000 3,00,000 50,000
Bank Overdraft - 1,00,000 1,00,000
Bills Payable 50,000 50,000 - -
Total [B] 3,00,000 4,50,000 2,50,000 3,00,000
Working Capital [A- B] 3,00,000 2,50,000
280
Step 2: Preparation of Non-Current Accounts
Working Note: 1
There is no change in the value of Land and Buildings during the period and furthermore
there is no additional information is given on Land and Buildings, therefore we presume
that there is no transaction occurred during the period and hence there is no need to
prepare Land and Building Account.
Working Note: 2
Plant and Machinery, Share capital and Share Premium being a non-current items, values
of these items have changed during the period [i.e., between opening and closing balance
sheets], we have to prepare Accounts for these items.
Working Note: 3
Plant and Machinery Account
Rs. Rs.
To Balance b/d 7,00,000
[A]
To Bank [Bal. Figure] 9,00,000*
[Purchases] By Balance c/d 16,00,000
16,00,000 16,00,000
*denotes balancing figure; and [A].refers application of funds shown in the application side
of Funds Flow Statement.
Working Note: 4
Share Capital Account
Rs. Rs.
By Balance b/d 10,00,000
[S]
By Bank [bal. fig.] 5,00,000*
To Balance c/d 15,00,000 [issue of Shares]
15,00,000 15,00,000
*denotes balancing figure; and [s].refers application of funds shown in the Source side of
Funds Flow Statement.
Working Note: 5
Share Premium Account
Rs. Rs.
By Balance b/d 1,00,000
[S]
By Bank [bal. fig.] 50,000*
To Balance c/d 1,50,000 [on issue of Shares]
1,50,000 1,50,000
[s]
*denotes balancing figure; and .refers application of funds shown in the Source side of
Funds Flow Statement.
281
Step 3 Calculation of Funds From Operation
CALCULATION OF FUNDS FROM OPERATION
Rs. Rs.
Closing Balance of P & L A/c or Retained Earning 7,00,000
Less: Opening Balance of P & L A/c or Retained
4,00,000
Earning
Net Profit for the Year 3,00,000
ADD: NON-FUND and NON-OPERATING ITEMS
which have been already debited to P & L A/c: -
3,00,000
LESS:NON-FUND or NON-OPERATING ITEMS
which have been already Credited to P & L A/c: -
Funds From Operation 3,00,000
Illustration 13.13
From the following balance sheets of Jasmine Ltd., made out: [i] statement of Changes in
Working capital and [ii] Fund Flow Statement.
Balance Sheets
1999 2000 1999 2000
Liabilities Assets
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
Equity Share Capital 3,00,000 4,00,000 Goodwill 1,15,000 90,000
Redeemable Preference Land and
1,50,000 1,00,000 2,00,000 1,70,000
share capital Buildings
General Reserve 40,000 70,000 Plant 80,000 2,00,000
282
Profit & Loss 30,000 48,000 Debtors 1,60,000 2,00,000
Proposed Dividend 42,000 50,000 Stock 77,000 1,09,000
Bills
Creditors 55,000 83,000 20,000 30,000
Receivables
Bills Payable 20,000 16,000 Cash in hand 15,000 10,000
Provision for
40,000 50,000 Cash at bank 10,000 8,000
Taxation
6,77,000 8,17,000 6,77,000 8,17,000
Additional Information:
[1] Depreciation of Rs.10,000 and Rs.20,000 have been charged on Plant and Land and
Buildings respectively in 2000.
[2] A dividend of Rs.20,000 has been paid in 2000;
Solution 13.13
Step 1 Preparation of Schedule of Changes in Working Capital
283
Step 2: Preparation of Non-Current Accounts
Working Note 1
Land and Buildings Account
Rs. Rs.
[+]
To Balance b/d 2,00,000 By Depreciation 20,000
[S]
By Bank [Bal. Figure] 10,000*
[sale of Land & Buildings]
By Balance c/d 1,70,000
2,00,000 2,00,000
[+] [S]
*denotes balancing figure; refers amount to be added to net profit and refers Source
of funds
Working Note 2
Plant Account
Rs. Rs.
[+]
To Balance b/d 80,000 By Depreciation 10,000
To Bank [Bal. Figure] *[A]1,30,000
[Purchase of Plant]
By Balance c/d 2,00,000
2,10,000 2,10,000
[+]
*denotes balancing figure; refers amount to be added to net profit and [A].refers
application of funds
Working Note 3
Working Note 4
Tax paid for the year 2000 is not given. Therefore, we assume that opening balance of
provision is paid for the year and closing balance of the year is taken as current year’s
appropriation.
284
Provision for Taxation Account
Rs. Rs.
[A]
To Bank [Tax paid] 40,000 By Balance b/d 40,000
[+]
By P/L A/c [current year’s 50,000*
appropriation]
To Balance c/d 50,000
90,000 90,000
*denotes balancing figure; [+] refers amount to be added to net profit and [A].refers
application of funds
285
Illustration No.13.14
Balance sheets of M/s Black and White as on 1-1-2007 and 31-12-2007 were as follows:
286
Step 2: Preparation of Non-Current Accounts
Working Notes 1
Working Notes 2
Before preparing Machinery account, we have to find out the cost price of machinery. The
cost of machinery is:
1-1-2007 31-12-2007
Rs. Rs.
Written down value of machinery
80,000 55,000
[Book Value]
ADD: Provision for Depreciation 25,000 40,000
Cost of Machinery 1,05,000 95,000
Working Notes 3
Capital Account
Rs. Rs.
[A]
By Drawings 17,000* By Balance b/d 1,25,000
By Net profits 45,000
By Balance c/d 1,53,000
1,70,000 1,70,000
[A]
*denotes balancing figure; and .refers application of funds
287
Step 3 Calculation of Funds From Operation
CALCULATION OF FUNDS FROM OPERATION
Rs. Rs.
Net Profit for the Year 45,000
ADD: NON-FUND and NON-OPERATING ITEMS
which have been already debited to P & L A/c:
1. Provision for Depreciation 18,000
2. Loss on sale of Machinery 2,000 20,000
Funds From Operation 65,000
Illustration No.13.15
Following are the summarized balance sheets of Fire Stone Ltd. as on 31st December 2006 and 2007.
288
Additional information supplied:
a. Dividend of Rs.23,000 was paid;
b. Assets of another company were purchased for a consideration of Rs.50,000 payable
in shares.
The following assets were purchased;
Machinery Rs.25,000 and Stock Rs.20,000
c. Machinery was further purchased for Rs.8,000.
d. Depreciation written off against Machinery Rs.12,000.
e. Income tax paid during the year Rs.33,000
f. Loss on sale of machinery Rs.200 was written off to General Reserve.
Solution No.13.15
289
Step 2: Preparation of Non-Current Accounts
Working Notes 1
Machinery Account
Rs. Rs.
To Balance b/d 1,50,000 By General Reserve [Loss] 200
To Share Capital [+]
#25,000 By P / L A/c 12,000
[acquired]
[A] [S]
To Bank [purchases] 8,000 By Bank [sale] 1,800 *
By Balance c/d 1,69,000
1,83,000 1,83,000
*denotes balancing figure; refers amount to be added to net profit; [A].refers
[+]
# Machinery acquired in consideration of Issue of shares will not affect the flow of funds,
as both are non-current items.
Working Notes 2
Share Capital Account
Rs. Rs.
By Balance b/d 2,00,000
[S]
By Stock [Source of funds] 20,000
By Machinery 25,000
To Balance c/d 2,50,000 By Goodwill 5,000*
Note: Share issued for Rs.50,000 whereas assets acquired for Rs.45,000 [20,000 +
25,000], the balance will be Goodwill Rs.5,000.
Working Notes 3
Provision for Taxation Account
Rs. Rs.
[A]
To Bank [Tax paid] 33,000 By Balance b/d 30,000
[+]
By P / L A/c 38,000*
application of funds
290
Working Notes 4
General Reserve Account
Rs. Rs.
To Machinery [loss on
200 By Balance b/d 50,000
sale]
[+]
By P / L A/c 10,200*
To Balance c/d 60,000
68,000 68,000
*denotes balancing figure; refers amount to be added to net profit and [A] refers
[+]
application of funds
Working Note 5
Issue of shares in consideration for machinery and goodwill does not affect the flow of
funds [working capital] and therefore, it will not as application of funds.
Working Note 6
In the absence of specific information, the decrease in land and buildings is assumed to be
deprecation [2,00,000 -,1,90,000].
291
Step 4: Preparation of Funds Flow Statement
Additional Information:
292
13.15 LET US SUM UP
Business firms are not a static one. In every business there will be flow of funds. In order
to analysis the flow of funds here, net working capital, funds flow analysis is made. In
consist of four steps: preparation of schedule of changes in working capital, preparation of
non-current items; computation of funds from operation and finally funds flow statement.
Additional Information :
[a] Net profit after tax Rs.2,00,000
[b] Shares issued for cash Rs.1,00,000
[c] Bonus shares issued Rs.70,000
[d] Buildings sold Rs.28,000 [original cost Rs.80,000 written down value
Rs.20,000]
Prepare a statement of sources and application of funds with necessary workings.
293
13.17 MODEL ANSWERS TO “CHECK YOUR PROGRESS”
294
Step 2: Preparation of Non-Current Accounts
Working Notes 1
Working Note 2
Working Notes 3
application of funds
295
Step 3 Calculation of Funds From Operation
CALCULATION OF FUNDS FROM OPERATION
Rs. Rs.
Closing Balance of Retained Earning 37,000
Opening Balance of Retained Earning [ as given in the
28,000
Balance Sheet]
Net Profit for the Year 9,000
ADD: NON-FUND and NON-OPERATING ITEMS
which have been already debited to P & L A/c:
1. Depreciation on Fixed Assets 5,500
2. Dividends paid 3,000 8,500
Funds From Operation 17,500
296
LESSON-14
CASH FLOW ANALYSIS
Contents:
14.0 Aims and objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Meaning and Definitions
14.3 Uses of Cash Flow Statement
14.4 Comparison between Funds Flow Statement And Cash Flow Statement
14.5 Limitations of Cash Flow Statement
14.6 Preparation of Cash Flow Statement
14.7 Opening of Accounts for Non-Current Items
14.8 Computation of Cash from Operation
14.9 Preparation of Cash Flow Statement
14.10 Preparation of Cash Flow Statement [Accounting Standard 3]
14.11 Comprehensive Illustrations
14.12 Let us Sum Up
14.13 Lesson-end Activities
14.14 Model Answers to “Check your Progress”
14.15 Suggested Reading/References/Sources
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Cash is life blood of business as like blood to human body and thus cash plays a very
important role in the entire economic life of a business. The technique of preparing Funds
Flow Statement and its utility have been discussed in the preceding lesson. In this lesson
we shall analyse the flow Cash. It involves preparation of Cash Flow Statement for
identifying sources and applications of cash. Cash flow statement may be prepared on the
basis of actual or estimated data. In the following sections, we shall explain in detail the
preparation of cash flow statement, utility and limitations of cash flow analysis.
297
14.2 MEANING
The term “cash” here stands for cash and bank balances. The term fund – in a narrow
concept, is to denote as cash. Thus cash or fund in a narrow sense, will exclude from its
purview all other current assets and current liabilities as in Funds Flow Statement and it
considers only cash and bank balances.
In the lesson, the term cash includes bank balances also.
“Cash Flow” means cash inflows and cash outflows – cash receipts and cash payments
during a period. In other words, incoming and outgoing of cash is termed as cash flows.
Movements of cash are of vital important to the management. The short term liquidity
and solvency position of a firm are dependent on its cash flows.
Cash Flow Statement can be defined as, ‘A statement of changes in the financial position
of firm on cash basis is called cash flow statement.”
Therefore, cash flow statement is a statement like Funds flow statement. A cash flow
statement concentrates to transactions that have direct impact on cash. It deals with cash
inflows and outflow of cash in a particular period. Thus, it portrays the changes in the
cash position between two dates. Cash flow statement can be prepared for a year, half
year, quarter or for any other duration.
298
14.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN FUNDS FLOW STATEMENT AND CASH
FLOW STATEMENT
The term ‘fund’ has a variety of meanings. In a narrow sense it means cash and the
statement of changes in the financial position prepared on cash basis is called a cash flow
statement. In the most popular sense, the term funds refers to working capital and a
statement of changes in the financial position is prepared on this basis is called a Funds
Flow statement. A cash flow statement is much similar to a funds flow statement as both
are prepared to summaries the case of changes in the financial position of a business.
However, the following are the main difference between a funds flow and a cash flow
statement.
Even though cash flow statement is a useful tool of financial analysis, it suffers from some
limitations, which are as follows:
1. A cash flow statement only reveals the inflow and outflow of cash. The cash
balance disclosed by this statement may not depict the true liquidity position. There
are controversies over a number of items like cheques, stamps, postal orders etc. is to
be included in cash.
299
2. A Cash Flow Statement cannot be equated with the income statement. An income
statement takes into account both cash and non-cash items. Hence, cash fund does
not mean net income of the business.
3. Working capital being a wider concept of funds, a fund flow statement presents a
more complete picture than cash flow statement.
Cash Flow Statement can be prepared on the same pattern on which a Funds Flow
Statement is prepared. The changes in the cash position from one period to another are
computed by taking into account ‘Sources” and “Applications” of cash. The preparation
of statement is based on Balance Sheets, Income Statement and other additional
information. Key to preparation of Cash Flow Statement lies in realizing the fact that all
items appearing on income statement are to be computed on cash basis. The measurement
of Cash Flow is not the measurement of income. The Statement is divided into two parts
– [i] Sources of Cash and [ii] Applications of Cash. All transactions involving inflow of
cash are “Sources of Cash” and all transactions resulting in outflow of cash are
“Applications of Cash”. It is prepared in two ways: [a] Report Form and [b] Account
Form. These are explained in the later sections.
Ledger Accounts are prepared for non-current items [wherever necessary] to ascertain the
inflow or outflow of cash. In the preparation of accounts for non-current items, additional
information is to be considered.
For example, the values of plant [as per balance sheet] on 1st January and 31st December
are Rs.50,000 and Rs.60,000 respectively. The Additional information are - sale of plant
and machinery for Rs.6,000 [book value Rs.10,000] and depreciation charges during the
year is Rs.10,000.
300
Plant and Machinery Account
Rs. Rs.
[I]
To Balance b/d 50,000 By Bank [sale ] 6,000
[O] [+]
To Bank [Bal. Figure] * .30,000 By P/L a/c [Loss] 4,000
By P/L a/c [Depreciation] [+]10,000
By Balance c/d 60,000
80,000 80,000
[+]
*denotes balancing figure; refers amount to be added to net profit and
[O]
.refers application/outflow of cash [I] refers Source/Inflow of Cash
The balancing figure[*] represent purchase of plant. It is an outflow of fund [o]. In the
same way, sale of plant [I] represent sale of plant and it is an inflow of fund. The loss on
sale of plant [non-current item] and depreciation are non-cash items that should be added
back to net profit in order to calculate cash from operation.
A business firm generates cash inflows through its normal course of business operations
which is usually the most important and routine source of cash. It is the internal sources
of cash. It can be computed as follows:
301
14.8.1 Computation of Funds From operation
This is done in the same way explained in the fund flow analysis. An adjusted profit and
loss account may be prepared or a statement of funds form operations can be prepared,
with the net profit reveals by the profit and loss account as the starting point. Non-cash
and Non-fund items are added or deducted accordingly as discussed in funds flow
Statement lesson no.13.
The funds from operation need further adjustment to convert fully to cash basis. For this
purpose all the current assets and current liabilities except cash and bank balances are to
be analysed from the point of view of their impact on cash.
Then, the amount of changes should be added to or subtracted from the funds from
operation on the basis of the following principles
302
Current assets received as consideration for shares or debentures issued
While using the above, principle, current assets received in exchange for shares or
debentures issued must be omitted from the respective closing balances of the assets.
303
2. Dividend Received xxx
3. Excess provision written back xxx
4. Profit on revaluation of Non-Current [fixed] assets xxx Xxx
Funds From Operation XXXXX
ADD:
Decrease in current assets xxx
Increase in Current Liabilities xxx XXXX
XXXXX
LESS:
Increase in current assets xxx
Decrease in Current Liabilities xxx XXXX
CASH FROM OPERATIONS XXXXX
[Cash outflow on account of operations]
[OR]
Adjusted Profit and Loss Account
Rs. Rs.
To Depreciation xx By opening Bal. of P/L A/c xx
To Goodwill written off xx By Dividend Received xx
To Preliminary Expenses By Excess Provision written
written off xx Back xx
To Discount of shares By Funds From Operation
Issued xx [Balancing figure] XXXX
To Transfer to Reserves xx
To Loss sale of Fixed
Assets xx
To Premium on
Redemption xx
304
The balance obtained after the above calculations -additions and deductions can be
termed as "Cash from Operation", if the balance obtained is positive. If the balance
obtained is negative, "Cash outflow on account of operations".
The above steps are incorporated in the preparation of cash flow statement. Opening
balance of cash and bank balance and sources of cash are entered on the inflow side. Uses
or application of cash and closing balance of cash and bank are entered on the outflow
side. This completes the preparation of cash flow statement.
i. Fresh issues of shares – Issues of shares to the public or rights shares to the existing
shares holders brings in additional cash. If the issue is at premium, the cash received
from the issue increases to that extent. However, issue of shares for non-cash
consideration is not a source of cash.
ii. Issue of Debentures or Bonds – Cash is received by issue of debentures either at par
or at premium or even at discount. The actual amount received is a source of cash.
iii. Long term borrowings – Borrowings on long term basis from banks or other sources
is a source of cash which includes public deposits.
iv. Sale of fixed assets and investments – The cash received from the sale of fixed assets
like plant and machinery or buildings are a source of cash. Similarly non trading
investment sold is also a source of cash.
Decrease in various current assets and increase in various current liabilities may be taken
as external sources of cash, if they are not adjusted while computing cash from operation.
Cash outflows or uses of cash or applications of cash are usually in the following forms.
i. Redemption of debentures and preference shares - The amount paid for repayment of
debentures or preference share capital is a cash outflow. The actual cash paid alone
should be taken either including premium or excluding discount.
305
ii. Repayment of bank loans or other long term borrowings - Repayment of loans
results in cash outflow.
iii. Cash outflow on account of operations – It is also to be shown as an application of
cash.
iv. Purchase of fixed assets and long term investments - Amount paid to acquire fixed
assets like buildings, furniture, equipment and machinery are to be shown as uses of
cash. Similarly amount paid to purchase non-trading investment is also an
application of cash.
v. Payment of tax and dividend - If they are treated as ‘non-current items’ amount paid
for tax or dividend have to be shown as uses of cash. If they are treated as current
liabilities, they are shown as a part of computation of cash from operations.
Increase in various current assets or decrease in various current liabilities may be shown
as applications of cash, if changes in these items have not been adjusted while finding out
cash from operations.
306
Dividend paid etc. xxx
Total Applications xxx XXXX
XXXXXX
Closing Balances:*
Cash xxxx
Bank xxxx XXXXXX
Note: If there is bank overdraft at the beginning of the period or at the end of the period,
it can be shown as a negative figure. All additions or reduction should be adjusted
accordingly.
* Closing balance total of cash and bank balance should tally with the balance
after deducting total application balance.
307
(i) Enterprises whose equity or debt securities are listed on recognized stock exchanges
in India, and the enterprises that are in the process of issuing equity or debt securities
that will be listed on recognized stock exchanges in India as evidenced by the board
of directors’ resolution in this regard.
(ii) All other commercial, industrial and business reporting enterprises, whose turnover
for the accounting period exceeds Rs.50 crores.
Securities Exchange Board of India [SEBI] has made it obligatory, from 1995, on all listed
companies to prepare and issue a cash flow statement along with other financial statement
periodically.
Therefore, for all listed companies and other businesses with turnover above Rs.50
crorers, has to prepare Cash Flow Statement under Accounting Standard 3.
308
Cash flows from operating activities are primarily derived from the principal revenue
generating activities of the firm. Therefore, they result from the transactions and other
events that are considered for ascertaining profit or loss. Examples of cash flows from
operating activities are:
i. Cash receipts from the sale of goods and rendering of services;
ii. Cash receipts from Royalties, fees, commission, and other revenue;
iii. Cash payments to suppliers for good and services;
iv. Cash payments to and on behalf of employees;
v. Cash receipts and cash payments of an insurance enterprise for premiums and
claims, annuities and other policy benefits;
vi. Cash payments or refunds of income taxes unless they can be specifically
identified with financing and investing activities; and
vii. Cash receipts and payments relating to future contracts, forward contracts, option
contracts and swap contracts when the contracts are held for dealing or trading
purposes.
309
vii. Cash payments for future contracts, forward contracts, option contracts and swap
contracts except when the contracts are held for dealing or trading purposes, or the
payments are classified as financing activities; and
viii. Cash receipts from future contracts, forward contracts, option contracts and swap
contracts except when the contracts are held for dealing or trading purposes or the
receipts are classified as financing activities.
The Cash flows associated with extraordinary items should be classified as arising from
operating, investing or financing activities as appropriate and separately disclosed to
enable the users to understand their nature and effect on the present and future cash flows.
Therefore, these items and taxes paid or provisioned are to be added or deducted if the net
profit/loss includes those items to find out the net profit before Tax and Extraordinary
Items. Some of the items to be added are:
1. All the items which are usually debited to P/L Appropriation account like
dividends, Transfer to reserves and also provision made for tax should be added
back when the net profit given in the problem is after adjusting these items.
2. All Non-operating losses are added back to Net Profit and Non-profit and non-
operating gains are reduced from Net Profit.
310
Illustration 14.1
Compute Net Profit before Tax and Extraordinary items from the following data:
Rs.
st
P /L Appropriation account balance 1 April 2008 8,00,000
P/L Appropriation account balance on 31st March 2009 9,00,000
Transfer to General Reserve in 2008-09 2,40,000
Proposed dividend debited to P/L Appropriation A/c 2,50,000
Interim dividend for the year 2008-09 1,00,000
Compensation received in a law suit 2,00,000
Provision for tax as on 1st April 2008 5,00,000
st
Provision for tax as on 31 March 2009 7,00,000
Tax paid during the year 6,00,000
Solution 14.1
13,00,000 13,00,000
*denotes balancing figure; refers amount to be added to net profit and [O].refers
[+]
311
Illustration 14.2
From the following details, ascertain Net Profit before Tax and Extraordinary items for the
year 2008.
2007 2008
Rs. Rs.
General Reserve 2,00,000 3,50,000
Profit and Loss Account 1,50,000 2,40,000
Proposed Dividend 2,10,000 2,50,000
Provision for Taxation 2,00,000 2,50,000
An interim dividend of Rs.1,00,000 was paid during 2008. Income Tax paid in 2008 was
Rs.1,75,000. A compensation of Rs.1,30,000 was received from Government on account
of riots.
Solution No.14.2
4,25,000 4,25,000
[+]
*denotes balancing figure; refers amount to be added to net profit
312
3. Computation of opening and Closing balances of Cash and Cash equivalents
Cash in hand, cash at bank as demand deposits and other highly liquid short-term
investments in Government bonds etc., are to be added up. Ultimately the cash flow
statement has to reconcile the opening and closing balances of cash and cash equivalents
with the help of cash inflows and outflows from major activities of the business.
4. Ascertaining net cash provided [or used] by Operating activities:
This task is carried out with the help of detailed analysis of profit and loss account,
opening and closing balance sheets and selected additional information. This step will be
as like calculation of cash from operation and elaborately discussed in the previous
sections of this lesson.
Illustration 14.3
Ascertain operating profit before working capital changes from the following details:
Rs.
Net profit before Tax and extraordinary items 2,00,000
Dividend received on Long term investment in shares 40,000
Interest received on Long term investment in debentures of other companies 30,000
Goodwill written off 20,000
Discount on issue of shares written off 10,000
Preliminary expenses written off 25,000
Depreciation charged on Fixed Assets 65,000
Profit on Sale of equipment 10,000
Loss on sale of Long term investments 8,000
Solution No.14.3
COMPUTATION OF OPERATING PROFIT BEFORE WORKING CAPITAL
CHANGES
Rs. Rs.
Net profit before Tax and Extraordinary items 2,00,000
Add: Adjustments for:
Goodwill written off 20,000
Discount on issue of shares written off 10,000
Preliminary expenses written off 25,000
Depreciation charged on Fixed Assets 65,000
Loss on Sale of Long Term Investments 8,000 1,28,000
3,28,000
Less: Adjustment for:
Dividend received on Long-term Investment in shares 40,000
Interest received on Long-term Investment in
30,000
Debentures and other companies
Profit on sale of Equipment 10,000 80,000
Operating Profit Before Working Capital Changes 2,48,000
313
5. Ascertaining net cash provided [or used] by Investing and Financing Activities:
All the changes in Balance Sheets items and some of the P & L accounts items have to be
analysed, taking into account the additional information and their effect on cash, by
grouping them under Investing and Financing activities.
7. Reconciliation:
It should be ensured that the “aggregate of net cash flows” from operating, investing and
financing activities is equal to the net increase [or decrease] in cash and cash equivalents
during the period.
The following format is widely used format for the preparation of Cash Flow Statement.
314
NET CASH FROM OPERATING ACTIVITIES XXXXX
Cash Flow from Investing Activities:
Purchases of Fixed Assets and Investments [xxx]
Proceeds from Sale of Fixed Assets and Investments xxx
Interest received xxx
Dividend received xxx
NET CASH FROM INVESTING ACTIVITIES XXXXX
Cash flows from Financing Activities
Proceeds from issue of Share capital xxx
Proceeds from Long term borrowings xxx
Repayment of Long term Borrowings [xxx]
Interest paid [xxx]
Dividend paid [xxx]
NET CASH FROM FINANCING ACTIVITIES XXXX
Net Increase/Decrease in Cash and Cash Equivalents XXXXX
ADD: Cash and Cash Equivalents at the beginning of the period XXX
Cash and Cash Equivalents at the beginning of the period XXXXX
Illustration 14.04
From the following Balance Sheets of Arvind Ltd., you are required to prepare a cash flow
statement:
315
Solution 14.4
[Or]
Under AS -3
CASH FLOW STATEMENT [AS PER AS- 3]
For the year 2000
Rs. Rs.
Cash Flows from operating activities
Net Profit before Tax and Extraordinary Items [46,000 –
26,000
20,000]
316
Adjustments for:
Depreciation -
Operating Profit before Working Capital Changes 26,000
Adjustments for:
Decrease in Sundry Debtors [2,40,000 – 2,30,000 10,000
Increase in Stock [1,80,000 -1,60,000] [20,000]
Decrease in Trade Creditors [1,40,000 – 90,000] [50,000]
Cash generated from operation [34,000]
Less: Income Tax paid -
Cash before extraordinary Items [34,000]
Less/Add: Extraordinary Items -
NET CASH USED OPERATING ACTIVITIES [34,000]
Cash Flow from Investing Activities:
Purchase of Land[1,32,000 – 1,00,000] 32,000
NET CASH USED INVESTING ACTIVITIES [32,000]
Cash flows from Financing Activities
Proceeds from issue of Share capital [5,00,000 -4,00,000] 1,00,000
NET CASH FROM FINANCING ACTIVITIES 1,00,000
Net Increase in Cash and Cash Equivalents 34,000
Cash and Cash Equivalents at the beginning of the
ADD: 60,000
period
Cash and Cash Equivalents at the beginning of the
94,000
period
317
During the year ending 31-12- 2007,
[a] Dividend paid to shareholders was Rs.60,000;
[b] Fixed Assets costing Rs.20, 000 were sold for Rs.5,000 thereby causing a loss of
Rs.7,000 on their sale.
[c] Shares were issued at 20 % premium which is included in the retained earnings.
Solution No.14.5
Preparation of Non-Current Accounts
Working Note 1
Working Note 2
318
Adjusted Profit and Loss Account
Rs. Rs.
To Goodwill written off 40,000 By Balance b/d 60,000
[60,000 – 20,000] By Share Premium [included 10,000
To Dividend 60,000 In retained earnings]
To Depreciation 28,000 By Funds From Operation* 1,50,000
To Loss on sale of Fixed [Balancing figure]
Assets 7,000
To Balance C/d 85,000
2,20,000 2,20,000
Note: [1] Opening and Closing balance of retained earnings are shown in Adjusted P/L
A/c since, P/L A/c balances are not given separately.
[2] Share premium is a non-current capital receipt and should be shown as a
source of cash. So it is credit to Adjusted P/L A/c because it was included in
retained earnings.
CASH FLOW STATEMENT
For the year ending 31st March 2007
Sources/Inflow Rs. Rs. Applications/Outflow/Uses Rs. Rs.
Opening
Mortgage loan repaid 80,000
Balances:
Cash 10,000 Dividend paid 60,000
Bank [70,000]
[60,000] Fixed assets purchased 2,50,000
Overdraft
Issue of shares 50,000 Closing Balances:
[1,50,000- 15,000
Cash
1,00,000]
Premium on issue [90,000]
of shares [50,000 10,000 Bank Overdraft [75,000]
x 20 %]
Issue of
30,000
Debentures
[70,000 – 40,000]
Sale of fixed 5,000
319
assets
Cash From
2,80,000
operations
3,15,000 3,15,000
Working Note 3
Calculation of Net Profit before Tax and Extraordinary Items
Rs.
Closing Retained Earnings 85,000
Less: Opening Retained Earnings 60,000
25,000
ADD: Dividend 60,000
85,000
Less: Share Premium included 10,000
Net Profit before Tax and Extraordinary Items 75,000
320
NET CASH USED INVESTING ACTIVITIES [2,45,000]
Cash flows from Financing Activities
Proceeds from issue of shares 60,000
Proceeds from issue of Debentures 30,000
Payment of Dividend [60,000]
Repayment of Mortgage Loan [80,000]
NET CASH USED FINANCING ACTIVITIES [50,000]
Net Decrease in Cash and Cash Equivalents [15,000]
Cash and Cash Equivalents at the beginning of the
ADD: 10,000
period
Cash and Cash Equivalents at the beginning of the
15,000
period
Illustration 14.6
Balance sheets of M/s Black and White as on 1st January 2003 and 31st December 2003
were as follows:
31-12- 31-12-
1-1-2003 1-1-2003
Liabilities 2003 Assets 2003
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
Creditors 40,000 44,000 Cash 10,000 7,000
White’s Loan 25,000 - Debtors 30,000 50,000
Loan from Banks 40,000 50,000 Stock 35,000 25,000
Capital 1,25,000 1,53,000 Machinery 80,000 55,000
Land 40,000 50,000
Buildings 35,000 60,000
2,30,000 2,47,000 2,30,000 2,47,000
During the year machine costing Rs.10,000 [accumulated deprecation Rs.3,000] was sold
for Rs.5,000. The provision for depreciation against machinery as on 1st January was
Rs.25,000 and on 31st December 2003 Rs.40,000. Net profits for the year 2003 amounted
to Rs.45,000.
321
Solution No. 14.6
Working Note 1
Machinery Account
Rs. Rs.
[I]
To Balance b/d 80,000 By Bank [sale] 5,000
By P/L A/c [10,000-3,000-
2,000
5,000] [+]
By Depreciation [B.F]* [+] 18,000
By Balance c/d 55,000
80,000 80,000
[+]
*denotes balancing figure; refers amount to be added to net profit and
[O]
.refers application/outflow of cash [I] refers Source/Inflow of Cash
Working Note 2
Capital Account
Rs. Rs.
By Drawings *[O]. 17,000 By Balance b/d 1,25,000
By Net profit 45,000
322
ADD:
Increase in Creditors [44,000 – 40,000] 4,000
Decrease in Stock [35,000 – 25,000] 10,000 14,000
79,000
LESS:
Increase in Debtors [50,000 – 30,000] 20,000 20,000
CASH FROM OPERATIONS 59,000
[OR]
Under AS -3
CASH FLOW STATEMENT [AS- 3]
For the year ending 31st December 2003
Rs. Rs.
Cash Flows from operating activities
Net Profit before Tax and Extraordinary Items 45,000
Adjustments for:
Depreciation 18,000
Loss sale of Machinery 2,000
Operating Profit before Working Capital Changes 65,000
Adjustments for:
Decrease in Stock 10,000
Increase in Debtors [20,000]
Increase in Creditors 4,000
Cash generated from operation 59,000
Less: Income Tax paid -
Cash before extraordinary Items 59,000
Less/Add: Extraordinary Items -
NET CASH FROM OPERATING ACTIVITIES 59,000
Cash Flow from Investing Activities:
Sale of Machinery 5,000
Purchases of Land [10,000]
Purchases of Buildings [25,000]
323
NET CASH FROM INVESTING ACTIVITIES [30,000]
Cash flows from Financing Activities
White Loans repaid [25,000]
Drawings [17,000]
Loan From Banks 10,000
NET CASH FROM FINANCING ACTIVITIES [32,000]
Net Decrease in Cash and Cash Equivalents [3,000]
Cash and Cash Equivalents at the beginning of the
ADD: 10,000
period
Cash and Cash Equivalents at the beginning of the
7,000
period
The following shows the balances in condensed form of Pinky Ltd. for the year ended
2007 and 2008.
324
Notes: (a) Write your answer in the space given below.
(b) Check your answer with the ones given at the end of this Lesson
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
Like funds flow statement, cash flow analysis studies about the flow of cash. In cash flow
analysis, one has to follow three steps namely, - preparation of non-current items,
computation of cash from operation and preparation of cash flow statement. Accounting
Standard 3 gives guidelines for the preparation of cash flow statement for certain firms.
Under AS 3 , cash flow comes from three sources and/or application namely – cash flows
from or goes out operating, investment and financing activities. According to that cash
flow statement are also prepared.
325
Following additional information has been supplied:
a. A piece of land has also been sold for Rs.800
b. Depreciation amounting to Rs.1,400 has been charged on buildings
c. Provision for taxation has been made for Rs.3,800 during the year.
Working Note 2
Machinery Account
Rs. Rs.
[I]
To Balance b/d 24,000 By Bank [sale] 2,000
[O]
To Bank . 15,000 By Dep. [on sold m/c] 3,000
By P/L A/c [Loss] [+] 1,000
By Balance c/d 33,000
39,000 39,000
*denotes balancing figure; [+] refers amount to be added to net profit and [O].refers
application/outflow of cash [I] refers Source/Inflow of Cash
326
Working Note 3
8 % Debentures Account
Rs. Rs.
By Bank [Open market
9,600 By Balance b/d 45,000
Operation]
[[45,000 -35,000] X
96/100]
By P/L A/c[-] 400
To Balance c/d 35,000
*denotes balancing figure; [+] refers amount to be added to net profit and [O].refers
application/outflow of cash [I] refers Source/Inflow of Cash
327
CASH FLOW STATEMENT
For the year 2008
Sources/Inflow Rs. Rs. Applications/Outflow/Uses Rs. Rs.
Opening Balances: Machinery purchased 15,000
Cash 45,000 Debentures Redeemed 9,600
Machinery sold 2,000 [[45,000 -35,000] X 96/100]
Investments sold [50,000 – Dividend paid[1,15,000 X
18,000 11,500
32,000] 10 %]
Cash from operations 16,100 Closing Balances:
Cash 45,000
81,100 81,100
Working Note 4
Calculation of Net Profit before Tax and Extraordinary Items
Closing P/L a/c – Opening P/L A/c + Dividend paid
11,500 -8,000 +11,500 = 15,000
328
Cash Flow from Investing Activities:
Sale of Machinery 2,000
Sale of Investments 18,000
Machinery Purchased [15,000]
NET CASH FROM INVESTING ACTIVITIES 5,000
Cash flows from Financing Activities
Redemption of Debentures [[45,000 -35,000] X 96/100] [9,600]
Payments of Dividends [11,500]
NET CASH USED FINANCING ACTIVITIES [21,100]
Net flow of Cash and Cash Equivalents -
Cash and Cash Equivalents at the beginning of the
ADD: 45,000
period
Cash and Cash Equivalents at the beginning of the
45,000
period
329
UNIT - V
This unit explains the conceptual framework of control and budgeting techniques of
management accounting
LESSON-15
STANDARD COSTING
Contents:
15.0 Aims and Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Definition: Standard, Standard cost, standard costing
15.3 Advantages of standard costing
15.4 Limitation of standard costing
15.5 Applicability of standard costing
15.6 Setting the Standard
15.7 Introduction of Standard Costing System
15.8 Estimated Costing versus Standard Costing
15.9 Historical Cost and Standard Cost
15.10 Budgetary Control and Standard Costing
15.11 Standard Costing and Marginal Costing
15.12 Standard Costing and Standardized Costing
15.13 Standard Cost card
15.15 Let us Sum Up
15.15 Lesson-end Activities
15.16 Model Answers to “Check your Progress”
15.17 Suggested Reading/References/Sources
330
15.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
(i) To know the meaning of standard, standard cost and standard costing.
(ii) To understand the difference between estimated costing and standard costing and
also between budgetary control and standard costing.
(iii) To study the advantages and limitation of standard costing.
(iv) To learn the determination of standard costs.
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Cost control is a basic objective of cost accountancy. Standard costing is the most
powerful system ever invented for cost control.
Historical costing or actual costing is nothing but, a record of what happened in the past. It
does not provide any ‘Norms’ or ‘Yardsticks’ for cost control. The actual costs lose their
relevance after that particular accounting period. But, it is necessary to plan the costs, to
determine what should be the cost of a product or service. It the actual costs do not
conform to what the costs should be, the reasons for the change should be assessed and
appropriate action should be initiated to eliminate the causes.
Standard costing fulfills the need to compensate the short comings of Historical costing
from the point of view of cost control. (a) It provides the norms or yardsticks in the form
of standards- specifying what costs should be or yardsticks in the form of standards-
specifying what cost should be (b) comparison of actual costs with standards is facilitated
to ascertain variances for each element of cost. (c) The variances are further analysed for
contributory reasons. Responsibility is fixed on the basis of the reasons for each variance.
(d) Corrective measures are under taken to eliminate the unfavourable variances wherever
possible.
Thus, standard costing is a costing technique specifically evolved to provide complete
‘Infrastructure’ and ‘Systematic approach’ for cost control.
331
predetermined estimate of cost to manufacture a single unit or a number of units of a
product during a future period. Actual costs are compared with these standard costs.
Standard Costing is defined by I.C.M.A. Terminology as, “The preparation and use of
standard costs, their comparison with actual costs and the analysis of variances to their
causes and points of incidence”.
“Standard costing is a method of ascertaining the costs whereby statistics are prepared to
show (a) the standard cost (b) the actual cost (c) the difference between these costs, which
is termed the variance” says Wheldon. Thus the technique of standard cost study
comprises of:
1. Pre-determination of standard costs;
2. Use of standard costs;
3. Comparison of actual cost with the standard costs;
4. Find out and analyse reasons for variances;
5. Reporting to management for proper action to maximize efficiency.
15.3.3 Norms:
Standard costing provides the norms and yard sticks with which the actual performance
can be measured and assessed.
15.3.4 Locates sources of inefficiency:
It pin points the areas where operational inefficiency exists. It also measures the extent of
the inefficiency.
332
15.3.7 Improvement in methods and operations:
Standards are set on the basis of systematic study of the methods and operations. As a
consequence, cost reduction is possible through improved methods and operations.
Standard Costing is a control device. It is not a separate method of product costing. Any
activity of recurring nature is susceptible for setting standards. The standard-cost process
is mostly used to control the operating tasks. Manufacturing activities are routine and
frequent and therefore easy for establishing standards.
Industries where standardized and uniform work of repetitive nature is done are suitable
for introduction of standard costing. Standard costing system is of little use or no use
where works vary form job to job or contract to contract.
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15.6 SETTING THE STANDARDS
While setting standard cost for operations, process or product, the following preliminaries
must be gone through:
i) There must be Standard Committee, similar to Budget Committee, in which
Purchase Manager, Personnel Manger, and Production Manager are represented. The
Cost Accountant coordinates the functions of the Standard Committee.
ii) Study the existing costing system, cost records and forms in use. If necessary, review
the existing system.
iii) A technical survey of the existing methods of production should be undertaken so
that accurate and reliable standards can be established.
iv) Determine the type of standard to be used.
v) Fix standard for each element of cost.
vi) Determine standard costs for each product.
vii) Fix the responsibility for setting standards.
viii) Classify the accounts properly so that variances may be accounted for in the manner
desired.
ix) Comparison of actual costs with pre-determined standards to ascertain the
deviations.
x) Action to be taken by management to ensure that adverse variances are not repeated.
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15.7.2 Classification and codification of accounts
The need for quick collection and analysis of cost information necessitates classification
and codification. Accounts are to be classified according to different items of expenses
under suitable headings. Each of the headings is to be given a separate code number. The
codes and symbols used in the process facilitate introduction of computerization.
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15.7.4 Determining the expected level of activity
Capacity of operation or level of activity expected over a future period is vital in fixing
current or short-term standards. When the activity level is decided on the basis of sales or
production, whichever is the limiting factor; all standard can be developed with the
activity level as the focal point. The purchase of material, usage of material, labour hours
to be worked, etc. are solely governed by the planned level of activity.
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Material price standards: Price standards for the material are the most difficult to set
because material prices are subject to the market forces. Usually, current market price for
each material, the trends observed and the forecasts of the purchasing department are the
determining factors.
While fixing price standards, the other terms like trade discounts, freight, credit terms,
etc., are also considered.
Material price should also include the cost of purchasing and storing including the
handling costs.
It is customary to prepare a standard ‘Bill of Materials’ which is a list of all the direct
materials to be used and incorporate therein all the standards set for each material sot that
it acts like a ready reckoner.
(B) Labour rate standards: Labour rates are generally governed by agreements with
trade unions, the firm’s wage policy and incentive systems in use. However, the following
factors influence the labour rate standards: (i) Existing, labour rates; (ii) Rates paid by
similar firms; (iii) Type or kind of labour needed for production and (iv) Labour laws
governing the industry.
Wage rate standards differ for different grades or kinds of labour. The rate is also subject
to revision whenever new agreements are concluded with the unions.
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(3) Standards for overhead cost
Overheads are usually segregated into fixed and variable. It is necessary to fix standard
overhead rates separately for fixed overheads and variable overheads. Separate rates have
to be determined for factory, office, selling and distribution overheads- both fixed and
variable.
While determining the overhead rates, the factors to be considered are:
(a) Standard level of activity; (b) Number of units to be produced (c) Labour and machine
hours to be worked.
Standard overhead costs – both fixed and variable should be determined. Based upon the
standard output and standard hours, the overhead rates are finalized.
Standard hour
If a single product is produced in a firm, the output can be expressed in terms of the units
of that product. However, several different products may be produced and they may be
measured in different units like kgs, Tons, liters, gallons, barrels, etc. Though all of these
can not be expressed in terms of a single measure, it possible to express all of theme in
terms of ‘Time’. Time taken to produce is the common factor for all output. Production,
expressed in terms of hours needed to produce them is called ‘Standard hours’.
According to I.C.M.A., England, “Standard hours are a hypothetical hour which represents
the amount of work which should be performed in one hour under standard conditions”.
The ‘Standard hour’ is very useful is ascertaining overhead variances. The total output of a
firm comprising different products is expressed in the form of standard hours and the fixed
and variable overhead rates are set for standard hours.
Revision of standards
Current or short-term standards have to be periodically revised. Long-term or basic
standards may be used for longer periods. They may also need revision when the factors
affecting the standard change.
Revision may be needed in all the following cases:
(a) Change in market price of materials (b) permanent change in labour rates (c) Major
alterations in products or method of production or materials used (d) Basic change in
product specifications or design. (e) Errors in setting of the original standards.
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Check your progress 15.1
List out the any two advantages and two limitations of standard costing
Notes: (a) Write your answer in the space given below.
(b) Check your answer with the ones given at the end of this Lesson
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
Both standards costing and estimated costing are predetermined costs. But the object of
standard costing differs. The differences between these two costs are:
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15.10 BUDGETARY CONTROL AND STANDARD COSTING
Standard costing is a system of accounting in which all expense: (fixed and variable) are
considered for the determination of standard cost for a prescribed set of working
conditions. On the other hand, marginal costing is a technique in which only variable
expenses are taken to ascertain the marginal cost. Both standard costing and marginal
costing are completely independent of each other and may be installed jointly. This system
of joint installation may be named as Marginal Standard Costing or Standard Marginal
Costing System. Variances are calculated in the same way as in standard costing system
with the only difference that volume variances are absent because fixed expenses are
charged in totals in each period.
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15.13 STANDARD COST CARD
When all the standard costs have been determined, a Standard Cost Card is prepared for
each product or service. The process of setting standards for materials, labour and
overheads results in the establishment of the standard cost for the product. Such a cost
card shows for a specified unit of production, quantity, quality and price of each type of
materials to be used, the time and the rate of pay of each type of labour, the various
operations the product would pass through, the recovery of overhead and the total cost.
The build-up of the standard cost of each item is recorded in standard cost card. These
details serve as a basis to measure the efficiency against which actual quantities and costs
are compared. The type of standard cost card varies with the requirements of individual
firm hence no uniform format can be prescribed.
341
2 Elimination of wastage and inefficiency: Wastage and inefficiency in all aspects of the
manufacturing process are curtailed, reduced and eliminated over a period of time if
standard costing is in continuous operation.
3 Norms: Standard costing provides the norms and yard sticks with which the actual
performance can be measured and assessed.
Limitations of standard costing
6. Jain S.P. and Narang K.L. , Cost Accounting , Principles and Practice, Kalayani
Publishers,
7. Sexena V.K. and Vashist C.D., Advanced Cost and Management Accounting –
Textbook, Sultan Chand & Sons
8. Pillai. R.S.N. and Bagavathi V., Cost Accounting, S. Chand & Company Ltd.
9. Alex K., Cost Accounting, ARR publications
10. Horngren, Datar and Foster, Cost Accounting A managerial Emphasis, Pearson
Education
342
LESSON-16
VARIANCE ANALYSIS
Contents:
16.0 Aims and Objectives
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Concepts of Variance Analysis
16.3 Favourable and Unfavourable Variances
16.4 Utilities of Variance Analysis
16.5 Analysis of Variances
16.6 Computation of Variances
16.7 Direct Material Cost Variances
16.8 Direct Labour Cost Variance
16.9 Overhead Variances
16.10 Sales Variance
16.11 Let Us Sum Up
16.12 Lesson-End Activities
16.13 Check Your Answers – Answers
16.14 Suggested Reading/References/Sources
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Management accounting’s one of the core function is to facilitate managerial control. The
major aspect of managerial control is cost control. The efficiency of management, among
other things, depends upon the effective control of costs. For controlling costs,
management should not only know actual costs – the costs actually incurred but also
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pre-determined costs – the costs which should have been incurred. Variance analysis is
the process of analysing variance by sub-dividing the total variance in such a way that
management can assign responsibility for off-standard performance. It, thus, involves the
measurement of the deviation of actual performance from the intended performance. That
is, variance analysis is a tool to measure performances and based on the principle of
management by exception. In variance analysis, the attention of management is drawn not
only to the monetary value of unfavourable and favourable managerial performance but
also to the responsibility and causes for the same.
After the standard costs have been fixed, the next stage in the operation of standard
costing is to ascertain the actual cost of each element and compare them with the standard
already set. Computation and analysis of variances is the main objective of standard
costing. Actual cost and the standard cost is known as the ‘cost variance’.
The most significant contribution of standard costing to the science and art of management
is the presentation of ‘Variances’. As a matter of fact, without determination and analysis
of variances, standard costing is meaningless.
The term variance is derived from the very ‘to vary’ which means to differ. According to
CIMA, England, a cost variance is ‘the difference between a standard cost and the
comparable actual cost incurred during a period”. Thus, Variance represent the extent to
which actual costs deviate from the ‘Norms’ or ‘Yardsticks’.
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When the sales/ profit is greater than the standard sales/profits, it is called as favourable
variance. When the sales/profit is less than the standard sales/profit, it is known as
Unfavourable variance.
The favourable variance is a sign of efficiency of the organization and the Unfavourable
variance is considered as a sign of inefficiency.
Merely finding out variances are not sufficient for the managerial decisions, but their
analysis and finding the causes for variance is the ultimate aim to control costs.
Therefore, the variances are analyzed for their causes. In short, the uses of variances are:
1. Variance analysis sub divides the total variance based on different contributory
causes. This gives a clear picture of the different reasons for the overall variances.
2. The sub division of variance establishes and highlights the interrelationship between
different variances.
3. Variance analysis ‘explains’ the causes for each variance. It paves way for fixing
responsibility for all variances.
4. It highlights all inefficient performances and the extent of inefficiency.
5. It is powerful tool leading to cost control.
6. It enables the top management to practice ‘Management by Exception” by focusing
on the problem areas.
7. It segregates variances into controllable and uncontrollable, thereby indicating where
action is warranted.
8. It acts as the basis for profit planning.
9. By revealing each and every deviation, along with the causes, variance analysis
creates and nurturers ‘cost consciousness among the employees.
Variance Analysis is the process of analyzing variances by sub-dividing the total variance
in such a way that management can assign responsibility for off-standard performance.
Thus, it involves the measurement of the deviation of actual performance from the
intended performance. That is, variance analysis is a tool to measure performances and
based on the principles of management by exception.
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Thus, in variance analysis, the attention of management is drawn not only to the monetary
value of unfavorable and favourable managerial performances but also to the
responsibility and causes for the same.
The computation and analysis of variance are the objectives of standard costing. The
causes of variance are necessary to find remedial measures; and therefore a detailed study
of variance analysis is essential. Variance can be broadly divided into two categories – [1]
cost variances and [2] sales variances. Variances can be found out with respect to all the
elements of costs i.e., direct materials, direct labour and overheads. In other words, the
total cost variances is split into its component parts on the basis of elements, and each
element is further subdivided to locate the responsibility of variance. The following are
the common variances, which are calculated by the management. Sub-divisions of
variances really have given detailed information to the management in order to control the
cost.
VARIANCE
ANALYSIS
Cost Sales
Variances Variances
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16.7 DIRECT MATERIAL COST VARIANCES
Materials form a very high percentage of total cost. Therefore, it is important to study its
variances.
[a] Direct Material Cost Variance [MCV] is the difference between the standard
costs of direct materials specified for the output achieved and the actual cost of direct
materials used. The standard cost of materials is computed by multiplying the standard
price with the standard quantity for actual output; and the actual cost is computed by
multiplying the actual price with the actual quantity. The formula is :
Where, SQ refers Standard quantity for actual output; SP means Standard price
AQ means Actual quantity and AP refers Actual price
If the actual cost is less than the standard cost, the variance is favourable and vice versa.
MCV arises due to change in the price of the materials or a change in the usage of
materials.
In order to find the exact causes for the material cost variance, the material cost variances
is dividend into two. Material price and Materials usage variances are the components of
MCVs. Materials usage variance is further divided into material mix variances and
materials yield or material sub-usage variances. Let us discuss all these in the following
sections.
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[b] Materials Price Variance [MPV]
It is that part of material cost variance which is due to the difference between the standard
price specified and the actual price paid.
MPV = AQ [SP-AP]
i. changes in the market prices of materials; ii. Uneconomical size of purchase orders; iii.
Uneconomical transport costs; iv. Failure to obtain cash discount; and v. failure to
purchase materials at proper time.
MUV = SP [SQ-AQ]
MUV may arise due to carelessness in use of materials; loss due to pilferage; faculty
workmanship; use of material mix other than the standard mix and defect in plant and
machinery causing excessive consumption of materials.
It is the part of material usage variance which arises due to change in standard and actual
compositions of mix.
The variance arises in industries like chemical, rubber etc. where definite proportions of
different raw materials are mixed to get a product. Variations may arise due to general
shortage or non-purchases of materials at the proper time.
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[e] Materials Yield Variance [MYV]
It is part of material usage variance and it is the difference between standard yield
specified and actual yield obtained.
MYV = [Standard Yield – Actual Yield] x Average Standard Price per unit
Or
= [Standard loss on actual output – Actual Loss] x Average Standard Price per unit
MSUV = SP [SQ-RSQ]
Generally material sub-usage variance is not popular among those who use standard
costing as a control system.
Note: The symbols “F” refers favourable variances and “A” indicates Adverse
Variance.
Relationship
MCV = MPV + MUV
MUV = MMV + MYV/MSUV
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Relationship and Verification:
MCV = MPV + MUV
Rs.110 [F] = Rs.230 [F] + Rs.120 [A]
Note: ‘A’ denotes adverse/ negative (-)variance and ‘F’ denotes favourable/ positive [+]
variance.
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Solution No. 16.2
Working Notes: [1] Actual quantity used = Opening Stock + Purchases – Closing Stock
= Nil + 3,000 – 500 = 2,500 kgs
[2] Calculation of standard quantity for actual output
Standard Actual
Materials Qty. Price Total Qty. Price Total
Kgs. Rs. Rs. Kgs. Rs. Rs.
A 500 6.00 3,000 400 6.00 2,400
B 400 3.75 1,500 500 3.60 1,800
C 300 3.00 900 400 2.80 1,120
1,200 1,300
Less: 10 % Normal Loss 120 220
1,080 5,400 1,080 5,320
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Materials A = 500/1200 X 1,300 = 541.67 kgs.
Materials B = 400/1200 X 1,300 = 433.33 kgs.
Materials C = 300/1200 X 1,300 = 325 kgs.
Working Note [2]
Standard loss for an input of 1,200 kgs is 120 kgs.
Standard loss for actual input of Rs.1,300 kgs. 1,300/1,200 X 120 = 130 Kgs [2]
Average Standard price per unit = Total Standard Cost
Standard output
= Rs.5,400 / 1,080 = Rs.5 per kg. [3]
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Relationship and Verification:
Standard Actual
Materials Qty. Price Total Qty. Price Total
Kgs. Rs. Rs. Kgs. Rs. Rs.
X 10 2 20 5 3 15
Y 20 3 60 10 6 60
Z 20 6 120 15 5 75
50 200 30 150
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3. Material usage Variance = SP [SQ-AQ]
Material X 2.00 [10-5] 10 [F]
Material Y 3.00 [20-10] 30 [F]
Material Z 6.00 [20-15] 30 [F] Rs.70 [F]
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16.8 DIRECT LABOUR COST VARIANCE
Labour cost variances arises because of [1] difference in actual rates and standards rates of
labour and [2] variation in actual time taken by workers and the standard time allotted to
them for performing a work. The labour variances are computed on the same pattern as
those of material variances as calculated in the above section. One can find out the
various formulae for Direct labour variances by simply putting the word ‘time’ in pace of
quantity. The various labour variances which will be analysed are as follows:
a. Labour Cost Variance;
b. Labour Rate Variance;
c. Labour Time or Efficiency Variance;
d. Labour Idle Time variances;
e. Labour Mix or Gang Composition Variance; and
f. Labour Yield Variance
If the standard cost is higher, the variation is favourable and vice versa.
Labour rate variance arises due to changes in the basis wage rates; rate of difference
methods of wages payment and unscheduled overtime.
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[d] Labour Idle Time Variance [LITV]
Idle time variance is due to time lost abnormally on account of strikes, lockouts, power
failure, machine breakdown etc. Time wasted due to such causes on which the individual
workers have not control should be separately accounted for should be shown as separate
variance.
It should be noted that this variance is always shows [A] adverse variance
LYV =Standard Cost per unit [Standard output for Actual mix – Actual output]
Note: The symbols “F” refers favourable variances and “A” indicates Adverse
Variance.
Relationship
LCV = LRV + LEV
LEF = LMV + LYV + LITV
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Solution No. 16.6
357
Relationship and Verification:
In a certain week, the gang consisted of 13 men, 4 women and 3 boys. Actual wages were
paid at the rate of Rs.1.20, Re.0.85 and Re.0.65 respectively. Two hours were lost due to
abnormal idle time and 960 units of output were produced.
Calculate all possible labour variance.
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Working Note [4]
Calculation of Standard time for actual output
[1] Labour Cost Variance = [ST x SR] – [AT x AR] Rs. Rs.
Men [384 x 1.25] – [520 x 1.20] 144.00[A]
Women [192 x 0.80]- [160 x 0.85] 17.60[F]
Boys [192 x 0.70]- [120 x 0.65] 56.40 F]
Total Labour Cost Variance 70 [A]
2. Labour Rate Variance = AT [SR-AR]
Men 520 [1.25 – 1.20] 26 [F]
Women 160 [0.80 – 0.85] 8 [A]
Boys 120 [0.70 – 0.65] 6 [F]
Total Labour Rate Variance 24 [F]
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3.Total Labour Efficiency = SR [ST-AT]
Variance
Men 1.25 [384 – 520] 170.00[A]
Women 0.80 [192 – 160] 25.60 [F]
Boys 0.70 [192 – 120 ] 50.40 [F]
Total Labour Efficiency 94 [A]
Variance
4. Labour Idle Time Variance = Idle Hours X SR
Men 26 x 1.25 32.50 [A]
Women 8 x 0.80 6.40 [A]
Boys 6 x 0.70 4.20 [A]
Total Labour idle Time 43.10
Variance [A]
SR [ST for actual output-
5. Labour Efficiency Variance =
AT]-AT worked]
Men 1.25 [384 – 494] 137.50 [A]
Women 0.80 [192 – 152] 32.00 [F]
Boys 0.70 [192 – 114] 54.60 [F]
50.90
Labour Efficiency Variance
[A]
6. Labour Mix/Gang Variance = SR [RST-AT worked]
Men = 1.25 [380 – 494] 142.50[A]
Women 0.80 [190 – 152] 30.40 [F]
Boys 0.70 [190 – 114] 53.20 [F]
58.90
Labour Mix/Gang Variance
[A]
Standard Labour
Cost per unit
7. Labour Yield Variance = [Standard output for
Actual time – Actual
output]
0.80 [950 – 960] 8 [F] 8 [F]
Total LEF = ITV+ LEV = Rs.94 [A] = Rs. 43.10 [A]+ Rs.50.90 [A]
LEV = LMV + LYV = Rs. 50.90 [A] =Rs. 58.90 [A] +Rs. 8 [F]
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Illustration No. 16.9
From the following data, calculate 1. labour cost variance; 2. Rate variance;
3. Efficiency variance; 4. Mix Variance and 5. Labour sub-efficiency variance.
Standard Actual
Rate Rate
Hours Hours
Rs. Rs.
Skilled Labour 10 3.00 9,000 4.00
Semi-skilled 8 1.50 8,400 1.50
Unskilled 16 1.00 20,000 0.90
[1] Labour Cost Variance = [ST x SR] – [AT x AR] Rs. Rs.
Skilled Labour [10,000 x3] – [9000 x 4] 6,000 [A]
Semi-skilled [8000 x 1.50]- [8400 x 1.50] 600 [A]
[16000 x 1.00]- [20,000 x 2,000 [A]
Unskilled
0.90]
Total Labour Cost Variance 8,600 [A]
361
Semi-skilled 8,400 [1.50 – 1.50] 0
Unskilled 20,000 [1.00 – 0.90] 2,000 [F]
Total Labour Rate Variance 7,000 [A]
4. Labour Mix/Gang
= SR [RST-AT worked]
Variance
Skilled Labour = 3.00 [11,000 – 9,000] 6,000 [F]
Semi-skilled 1.50 [8,800– 8,400] 600 [F]
Unskilled 1.00 [17,600 – 20,000 ] 2,400 [F]
Labour Mix/Gang Variance 4,200 [F]
7. Labour Sub-Efficiency
= SR [ST – RST]
Variance
Skilled Labour 3.00 [10,000 – 11,000] 3000 [A]
Semi-skilled 1.50 [8,000– 8,800] 1,200 [A]
Unskilled 1.00 [16,000 – 17,600 ] 1,600 [A]
Total Sub- Efficiency 5,800 [A]
Variance
LEF = LMV+ LSEV = Rs.1,600 [A] = Rs. 4,200 [A]+ Rs.5,800 [A]
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NOTES:a) Write your answer in the space given below
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this lesson
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
As we have discussed in the earlier lessons, the term overhead includes indirect material,
indirect labour and indirect expenses. Overhead variance may relate to factory, office or
selling and distribution overheads. For the purposes of variance analysis we have divided
overhead variance broadly into two categories viz., variable and fixed.
Before we proceed to study overhead variances and its categories, we should familiar with
certain terms:
ii. Standard Hours for Actual output = Budgeted Hours X Actual Output
Budgeted Output
Apart from the above technical terms related to overheads, we should familiarize certain
key terms for the computation of overhead variances. They are :
II Budgeted Overheads
= Standard Rate per unit X Budgeted Output
Or
Standard Rate per hour X Budgeted Hours
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III Standard Overheads
= Standard Rate per unit X Standard hours for Actual output
Or
Standard Rate per hour X Actual Hours
IV Actual Overheads
= Actual Rate per Unit X Actual Output
Or
Actual Rate per Hour X Actual Hours
The terms ‘Budgeted Overheads’ and ‘Standard Overheads” have not been same and
budgeted overheads are for budgeted time or budgeted output whereas standard overheads
are for actual time or budgeted output in actual time.
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c. Variable Overhead Efficiency Variance [VOEff. V]
It is the difference between the variable overhead recovered from the output and the
standard variable overhead for actual time.
VOEff. V = Recovered Variable Overhead – Standard Variable Overhead
Standard Overhead = Actual hours worked X Budgeted overhead Rate per hour
Budgeted overhead Rate per hour = Budgeted overhead / Budgeted hour
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[1] Variable Overhead Variance = Recovered Variable overhead – Actual VOH
Verification:
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c. Fixed Overhead Volume Variance [FOVol. V]
This variance is the difference between the fixed overhead recovered on the actual output
and the budgeted fixed overhead for the budgeted output. The volume variance arises due
to the difference in output – Budgeted and actual.
The fixed overhead volume variance is analysed further into capacity and efficiency
variance. Capacity variance reflects the change in volume of output due to working more
or less time than the budgeted time. Efficiency variance reflects the change in volume of
output due to higher or lower efficiency of the workers.
This variance reveals higher or lower work done during a budget period due to efficiency
or inefficiency of the workers. Since the effect of more or less time worked on output is
separated through capacity variance, the balance of the volume variance indicates the
outcome of the efficiency factor.
f. Calendar Variances
This variance is a part of fixed overhead capacity variance. Capacity variance reveals the
effect of working more or less time due to all causes. Calendar variance is restricted to the
time lost or gained due to working more or less days than the schedule working days in the
budget period. This variance may occur due to unscheduled holidays or working on
scheduled holidays.
Calendar Variance
= Standard overhead rate per day x Excess/ Deficit days worked.
This variance is favourable if the actual days worked are more than the budgeted days and
vice versa.
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Illustration No. 16.11
Budgeted Actual
No. of days 25 27
Man hours per month 5,000 5,400
Output in units 500 525
Fixed overheads Rs.2,500 Rs.2,400
Calculate the fixed overhead variances for the month.
Working Notes
5. Standard overhead rate per day = Budged overhead / Budgeted number of days
= 2,500 / 25 = Rs.100
6. Excess/ Deficity days = Budgeted Days – Actual days worked
25days – 27 days = 2 days in excess
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1) Fixed Overhead Cost Recovered Fixed Overhead – Actual
Variance [FOCV] = Fixed Overhead
Standard Actual
Production 4,000 units 3,800 units
Working days 20 days 21 days
Total Overheads Rs.52,000 Rs.51,000
Fixed Overheads Rs.40,000 Rs.39,000
Variable Overheads Rs.12,000 Rs.12,000
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Solution No. 16.12
Working Notes
1. Actual Overheads - [Given]
Total Rs.51,000
Fixed Rs.39,000
Variable Rs.12,000
2. Budgeted Overheads - [Given]
Total Rs.52,000
Fixed Rs.40,000
Variable Rs.12,000
3. Standard Rate per unit - Budgeted Overhead / Budgeted output
Total 52,000/4,000 Rs.13.00
Fixed 40,000/4,000 Rs.10.00
Variable 12,000/4,000 Rs.3.00
3. Recovered Overheads - Standard Rate per unit x Actual output
Total Rs.13.00 x 3,800 Rs.49,400
units
Fixed Rs.10.00 x 3,800 Rs.38,000
units
Variable Rs.3.00 x 3,800 units Rs.11.400
4. Standard output for Actual - Budgeted Output /Budgeted days x actual days
days 4000 /20 X 21 = 4,200 units
5. Standard Overheads - Standard Rate per unit X Standard days for Actual
output
Fixed Rs.10 x 4,200 Rs.42,000
Variable Rs.3 x 4,200 Rs.12,600
6.Excess/ Deficit days Budgeted Days – Actual days worked
20-21 1 day excess
7. Standard Fixed overhead - Budged Fixed overhead / Budgeted number of
rate per day days
40,000 / 20 Rs.2,000
Variance Analysis
Recovered Overheads – Actual
1) Overhead Cost Variance =
Overheads
49,400– 51,000 = Rs.1,600[A]
2) Variable Overhead Cost
Recovered Variable Overheads –
Variance [VOCV] =
Actual Variable Overheads
11,400 -12,000 = Rs.600 [A]
3) Variable Overhead
Standard Variable overheads – Actual
Expenditure Variances =
Variable Overheads
[VOExp.V]
12,600 – 12,000 = Rs.600 [F]
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4) Variable Overhead
Efficiency Variance Recovered Variable Overhead –
=
[VOEff. V] Standard Variable Overhead
Budgeted Actual
Production 20,000 units 22,000 units
Working days 25 days 27 days
Fixed Overheads Rs.30,000 Rs.31,000
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16.10 SALES VARIANCE
Standard costing is considered to be a system of cost variance. Costs affect profits of the
business. However, sales determine the volume of profit or loss. It is therefore, very
informative for the management to calculate sales variances. Therefore, business houses
generally compute sales variance along with cost variances.
The important point to remember is that unlike cost variance, negative variances are
favourable and vice versa in the case of sales variances.
If actual sales are more, the variance is favourable and vice versa.
The causes for sales value variances are change the selling prices; changes in the sales
quantity; change in sales mix, when two or more products are sold; sales promotional
measures might have yielded higher results and higher demand for the products in the
market etc.
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B. Sales Price Variance [SP V]
This variance is the variation is total sales from the budgeted sales, caused solely by the
change in selling prices.
SVV = SP [AQ-SQ]
SQV = SP [RSQ-SQ]
Budget Actual
Product
Qty. Price p.u Qty. Price p.u
A 400 30 500 31
B 200 25 100 24
Calculate: Sales value variance; Sales price Variance; Volume variance; Mix variance and
Sub-volume variance.
373
Solution No. 16.13
Note: When total standard quantity is equal to the total actual quantity RSQ will be the
same as the standard quantity. Therefore mix variance will be equal to volume variance.
374
16.10.2 PROFIT OR MARGIN METHOD
Profit Method of sales variance is the difference between the standard margins appropriate
to the quantity of sales budgeted for a period and the margin between the standard cost
and the actual selling price of sales effected. This variance arises because of the difference
between total budgeted profit and total actual profit. Variances based on profits are the
following:
Where
BQ -budgeted sales quantity; BP – Budgeted profit per unit;
AQ – actual quantity sold; and AP actual price per unit.
If actual profit is more, the variance is favourable and vice versa.
SMPV = AQ [BP-AP]
SMVV = BP [BQ-AQ]
If the variance is negative, it is favourable and vice versa.
375
F. Sales Margin Quantity Variance [SMQV]
It is the result of the difference between budgeted profit and actual profit, both taken in
standard ratio.
4,800 - = Rs.4,800
Alpha
9,600 [F]
2,400 - = Rs.600 [A]
Beta
1,800
Total Rs4,200[A]
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Sales Margin Price Variance [
- AQ [AP –SP]
SMPV]
Alpha 800 [8-12] = Rs.3,200[F]
Beta 600 [6-3] = Rs.1,800[A]
Total Rs.1,400[F]
Sales Margin Volume Variance
BP [BQ-AQ]
[SMVV] -
8 [600- = Rs.1,600[F]
Alpha
800]
3 [400- = Rs.1,200[F]
Beta
600]
Total Rs.2,800[F]
RSQ = Total Actual Quantity X Standard Quantity
Total Standard Quantity
Variance is the difference between standard and actual performance. If the standard cost
is more than the actual cost, then this variance is called favourable variance else
unfavourable variance. Material cost variance is the difference between standard material
cost and actual material cost. Material cost variance arise due to change in price of
material or change in usage of material. Labour variance is the difference between
standard wage fixed and actual wage paid.
377
16.12 LESSON – END ACTIVITIES
6. Calculate the material (a) cost variance (b) price variance and (c) quantity variance
Standard Actual
Amount Amount
Qty Rate Qty. Rate
Rs. Rs.
A 4 100 400 2 350 700
B
C 2 200 400 1 200 200
2 400 800 3 300 900
8 1,600 6 1,800
378
7. A company manufactures particular product the standard material cost of which is
Rs.10per unit. The following information is obtained from the cost records.
(i) Standard mix
Material Quantity Rate Amount
units Rs. Rs.
A 70 10 700
B 30 5 150
100 850
Loss 15% 15 -
85 850
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Closing stock : 1,600 tons
Standard price : Rs.16 per ton
(d) Standard Price per k.g. of : Rs.400
chemical ‘Y’
Stock at the beginning of the : 200kgs.
period
Purchase during the period : 800kgs at Rs.425 per kg.
Closing stock at the end of : 300kgs.
the period
9. From the following particulars calculate the revised standard quantity for each
material and material mix variance:
Material Standard quantity Actual quantity Standard price per unit
Kg. Kg. Rs.
X 500 460 10
Y 300 480 12
Z 200 260 8
380
Actual material :
Material A : 1,200 units at Rs.9 each
Material B : 2,100 units at Rs.7 each
Output, : 2,800 units.
Calculate material mix and yield variances.
(b) Material used :
A : 10,000kgs at Rs.10 per kg
B : 6,000kgs at Rs.20 per kg
Output : 14,000kgs.
Standard loss : 10% of input
Compute material yield variance
(c) Standard mix :
X : 300 units at Rs.4 each
Y : 400 units at Rs.3 each
Z : 500 units at Rs.2 each
Actual mix :
X : 500 units at Rs.5 each
Y : 400 units at Rs.4 each
Z : 300 units at Rs.3 each
Calculate material mix variance.
12. From the following details you are required to compute material usage or
quantity variance in each case separately.
(a) Standard : 400 units at Rs.10 each
Actual : 360 units at Rs.7 each
(b) Standard material for one unit of output : 3-kg at Rs.10 per kg.
Production during March 1999 : 6,000 units of output.
Materials consumed : 20,400kgs at Rs.11 per kg.
(c) Standard:
For production of 100 articles,
Material 40kgs at Rs.8 per kg.
Actual:
Output 25,000 articles
Material used 9,200kgs at Rs.9 per kg.
(d) Standard:
Material A: 40%; Material B 60% at Rs.5 and Rs.10 per unit respectively.
Standard loss 10%
Actual:
5,000 units at Rs.4 per kg.
B 5,000 unit at Rs.11 per kg.
Output 8, 100 units.
381
13. From the following data compute (a) Labour cost variance (b) Labour rate variance
(c) Labour efficiency variance (d) Labour mix variance.
Budgeted labour composition for producing 100 units.
20 men at Rs.1.25 per hour for 25 hour
30 women at Rs.1.10 per hour for 25 hours
Actual labour composition for producing 100 units
25 men at Rs. 1.50 per hour for 24 hours.
25 women at Rs.1.20 per hour for 25 hours.
Variances A B Total
Material Cost Variance 34,000[A] 9,000 [F] 25,000[A]
Material Price Variance 24,000 [A] 18,000 [F] 6,000 [A]
Material Usage Variance 10,000 [A] 9,000 [A] 19,000 [A]
Material Mix Variance 0 0 0
Material Sub-usage Variance 10,000 [A] 9,000 [A] 19,000 [A]
382
16.14 SUGGESTED READING/REFERENCES/SOURCES
1. R.K. Sharama and Shashi K.Gupta – Management Accounting, Principles and Practice
– Kalyani Publishers
2. R.S.N. Pillai and Bagavathi – Management Accounting – S.Chand and Company Ltd.
3. Dr.S.N. Mahehwari – Principles of Management Accounting – Sultan chand & Sons.
4. T.S.Reddy and Y.Hari Prasad Reddy – Management Accounting – Margham
Publications
383
LESSON-17
BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL
Contents:
17.1 INTRODUCTION
384
17.2 MEANING AND DEFINITIONS
17.2.1 Budget
According to CIMA, England, a budget is,” a financial and /or quantitative statement,
prepared and approved prior to a defined period of time, of the policy to be pursued during
the period for the purpose of attaining a given objective”.
It is also defined as,” a blue print of a projected plan of action of a business for a definite
period of time”.
Thus,
14.2.2. Budgeting
Budgeting refers to the process of preparing the budgets. It involves a detailed study of
business environment clearly grasping the management objectives, the available resources
of the enterprises and capacity of the enterprise.
Budgeting is defined by J.Batty as under:
“The entire process of preparing the budgets is known as budgeting”.
385
Thus, budgeting refers to the management action of formulating budgets. In other words,
budgeting is the process of construction of budget plans. Preparation of budget or
budgeting is a planning function and their implementation is a control function.
“Budgetary control” starts with budgeting and ends with control.
Thus, budgetary control is the process of determining various budgeted figures for the
enterprise for the future period and then comparing the budgeted figures with the actual
performance for calculating variances, if any. The budget is a means and budgetary
control is the end result.
Budgetary control is inevitable for policy formulation, planning, control and coordination.
The essence of budgeting is to plan and control. Following are the main objectives of
budgetary control.
1. To define the goal of the enterprise.
2. To provide long and short period plans for attaining these goals.
3. To co-ordinate the activities of different departments.
4. To operate various cost centres and departments with efficiency and economy.
5. To eliminate waste and increase the profitability.
6. To estimate capital expenditure requirements of the future.
386
7. To centralize the control system.
8. To correct deviations from established standards.
9. To fix the responsibility of various individuals in the organization.
10. To ensure that adequate working capital is available for the efficient operation of the
business.
11. To indicate to the management as to where action is needed to solve problems
without delay.
17.4.1 Advantages
The budgetary control system helps in fixing the total for the organization as a whole and concerted
efforts are made for its achievement. Budgetary control has become an essential tool of the
management for controlling costs and maximizing profits. It acts as a friend, philosopher, and guide
to the management. Some of the advantages of budgetary control are:
1) Budgetary control defines the objectives and policies of the undertaking as a whole.
2) It is an effective method of controlling the activities of various departments of a
business unit. It fixes targets and the departments have to work efficiently to reach
the targets.
3) It secures proper co-ordination among the activities of various departments.
4) It helps the management to fix up responsibility in case the performance is below
expectations.
5) It helps the management to reduce wasteful expenditure. This leads to
reduction in the cost of production.
6) It brings in efficiency and economy by promoting cost consciousness among
the employees.
7) It facilitates centralized control with decentralized activity.
8) It acts as internal audit by a continuous evaluation of departmental results and costs.
9) It facilitates introduction of standard costing.
10. It aids in obtaining bank credit.
11. It helps in estimating the financial needs of the concern. Hence the possibility
of under or over capitalization is eliminated.
12. It provides a basis for introducing incentive remuneration plans based on
performance.
13. It helps in the smooth running of the business unit. There will be no stoppage
of production on account of shortage of raw materials or working capital. The
reason is that everything is planned and provided in advance.
16. It indicates to the management as to where action is needed to solve problems without delay.
387
17.4.2 Limitation
Despite the many number of good points, the budgetary control system has some
limitations. Some of the limitations are discussed as follows:
While installing budgetary control system, the following are the main steps should be
taken in to account:
1. Organization chart
There should be a well defined organization chart for budgetary control. This will show
the authority and responsibility of each executive.
2. Budget centre
A budget centre is that part of the organization for which the budget is prepared. A budget
centre may be a department, or a section of the department. (e.g., production department
or purchase section). The establishment of budget centre is essential for covering all parts
of the organization. The budget centers are also necessary for cost control purpose. The
evaluation of performance becomes easy when different centers are established.
3. Budget committee
In small companies, the budget is prepared by the cost accountant. But in big companies,
the budget is prepared by the committee. The budget committee consists of the chief
executive or managing director, budget officers and the mangers of various departments.
The managers of various departments prepare their budgets and submit them to this
committee. The committee will make necessary adjustments, co-ordinate all the budgets
and prepare a Master Budget.
388
The main functions of the committee are:
1. To receive and scrutinize all budgets.
2. To decide the policy to be followed.
3. To suggest revision of functional budgets wherever necessary.
4. To approve the finally revised budgets.
5. To prepare the Master Budget after functional budgets are approved.
6. To co-ordinate the budget programme.
7. To study variations of actual performance.
8. To recommend corrective action if and when required.
4. Budget Manual
Budget Manual is a look which contains the procedure to be followed by the executive’s
concerned with the budget. It guides the executives in preparing various budgets. It is the
responsibility of the budget officer to prepare and maintain this manual.
5. Budget Period
The Budget Manual may contain the following particulars:
A budget period is the length of time for which a budget is prepared and employed. It may
be different in the same industry or business. The budget period depends upon the
following factors:
1. The type of budget-whether it is sales budget, production budget, raw material
purchase budget, or capital expenditure budget. A capital budget may be for a longer
period, i.e.3 to 5 year.
2. The nature of the demand for the product.
3. The timing for the availability of finance.
4. The length of the trade cycle.
All the above factors are taken into account while fixing the budget period.
389
6. Key Factor
It is also known as limiting factor or governing factor or principal budget factor. A key
factor is one which restricts the volume of production. It may arise due to the shortage of
material, labour, capital, plant capacity or sales. It is a factor which affects all other
budgets. Therefore the budget relating to the key factor is prepared before is prepared
before other budgets are framed.
1) Budgetary control system should have the whole-hearted support of the top
management.
2) A budget committee should be established consisting of the budget director and the
executives of various departments of the organization.
3) There should be proper fixation of authority and responsibility. The delegation of
authority should be done in a proper way.
4) The budget figures should be realistic and easily attainable.
5) Variation between actual figures and budgeted figures should be reported promptly
and clearly to the appropriate levels of management.
6) A good accounting system is essential to make budgeting successful.
7) The budget should not cost more to operate than is worth.
The budgets are classified according to their nature. The following are the types of
budgets which are commonly used.
Classification According to Time:
i Short period budget: These budgets are usually for a period of one year. e.g. Cash
Budget, Material Budget , etc.
ii. Long period Budget: These budgets are for a longer period say 5 to 10 years. e.g.
Capital Expenditure Budget, Research & Development Budget.
iii. Current Budget: These budgets are for a very short period, say, a month or a
quarter and are related to current conditions.
390
Classification According to function
A functional budget is a budget which relates to any of the functions of an organization.
The following are the commonly used functional budgets.
1. Sales budget:
A sales budget is an estimate of expected sales during the budget period. It may be stated
in terms of money or quantity or both. It contains information relating to sales, month-
wise, product-wise and area-wise. Sales budget should be carefully prepared as the
preparation of other budgets is dependent on it. This budget is prepared by the sales
manager taking into account the following:
1. Past sales figures 2. Salesmen’s estimates
3. Plant capacity 4. Availability of raw material
5. Seasonal fluctuations 6. Availability of finance
7. Competition 8. Others on land
9. Other factors like political conditions, government policies etc.
Illustration No.17.1
Pearson Ltd., manufactures two brands of pencil Nero and Hero. The sales department of
the company has three Segments, namely Students, Professionals and Kids.
The sales budget for the year ending 31st December 2006 were Nero – Students Segment
3,00,000 pencils; Professional Segment 5,62,500 pencils; Kids segment 1,80,000 pencils
and 4,00,000, 6,00,000 and 20,000 pencil for Student, professional and Kids segments
respectively in respect of Hero pencils. Sales prices are Rs.3 and Rs.1.20 in all segments
in respect of Nero and Hero pencils.
It is estimated that by forced sales promotion the sales of Hero in Student Segment will
increase by 1,75,000 pencils. It is also expected that by increasing production and
arranging extensive advertisement, Kids Segment will enabled to increase the sale of Hero
by 50,000 pencils.
It is recognized that the estimated sales by Professional segment represent an
unsatisfactory target. It is agreed to increase both estimated by 20 %.
Prepare a Sales budget for the year 2007.
391
Solution No.17.1
SALES BUDGET FOR 2007
Nero Hero
Total
Selling Price Rs.3 Rs.1.20
Rs.
Quantity Rs. Quantity Rs.
Students Segment 3,00,000 9,00,000 5,75,000 6,90,000 15,90,000
Professional Segment 6,75,000 20,25,000 7,20,000 8,64,000 28,89,000
Kids segment 1,80,000 5,40,000 70,000 84,000 6,24,000
Total 11,55,000 34,65,000 13,65,000 16,38,000 51,03,000
Zone A Zone B
Unit Price Unit Price
Units Units
Rs. Rs.
Snow Cream 4,00,000 12.00 2,50,000 12.00
Talcum Powder 2,50,000 15.00 3,50,000 15.00
Cold Cream 3,00,000 16.00 3,00,000 16.00
For the current year- 2008, it is estimated that sale of snow cream will go up by 10 % in
Zone B and of Cold Cream by 25,000 units in Zone A.
The company plans to introduce a publicity film for talcum powder in the Television
Netword. The budgeted figures for talcum power are to be increased by 20 % in both the
Zones.
The price of the two creams are to be maintained but for talcum powder, a bonus cut of
Re.1 will be announced.
You are required to prepare quantitative-cum financial budget for sales in the current year.
392
Solution No. 17.2
2. Production Budget:
The preparation of production budget is dependent on the sales budget. Production budget
is an estimate of quantity of goods that must be produced during the budget period. It may
be stated in terms of money or quantity (weights, units etc.) or both. Production may be
calculated as follows:
Units to production may be calculated as follows:
393
Solution No. 17.3
3. Materials Budget:
Materials may be direct or indirect. The materials budget deals with only the direct
material. Indirect materials are included in the factory overhead budget. Materials budget
can be classified into two categories- Materials Requirement Budget and Materials
Purchase Budget. Materials Requirement Budget is an estimate of total quantities of
material required for production during the budget period. The Material purchase Budget
is an estimate of quantities of raw materials to be purchased for production during the
budget, the following factors must be taken into account:
i. Raw material required for the budgeted production.
ii. Time lag between the placing of order and the receipt of the material.
iii. Storage facilities available.
iv. Financial resources available.
v. Price trends in the market.
vi. Opening and closing stocks.
From the following figures prepare raw materials purchase budget for January:
394
Solution No. 17.4
Illustration 17.5
395
Solution 17.5
MANUFACTURING OVERHEAD BUDGET
FOR THE QUARTER ENDING 31ST March 2008
Rs. Rs.
Fixed overhead [48,000 / 4] 12,000
Variable Overhead [80,000 / 8,000 x 500] 5,000
Semi-variable overhead
Fixed [30,000 x 40 % x ¼] 3,000
Variable [30,000 x 60 % /8,000] x 500 1,125 4,125
Total Manufacturing Overheads 21,125
(a) The channels of distribution of the product (b) The advertising and sales promotion
policies (c) The market area to be covered (d) The credit and collection policies (e)
The mode of packing and dispatch of products to customers.
Illustration 17.6
You are required to construct a selling overhead budget from the details given below:
Establishment expenses of sales department Rs.15,000
Other expenses of sales department Rs.6,000
Advertisement Rs.4,500
Salaries to counter salesmen Rs.15,000.
Commission to counter salesmen at 2 % on their sales.
Commission to traveling salesmen at 5 % on their sales and out of pocket expenses at 3 %
on their sales.
The following are the likely sales range for a year
396
Sales at Counter Sales by Travelling Salesmen
Rs. Rs.
1,50,000 15,000
2,00,000 20,000
2,50,000 25,000
Solution 17.06
SELLING OVERHEAD BUDGET
Estimated Sales
Particulars
Rs.1,65,000 Rs.2,20,000 Rs.2,75,000
Fixed Selling Overheads:
Establishment expenses of sales Dept. 15,000 15,000 15,000
Other expenses of sales Dept. 6,000 6,000 6,000
Advertisement 4,500 4,500 4,500
Salaries to counter salesmen 15,000 15,000 15,000
Total Fixed overhead [A] 40,500 40,500 40,500
Variable Selling Overheads:
397
1 Cash Budget:
This budget gives an estimate of receipts and payments of cash during the budget period.
It is prepared by the chief accountant. It shows the cash available and needed from time to
meet the capital requirements of the organization. This budget is prepared in two parts –
one showing an estimate of receipts and the other showing an estimate of payments. It is
prepared for the following purpose:
a. To ensure sufficient cash is available for both revenue and capital expenditure.
b. To indicate when additional finance is required and how much.
c. To find out whether surplus funds are available for outside investment.
398
Solution No. 17.7
CASH BUDGET FOR THE MONTH OF JUNE 2008
Rs. Rs.
Opening Balance 42,500
Receipts:
Cash Sales 95,000
Collection from Debtors 1,00,000
Interest on Investments 3,000 1,98,000
2,40,500
Payments:
Cash purchases 44,000
Payment to Creditors 72,000
Rent 2,000
Overheads: May Rs.6,000
June Rs.5,500 11,500 1,29,500
Closing Balance 1,11,000
Note: Depreciation is a non-cash item. Hence it is not considered.
Other Information:
1. Period of credit allowed by suppliers 2 months.
2. 20 % of sales are for cash and period of credit allowed to customers for credit is one
month.
3. Delay in payment of all expenses – 1 month.
4. Income Tax of Rs.57,500 is due to be paid on June 15th.
5. The company is to pay dividends to shareholders and bonus to workers of Rs.15,000
and Rs.22,500 respectively in the month of April.
6. Plant has been ordered to be received and paid in May. It will cost Rs.1,20,000.
399
Solution No. 17.8
CASH BUDGET
April May June
Particulars
Rs. Rs. Rs.
Opening Balance 37,500 11,700 (91,050)
Receipts From:
Cash Sales [20 of sales]
18,000 24,000 27,000
Collection from Debtors [80 % of the previous month
67,200 72,000 96,000
sales]
Total [a] 1,22,700 1,07,700 31,950
Payments:
Creditors [2months previous purchases] 45,000 48,000 52,500
Wages [Previous month] 9,750 10,500 13,500
Factory Expenses [Previous month] 8,250 9,000 11,250
Office Expenses [Previous month] 6,000 6,000 6,000
Selling Expenses [Previous month] 4,500 5,250 6,570
Dividend to Shareholders 15,000 - -
Bonus to workers 22,500 - -
Purchase of Plant - 1,20,000 -
Income Tax - - 57,500
Total [b] 1,11,000 1,98,750 1,47,320
Closing Balance [a-b] 11,700 (91,050) (1,15,370)
Note: The company needs overdraft facilities in May and June to the extent of Rs.91.050
and Rs.1,15,370 respectively.
1 Master Budget:
Finally, master budget is prepared incorporating all functional budgets. It is defined as,’’
the summary budget incorporating the functional budgets which is finally approved,
adopted and employed,’’ The budget may take the form of budgeted profit and loss
account and balance sheet. It contains sales, production cost, cash position, debtor, fixed
assets, bills payable etc. It also shows the gross and net profits and the important
accounting ratios. It has to be approved by the board of directors before it is put into
operation.
Illustration No.17.9
A company which supplies its output on contract basis as component to an assembling
firm has a contract to supply 10,000 units of its only product during 2008. The following
are the budgeted expenses and revenue.
400
Materials Rs.15 per unit
Wages Rs.10 per unit
Works expenses – Fixed Rs.40,000
- Variable Rs.4 per unit
General expenses – all fixed Rs.60,000
Profit is 20 % on sale price.
Prepare the budget for 2008 showing the costs and profit.
Solution No.17.9
MASTER BUDGET
Output 10,000 units
1. Fixed Budget:
Fixed budget is also called static budget. It may be defined as, “ a budget designed to
remain unchanged irrespective of the level of activity actually attained ” .This budget is
most suited for fixed expenses, which have no relation to the volume of output. It is
ineffective for cost control purpose. It is useless for comparison with actual performance
when the level of activity changes.
2. Flexible Budget:
Flexible budget is also called variable budget. It may be defined as, “A budget designed to
change in accordance with the level of activity actually attained .”It shows estimated costs
and profit at different levels of output. It facilitates comparison of actual performance with
the budget at any levels of output.
401
To prepare flexible budget, all costs should be classified into fixed, variable and semi-
variable. It is more elastic, useful and practical. It is used for the purpose of control:
This budget is used in the following cases:
(1) Where sales cannot be accurately predicted because of the nature of business.
(2) Where the concern is suffering from shortage of materials, lab our, plant capacity etc.
(3) Where production during the year varies from period to period, due to the seasonal
nature of the industry.
(4) Where it is difficult to forecast the demand accurately.
Illustration No.17.10
Draw up a flexible budget for production at 75 % and 100 % capacity on the basis of the
following data for a 50 % activity.
Per Unit
Rs.
Materials 100
Labour 50
Variable expenses [direct] 10
Administrative expenses [50 % fixed] 40,000
Selling and Distribution expenses [60 % fixed] 50,000
Present Production [50 % activity] 1,000 Units
Solution No.17.10
FLEXIBLE BUDGET
Capacity Levels
50 % 75 % 100 %
1,000 units 1,500 units 2,000 units
Particulars
Per Per Per
Total Total Total
unit unit unit
Rs. Rs. Rs.
Rs. Rs. Rs.
Materials 100 1,00,000 100.00 1,50,000 100. 2,00,000
Labour 50 50,000 50.00 75,000 50 1,00,000
Variable Expenses 10 10,000 10.00 15,000 10 20,000
Prime Cost 160 1,60,000 160.00 2,40,000 160 3,20,000
Administrative Expenses:
Variable [50 %] 20 20,000 20.00 30,000 20 40,000
Fixed [50 %] 20 20,000 13.33 20,000 10 20,000
Cost of Production 200 2,00,000 193.33 2,90,000 190 3,80,000
Selling and Distribution
Expenses:
Variable [40 %] 20 20,000 20.00 30,000 20 40,000
Fixed [60 %] 30 30,000 20.00 30,000 15 30,000
Total Cost 250 2,50,000 233.33 3,50,000 225 4,50,000
402
Illustration No. 17.11
For the production of 10,000 electric automatic irons; the following are the budgeted
expenses:
Per unit
Rs.
Direct Materials 60
Direct Labour 30
Variable Overheads 25
Fixed overhead [Rs.1,50,000] 15
Variable expenses [Direct] 5
Selling expenses [10 % fixed] 15
Administration expenses [Rs.50,000 rigid for all levels of production] 5
Distribution expenses [20 % fixed] 5
Total cost of sale per unit 160
Prepare a budget for the production of 6,000, 7,000 and 8,000 irons, showing distinctly the
marginal cost and the total cost.
Fixed Overheads:
25.00 1,50,000 21.43 1,50,000 18.75 1,50,000
Production
8.34 50,000 7.14 50,000 6.25 50,000
Selling
2.50 15,000 2.14 15,000 1.88 15,000
Distribution
1.66 10,000 1.43 10,000 1.25 10,000
Fixed Cost 37.50 2,25,000 32.14 2,25,000 28.13 2,25,000
Total Cost 175.00 10,50,000 169.64 11,87,500 165.63 13,25,000
403
Check Your Progress: Illustration No. 16.1
The expenses for the production of 5,000 units in a factory are given as follows:
Per Unit
Rs.
Materials 50
Labour 20
Variable Overheads 15
Fixed overheads [Rs.50,000] 10
Administrative Overheads [5 % variable] 10
Selling expenses [20 % fixed] 6
Distribution expenses 5
Total cost of sales per unit 116
You are required to prepare a budget for the production of 7,000 units.
Zero base budgeting is a management technique aimed at cost reduction and optimum
utilization of resources. This technique was introduced by U.S. Department of Agriculture
in 1961. Peter. A. Phyrr designed its basic frame work in 1970 and popularized its wider
use in the private sector. In 1979, President Jimmy Carter issued a mandate asking for the
use of ZBB throughout the federal government agencies for controlling state expenditure.
The technique has become quite popular in the U.S.
Meaning
The traditional technique of budgeting is to take previous year’s cost levels as a base for
preparing this year’s budget. This type of budgeting assumes that allocation of funds in the
past was correct. In most cases, an addition is made to the previous year’s figure to allow
for an increase in cost. Because of this, budgets (particularly government budgets) take an
upward direction in spite of declining efficiency year after year. Thus, the inefficiencies of
a previous year are carried forward in formulating the subsequent year’s budget. Managers
tend to inflate their budget requests resulting in more demand for funds.
404
ZBB is defined as a “ a planning and budgeting process which requires each manager to
justify his entire budget request in detail from scratch (hence Zero base ) and shifts the
burden of proof to each manager to justify why he should spend money at all. The
approach requires that all activity be analysis in decision ‘packages’ which are evaluated
by systematic analysis and ranked in the order of importance”.
1. Determination of objectives: The first step in ZBB is the clear definition of the
objectives of budgeting. The objective may be to reduce expenditure on staff, to
discontinue an activity or project in preference to another etc.
2. Determination of the Extent of Application: Whether ZBB should be introduced in
all operational areas or only in some selected areas is to be decided.
3. Identification of Decision Units: Decision unit refers to a department, a project line
to which ZBB is to be applied. Identification of such units is done in consultation
with managers.
4. Cost- Benefit Analysis: Cost benefit analysis is undertaken for each activity of the d
decision unit. It provides answer to the following questions.
a) Is it necessary to perform the activity at all? If the answer is in the negative,
there is no need for proceeding further.
b) How much is the actual cost and what is the actual benefit of the activity?
c) What is the estimated cost and estimated benefit of the activity?
d) If the unit is dropped, can the unit be replaced by outside agency?
5. Preparation of budgets: The activities and projects for which benefit is more than the
cost are ranked. Priority is accorded to the most profitable projects/ activities, in the
allocation of funds.
Advantages of ZBB
1. It provides a systematic way to evaluate different operations and programmers. No
arbitrary cuts or increase in budget estimates are made.
2. It enables the management to allocate resource according to benefit or importance.
3. It ensures that only essential programmers are undertaken and activities are
performed in the best possible manner.
4. It helps in identifying and controlling wasteful expenditure.
5. Zero base budgeting does not allow some expenditure/activity simply because it was
done in the past. Management is required to review activities before allowing funds
for them. This promotes operational efficiency.
6. Zero base budgeting is appropriate for staff and support areas.
7. Budgeting will be related to organizational goals. Only those activities which will
help in the achievement of organizational goals will be allowed.
8. It is a convenient tool in integrating the managerial functions of planning and
control.
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17.9 LET US SUM UP
08. Retail Traders Ltd., manufactures two products ‘S’ and ‘T’ and sells them in tow
markets ‘East’ and ‘West’, Normal sales estimates prepared by the marketing
department for the year 1999 bases on the reports of regional managers are as
follows:
406
A special incentive system is proposed by the director of marketing for the salesman in
east zone which is expected to push up the estimated sales of ‘S’ and ‘T’ by 20% in that
zone. The advertising department has finalised an intensive compaign in west zone which
is estimated to get additional sales of 2,000 units and 1,500 units of products ‘S’ and ‘T’
respectively in the West Zone.
09. The expenses budgeted for production of 10,000 units in a factory are furnished
below:
Per unit
Rs.
Materials 70
Labour 25
Variable overhead 20
Fixed overhead (Rs.1,00,000) 10
Variable expenses (Direct) 5
Selling expenses (10% fixed) 13
Distribution expenses (20% fixed) 7
Administration expenses (50,000) 5
Total cost per unit (to make or sell) 155
Prepare a flexible budget for the production of (a) 8,000 units and (b) 6,000 units.
Total cost for 7,000 units is Rs.7,69,000 and cost per unit is Rs.109.94
407
LESSON-18
MARGINAL COSTING
Contents:
18.0 Aims and objectives
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Definition of Marginal cost and Marginal Costing
18.3 Salient Features of Marginal Costing
18.4 Merits and Demerits of Marginal Costing
18.5 Absorption costing and Marginal Costing
18.6 Costs-Volume Profit Analysis
18.7 Some important concepts of cost-volume-profit analysis
18.8 Break even Analysis and Break even Point
18.9 Break Even Charts
18.10 Applications of Marginal Costing Techniques
18.11 Illustrations
18.12 Let us Sum Up
18.13 Lesson-end Activities
18.14 Model Answers to “Check your Progress”
18.15 Suggested Reading/References/Sources
408
18.1 INTRODUCTION
Marginal costing is not a method of cost ascertainment like job costing or contract costing.
Marginal costing is a technique of costing, which may be used with other methods of
costing, viz., job process. For decision-making, it is more helpful to the management. The
other names for marginal costing are direct costing, differential costing, incremental
costing and comparative costing.
In marginal costing, only variable items of costs are taken into account. These variable
costs will change in direct relation to the change in the volume of production or change in
the production by one unit. As such, variable costs are called product costs and are
charged to production. Fixed costs are not allocated to cost unit; and these are charged
directly to profit and loss account during the period and are called as period costs or
capacity costs.
On analyzing this definition we can conclude that the term, ‘Marginal cost” refers to
increase or decrease in the amount of cost on account of increase or decrease or
production by a single unit. The unit may be a single article or a batch of similar articles.
A factory produces 500 fans per annum. The variable cost per fan is Rs.50. The fixed
cost is Rs.10,000 per annum. Thus, the cost of producing 500 fans will be :
Variable Cost [500 X 50] Rs.25,000
Fixed Cost [Constant] Rs.10,000
Total cost for 500 fans Rs.35,000
If production is increased by one unit, i.e., it becomes 501 fans per annum, the cost will
then appear as follows:
409
Variable Cost [501 X 50] Rs.25,050
Fixed Cost [Constant] Rs.10,000
Total cost for 500 fans Rs.35,050
Therefore, the marginal cost per unit is, Rs.50 [Rs.35,050 – Rs.35,000]
Thus, the marginal cost is the total variable cost because within the capacity of the firm,
an increase of one unit in production or decrease in one unit of production wills cause an
increase or decrease in variable cost only.
The variable cost consist of direct materials, direct labour, direct examples and variable
overheads.
Marginal Costing also defined as, ‘the ascertainment of marginal costs and of the effect of
profit of changes in volume or type of output by differentiating between fixed costs and
variable costs.
From the above definitions, we can understand that marginal costing involves two things:
[a] Ascertainment of marginal cost;
[b] Deriving of cost-volume-profit relationship by differentiating between fixed costs
and variable costs.
Marginal cost is the additional cost of producing an additional unit of a product.
Marginal cost is defined by CIMA, London as ‘the amount at any given volume of output
by which aggregate costs are changed if the volume of output is increased or decreased by
one unit. In practice, this is measured by the total variable costs attributable to one unit”.
410
18.3 SALIENT FEATURES OF MARGINAL COSTING
1. Simplicity: The statement prepared under marginal costing can be easily followed
as it breaks up the costs as variable and fixed.
2. Stock Valuation: Stock valuation can be easily done and understood as it includes
only the variable costs.
3. Meaningful Reporting: Marginal costing serves as a good basis for reporting to
management. The profits are analysed from the point of view of sales rather than production.
4. Effect of Fixed Costs: The fixed costs are treated as period costs and are charged to
P/L account directly. Thus they have practically no effect on decision making.
5. Profit Planning: The cost-volume-profit relationship is perfectly analysed to reveal
efficiency of products, processes and departments. ‘Break even point’ and ‘Margin
of safety’ are the two important concepts helpful in profit planning. Most
advantageous volume and cost to maximize profits within the existing limitations
can be planned.
411
6. Cost Control and Cost Reduction: Marginal costing technique is helpful in
preparation of flexible budget as the costs are split into fixed and variable portions.
The emphasis is laid on variable cost for control. The fixed costs are also controlled
by ascertaining them separately for computing profit and for control. The constant
focus on cost and volume, and their effect on profit pave way for cost reduction.
7. Pricing Policy: Marginal costing is immensely helpful in determination of selling
prices under different situations like recession, depression, introduction of new
products, etc. correct pricing policy can be developed under the marginal costing
technique with the help of the cost information, revealed therein.
8. Helpful to Management: Marginal costing is helpful to management in exercising
decisions regarding make or buy, exporting, key factor and numerous other aspects
of business operations.
a. Difficult to analyze overhead: Separation of costs into fixed and variable is a difficult
problem. In marginal costing, semi-variable or semi-fixed costs are not considered.
b. Time element is ignored: Fixed costs and variable costs are different in the short
run; but in the long run, all costs are variable. In the long run all costs change at
varying levels of operation. When new plants and equipments are introduced, fixed
costs and variable costs will vary. Therefore, it ignores time element and is not
suitable for long-term decisions.
c. Not suitable for external reporting: Since fixed cost is not included in total costs,
full cost is not available to outsiders to judge the efficiency.
d. Undervaluation of Stocks: Under marginal costing only variable costs are
considered and the output as well as stocks are undervalued and profit is distorted.
When there is loss of stock the insurance cover will not meet the total cost.
e. Automation: In these days of automation and technical advancement, huge
investment are made in heavy machinery which results in heavy amount of fixed
costs. Ignoring fixed costs, in this context for decision making is not rational.
f. Production aspect is ignored: Marginal costing lays too much emphasis on selling
function and as such production function has been considered to be less significant. But from
the business point of view both the functions are equally important.
g. Not applicable in all types of business: In contract type of business and job order
business, full cost of the job or the contract is to be charged. Therefore, it is difficult
to apply marginal costing in these types of business.
h. Misleading Pricing: Each product is shown at variable costs alone, thus, giving a
misleading picture about its costs.
Thus, marginal costing, if applied alone, will not be much in use, unless it is combined
with other techniques like standard costing and budgetary control.
412
18.5 ABSORPTION COSTING AND MARGINAL COSTING
Absorption costing is the practice of charging all costs, both fixed and variable to
operations, process or products. In marginal costing, only variable costs are charged to
productions.
The Institute of Cost and Management Accountants (U.K.) defines it as, “the practice of
charging all costs, both variable and fixed to operations, processes or products”. This
explains why this technique is also called full costing. Administrative, selling and
distribution overheads as much form part of total cost as prime cost and factory burden.
As the term itself suggests, the cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis is the analysis of three
variables, viz., cost, volume and profit. In CVP analysis, an attempt is made to measure
variations of costs and profit with volume. Profit as a variable is the reflection of a number
of internal and external conditions which exert influence on sales revenue and costs.
413
The cost volume profit analysis helps or assists the management in profit planning. In
order to increase the profit, a concern must increase the output. When the output is at
maximum, within the installed capacity, it adds to the contribution. In the words of
Heiser, “The most significant single factor in profit planning of the average business is the
relationship between the volume of business, costs and profit.” Thereby, cost volume
profit analysis is the relationship among cost, volume and profit. When volume of output
increases, unit cost of production decreases, and vice versa; because the fixed cost remains
unaffected. When the output increases, the fixed cost per unit decreases. Therefore, profit
will be more, when sales price remains constant. Generally, costs may not change in direct
proportion to the volume. Thus, a small change in the volume will affect the profit.
The management is always interested in knowing that which product or product mix is most
profitable, what effect a change in the volume of output will have on the cost of production and profit
etc. All these problems are solved with the help of the cost-volume-profit analysis.
To know the cost volume profit relationship, a study of the following is essential:
1. Marginal cost analysis;
2. Break-even analysis;
3. Profit volume ratio;
4. Profit graph;
5. Key factor; and
6. Sales mix. etc.
The fixed costs do not normally change upto the full capacity of a firm. So unless
otherwise mentioned, between ‘0’ and 100% of a firm’s capacity, fixed cost remain
constant. Fixed costs are fixed in total but variable per unit.
414
18.7.3 Contribution
Contribution is the difference between sales and marginal cost. It is the contribution
towards fixed costs and profit. In marginal costing technique contribution is a very
important concept as it is used to find the profitability of products, processes, departments
and divisions. Practically all decision are based on and oriented towards contribution.
Contribution is different from the profit which is the net margin remaining after reducing
fixed expenses from the total contribution. Contribution can be ascertained as given
below:
Contribution = Selling price – Marginal cost
Contribution = Fixed expenses + Profit
Contribution – Fixed expenses = Profit
C
18.7.4 Contribution to Sales ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ (or) P/V (Profit Volume) Ratio
⎝S ⎠
This is the ratio of contribution to sales. It is an important ratio analyzing the relationship
between sales and contribution. A high P/V ratio indicates high profitability and low P/V
ratio indicates low profitability. This ratio helps in comparison of profitability of various
products. Since high P/V ratio indicates high profits, the objective of every organization
should be to improve or increase the P/V ratio.
P/V Ratio can be improved by:
(1) Decreasing the variable cost by efficiently utilizing material, machines and men.
(2) Selecting most profitable product mix for production and sales.
(3) Increasing the selling price per unit.
When two periods’ profits and sales are given, the P/V ratio is calculated as given below:
Change in profits
P /V Ratio =
Change in sales
P/V Ratio is generally expressed as a percentage.
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18.8 BREAK EVEN ANALYSIS AND BREAK EVEN POINT
Break even analysis is a method of studying relationship between revenue and costs in
relation to sales volume of a business enterprise and determination of volume of sales at
which total costs are equal to revenue. According to Matz Curry an Frank “a break-even
analysis determines at what level cost and revenue are in equilibrium”. Thus, break even
analysis refers to a system of determination of that level of activity where total sales are
just equal to total costs. This level of activity is generally termed as break-even point
(B.E.P.). At the break even point a business man neither earns any profit nor incurs any
loss. Break even point is also called “No profit, no loss point” or “Zero profit & zero loss
point”.
416
Composite Break even point
This is the combined break even point or overall break even point of a concern calculated
only when a business concern makes two or more products. The composite break-even
point is calculated by the following formula:
Total Fixed cos t
Composite break even point in value =
Composite P / V Ratio
Where total fixed cost is the total fixed cost of the business concern as a whole.
Composite P/V ratio = Individual P/V Ratio x % of each product to total sales Beak even
capacity or Capacity Break even point: This is expression of break even point as
percentage of capacity.
B .E .P . in units
Capacity B.E.P. = x 100
Total capacity in units
(or)
Break even po int in rupees
= x 100
Total capacity in rupees
Margin of Safety
Break even analysis includes the concept of margin of safety. Margin of safety is the
difference between actual sales and break even sales. Margin of safety is calculated in
rupees, units or even in percentage form. Margin of safety indicates the value/volume of
sales which directly contribute to profit, as fixed costs have already been recovered at
break even point. Margin of safety is calculated by the following formula:
417
Margin of safety is the cushion available to withstand the oscillations in the business
cycle. When sales start declining for any of the above reasons, the firm will not incur
losses till its margin of safety is fully eroded. Thus, the firms with high margin of safety
can survive ups and down in business whereas those firms operating with very thin margin
of safety can succumb or capitulate when severe competition or recession is faced.
The objective of the management should always be to maximize the margin of safety, their
by providing stability and safety to the firm. Margin of safety can be improved by taking
the following steps:
1. Increasing production
2. Increasing selling price
3. Reducing the fixed or the variable costs or both;
4. Substituting unprofitable product with profitable one.
Angle of Incidence
In graphic presentation of marginal cost data, i.e., a break-even chart, the total cost line
and sales line cross each other. The point of their crossing is termed ‘Break-even point’.
The angle at which the sales line crosses the total cost line is called the ‘Angle of
incidence’.
‘The bigger is the angle, the more will be the contribution and profit with every additional
sale. Firms with higher P/V ratio and comparatively less variable costs have a higher angle
of incidence. Such firm can magnify their profits in high demand conditions.
The angle of incidence at a glance can signify or reveal the ability of a firm to earn higher
profits with every increase in sales.
The technique of break-even analysis can be made easy with the help of graph or
mathematical formula. Graphical representation of break-even point is known as the
break-even chart. Dr.Vance is of the opinion that “it is a graph showing the amount of
fixed variable costs and the sales revenue at different volumes of operation. It shows at
what volume the firm first covers all costs with revenue of break-even”. B.E.C. show the
profitability or otherwise of an undertaking at various levels of activity, and indicates the
point at which neither profit nor loss is made. Break-even point is known as “no profit, no
loss point”. So the chart is also known as break-even chart. At this point, the total costs are
recovered and profit begins.
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18.9.1 Advantage
i) Total cost, variable cost and fixed cost can be determined.
ii) B.E. output or sales value can be determined.
iii) Cost, volume and profit relationship can be studied, and they are very useful to the
managerial decision-making.
iv) Inter-firm comparison is possible.
v) It is useful for forecasting plans and profits.
vi) The best products mix can be selected.
vii) Total profits can be calculated.
viii) Profitability of different levels of activity, various products or profit, i.e., plant can
be known.
ix) It is helpful for cost control.
419
18.9.3 Types of Break Even Charts
From the point of view of methods of preparation and purpose for which the chart is
prepared, break even chart may be various types. Normally, following types are most
commonly used.
(1) Simple break-even chart
(2) Contribution break even chart
(3) Profit break even chart
(4) Profit chart for product-wise analysis
(5) Cash break even chart
(6) Control break even chart
Illustration No.18.01
420
Solution No.18.1
MARGINAL COST STATEMENT
Rs. Rs.
Sales 1,50,000
Less: Variable Costs:
Direct Materials 45,000
Direct Labour 25,000
Factory Overheads 15,000 85,000
CONTRIBUTION 65,000
Less: Fixed Cost
Administrative expenses 12,500
PROFIT 52,500
Illustration No.18.2
Calculate P/V Ratio from the following
Marginal cost [Variable cost] Rs.2,400 and Selling price Rs.3,000
Solution No.18.2
P/V Ratio = [Contribution / Sales] x 100 = [Rs.3,000- 2,400]/3,000 x 100
= Rs.600 / 3,000 x 100 = 20 %
Illustration No.18.3
The following data are obtained from the records of a company.
Period I Period II
Rs. Rs.
Sales 80,000 90,000
Profit 10,000 14,000
Calculate Break even point.
Solution No.18.3
421
= [Rs.4,000 / Rs.10,000] X 100 = 40 %
Fixed Cost = Contribution – Profit
Contribution = sales of any one period x P/V ratio
= Rs.80,000 x 40 % = Rs.32,000
Fixed cost = Contribution – profit of considered period
= Rs.32,000 – 10,000 = Rs.22,000
Therefore, BEP sales = Fixed Cost / P/V Ratio
= Rs.22,000 / 40 % = Rs.55,000
Illustration No.18.4
Solution No.18.4
Contribution = Sales – Variable Cost = Rs.1,00,000 – Rs.1,60,000 =
Rs.40,000
P/V ratio = Contribution/Sales x 100 [C/S x100]
= 40,000 / 1,00,000 x 100 = 40 %
Margin of Safety = Sales – Break even sales [or] Profit / P/V ratio
= Rs.1,00,000 – Rs.75,000 = Rs.25,000
OR
= [1,00,000 – (60,000+30,000)]/40 %=10,000 / 40 %=
Rs.25,000
Margin of Safety Ratio = Margin of safety / Sales X 100
= Rs.25,000 / Rs.1,00,000 x 100 = 25 %
Illustration No.18.5
The fixed expenses of an industrial concern amount to Rs. 1,80,000. Its variable cost per
unit is Rs.29 and selling price is Rs.44 per unit. Calculate the break even point.
422
Solution No.18.5
Contribution per unit = Selling price per unit – Variable cost per unit
Rs.44 – Rs.29 = Rs.15
P/V Ratio = Contribution / Sales x 100
= Rs.15/ Rs.44 x 100 = 34 % [approx.]
Break even point [in units] = Fixed cost / Contribution per unit [CPU]
= Rs.1,80,000 / Rs.15 = 12,000 units
Break even Sales [in Rs.] = Fixed cost / P/V ratio
= Rs.1,80,000 / 34 % = Rs.5,28,000
Illustration No.18.6
Fill in the blanks for each of the following independent situations:
No. of Selling Variable cost Contribution Fixed
Profit
Case units sold price p.u % of Sales Margin Cost
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
A 15,000 ? 90 ? 30,000 0
B 2,000 160 ? 80,000 ? [2,000]
C ? 15 75 ? 25,000 50,000
Solution No.18.6
CASE A
MARGINAL COST STATEMENT
Rs.
[1]
Sales [15,000 units] 3,00,000
Less: Variable Costs:[Bal. Fig] *2,70,000
CONTRIBUTION 30,000
Less: Fixed Cost [given] 30,000
PROFIT [given] 0
423
CASE B
MARGINAL COST STATEMENT
Rs.
Sales [2,000 x 160] 3,20,000
Less: Variable Costs:[Bal. Fig] *2,40,000
CONTRIBUTION 80,000
Less: Fixed Cost [Bal. Fig] *82,000
LOSS [given] (2,000)
CASE C
MARGINAL COST STATEMENT
Rs.
[2]
Sales [20,000 x 15] 3,00,000
Less: Variable Costs:[Bal. Fig] *2,25,000
CONTRIBUTION 75,000
Less: Fixed Cost [given] 25,000
PROFIT [given] 50,000
Illustration No.18.7
Margin of Safety Rs.10,000 which represents 40 % of sales. P/V ratio 50 %. Calculate
[a]Sales; [b] Break even sales [c] Fixed cost and [d] Profit.
Solution No.18.7
[a] Sales
Margin of Safety 40 % of sales
If Margin of Safety is Rs.40; Sales will be Rs.100
If Margin of Safety is Rs.10,000; Sales = Rs.10,000 X [100/40]= Rs.25,000
424
[b] Break Even Sales
Break even sales = Sales – Margin of Safety
Rs.25,000 – Rs.10,000 = Rs.15,000
[c] Fixed Cost
P/V Ratio = 50 %
It means contribution is Rs,50 when sales are Rs.100
Therefore, Contribution at break even sales = Break even sales x P/V Ratio
= Rs.15,000 X 50 % = Rs.7,500
Contribution – Fixed cost equal to zero at break even point, therefore[ C-FC = O]Fixed
cost is Rs.7,500.
[d] Profit
MARGINAL COST STATEMENT
Rs.
Sales 25,000
Less: Variable Costs:[Bal. Fig] *12,500
CONTRIBUTION [S X P/V] 25,000 X 50% 12,500
Less: Fixed Cost 7,500
PROFIT [Calculated] *5,000
Illustration No.18.8
Solution No.18.08
Break Even Point [in units] = Fixed Cost / Contribution per unit
Contribution per unit = Selling price per unit – Variable cost per unit
= Rs.18 – Rs.12 = Rs.6
Break Even Point [in units] = Rs.60,000 / Rs.6 = 10,000 units
Break Even Point [in Rupees]= Fixed Cost / P/V Ratio
P/V Ratio = [Contribution / Sales] X 100= [6/18] x100= 33.33 %
Break Even Point [in Rupees = [Rs.60,000 / 33.33]x 100 = Rs.1,80,000
425
Verification:
MARGINAL COST STATEMENT
Rs. Rs.
Sales [10,000 x 18] 18 1,80,000
Less: Variable Costs:[10,000 x 12] 12 1,20,000
CONTRIBUTION 6 60,000
Less: Fixed Cost 60,000
No PROFIT /LOSS 0
Illustration No.18.9
From the following data, calculate break-even point expressed in terms of units and also
the new BEP, if the selling price is reduced by 10 %.
Fixed Cost Rs.2,00,000; Variable Expenses Rs.5 per unit and Selling price per unit Rs.10
Solution No.18.9
Break Even Point = Fixed cost / Contribution per unit
= Rs.2,00,000 / [10-5] = Rs.2,00,000 / Rs.5 = 40,000 units
If the selling price is reduced by 10 %, the new selling price will becomes Rs.9 [10 – 1]
per unit. Therefore, new contribution is, new selling price Rs.9 less variable cost [9-5]
Rs.4
Illustration No.18.10
426
Solution No.18.10
Contribution per unit [CPU] = Sales price per unit – variable costs per unit
= Rs.20 – Rs.14 = Rs.6 per unit
P/V Ratio = Contribution / Sales x 100
= [Rs.6 / Rs.20] x 100 = 30 %
[a] Break even point in units = Fixed cost / Contribution per unit
= 79,200 /6 = 13,200 units
Break even sales = Fixed Cost / P/V Ratio
= 79,200 / 30 % = Rs.2,64,000
427
18.11 APPLICATIONS OF MARGINAL COSTING TECHNIQUES
Marginal costing is the most powerful and popular technique in aid of managerial decision
making. The cost-Volume-Profit Relationship has served as a key to locked storehouse of
solutions to many situations. It enables the management to tackle many problems which
are faced in the practical business. “All the introduction of marginal cost principles does
is to give the management a fresh, and perhaps a refreshing, insight into the progress of
their business.”. Now, we explain the application of the techniques of marginal costing in
certain important decision making spheres in respect of the following vital areas:
1. Key Factor [or]Limiting Factor
2. Make or Buy decisions
3. Fixation of selling prices
4. Acceptance of Bulk orders or Export orders decision
5. Sales mix decisions etc.
The above list is not exhaustive. There are numerous situation suitable for applying the
principles of marginal costing and the situations chosen above are only a few of the
popular areas of application of marginal costing.
Illustration No.18.11
Present the following information to show to the management: [a] the marginal product
cost and the contribution per unit; [b] the total contribution and profits resulting from each
of the following sales mixtures:
Per unit
Product
Rs.
Direct Materials A 10
B 9
Direct Wages A 3
B 2
Fixed expenses Rs.800
Variable expenses are allocated to products as 100 % of direct wages.
Selling Prices A 20
B 15
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Sales Mixtures:
[i] 1,000 units of Product A and 2,000 units of Product B
[ii] 1,500 units of Product A and 1,500 units of Product B
[iii] 2,000 units of Product A and 1,000 units of Product B
Solution No.18.11
[A] MARGINAL COST STATEMENT
Product A Product B
Rs. Rs.
Selling Price 20 15
Less: Marginal Costs:
Direct Materials 10 9
Direct wages 3 2
Variable overheads [100 %] 3 2
Marginal Cost 16 13
Contribution 4 2
Therefore, the sale mix [iii] is recommended because of its highest contribution and profit
among three different sales mix i.e., Product A 2,00o units and Product B 1,000 units, can
be adopted.
429
18.11.2 Key Factor
Any factor concerned with production and/or sakes which imposes ‘limits’ on the
production and sales can be called ‘key factor’ or ‘key factor’ or ‘scarce factor’. It may
arise due to the shortage of materials, labour, capital, plant capacity, or sales. Normally,
when there is no limiting factor, the selection of the product will be on the basis of the
highest P/V ratio. But, when there are limiting factors, selection of the product will be on
the basis of the highest contribution per unit of the key factor.
The following illustration will explain the key factor analysis in a better way.
Illustration No.18.12
Product A Product B
[Per Unit] [Per Unit]
Rs. Rs.
Selling Price 200 500
Materials [Rs.20 per kg.] 40 160
Labour [Rs.10 per kg.] 50 100
Variable overhead 20 40
Total Fixed overheads Rs.15,000
Solution No.18.12
MARGINAL COST STATEMENT
Product A Product B
[Per Unit] [Per Unit]
Rs. Rs.
Selling Price 200 500
Materials [Rs.20 per kg.] 40 160
Labour [Rs.10 per kg.] 50 100
Variable overhead 20 110 40 300
430
Contribution 90 200
[a] When raw materials is in short supply, contribution per kg of Product A is higher
and hence product A is more profitable.
[b] When production capacity is limited contribution per hour of Product B is higher and
hence product B is more profitable.
[c] When sale quantity is limited, contribution per unit of Product B is higher and hence
Product B is more profitable.
[d] When sales value is limited, the P/V Ratio of the product A is higher and hence
Product A is more profitable.
[d] When raw materials as well as sales quantity are limited, the raw materials should
first be used for maximum number of units of Product A, i.e. for 300 units. This will
consume 600 kgs of material and the balance 400 kgs. shall be utilized for producing
50 units.[400 / 8] of Product B.
The Profit in such a case would be:
Rs.
Contribution from 300 units of Product A [300 x 90] 27,000
Contribution from 50 units of Product B [50 x 200] 10,000
Total Contribution 37,000
Less: Fixed Overheads 15,000
Profit 22,000
431
Illustration No.18.13
A radio manufacturing company finds that while it costs Rs.6.25 to make each component
X, the same is available in the market at Rs.4.85 each, with an assurance of continued
supply. The breakdown of cost is:
Rs.
[for each]
Materials 2.75
Labour 1.75
Other Variable expenses 0.50
Depreciation and other fixed cost 1.25
6.25
Advices the radio manufacturing company whether to make or buy?
Solution No.18.13
Variable [marginal] cost of manaufacaturing is Rs.5 [Rs.6.25-1.25] but the market price is
Rs.4.85. If the fixed cost of Rs.1.25 is also added, it is not profitable to make the
component. Because there is a profit of Re.0.15 even in variable costs, it is profitable to
procure from outside.
Illustration No.18.14
The management of a company finds that while the cost of making a component part is
Rs.10, the same is available in the market at Rs.9 with an assurance of continuous supply.
Give a suggestion whether to make or buy this part. Give your views in case the supplier
reduces the price from Rs.9 to Rs.8.
The cost information is as follows:
Rs.
Materials 3.50
Direct Labour 4.00
Other Variable expense 1.00
Fixed expenses 1.50
Total 10.00
Solution No.18.14
In order to make decision on whether to make or buy the component part, fixed expenses
should not be considered and not added to the cost because these will be incurred even if
the part is not produced. Thus, additional cost of the part alone will be considered.
432
Rs.
Materials 3.50
Direct Labour 4.00
Other Variable expense 1.00
Total 8.50
The company should produces this part if the part is available in the market at Rs.9.00.
Since, the production of every part will give the company a contribution of 50 paise. [Rs.9
–Rs.8.50]
However, the company should not manufacture the part if it is available in the market at
Rs.8 because additional cost of producing the part is 50 paise [Rs.8.50 – Rs.8] more than
the price at which it is available in the market.
Illustration No.18.15
Rs. Rs.
Selling Price 1,200
Costs:
Materials 600
Labour 150
Variable Overheads 50
Fixed Overheads 100 900
Profit 300
During the forthcoming year, it is expected that material costs will increase by 10 %,
wages by 33 1/3 % and other variable costs by 20 %. You are required to calculate the
percentage increase in selling price of X which will maintain the firm’s contribution/sales
ratio.
433
Solution No.18.15
Illustration No.18.16
Abhinav Bindra, a ready-made cloth merchant seeks your help in fixing selling price for
his only product. The following details are gathered:
Rs.
Purchase price per shirt 30
Carriage inwards for every 1,000 shirts 1,500
Commission to the salesman per shirt 3.5
Fixed costs of his shop per annum 12,40,000
Profit required Rs.80,000 per month.
Discount to be offered to the customers on the list price 25 %.
He has a contract for supply of 1,00,000 pieces of the brand of shirt per annum.
Determine the selling price per shirt based upon the above details. Show the effective
price and the list price clearly.
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Solution No.18.16
STATEMENT SHOWING SELLING PRICE PER SHIRT
Total
Per unit
Particulars 1,00,000 shirts
Rs.
Rs.
Variable Costs:
Purchase price 30.00 30,00,000
Carriage inwards [1,500/1,000] 1.50 1,50,000
Salesmen’s commission 3.50 3,50,000
Variable Costs 35.00 35,00,000
Fixed Cost per annum 12.40 12,40,000
Total Cost 47.40 47,40,000
Required/Desired profit [80,000 x 12] 9.60 9,60,000
Sales 57.00 57,00,000
List price and the discount on list price do not find place in the calculation of the selling
price because effective selling price should be the basis for calculation of profit.
435
Illustration No.18.17
Additional Order [Export]
The cost sheet of a product is given below:
Re. Rs.
Direct Material 5.00
Direct Labour 3.00
Factory Overhead:
Fixed 0.50
Variable 0.50 1.00
Administrative expenses 0.75
Selling and Distribution Expenses
Fixed 0.25
Variable 0.50 0.75
Total Cost 10.50
Selling price per unit is Rs.12.00
The above figures are for an output of 50,000 units. The capacity for the firm is 65,000
units. A foreign customer is desirous of buying 15,000 units at a price of Rs.10 per unit.
Advice the management whether the order should be accepted. What will be your advice
if the order were from a local merchant?
Solution No.18.17
MARGINAL COST STATEMENT
50,000 Units Export 15,000 units Total
P.U. Total P.U. Total P.U. Total
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
Selling Price 12.00 6,00,000 10.00 1,50,000 - 7,50,000
Less: Marginal Cost
Direct Materials 5.00
Direct Wages 3.00
Variable overheads:
Factory 0.50
Selling & Dist. 0.50 9.00 4,50,000 9.00 1,35,000 9.00 5,85,000
Contribution 3.00 1,50,000 15,000 1,65,000
Less: Fixed Cost
Admt. Expenses 0.75 37,500
S&D 0.25 12,500 50,000 - - 50,000
Profit 1,00,000 15,000 1,15,000
436
The order from the foreign customer will give an additional contribution of Rs.15,000.
Hence, the order should be accepted because additional contribution of Rs.15,000
[Rs.1,00,000 to Rs.1,15,000] will increase the profit by this amount as fixed expenses
have already been recovered from the internal market.
The order from the local merchant should not be accepted at a price of Rs.10 which is less
than normal price of Rs.12. This price will affect relationship with other customers and
there will be a generally tendency of reduction in the price.
Illustration No.18.18
Two businesses SVP Ltd. and TRR Ltd., sell the same type of product in the same type of
market.
Their budgeted Profit and Loss Accounts for the coming year are as follows:
Solution No.18.18
SVP Ltd TRR Ltd.
Sales 1,50,000 1,50,000
Less: Variable Cost 1,20,000 1,00,000
CONTRIBUTION 30,000 50,000
Less: Fixed Cost 15,000 35,000
PROFIT 15,000 15,000
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[a]Calculation of Break Even Point
P/V Ratio= [Contribution / Sales] x
30,000/1,50,000 x 100 50,000 /1,50,000 x 100
100
20 % 33 1/3 %
Break Even
Fixed Cost / P/V Ratio 15,000 / 20 % 35,000 / 33.33 %
Point =
Rs.75,000 Rs.1,05,000
Rs.1,00,000 Rs.1,20,000
[c]
[i] In conditions of heavy demand, a concern with higher P/V Ratio can earn greater
Profits, because of higher contribution. Thus TRR Ltd. is likely to earn greater
profit.
[ii] In conditions of low demand, a concern with lower break even point is likely to earn
more profits because if will start making profits at lower level of sales. Hence, in
case of low demand SVP Ltd. will make profits when its sales reach Rs.75,000,
whereas TRR Ltd. will start making profits only when its sales reach the level of
Rs.1,05,000.
438
3. What do you understand by ‘Cost volume profit’ Analysis? What is its significance?
4. What is break even point? How do you calculate it?
5. Explain the meaning and significance of ‘Margin of Safety’.
6. What are the limitations of break even chart? Mention the assumptions underlying a
break even chart.
7 The following information is obtained from Ravichandran and Co. for 1993:
Sales Rs.20,000
Variable costs Rs.10,000
Fixed costs Rs.6,000
(a) Find P/V Ratio
(b) Break even point and
(c) Margin of safety at the current sales level.
9 From the following information relating to Honest Ltd., you are required to find out:
(a) P.V. Ratio
(b) Break-even point
(c) Profit
(d) Margin of safety
Rs.
Total fixed costs 4,500
Total variable costs 7,500
Total sales 15,000
10 From the following data calculate
(a) Break even point (in units)
(b) If sales are 10% and 15% above he break even volume. Determine the net profit.
439
Selling price per unit - Rs.10
Direct material per unit - Rs.3
Fixed overheads - Rs.10,000
Variable overhead per unit - Rs.2
Direct labour cost per unit - Rs.2
12 From the following information relating to Gowtham Ltd., you are required to find out
Sales price - Rs. 20 per unit
Variable manufacturing cost - Rs. 11 per unit
Variable selling cost - Rs. 3 per unit
Fixed factory overheads - Rs. 5,40,000 per year
Fixed selling costs - Rs. 2,52,000 per year
Calculate:
(a) Break even point in volume and value;
(b) Sales required to earn a profit of Rs. 60,000
(c) Sales required to earn a profit of 10% of sales
440
14 The sales and profit for 1996 and 1997 are as follows:
Sales Profit
Rs. Rs.
1996 1,50,000 20,000
1997 1,70,000 25,000
Find out:
(a) P/V Ratio
(b) BEP
(c) Sales for a profit of Rs.40,000
(d) Profit for sales of Rs.2,50,000 and
(e) Margin of safety at a profit of Rs.50,000
441
LESSON-19
CAPITAL BUDGETING
Contents:
19.0 Aims and Objectives
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Need for Capital Budgeting
19.3 Concept of Capital Budgeting
19.4 Features of Capital Budgeting
19.5 Importance of Capital Budgeting
19.6 Capital Budgeting Process
19.7 Factors Influencing Capital Budgeting Decisions
19.8 Types of Capital Expenditure
19.9 Classification of Capital Budgeting Proposals
19.10 Evaluation of Investment Proposals
19.11 Capital Budgeting Appraisal Methods
19.12 Comprehensive Problems
19.13 Let Us Sum Up
19.14 Lesson-End Activities
19.15 Check Your Answers – Answers
19.16 Suggested Readings
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19.1 INTRODUCTION
A progressive business firm always moves ahead, its fixed assets and other resources
continue to expand; they have to spend on expenditures which are of capital / long term
nature. Thus, Capital budgeting is the process of making investment decisions regarding
capital expenditure. A capital expenditure is an expenditure incurred for acquiring or
improving the fixed assets, the benefits of which are expected to be received over a
number of years in future. Capital budgeting involves non-flexible long-term commitment
of funds. As it involves huge amount, non-flexibility and long-term nature, we need to
study in depth. In this context, this lesson will describe about capital budgeting process,
its need and importance and various method of evaluating and appraising capital
budgeting decisions.
Before discussing about what is capital budgeting?, we will acquaint our self why we need
capital budgeting. Capital budgeting decisions are vital to any business as they include
the decisions as to:
[a] Whether or not funds should be invested in long-term projects such as setting of an
industry, purchase of plant and machinery etc.
[b] Analyse the proposal for expansion or creating additional capacities;
[c] To decide the replacement of permanent assets;
[d] To decide whether to invest and/ or how much to be invested in research and
development.
[e] Finally, most importantly, capital budgeting is required to make financial analysis
of various proposals regarding capital investments so as to choose the best out of
many alternative proposals.
For the above discussions, we are sure about that capital budgeting are vital for not only
for expansion even for survival of business firms.
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19.3 CONCEPT OF CAPITAL BUDGETING
Charles T. Horngreen has defined capital budgeting as, “Capital budgeting is long term
planning for making and financing proposed capital outlays.”
Herold BiermanJr. And T.R. Dyckman defined as, “ Capital budgeting is the process of
deciding whether or not to commit resources to projects whose costs and benefits are
spread over several time periods”.
The following are the important features can be deciphered from the above definitions:
1. Capital budgeting decisions are essentially a long-term function;
2. Huge funds are invested in long-term assets;
3. The future benefits will occur to the firm over a series of years;
4. They involve the exchange of current funds for the benefits to be achieved in future;
5. They have a significant effect on the profitability of the concern;
6. They are ‘Strategic” investment decisions; and
7. They are irreversible decisions.
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19.5 IMPORTANCE OF CAPITAL BUDGETING
Capital budgeting decisions are among the most crucial and critical business decisions. It
is most important single area of decision-making for the management. Unsound
investment decision may prove to be fatal to the very existence of the concern. The
significance of capital budgeting arises mainly due to the following:
[1] Huge Investments: Capital expenditure decisions generally involve large investment
of funds. It is absolutely necessary that the firm should carefully plan its scarce financial
investment programme so that it may get the finances at the right time and they are put to
most profitable use. An opportune investment decision can give spectacular results. On
the other hand, an ill-advised and incorrect decision can jeopardize the survival of even
the biggest firms.
[3] Long term impact on profitability: The capital expenditure decisions will shape the
future revenue streams and the profitability of operations.
[4] Growth and Expansion: Business firms grow, expand, diversify and acquire stature
in the industry through their capital budgeting activities. The success of capital budgeting
decisions determines the future of a firm.
[5] Cost over runs: If not meticulously implemented, delay in completion of projects will
automatically result in excess costs and heavy losses.
[6] Multiplicity of variables: Large number of factors affect the decisions are capital
expenditure. They make the ‘capital expenditure decisions’ the most difficult to make.
[7] Top Management Activity: The metamorphic impact of capital budgeting decisions
automatically thrusts them on the top management. Only senior managerial personnel can
take these decisions and bear responsibility for them.
[8] Complicacies of Investment Decisions: The long term investment decisions are more
complicated in nature. The capital budgeting decisions require an assessment of future
events which are uncertain. It is really a difficult task to estimate the probable future
events.
445
19.6 CAPITAL BUDGETING PROCESS
446
[5] Final Approval
Proposals finally selected are sent to the top management along with a detailed report,
both of capital expenditure and of source of capital. If capital expenditure proposals are
finally selected, funds are allocated for them. Projects are then sent to the budget
committee for incorporating them in the capital budget.
There are many factors, both financial and non-financial influencing the capital
investment decisions. The following are the important factors which are generally taken
into consideration while making a capital expenditure decisions:
447
Cu-Off Point: The cut-off point refers to the point below which a project would not be
accepted. It may in terms of Rate of Return as discussed or it may also be in terms of
period.
Following are the other factors which are affecting the capital budgeting decisions
Capital expenditure can be divided into two categories, depending on the benefits
expected from the expenditure.
448
19.9 CLASSIFICATION OF CAPITAL BUDGETING PROPOSALS
Following are the three kinds of investment proposals usually considered by the business
firms:
Evaluation of capital budgeting proposals has great significance since it decides about the
future and development of the concern. The objective of financial management of a firm
is wealth maximization of the firm, and in order to achieve this goal, the management
must select those projects which deserve first priority in terms of their profitability.
Therefore, one of the important factors that influence the evaluation of capital investment
proposal is profitability of the prospective investment. The risk involved in the proposal
cannot be ignored because profitability and risk are directly related. While evaluating,
two basic principles are kept in mind, namely the bigger benefits are always preferable to
small ones and that early benefits are always better than the deferred ones. The essential
property of sound evaluation technique is that is should maximize the shareholder’s
wealth. Apart from the above, the following other characteristics should also be
possessed by a sound investment evaluation method.
449
1. Investment evaluation method should provide a means of distinguishing between
acceptable and unacceptable projects.
2. It should provide clear cut ranking of the project in order of the profitability or
desirability.
3. It should also solve the problem of choosing among alternative projects.
4. A sound evaluation criterion should be of acceptable and applicable to any
conceivable investment projects.
5. It should emphasize upon early and bigger cash benefits in comparison to distant
and smaller benefits; and
6. The method should be suitable according to the nature and size of capital project to
be evaluated.
450
Accept or Rejection Criterion
Management many firms use the payback period as accept or reject criterion as well as a
method of ranking projects. If the payback period calculated for a project is less than the
maximum payback period set by management, it would be accepted; if not, it would be
rejected. As a ranking method, it gives highest ranking to the project which has shortest
pay period and lowest ranking to the project with highest pay back period. Thus, if the
firm has to choose among two mutually exclusive project, projects with shorter payback
period will be selected.
i.e., Pay back period = Initial cost of Asset or Initial investment in Project
Annual Cash Inflows
Note: “Annual Cash inflow’ is the net income from the asset or project after tax, but
before depreciation.
Illustration 19.1
Initial investment of a project is Rs.4,00,000 and its annual cash inflow is Rs.1,00,000;
then pay back period will be
Solution: 19.1
= Pay Back period = Rs.4,00,000 / Rs.1,00,000 = 4 years.
That means investment is recovered in 4 years.
Illustration: 19.2
A project Moon Costs Rs.15,60,000 and yields annually a profit of Rs.2,70,400 after
depreciation of 12 % p.a. but before tax at 25 %.
Calculate Pay-back period.
Solution: 19.2
Pay Back period method of evaluation is based on cash flows. Therefore, first we have to
find annual cash flow of the project Moon.
451
Calculation of Annual Cash Inflows:
Rs.
Annual Profits after Depreciation, but before tax 2,70,400
Less: Tax at 25 % 67,600
Annual Profit, after Deprecation and Tax 2,02,800
Add: Depreciation [15,60,000 @ 12 %] 1,87,200
Annual Cash Inflows 3,90,000
Pay back period = Initial Investment / Annual Cash Inflows
Initial Investment = Rs.15,60,000 and Annual Cash Inflows Rs.3,09,000 [as calculated
above]
Pay back period = 15,60,000 / 3,90,000 = 4 Years
For instance, if a project requires an initial investment of Rs.1,00,000 and the annual cash
inflows for 5 years are Rs.30,0000, Rs.40,000; Rs.25,000; Rs.20,000 and Rs.20,000
respectively, the payback period will be calculated as follows:
The above working show that in 3 years Rs.95,000 has been recovered. Rs.5,000 is yet to
be recovered out of initial investments. In the fourth year the cash inflow is Rs.20,000.
That means the pay-back period is between 3 and 4 year. Therefore, the pay back period
is calculated as under:
452
Illustration 19.3
There are two projects Alpha and Beta. The cost of the project is Rs.3,00,000 in each
case. The cash inflows are as under:
Cash Inflows
Year
Project Alpha Project Beta
1 1,00,000 20,000
2 1,00,000 40,000
3 1,00,000 2,40,000
Solution 19.3
The pay back period for the both the projects are 3 years. However, Project Alpha is
better compared to Project Beta because cash inflows are greater in the initial years.
453
Illustration 19.4
Stars Ltd. has a cut off pay back period of 3 years and 6 months. Advise the company
with regard to the following exclusive investments:
Total Investments
Project Annual Cash Inflows
Rs.
Sun 45,000 15,000
Moon 80,000 24,000
Mars 80,000 20,000
Mercury 52,500 15,000
Jupiter 10,000 1,800
Solution: 19.4
Cash inflows of each project are uniform, therefore
The Star Ltd.’s cut off pay back period is 3 years and 6 months. Projects Sun, Moon and Mercury
may be considered as they have a shorter payback period than cut off period. Of these Project Sun
has better shortest pay back period and ranked one. Therefore, it may be selected.
Illustration 19.5
Jasmine Ltd. is producing articles mostly by manual labour and is considering to replace it
by a new machine. There are two alternative models Sporty and Trendy. Prepare a
statement of profitability, ignoring taxes, showing the pay back period from the following
information.
Machines
Sporty Trendy
Estimated Life of Machines 4 years 5 years
Cost of Machines Rs.9,000 Rs.18,000
Estimated Savings in Scrap Rs.500 Rs.800
Estimated Savings in Direct Wages Rs.6,000 Rs.8,000
Additional cost of maintenance Rs.800 Rs.1,000
Additional cost of Supervisions Rs.1,200 Rs.1,800
454
Solution No. 19.5
PROFITABILITY STATEMENT
Machines
Particulars
Sporty Trendy
Estimated savings in Scrap 500 800
Estimated savings in Direct wages 6,000 8,000
Total Savings [A] 6,500 8,800
Additional Cost of maintenance 800 1,000
Additional cost of supervision 1,200 1,800
Total Additional Cost [B] 2,000 2,800
Net Cash Inflow [A-B] 4,500 6,000
Merits
The pay back period has the following merits:
1. It is easy to calculate and simple to understand;
2. It is preferred by executives who like quick answers for selection of the proposals;
3. It is useful where the business is suffering from shortage of funds as quick recovery
is essential for repayment;
4. It is useful for industries subject to uncertainty, instability, or rapid technological
changes.
5. It is useful where profitability is not important.
Demerits
The method has following disadvantages:
1. This method is delicate and rigid. A slight change in the operation cost will affect
the cash inflows and the pay back period.
2. It does not take into account the life of the project, depreciation, scrap value or
interest factors.
3. It completely ignores cash inflows after the pay back period.
4. The profitability of the project is completely ignored.
5. It gives more importance to liquidity as a goal of capital investment decision.
6. Lastly but most importantly it ignores the time value of money. Cash flows
recovered different years are treated equally.
455
2. Accounting or Average Rate of Return Method
It is also known as Accounting Rate of Return because it considers the accounting concept
of profit [i.e. Profit after Depreciation and tax] and not the cash flows. The project which
yields the highest rate of return is selected.
The accounting rate of return may be calculated by any of the following methods:
The term average annual profit refers to average profits after depreciation and tax over the
life of the project.
The average investment can be calculated by any of the following methods:
Original Investments / 2 [OR] Original Investments – Scrap Value / 2
Illustration 19.6
Calculate the Average Rate of Return for Projects A and B from the following:
Project A Project B
456
Solution 19.6
Project A Project B
Rs. Rs.
Total Profits, after interests, depreciation and Taxes 6,000 10,000
Expected Life 4 years 5 years
Therefore, Average Profit equal to Total Profits/ Expected
Rs.1,500 Rs.2,000
Life
Investments Rs.20,000 Rs.30,000
1,500 / 2,000 /
Average Rate of Return on Original Investments
20,000 30,000
= 7.5 % = 6.6 %
Average Rate of Return on Average Investments
20,000 / 2 = Rs.30,000 /2
Average Investments
Rs.10,000 Rs.15,000
1,500 / 2,000 /
10,000 15,000
= 15 % = 13.33 %
Advantages
The following are the merits of the Accounting Rate of Return method:
1. It is simple to understand and easy to calculate;
2. This method gives due weightage to the profitability of the project;
3. It takes into consideration the total earnings from the project during its life time;
4. Rate of return may be readily calculated with the help of accounting data.
457
Disadvantages
This method suffers from the following weaknesses:
1. It uses accounting profits and not the cash inflows in apprising the project;
2. It ignores the time value of the money. Profits earned in different periods are valued
equally;
3. It considers only the rate of return and not the life of the project;
4. It ignores the fact that profits can be reinvested;
5. This method does not determine the fair rate of retune on investment;
6. There are different methods for calculating the Accounting Rate of Return due to
many concepts of investments as well as profit. Each method gives different results.
This reduces the reliability of the method.
The time adjusted cash flow method is also referred as present value method. The present
value means nothing but the present value [today’s value] of future money to be received.
The present money of future money is calculated with discount rate. In other words, the
rate at which the future cash flows are reduced to their present value is termed as discount
rate. Discount rate, otherwise, called time value of money, is some interest rate which
expresses the time preference for a particular future cash flow.
The discounted cash flow method is an improvement on the pay-back method as well as
accounting rate of return. This method is based on the fact that future value of money will
not be equal to the present value of money. That is, discounted cash flow techniques
recognizes that Rupee one of today [cash outflow] is worth more than Rupee one received
at a future date [cash inflows]. The time adjusted or discounted cash flow method
considers both the profitability and also the time value of money. The Discounted Cash
Flow Method for evaluating capital investment proposals are of three types:
After calculating present value of cash outflows and inflows, the Net Present Value [NPV]
will be found out. Net Present Value [NPV] is the difference between the present value of
cash inflows and the present value of cash outflows.
458
Net Present Value [NPV] = P.V. of Cash Inflows – P.V. of Cash outflows.
Where P.V = 1 / [1+ r] n
Accept = Positive - NPV > Zero[PV Cash Inflow > PV of Cash Outflows]
Reject = Negative - NPV < Zero [PV Cash Inflow < PV of Cash Outflows]
459
Illustration No. 19.8
An investment of Rs.10,000 having scrap value of Rs.500. The cash inflows for the first
five years of the project are Rs.4,000; Rs.4,000; Rs.3,000; Rs.3,000 and Rs.2,000
respectively.
The cost of capital is 10 %. The Present Value factors for 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th years –
0.909; 0.826; 0.751; 0.683 and 0.621 respectively.
Is the investment desirable under Net Present Value method?
Note: Scrap value has to be added to the cash inflow of the last year of the investment.
The investment is desirable because of positive net present value of Rs.2,794 on the
investment of Rs.10,000.
You are required to suggest which machine should be preferred. Net present value
method may be used and its cost of capital is 10 %.
460
Solution No. 19.9
Machine I Machine II
PV Factor
Year Cash Inflows Present Value Cash Inflows Present Value
@ 10 %
Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.
1 0.909 8.000 7,272 2,000 1,818
2 0.826 6.000 4,956 7,000 5,782
3 0.751 4.000 3,004 10,000 7,510
Present Value of Cash Inflows 15,232 15,110
Less: Present Value of Cash Outflows
10,000 10,000
[Initial Investment ]
NET PRESENT VALUE 5,232 5,110
Cash Inflows
Year Machine Gamma Machine Delta
Rs. Rs.
1 40,000 1,20,000
2 1,20,000 1,60,000
3 1,60,000 2,00,000
4 2,40,000 1,20,000
5 1,60,000 80,000
The company has a target of return on capital of 10 % and on this basis, you are required
to compare the profitability of the machines and state which alternative you consider
financial preferable?
461
Solution No. 19.10
462
2. Profitability Index [PI] or Excess Present Value [PV] Index Method
The Profitability Index is also called “Benefit Cost [B/C] Ratio” It is the ratio of the
present value of cash inflows, at the required rate of return to the initial cash outflows of
the investment. The proposal is accepted if the profitability index is more than one and is
rejected in case the profitability index is less than one. By computing PIs for the various
projects, the financial manger can rank them in order of their respective ratio of
profitability.
Profitability Index is higher than 1 [one], therefore, the project can be accepted.
463
Advantages and Disadvantages
PI method is a slight modification of NPV method. The net present value method has one
major drawback that it is not easy to rank projects on the basis of this method particularly
when the costs of the projects differ significantly. To evaluate such projects, the
profitability index method is most suitable. PI method possesses all other merits and
demerits of NPV method.
First, we compute the present value of the cash flows from an investment, using an arbitrarily
selected discount rate. Then, we compare the present value so obtained with the investment cost. If
the present value is higher than the cost figure, we try a higher discount rate and go through the
procedure again. Conversely, if the present value is lower than the present value cash outflow, lower
discount rate will be applied and repeat the process. The interest rate that brings about equality in
cash flows is defined as Internal Rate of Return.
The rate of return is compared to the cost of capital and the project having higher difference, if they
are mutually exclusive, is adopted and other one is rejected. As this determination of internal rate of
return involves a number of attempts to make the present value of earnings equal to the investment,
this approach is also called the Trail and Error Method.
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Illustration No. 19.13
Neem Ltd. is considering a project which requires investment of Rs.60,000. The cost of
capital is 12 %. The net estimate cash inflows are as follows:
Calculate the Internal Rate of Return and decide whether the project can be taken up for
implementation.
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Merits of IRR Method
1. Like all the other Discounted Cash Flow based methods, IRR also takes into account
the time value of money and can be applied where the cash inflows are even or
unequal.
2. It also considers the profitability of a project over its entire economic life and thus
the true profitability of a project can be assessed.
3. Cost of capital or pre-determined cut-off rate is not a pre-requisite for applying IRR
method. Hence, it is better than the NPV and PI methods in all those situations
where determining cost of capital is difficult.
4. IRR provides for ranking of various proposal because it is a percentage return.
5. It provides for maximizing profitability.
Differences:
1. Cost of Capital or cut-off rate is determined in advance in NPV and PI. In IRR, the
discounting rate is the ‘unknown factor’.
2. NPV and PI strive to ascertain the amount which can be invested in a project which
can earn the required rate of return. IRR ascertains the maximum interest that can be
paid out of returns from the project.
3. The underlying assumption of the Discounted Cash Flow methods is that the cash
inflows can be reinvested. However, NPV and PI assume the reinvestment at cost of
capital rate or the cut-off rate. IRR assumes reinvestment at the IRR rate. The
former is more practical and justifiable than the later.
Generally, NPV and PI are considered to be more reliable for comparative analysis of
projects than the IRR method.
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19.12 COMPREHENSIVE PROBLEMS
Illustration No.19.14
Ragam Limited Company is considering investing in a project requiring a capital outlay of
Rs.2,00,000. Forecast of annual income after depreciation but before tax is as follows:
Year Rs.
1 1,00,000
2 1,00,000
3 80,000
4 80,000
5 40,000
Solution No.19.14
Pay back period lies in between 2nd and 3rd year. Rs.1,80,000 is recovered at the end of
the 2nd year. The balance of Rs.20,000 will be recovered in 20,000 / Rs.80,00 X12 equal to
3 months. Hence Pay back period is 2 years 3 months.
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2. Rate of Return on Original Investment
= Rs.40,000 / Rs.1,00,000 = 40 %
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Illustration 19.15
Veena Ltd. is considering the purchase of a machine. Two machines Alpha and Beta are
available, each costing Rs.5,00,000. In comparing the profitability of those machines a
discount rate of 10 % is to be used. Earnings after taxation are expected to be as follows:
Cash Inflows
Year Machine Alpha Machine Beta
Rs. Rs.
1 1,50,000 50,000
2 2,00,000 1,50,000
3 2,50,000 2,00,000
4 1,50,000 3,00,000
5 1,00,000 2,00,000
SOLUTION 19.15
1. The Pay Back Period
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2. Accounting Rate of Return:
Machine Alpha
Total Returns Rs.8,50,000
Average Annual Returns – Rs.8,50,000 / 5 years = Rs.1,70,000
ARR = Rs.1,70,000 / Rs.5,00,000X 100 = 34 %
Machine Beta
Total Returns Rs.9,00,000
Average Annual Returns – Rs.9,00,000 / 5 years = Rs.1,80,000
ARR = Rs.1,80,000 / Rs.5,00,000X 100 = 36 %
Recommendation:
Machine Beta may be preferred as it gives a higher Average Rate of Return compared to
Machine Alpha under ARR method.
Recommendation:
The Net present value of Machine Alpha is more than the Machine Beta. Therefore,
Machine Alpha may be preferred under NPV method.
4. Profitability Index
Profitability Index = PV of Cash inflows/ PV of Cash outflow
Machine Alpha
Profitability Index of Machine Alpha = Rs.6,53,850 /5,00,000 = 1.308
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Machine Beta
Profitability Index of Machine Beta = Rs.6,48,650 /5,00,000 = 1.297
Recommendation:
Profitability Index of Machine Alpha is more than that of Machine Beta and therefore,
Machine Alpha should be preferred.
Capital budgeting is the process of making investment decisions in the capital expenditure.
The numbers of appraisal methods are applied to evaluate the capital expenditure
proposals. They are broadly classified into [a] Traditional methods that includes Pay
back period and Average Rate of Return method and [b] Time Adjusted Methods are –
Net present Value method; Internal rate of Return method and profitability Index
Methods. Each method has its own merits and demerits. However, time adjusted method
of evaluation is superior in respect of time and risk factors to achieve value/ wealth
maximization objective.
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Calculate Net present value of each project. Advice the company as to which project
should be accepted and why?
7. Sashank Ltd. is considering the purchase of a machine. Two machines A and B are
available, each costing Rs.50,000. In comparing the profitability of these machines,
a discount rate of 10 % is to be used. Earnings after taxation [but before
depreciation] are expected to be as follows:
Cash Flows
Year
Machine A Machine B
1 15,000 5,000
2 20,000 15,000
3 25,000 20,000
4 15,000 30,000
5 10,000 20,000
Evaluate the prospects using:
[i] Pay back period;
[ii] The net present value and Profitability Index
[iii] The accounting rate of return.
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