Why TCP IP is used instead of OSI?

PROTOCOL: a protocol is a standardized

set of rules for formatting and processing
The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual
data. Protocols enable computers to
model that defines network
communicate with one another.
communication used by systems open to
interconnection and communication with TCP= transmission control protocol
other systems. On the other IP = Internet protocol
hand, TCP/IP helps you to determine how a HTTP = Hypertext Transfer Protocol
specific computer should be connected to the
internet and how you can be transmitted SMTP= Simple mail transfer protocol
between them. SNMP= Simple network management
protocol
DNS = Domain name system
TELNET= Terminal network
FTP = File transfer protocol
OSI vs TCP/IP

Data communications are the exchange of Syntax

data between two devices via some form of ◦Structure or format of the data
transmission medium such as a wire cable. ◦Indicates how to read the bits -field
A data communications system has five delineation
components Semantics
Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that ◦Interprets the meaning of the bits
govern data communications. It represents an ◦Knows which fields define what action
agreement between the communicating Timing
devices. Protocols are like a common language ◦When data should be sent and what
for computers.
◦Speed at which data should be sent or speed
Elements of a Protocol
at which it is being received.
Data flow Full-Duplex
Communication between two devices can be In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both
simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex stations can transmit and receive
Simplex simultaneously.
In simplex mode, the communication is The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street
unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only with traffic flowing in both directions at the
one of the two devices on a link can transmit; same time.
the other can only receive. Keyboards and Example of full-duplex communication is the
traditional monitors are examples of simplex telephone network.
devices. When two people are communicating by a
Half-Duplex telephone line, both can talk and listen at the
In half-duplex mode, each station can both same time.
transmit and receive, but not at the same time. The full-duplex mode is used when
When one device is sending, the other can only communication in both directions is required
receive, and vice versa. Walkie-talkies and CB all the time. The capacity of the channel,
(citizens band) radios are both half-duplex however, must be divided between the two
systems. directions.

NETWORKS Delay: The time between we asked the service

A network is the interconnection of a set of devices and get the service is called delay.
(often referred to as nodes) connected by The performance will better when there is
communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, more throughput and less delay.
or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving
Higher the throughput better the performance
data generated by other nodes on the network. A link can
be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium which can lower the throughput poor the performance.
be transport a signal carrying information. Lower the delay better the performance and
Network Criteria higher the delay poor the perfoemance.
A network must be able to meet a certain number of
criteria. The most important of these are performance, Reliability
reliability, and security.
◦Failure rate of network components
◦Measured in terms of availability/robustness
Performance
Security
◦Depends on Network Elements
◦Data protection against corruption/loss of
◦Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
data due to:
Data Rate: Maximum Capacity of the line.
◦Errors
What is the maximum data can transfer
through the line. ◦Malicious users
Throughput: The number of bits successfully
transferred to the receiver. Whatever we
actually get.

Physical Structures ◦Type of transmission -unicast, multicast,

Type of Connection broadcast
◦Point to Point -single transmitter and Unicast:
receiver. Provides a dedicated link between two There is only one sender, and one
devices.
receiver.
◦Multipoint -also called multidrop. Multiple
Ex: Downloading a file from a FTP Server.
recipients of single transmission
Physical Topology (FTP Server is the sender and your
◦Connection of devices computer is the receiver.)
Multicast:
The sender transmit only one copy of the Broadcast data is delivered to all
data and it is delivered and/or processed connected devices.
to many devices (Not as delivered and Topology:
processed by all devices as in Broadcast) There are four basic topologies possible:
who are interested in that traffic. mesh, star, bus, and ring.
Broadcast: In Broadcast, there is only one
sender and the data is sent only once. But

Mesh Topology: Bus Topology:

In mesh topology each device is In bus topology there is a main cable
connected to every other device on and all the devices are connected to
the network through a dedicated point- this main cable through drop lines
to-point link. When we say dedicated it Ring Topology:
means that the link only carries data In ring topology each device is
for the two connected devices only. connected with the two devices on
Lets say we have n devices in the either side of it.
network then each device must be
connected with (n-1) devices of the
network. Number of links in a mesh Star topology is best of all the
topology of n devices would be n(n- topology.
1)/2. A Star Network Topology is best suited for
Star Topology: smaller networks and works efficiently when
In star topology each device in the there is limited number of nodes. One has to
network is connected to a central ensure that the hub or the central node is
device called switch(previously it was always working and extra security features
hub). should be added to the hub because it s the
heart of the network.

Categories of Networks Campus Area Network (CAN)

Personal Area Network (PAN) ◦Larger than LAN but smaller than MAN
◦Smallest network and coverage area is Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
around the desk/body ◦Provide connectivity over areas such as a city
Local Area Network (LAN) Wide Area Network (WAN)
◦Short distances ◦Long distances
◦Designed to provide local interconnectivity ◦Provide connectivity over large areas
Internet Service Providers (ISPs)

CHAPTER-2
THE OSI MODEL
The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model) is a conceptual framework used to
describe the functions of a networking system
ISO is the organization. OSI is the model.
Seven layers of the OSI model
Physical layer: Network layer: The network layer is
The physical layer is responsible for responsible for the delivery of individual
movements of individual bits from one hop packets from the source host to the destination
(node) to the next. This layer includes the host. To move packets from source to
physical equipment involved in the data destination; to provide internetworking.
transfer, such as the cables and switches. Transport layer: The transport layer is
To transmit bits over a medium; to responsible for the delivery of a message from
one process to another. To provide reliable
provide mechanical and electrical
process to process msg delivery and error
specifications. recovery.
Datalink layer: Session layer: The session layer is
The data link layer is responsible for moving responsible for dialog control and
frames from one hop (node) to the next. The synchronization. To establish, manage, and
data link layer takes packets from the terminate sessions.
network layer and breaks them into Presentation layer: The presentation layer is
smaller pieces called frames. To organize responsible for translation, compression, and
bits into frames; to provide hop to ho encryption. To translate. Encrypt, and
compress data.
delivery.
Application layer: The application layer
is responsible for providing services to the
user. To allow access to network resources.

CHAPTER 3
To be transmitted, data must be Analog and Digital Signals:
transformed to electromagnetic signals. •Signals can be analog or digital.
Analog data: The term analog data refers to •Analog signals can have an infinite number
information that is continuous. Analog data of values in a range.
take on continuous values. That uses one time
•Digital signals can have only a limited
variable quantity. (Each of the point has
different value) number of values.
Digital data: refers to information that has
discrete states. Digital data take on discrete
values.
Frequency : the number of complete cycle in Frequency domain: represent any signal by
one second. (1/T) amplitude and frequency.
Amplitude: Amplitude is the maximum Wavelength: The Wavelength is the distance
displacement of points on a wave, a simple signal can travel in one period.
Higher amplitude the stronger the signal Lemda= c*T= c/f
Phase: compared to the reference point the Period: time is required to complete a full
position of the signal of any particular time is cycle.
called phase.
Time domain: represent any signal by
amplitude and time.
Attenuation:

Distortion:

Noise:

SNR: Signal to Noise Ratio.(higher the snr better the performance)

SNR= (signal/noise)