1.0 WHAT IS ETHICS? 1.

1 IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS

Ethics or moral philosophy can be provisionally Ethics is a set of rules that allows us to say right from
described as the empirical study of moraldecisions. It is wrong, good from the bad. Ethics can provide true,
a discipline concerned with what is morally good and specific guidance to our lives. Ethical principles such as
evil, right and wrong. The word often refers to any fairness, trustworthiness, responsibility help direct us to
scheme or philosophy of universal ideals or beliefs.The cope more effectively with ethical dilemmas by
concept is derived from the Greek word “ethos” which removing actions that do not adhere to our sense of right
may mean tradition, habit,character, or attitude. This is and wrong–our own moral interests–without
not only about the nature of specific courses of action, compromising others. Furthermore, ethics is all about
but it is alsoabout the goodness of people and what it decisions. We are continually faced with issues that
means to lead a decent life. (Leandro, Jr & Gubia- affect the quality of our lives. We are certain that the
on,2018) choices we make have consequences for ourselves and
the others. We are cautious of the responsibility that we
Moreover, ethics is a systematic analysis of the nature of have for our actions. identify the blind spots as the
human actions. It is concerned about the correctness and differences between who you want to be and who you
wrongness of the act. An act is deemed to be right or are. Hence, most of us want to do the right thing, but
wrong, based on the intent, circumstances, or character internal and external factors are in the way.
of the act itself. As a philosophy, is a very important
discipline because it involves critical thinking, as it However, ethicists put less emphasis on studying
explores and describes fundamental beliefs, standards, philosophic principles and, instead, emphasize the
ideals, and traditions. This is thus a higher level of importance of establishing good habits of character –
human discipline. As a branch of philosophy, ethics is needs of doing the right thing in the right place and time
divided into normative and meta-ethics. The purposeof in the right way.
normative ethics, which concerns human behavior in
general, is to address our questions about the essence of The virtues of intelligence, bravery, patience, and justice
human behavior. Normative ethics, by definition, guide ethical decision-making as they provide the basis
examine whether or not aparticular act should or should for rational decisions when faced with an ethical
not be carried out. dilemma. We ought to be ethical, as it determines who
we are both personally and as a society. There must be
There are two fields of normative ethics: moral moral principles that should be observed by all. Some
philosophy and applied ethics or practical ethics. Moral people will lie; many may not do what they assume they
philosophy deals with moral ideas such as what human will do, and others may behave irresponsibly and
beings "must do or how human beings should be." This participate in harmful conduct.
also deals with our moral obligation, the meaning of the
act, or the purpose of the act. On the other hand, applied For moralists, following one's interests is not wrong.
ethics is a philosophy that discusses strong and basic Nevertheless, an ethical individual must be able – at
moral issues linked to abortion. least occasionally–to place the needs of others ahead of
self-interest, because of our duty to civil society.
Meta-ethics is a discipline that relies on meaning. It is a (Bazerman, Max H. & Tenbrunsel Ann E. (2012),
science that is seeking to address Silverstone, Sean(2011)

non-moral questions about morality. Those refer to According to Leano Jr. & Gunta-on (2018), the study of
questions about the nature of moral statements, the ethics should consider making itpossible for an
purpose and significance of moral facts, and concerns individual to fully understand what his conscience is,
about the interpretation and justificationof moral how he has gained it, how far he is willing and able to
statements.In contrast to meta-ethics, normative ethics respect his outward manifestations with protection, and
seeks to examine how human beings respond to a moral how well he can strengthen it and make it even smarter.
question. This also aims to clarify and prescribe Added to it, a person can gain a better insight into his
common expectations on what humanbeings should do claims to society as well as the obligations he owes to
to interact with others in society and in a meaningful society. He must learn to distinguish between the
way. respects in which all persons are highly dependent and
those who are responsible for his or her

own life and will focus on freedom of initiative.

Eventually, it will at least allow certain observations, for
understanding, self-sacrifice, and obligation, which will
enable us to make these decisions.
From the standpoints of the authors mentioned above, animals, and the environment. Moral standards are a
several views on the importance of ethics were blending of norms and values. Therefore, norms plus
profounded and these are the following: values pertain to moral standards. Norms as standards
are basic guidelines regarding human acts. Values,
(1) through ethics people can determine the difference though, are universal convictions as to what is
between right from wrong, good and bad; acceptable, desirable, and beneficial or not.
(2) people can eliminate actions that do not conform to There are several characteristics of morals standards as
what is right; mentioned by Velasquez (2012) such as and
vocabularies such as:
(3) people will be very careful to the actions and
decisions to make; (1) Moral standards entail serious harm or benefit.
(4)people will not be disturbed of the internal and 2) Moral standards are not determined by authority
external factors of not doing the right thing; figures. Moral values should always be upheld, even
though they are at odds with self-interest. Cheating on
5) establish good habits of characters of a person; examination is an example wherein the students should
(6) come up to rational decisions in facing anethical not cheat during exams as a rule in an educational
dilemma; institution and in doing such an act, cheating, is wrong.
It’s not because students are afraid of the teacher,
(7) it makes a person responsible in the family, school instructor, or professor but the students know that is a
and society; wrongful act.

(8) a person becomes sensitive to the needs of others (3) Moral standards should be adopted over other values,
more than himself or herself; including self-interest. Moral standards should always be
retained even if they are at stake with self-interest.
and (9) reminds a person to fully need conscience in
decision making and a person can acknowledge the (4) Moral standards are focused on objective
actions made. considerations. The basis of considerations and decisions
must not be favorable only to a particular person or
1.2 THE DIFFERENCES OF MORAL AND NON- group. Anyone who commits mistakes and wrongful acts
MORAL STANDARDS AND then is punished accordingly. It must be an unbiased or
impartial consideration.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL STANDARDS
(5) Moral standards are perceived to be universal. We
Countries and nations rich or poor, developed and want everyone to live up to these norms and feel
underdeveloped have their own set of laws, policies, resentful when somebody doesn't live up to them. Moral
cultures, traditions, customs, and beliefs. It may be standards believed to be universal as it is applicable
acceptable to other countries but not acceptable to anywhere and anytime. For instance, lying. Telling the
others. Some principles and values have social truth is a universal standard. Hence, we should not lie.
consequences, whereas some do not. It is a matter of
moral indifference, that is, a matter of taste in one (6) Moral standards are correlated with different feelings
society may be a matter of moral meaning in another. and vocabulary. If anyone doesn't live up to the norm or
For this reason, people need to recognize the difference standards, he will feel guilty, bad, and wrong.
between moral principles and non-moral ones, to define
the basic ethical values that can direct our actions. Moral Non-moral standards, on the contrary, apply to laws
standards compel us to behave accordingly, although we which are not related to social or legal considerations.
have no right to insist on others on non-moral values Perhaps these criteria are not inherently related to
based on the explanation above. Moral standards refer to morality or, by their very definition, lack of ethical
the guidelines we have on the types of acts that we find sense. Examples of non-moral standards are the
to be morally permissible and morally unacceptable. It following: etiquette, statutes, code of professional ethics,
primarily deals with issues that can either potentially
threaten or greatly benefit human beings. Some ethicists 1.3 HOW MORAL STANDARDS ARE FORMED
placed moral ethics on par with social values and moral Morals are shaped by the beliefs of an individual. Values
principles. (Leandro, Jr & Gubia-on, 2018) are the basis of the capacity of an individual to
Moral standards normally promote the common good, distinguish between right and wrong. Morals build on
that is, the welfare and well-being of human beings, this to form concrete, context- driven rules that regulate
the actions of an individual. They are formed from the The ethical dilemma or a moral dilemma as expounded
experience of a person's life and are subject to opinion. by Figar & Dordevic, (2016) is a situation whereby a
person has to make a decision. Among competing
There are certain moral standards that all of us hold in alternatives, which is the right (ethical) alternative and
our actions in society. There are various factors on how which is the best?
moral standards are influenced:
_Managing_an_Ethical_Dilemma)
(1) the moral values or principles that we conform with,
in our rearing; The above definitions characterized moral dilemma or
ethical dilemma as:
(2) the character and manners that imbibed with us by
means of birthright (1) Making an option to one moral value over the other;

(3) the religious values that our forefathers taught us; (2) A situation where moral values are equally
(4) the values we learned from school; significant;

(5) the moral conduct, ways and habits of those people (3) A scenario where a person has a strong moral reason
around us; in action, but not equally strong moral reason in acting
in another way;
(6) the direct and implied cultural norms;
(4) A state where a person should morally do one, two,
(7) our life experiences; or more and have difficulty in deciding any of those
conflicting choices.
(8) our critical thinking in these experiences.
A moral dilemma or ethical dilemma applies to our
2.0 DEFINITION OF MORAL DILEMMAS personal life, in a job, in a profession, education, and
Various authors presented their respective definition of some others. In any decision, an individual must analyze
moral dilemma or ethical dilemma and these are the every aspect, scrutinize the pros and cons, and after
following: In the definition of Kvalnes (2019), a moral several evaluations then finally decide. That is the most
dilemma is a situation in which a decision- maker must challenging part, nonetheless, makes an individual more
give preference to one moral principle over another. mature in handling obstinate situations.
Dilemmas occur when, confronted with a challenging 2.1 THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS
situation (e.g. equal treatment for some versus job
protection for others), two or more of that kind of values 1. ORGANIZATIONAL ETHICAL OR MORAL
disagree with the understanding of the decision-maker, DILEMMA
or when one assesses the moral option of another. A
person experienced with a dilemma must decide whether As discussed by Lamberto et. al(2013), an organizational
the moral duty will be given priority; "whatever action is ethical dilemma refers to a situation that causes an
taken will offend an important moral value." organization to respond negatively or positively to an
ethical issue that affects staff, shareholders, and society,
In addition, Kvalnes explained that (2019) a moral as well as corporate ethics and customers. It includes
dilemma may arise as a result of a prior personal also the leaders' ethical actions in preserving financial
mistake. It's called a self-inflicted dilemma. In a strict reporting integrity.
sense, a moral dilemma is a situation in which moral
values are of equal importance. In a broader sense, there Based on the article of Michigan State University
may be moral dilemmas in which a person has strong online.com (2020) and Small Business
moral reasons for acting which are described to be as Chron.com(2019), there are common ethical issues in
remarkable, nonetheless, not equally strong moral the organization such as
reasons for acting in another way.
(1) Unethical leadership/bad leadership behavior. A
According to Kurie & Albin (2007), a moral dilemma is leader of the organization must act with candor, be an
a situation in which people assume that they should example to his subordinates, with upright moral values.
morally do one thing and that they should morally do He or she doesn’t engage in abuse of leadership
another thing, and occasionally a third thing or even a authority, accepting inappropriate gifts and other related
fourth thing, but they're not doing any of these mutually unethical leadership.
contradictory choices together.
(2) Toxic workplace culture. A leader of the
organization must focus on the development of work
culture. He makes sure that his subordinates have work- limitations and others will not be affected by what he or
life balance, motivated and happy working in the she does specificallythe unwanted acts. Human beings
organization, If not then the performance and must not be confused nor ambiguous and put himself or
productivity of the employees will be affected. herself in a dilemma where he doesn't know what to do
and decide to what is good and what is right.
(3) Discrimination and harassment/ Peril of employee
favoritism. A leader must treat fairly his or her 3. STRUCTURAL MORAL DILEMMA
subordinates and avoid any form of discrimination and
harassment. The structural moral dilemma is that selecting a proper
system of responsibilities and relationships, which is a
(4) Unrealistic and conflicting goals. A leader must have continuing universal challenge.
realistic and very clear goals so that his or her
subordinates understand what the organization is going There are five concepts in the structural moral dilemma
through, hence, they can work together thoroughly until to consider namely:
they reach the goals of the organization.
(1) Differentiation vs. Integration
(5) Use of the organization’s technology, social media
use, technology, and privacy concerns. It is ethical that The conflict between the distribution of jobs and the
the technology of the organization must only use for the organization of numerous activities generates a classic
organization’s transactions dilemma. The more complicated a task structure, the
more difficult it is to sustain a centered, tightly coupled
(6) Business travel ethics. There are times that a leader organization. When complexity grows, the company
and an employee are in official business and in doing needs more complicated and expensive management
that, they have per diem every meal and must use the techniques. Laws, regulations, and directives need to be
fund of the organization appropriately. balanced by lateral approaches.

2. INDIVIDUAL MORAL DILEMMA (2) Gap vs Overlap

As mentioned by Smith (2018), individual ethical or When the main tasks are not explicitly defined, the
moral dilemma pertains to a situation where individuals critical job will slip through gaps. In a similar manner,
confront with a number of factors such as peer pressure, functions and activities can overlap, causing conflict,
personal financial position, an economic and social wasting time, and unintended duplication of
status which may influence all individual ethical responsibilities.
standards.
(3) Lack of Clarity vs. Lack of CreativityWhen
Socialization is part of every individual's life. It is just a employees are not clear about what they are expected to
query as to whether an individual do, they often adapt their tasks to personal interests
instead of system-wide goals that often lead to problems.
remains aware of doing what is good and what is right. Yet when people 's duties are over defined, they comply
There are times that due to peer pressure, an individual with their positions and procedures in a bureaucratic
engages in a certain scenario in which may change their manner. They specifically follow job requirements as to
behavior and attitude. For instance, before that young how much the service or product fails.
people, A is a responsible and obedient child to his
parents. When he met young people B and young people (4) Excessive Autonomy vs. Excessive Interdependence
C, young people A tremendously transform as a human
being, his character shifted to an irresponsible, hard- When individuals or groups are too independent, they
headed, and a trouble-maker. The reason is that his are always isolated. On the other hand, if the units and
friend young people B and young people C taught him to responsibilities are too closely connected, people are
take illegal drugs. Others, however, are affected by the absentminded from work and waste time or excessive
financial standing position, the social and economic coordination.
status of others that even he is not capable, forcing him (1) Must have well-distributed jobs and the laws,
or her that he or she is at the same level as them, policies, rules, and regulations must be balanced through
portrays that he or she belongs to the group, and called lateral approaches.
to be as social climbers. A human being should bear in
mind that living in this world is not easy. He must be (2) Must have an implicitly defined job description,
strong enough to stand still independently and not be roles, and duties to evade from gaps and overlaps.
influenced by undesirable pressures. It is alright to enjoy
life as long as a person knows his boundaries and
(3) Must have a clear-cut expectation of the tasks in a 1. Individuals have the right to choose one's conduct
wide range of goals based on reason, not desire.

(4) Must have a well-balanced interdependence and 2. Individuals have to abide by the rules that they follow.
co0rdination.
3. Individuals are independent from being limited by the
3.0KANT’S PHILOSOPHY ON FREEDOM AND option of others to the extent that they may coexist with
MORALITY, THE PRINCIPLES OF each other's freedom under universal rule.

JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS 4. Equality is the most among the various freedoms and
freedom is the only inherent power.The three conceps of
1. KANT’S PHILOSOPHY ON FREEDOM freedom are the freedom of a human being as a member
of a state, the dignity of each person as a subject, and the
Kant's definition of freedom is the right to control one's freedom of any member of the commonwealth as a
actions based on reason, not desire. resident.
All of this can be simplified to the definition of 5. Individuals have an autonomous right to be happy in
autonomy. The term Autonomy derives from the Greek their own way, and the intervention of another's freedom
term, which translates into self-legislator. The principle, means forcing others to be happy.
then, is not to live by the animalistic rules forced on
them from birth, but rather to live by the laws that you 2. KANT’S PHILOSOPHY ON MORALITY
enforce on yourself. Therefore, from Kant's point of
view, libertarian freedom is not absolute, but in fact, it is Kant based his ethical philosophy on the idea that reason
the subjugation of oneself to one's wish. should be used to decide how people will behave. He did
not attempt to recommend concrete action but advised
There is only one inherent right, "says Kant," freedom that reason should be used to decide how to behave.
(independence from being limited by the option of Below are the main Kant’s philosophy on morality.
another) to the degree that it can coexist with the
freedom of each other following universal law". Kant Kant based the idea of obligation on ethical law. Kant
opposes any other justification for the state, in particular started his ethical philosophy by arguing that the only
by arguing that the welfare of people can not be the virtue that can be uncontroversially good is good will.
foundation of state power. No one virtue has this position, since any other virtue
may be used to accomplish unethical ends (for example,
He claims that the state can not legally enforce any the virtue of loyalty is not good if one is loyal to the evil
specific definition of happiness on its person). Good will is unique as it is always good and
retains its moral values even though it fails to achieve its
people. It will be for the dictator to see people as infants, moral intentions. Kant found good will to be a common
believing that they are incapable of moral concept that openly wishes to use certain virtues
grasping what is beneficial or detrimental to themselves. for moral purposes.

In additon, to Kant, good will is a wider conception than

the will of obligation. A will which acts out of obligation
Freedom is not the only reason for the ideals that can be described as a will which overcomes barriers to
underlies the state. In Theory and Practice, Kant makes the preservation of moral law. Dutiful will is thus, a
equality the first of three concepts, such as the freedom special case of good will which is evident under
of a human being as a member of a state, the dignity of unfavorable conditions. Kant believes that only actions
each person as a subject, and the freedom of any committed concerning obligation have moral meaning.
member of the commonwealth as a resident. This is not to suggest that actions performed solely in
compliance with duty are meaningless (they still deserve
As discussed in “Theory and Practice” Freedom recognition and encouragement), but that special respect
highlighted the autonomous right of all individuals to is granted to acts performed out of duty.
conceive of happiness in their way. Interference with
another’s freedom is understood as coercing the other to Moreover, Kant’s definition of obligation does not mean
be happy as the former sees fit.) that people carry out their duties reluctantly. While duty
also restricts people and induces them to act against their
Immanuel Kant accentuates the following philosphy on inclinations, it still stems from the voluntariliness of an
freedom: agent or a person: they want to abide by moral law.
Therefore, when an agent takes duty action, it is because
reasonable interests matter most to them than their This does not mean a logical contradiction, but that the
opposing inclinations. universalization of the maxim contributes to a state of
affairs that no rational being would want.
2. PERFECT AND IMPERFECT DUTIES
Kant argued that morality was the objective law of
Having applied the categorical imperative, duties emerge reason: just as objective physical laws involved physical
because failure to perform them will either result in a action. Objective rational law requires rational action.
contradiction of conception or a contradiction of will. He, therefore, assumed that a perfectly rational being
The former are categorized as perfect tasks, and the would also be perfectly moral since a perfectly
latter as imperfect. The perfect duty is always true. reasonable being feels it necessary to do what is
There seems to be a perfect duty to tell the truth, so we rationally necessary. Since humans are not completely
must never lie. Imperfect duty requires flexibility. moral (in part acting by instinct), Kant claimed that
Beneficence is an imperfect duty because we are not humans had to comply with their subjective will with
obligated to be absolutely helpful at all times, but should objective rational rules, which he called conformity
choose the times and places in which we are. Kant obligations. Kant believed that the objective rule of
believes that perfect duty is more important than an reason is a priori, arising outward from rationality. Just
imperfect duty: when a conflict of duty arises, perfect as physical laws occur before human beings, logical
duty must be carried out. laws (morality) occur before rational beings. According
to Kant, therefore, objective morality is fundamental and
3. CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE can not change depending on the circumstances.
Categorical imperative command unconditionally.
Irrespective of our wishes or desires, acategorical
imperative binds us as everyone has a responsibility not 5. HUMANITY AS AN END IN ITSELF
to lie, regarless of conditions and even though it is in our
interest to do so. A hypothetical imperative is one that The second interpretation of Kant's Categorical
we must fulfill if we are to satisfy our desires or Imperative is to view life as an end in itself:
command conditionally on your having a relevant
desire.These imperatives are legally binding because “Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in
they are founded on reason, about an individual and not your own person or in the person of another, always at
subjective evidence. In addition to hypothetical the same time as an end and never simply as a
imperatives, these bind us to the degree that we are part means.”(Immanuel Kant, Groundwork fo the
of a community or society to which we owe an Metaphysics of Morals)
obligation, we can not get out of the categorical
imperative and we can not opt out of being moral agents. Kant argued that rational beings should never be viewed
We owe an obligation to reason because we are rational simply as a means to ends; they must also be viewed as
agents; thus, rational moral principles extend to all ends themselves, demanding equal regard for their own
rational agents at all times. logical motives.

4. UNIVERSALIZABILITY This stems from Kant 's argument that reason motivates
morality: it allows us to value reason as motivation in all
When anyone acts, it's a maxim, or a principle. For Kant, beings, including others. A rational being can not
an act is only permissible if one can have the principle rationally consent to be used merely as a means to an
that allows an action to be the universal law by which end, so it must always be treated as an end. Kant
everybody acts. Maxims fail this test if, when explained this by arguing that moral obligation is a
universalized, they create either a contradiction in logical necessity: that which is logical is morally right.
conception or a contradiction in the will. A contradiction
in conception arises because, if the principle is to be Kant's expounded five moral philosophies.
universalized, it fails to make sense, since the "limit will (1) The goodwill and duty where he described it as one
inevitably ruin itself as soon as the universal law has of a kind because it is always good and maintain moral
been created." The maxim is not rational because it is values. It is a moral concept that freely seeks to use
theoretically impractical to universalize. We could not values for moral reasons. Kant added that that good will
think of a world where this maxim has been is more of a conception rather than obligation. A will
universalized. The maxim may also be unethical because that acts out of duty can be defined as a will that
it causes an inconsistency in the will when it is overcomes the obstacles to the protection of moral law.
universalized. It is not to say that actions carried out purely in
compliance with duty are pointless (they still merit
praise and encouragement), but that extra regard is voluntary ideals of benevolence and charity, while
accorded to activities carried out on duty. justice concerns whether or not we value the fair right of
others to live their lives as they see fit. The third concept
(2) Kant differentiate perfect and imperfect duties. of justice illustrates a situation, let say if Mr. A buys
Perfect duties for Kant is always true and it is more something from a store, justice is served if the nature of
important than imperfect duties. Telling the truth is an the partnership is voluntary
example of a perfect duty. If there is a concflict between
the two then perfect duty must be given importance. In justice.
contrast, for Kant flexibility is indispensable in
imperfect duty. As a human being, an indindivual can Being just and fair is not about having influence with
help the needy but still he or she cannot do it all the other people particularly to those in the higher-ups or
time. Therefore, in perfect duty, it is a must to do what is those who are considered influential. If this is the
good while imperfect duty you do good but it is not an situation then justice and fairness are in trouble. Desires,
obligation to do so. wishes, or needs of others has nothing to do with justice,
it does not matter. An interpersonal relationship is more
(3) Kant also made a distinction between categorical valuable than content. The interpersonal relationship
imperative and hypothetical imperative. The categorical must be voluntary.
imperative for him is a rule of behavior that is
unconditional or absolute for all agents or persons whose
truth or argument does not depend on any purpose or
end. Conversely, a hypothetical imperative is a rule of 3.1 TAXATION IN THE PHILIPPINES THE RULES
behavior relating to a person the idea that only if he or EMBODIED UNDER THE LAW
she desires a certain end and has decided to act on that Taxation policy in the Philippines is regulated primarily
desire. In other words, in categorial imperative, the by the Constitution of the Philippines and the three
action to be done does not depend on the result or desire Republic Acts.
or not conditioned by desire. however, in hypothetical
imperative, the basis of the action to be done is what I (1) Constitution: Article VI, Section 28 of the
want and the means to get it. Constitution provides that "the rules of taxation shall be
uniform and equal" and that "a democratic system of
(4) Besides, universalizability is was set off by Kant. taxation shall be established by the Congress."
The theory of universalizability centered on the action to
be acceptable or permissible, this theory must be applied (2) National law National Internal Revenue Code—
to all citizens without any contradictions. Meaning, enacted as Republic Act No. 8424 or the
when someone commits a crime he or she will be
punished regardless of social and economic standing. Tax Reform Act of 1997 nd subsequent laws amending
The law must be applicable to all. it; most recently, the Law of the Republic No. 10963 or
the Law on Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion
(5) Humanity as an end itself of Kant pointed out that a was amended
human intrinsic worth does not depend on something
else, it does not depend on whether a person loves his or (3) Local laws: the major sources of revenue for local
her life or makes other people's lives better. A human government units ( LGUs) are taxes imposed under the
being live so he or she has value. Republic Act No. 7160 or the Local Government Code
of 1991 and those imposed on revenues levied under
3.KANT’S PHILOSOPHY ON JUSTICE AND state law.
FAIRNESS
(4) Taxes levied at national level are collected by the
Kant’s corollary meaning of justice and fairness are the Office of Internal Revenue ( BIR), whereas those levied
following: at local level ( i.e. provincial, city, municipal and
barangay) are collected by the Office of Internal
(1) Justice involves external acts through which an Revenue ( BIR).
individual may directly or indirectly influence others.
4.0 WHAT IS CULTURE?
(2) Justice does not affect the desires, wishes, or needs
of others. According to Kohak (1984), culture is at the root of
human alienation from the environment.It's not just a
(3) Justice is concerned primarily with the nature of compilation of artifacts or reflection of people's
interpersonal relationships and not with their substance. preferences and appreciation of beauty. He added that
The first two concepts of justice of Kant include the culture is derived from the Latin word, “cultus”, which
means giving respect to the sacredness of all. Originally, Leano & Gubia-on (2018), Baring ( shared five points in
culture is not contrary to nature but is commonly how culture influences the moral development of the
accepted as a human being's role in it. people and these are the following:

Cole (2019) defined culture as a concept that refers to a 1. Culture is always social and communal by which the
broad and diverse collection of often intangible areas of relationship of the people towards one another and their
social life. According to sociologists, culture consists of experience as people are the culture’s meadow. Culture
ideals, beliefs, language systems, communication, and is social and communal in character where the people
behaviors that people have in common and that can be established and develop their relationships with each
used to describe them as a group. Culture also other and learned from their experiences with them in
encompasses material objects which are special to that the community. Laws, norms, values, and attitudes serve
community or society. Culture is distinct from the social as a binding force to enhance their relationships. From
structure and economic aspects of society, but it is that perspective then culture influence the moral
related to them both by educating and updating them on development of the members of the community.
an ongoing basis.
2. The culture defines the normative principles and
Lederach, (1995) introduced culture as the collective behaviors of society. This refers to the definition of the
knowledge and schemes generated by principles and behaviors to be maintained, preserved,
andchanged for the benefit and best interest of the
Zimmerman explicated (2017) culture as the members of the community. From the relationship and
characteristics and awareness of a specific community of experience of the members of the community where the
people, including language, religion, food, social community itself would be able to form certain
behavior, etiquette, fashion, music, and the arts. From normative principles and behaviors to be relayed and to
the definitions above of culture, several characteristics be taught to the members of that community. This
were drawn: scenario influences the culture of that community in
moral development.
1. Culture is an analects of items with cultural or
historical interest. 3. A culture, as best exemplified in the experience of the
people, develops restrictions and sets boundaries and
2. Culture is a remark of peoples’ choices and limitations as they live and relate with one another.
admiration of beauty.
4. As culture helps in generating the character and
3. Culture is in harmony with the environment and an identity of its people, it also includes their moral
individual has a role to play on it. character.
4. Culture is wider in scope as it includes beliefs, ideals, Culture shapes the character and identity of the people in
communication, language systems, the community through the norms, standards, rules,
behaviors, and commonality of people within a group. regulations, and laws. If the community is traditional or
modern in character then that is the way the members of
5. Culture embraces material objects that are significant the community will learn and experience but of course,
to a particular group or society. not all have good implications.

6. Culture is related to the social structure and economic 5. The culture identifies the authorities or the governing
aspects of society. individuals or groups. The authorities serve as the
maker, interpreter, and implementer of the laws, rules,
7. Culture is a combination of the skills, talents, and regulations that they have in the community.
capacities, and artifices brought about by a group of Whatever form, a system of governance that they have
people to look at, relay messages, and respond to the the roles and duties to play in the community and their
realities of social life. moral judgment is important in moral issues in the
community. In the family, the parents have the moral
8. Culture is the attributes and observation of a particular authority over their children which is also essential for
group of people which includes language, religion, the moral development of the members of the family as
social behavior, etiquette, fashion, music, and arts. the parents are the first who have authority to their
children, who have taught and learned from them.
4.1 THE INFLUENCES OF CULTURE IN MORAL
DEVELOPMENT Obviously, culture greatly influences the moral
development of an individual. Based on the discussions
above, several points were given emphasis. As culture
considered to be as social and communal in nature, then 5. Filipinos help one another. Filipinos are known to
the people within the community able to establish and bayanihan or comunity spirit where everyone helps each
develop their relationships through learnings and other to make the task easier without expecting in return.
experiences in the community. Their relationships are
bound by the rules, regulations, principles norms, laws, 6. Filipinos values traditions and culture. Filipino
and standards that the community has. There are defined traditions and culture are very important for Filipinos.
principles and behaviors that need to be kept, promoted, They spent time on celebrations such as birthday parties,
and rejected for the best interest of the members of the reunions, festivals, etc. They dedicate every gathering
community. Restrictions and boundaries will serve as the for continuing a good relationship with each other even
security of the people which will be passed to them so over lavish food.
that are aware of them. Moreover, culture helps in
generating the identity and moral development of the 7. Filipinos have the longest Christmas celebration.
members of the community through the standards, In the Philippines, Chrismas songs started to play in the
norms, rules, principles, and laws. The maxims to be malls, restaurants, respective homes from September and
followed by them. The authorities direct the community last until the second week of January the next year. They
for the proper enforcement of the rules, regulations, and hang a parol and assembling the Chrismas tree with the
laws for the welfare of everyone. decoration of balls in different colors, toys, and others.
4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF FILIPINO CULTURE Children and adults, any generation are excited to sing
Christmas carols
Dumaraos (2018) expounded some of the characteristics
of the Filipinos that set them apart from any other to every house. They have misa de gallo and noche
culture and society: buena for the celebration of Christmas with the family.

1. The Filipino people are very resilient. 8. Filipinos love art and architecture.

Despite the negative experience of the Filipinos The gigantic and tall buildings everywhere signify
particularly during calamities and catastrophes, Filipinos Filipinos creativity in art and architecture. They love to
able to manage and handle a difficult situation lightly. design, think, and have a passion for aesthetic value
They can still smile and always manage to rise above the which is unique and different.
challenge. 9. The Filipinos are hospitable people..
2. Filipinos take pride in their families. Filipinos first 4.4 WEKNESSES OF FILIPINO CHARACTER
and foremost priority is the family. Thus, whether you
are part of the immediate family or you belong to the 1. Extreme Personalism
third and fourth generation you are cherished as afamily
member. Even the closest friends are regarded as a The Filipinos always try to give an interpretation of the
family too. actions or they take things personally. They say thank
you with "but" (compliment-criticism-compliment)
3. Filipinos are very religious. There are so many
religions in the Philippines, nowadays, different 2. Extreme Family Centeredness The Filipinos have very
denominations and yet they value their beliefs. For the high family protection whether in good or poor condition
Roman Catholics, they pay their respect to the different and circumstance (consentidor) (overprotected)
cross, images of Sto. Nino, the Litte Christ, and other
religious articles can be found in the house. Every 3. Lack of Discipline The Filipinos have a rather relaxed
almost all religion, they go to Church every Sunday and attitude, but bad time management (famous Filipino
sometimes twice or three times a week. time). They are impatient and unable to postpone
incentives or rewards. They want to take shortcuts or the
4. Filipinos are very respectful. 'palusot' scheme and careless.

Filipinos used po and opo, words that usually at the end

of the sentences when addressing the elders. They also
pay respect to someone older than them through
pagmamano which means raising the backs of the hands
of their elders to their forehands as a sign of respect.
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative They 're demanding person within their particular culture. In a holistic
someone's accomplishment, so they're not displaying the understanding of the term cultural relativism, it tries to
same flag just because of race. They are rather promote the understanding of cultural practices that are
complacent (relax) but they often have a sense of unfamiliar to other cultures such as eating insects,
urgency. The Filipinos have a positive personality, but a genocides or genital cutting.
lack of self-confidence and a deep desire to achieve their
goals. They are strong at the beginning, but they have no
sense of consistency (sometimes no direction at all or no
strategy at all). Besides, they are too patient Cultural relativism (CR) is a moral theory that contends
that there are no objective universal moral rules, and the
without any plan (matiisin) "Bahala na System"-no moral rules that do exist are culturally bound. In other
matter what, come what may, at least we tried words, there is a negative claim that there are no moral
(paconsuelo) attitude. They may have questions and claims such as that killing is wrong that would apply to
discussions or disagreement first, rather than analyzing every culture, and there is a positive claim that there are
the situation before planning and action. moral rules, but they vary depending onculture, society,
and context .Generally, CR is an attitude towards the
5. Colonial Mentality meaning and role of values in various cultures.CR means
that the beliefs in terms of norms and behaviors in a
Filipinos have what we call patriotism vs active particular culture are specific to that society.
awareness mentality. They appreciate too much other
nationality and foreign products than native ones (local The definitions of cultural relativism stated above are
vs imported) They even lack love and appreciation for summarized to the following:
what they have. Furthermore, they have
1. In cultural relativism, no one can judge a society by
Open outside but Side-open or Close inside character their standards in the principle of right or wrong,
(it's ok and best to receive more than to share) eccentric or natural.

6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome 2. People must understand other societies’ cultures.

Filipinos have self-serving attitude that generates feeling 3. In cultural relativism, the aim is to strengthen our
of envy and competitiveness towards others (status vs knowledge and interpretation of the practices and
prestige).They have personal ambition but insensitive to cultural traditions that are not part of our culture and that
common will (people and own country). There is also a not uncommon to other cultures.
crab mentality attitude (Hilahan and Inggitan
System)instead of being happy to what are the 4. Cultural relativism is a moral theory that claims the
accomplishments of others they try to pull them down. idea of no objective universal moral
Finally, they lack of appreciation resulting unhealthy
competition. rules that would apply to every culture and it varies
depending on the culture of the society.
7. Lack of Self Analysis and Reflection
In the case of Islam, for instance, to marry five times are
Filipinos are superficial and dreamy. They lack self- allowed as long as the man is capable to support them
evaluation and reflection of the situation. while in Christianity, it is punishable by the law if any
man or woman are married twice as it is bigamous as
5.0 DEFINITION OD CULTURAL RELATIVISM stated in Article 349 of the Revised Penal Code and the
second marriage will be void from the very beginning if
Below are the definitions of cultural relativism of the the first marriage is valid under Article 35 of the
various authors: Cultural relativism means that we do
not judge a society by our own criteria of what is right or Family Code. The moral standards of every society
wrong, odd or natural. Rather, we will make an effort to differ from the other and for that reason, any culture
understand the cultural traditions of Cultural relativism should be respected by anyone. We cannot say that it is
is the desire to consider a culture on its own terms and right or wrong because that culture permits them to do so
not to make conclusions based on the norms of one's and the other societies' cultures would view the same
own community. The goal of this is to foster the that is right or wrong or vice versa. What is moral to
awareness of the cultural traditions that are not usually other societies may not be moral to our societies and
part of one's own culture. (Philosophy Home, 2009. what is moral to our societies may not be moral to them.
It is indeed hard to reconcile the conflicting cultures of
The concept of cultural relativism also means that any the societies with their respective moral standards. The
opinion on ethics is subject to the perspective of each
boundaries would be the understanding and acceptance perfect. Perhaps we're going to be one day, but that day
of the cultures of the societies. is certainly not today.

3. It creates a personal bias.

4.1PROS OR ADVANTAGES OF CULTURAL Cultural relativism is a worthy goal. Societies have a

RELATIVISM natural prejudice against them, which pushes certain
people down to lift people. All cultural relativism does
Below are the advantages of cultural relativism: move accountability from a group perspective to an
individualistic perspective. Promoting a particular set of
1. It creates learning opportunities that could make morals is the focal point rather than the promotion of a
humanity stronger. The cultural difference allows people collective set of morals.
to learn as they can compare their respective cultures
and from those differences, they can improve their lives. 4. It eliminates the idea that reform or change can be a
good thing. Any of the greatest thinkers and teachers to
2. It eliminates the concept of separate, but equal. be followed in history will all be deemed wrong in a
Across culture, there are groups of people who have system of cultural relativism. Then there is no need to
common beliefs and values, but who face prejudice, change hearts and minds, as they are all held to their
injustice, and differences depending on the classes they standards. Extend that in the workplace, and suddenly
belong to. This will eliminate the idea of being different unsafe working conditions, low to no pay, and sexual
yet equal by cultural relativism. slavery all become reasonable choices.

3. It creates a system of niche expertise. People will The benefit of cultural relativism is that it teaches
concentrate on the things they do better when cultural acceptance to individuals. The drawbacks are that this is
relativism is stressed. There will no longer be a need to a philosophy that is based on the belief that humans
strengthen the points of weakness since the weakness of eventually do the best thing to do. Perhaps in the future,
one individual is the strength of another. Individuals will such a method would work. Before society can grow up
have to reflect on their strengths instead of their and learn from each other, there is a great deal of
weaknesses. potential for harm in this Knowing the advantages or
pros and disadvantages or cons of cultural relativism, we
4. It encourages respect. Different cultures have different able to balance the cultures of the societies despite the
backgrounds and perspectives to support civilization. differences. From the very beginning there is already a
With cultural relativism, these interactions and conflict of cultures in societies because it varies from
viewpoints contribute to the common good, as it helps us each other, However from that differences, we can
to benefit and learn from each particular viewpoint in adjust, change our perspectives and learn from the
their way. strengths and weaknesses of each culture to improve
ourselves. Moreso, to better understand the people as
4.2 THE CONS OR DISADVANTAGES OF what and who they are, their roots, their moral standards,
CULTURAL RELATIVISM acceptable and unacceptable or permissible or prohibited
in their societies then we need to embrace their cultures
Below are the disadadvantages of cultural relativism to determine the trends or situations to develop. To that
end, these make the relationships of the people of the
1. There will be actions taken that would be defined by
societies strong and unified, do the actions that will not
some as “violent,” “unsafe,” or “wrong.”
be offended to them, respect and acknowledge every
Since each person can set his or her moral code of society's beliefs, traditions, and customs to live
conduct, there will be those who choose to perform acts peacefully and happy.
that the majority of people will interpret as wrong.
6.0 WHAT IS UNIVERSAL VALUE?
Murder, robbery, child abuse, all of these will become
legally viable acts if that person's morality described The word "value" means something that a person or a
them as being good. group believes has a value that merits being sought,
promoted, or privileged. This can be a thing (money,
2. It is based on a concept that people are perfect.
food, art), a state of mind (peace, protection, certainty),
We may all like to think that we're perfect but the fact is or a behavior that results from those things or states of
that we're all far from it. The theory of cultural mind (protecting innocent people, telling the truth, being
relativism is based on the premise that society can be creative). Universal values, however, can be be
unerstood in two ways. First, it could be that something
has universal value because everyone finds it important.
Second, it could have universal value when all people 10. Security: cleanliness; family security; national
have reason to believe it has value. According to the security; stability of social order; reciprocation of
Didactic Encyclopedia (2015), universal value is a favours; health; sense of belonging
concept that it is not obvious to define because a
principle is connected with morality or ethics. It is Schwartz also tested an eleventh possible universal
difficult to transpose or apply to the level of the group. value, 'spirituality', or 'the goal of finding meaning in
In other words, all people have certain values that come life', but found that it does not seem to be recognised in
from within them and direct their actions. Because all cultures
human beings do not think in the same way, values can
differ from person to person. Universal values, however, .2 UN CHARTER OF UNIVERSAL VALUES
need to be socially expressed. In the lecture by Secretary-General Kofi Annan on
6.1 SCHWARTS CONCEPT OF UNIVERSAL Global Ethics, entitled “Do We StillHave Universal
VALUES Values?”, delivered at Tübingen University, Germany,
he stressed this quotation,
S. H. Schwartz, along with several colleagues in the field
of psychology, carried out empiricalresearch analyzing “The values of peace, freedom, social progress, equal
whether there are universal values and what those values rights and human dignity, enshrined in the Charter of the
are. Schwartz described 'values' as 'conceptions of what United Nations and in the Universal Declaration of
is important that affect the way people choose action and Human Rights, are no less valid today than when, over
evaluate events.' (Sen, 1999) Schwartz's results from a half a century ago, those documents were drafted by
series of studies that included surveys of more than representatives of many different nations and cultures.”
25,000 people in 44 countries with a wide range of Progress, equal ritghts, human dignity are accutely
different cultural types suggest that there are fifty-six needed in this age of globalization. In the Millenium
specific universal values and ten types of universal Declaration according ot Annan, “all states reaffirmed
value. Schwartz's ten types of universal value are: certain fundamental values as being essentials to
power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self- international relations in the twenty-first century”:
direction, universalism, benevolence, tradition, freedpm, equality, solidarity, tolerance, respect for
conformity, and security. nature and shared responsibility.” Looking at the
fundamental values mentioned above and the provisions
Below are each of the value types, with the specific under the Charter of the United Nations, countries of all
related values alongside: nations and cultures must apply these principles to
maintain peace and security in the world. Rich, poor,
1. Power: authority; leadership; dominance, social developed, underdeveloped, advanced, or not and highly
power, wealth technological or not countries must not only adapt but
implement these values seriously. In reality, the presence
2. Achievement: success; capability; ambition; of discrimination, double standards, injustice, partiality,
influence; intelligence; self-respet. oppression, etc., can be seen in an international setting.
It is admittable that the nations, which are advanced are
3. Hedonism: pleasure; enjoying life powerful than those states in poverty considered as
4. Stimulation: daring activities; varied life; exciting life weaker states. If all nations in the world despite
differences in races, colors, international standings,
5. Self-direction: creativity; freedom; independence; cultures, religions, customs, traditions, set aside their
curiosity; choosing your own goals respective self-interests, peace and security in the whole
world will evidently possible.
6. Universalism: broadmindedness; wisdom; social
justice; equality; a world at peace; a world of beauty; It can be described as, unified, cooperative, promoter of
unity with nature; protecting the environment; inner mutual understanding, and peace-loving nations. A
harmony better future for all the countries in the world.

7. Benevolence: helpfulness; honesty; forgiveness; 6.3 BASIC UNIVERSAL HUMAN VALUES

loyalty; responsibility; friendship
Hereunder are some of the basic univeral human values:
8. Tradition: accepting one's portion in life; humility;
devoutness; respect for tradition; moderation (1) Happiness – it refers to good fortune; pleasure;
contentment; joy. (6) Under thenotes on Aristtle’s
9. Conformity: self-discipline; obedience Nicomachean Ethics, “happiness or flourishing or living
well is a complete and sufficient good. This implies that
it is desired for itself, that it is not desired for the sake of Dignity is the state or quality of being worthy of honor
anything else, that it satisfies all desire and has no evil or respect. "A man of dignity and unbending principle"
mixed in with it, and that it is stable. is an example. It refers to bearing, conduct, or speech
indicative of self- respect or appreciation of the
Under the notes on Aristtle’s Nicomachean Ethics, formality or gravity of an occasion or situation. It is the
“happiness or flourishing or living well is a complete importance and value that a person has, that makes other
and sufficient good. This implies that it is desired for people respect them or makes them respect themselves.
itself, that it is not desired for the sake of anything else, Dignity is earned and cannot be taken away from
that it satisfies all desire and has no evil mixed in with it, anyone. It must be preserved so that the respect of others
and that it is stable. is maintained. Any act or action to be done by an
individual will be reflected in his or her personality.
(2) Peace – is a freedom from disturbance; tranquility. It Only one big mistake can ruin a good reputation for
is a state or period in which there is no war or a war has anyone. People mustbe very careful of his or her action
ended. A state of mutual harmony between people or
groups, especially in personal relations: Example: Llive Filipino Moral Characters: Strengths and Weaknesses
in peace with your neighbors.
Filipino cultural morality especially that which concerns
(3) Freedom – is the state of being free or at liberty, social ethics, centers on ideally having a “smooth
freedom from control, interference, obligation, interpersonal relationship (SIR) with others (De Guzman
restriction, hampering conditions, etc.; power or right of et al. 2017). The definition of “smooth interpersonal
doing, thinking, speaking, etc., according to choice. relationship” in Philippine culture is principally
supported by and anchored on the following Filipino
(4) Safety - is the state of being safe; freedom from the values and Filipino traits and values (De Guzman et al.
occurrence or risk of injury, danger, or loss. 2017 and Arcega et al., 2018).
(5) Intelligence – is a capacity for learning, reasoning, Filipino Values
understanding, and similar forms of mental activity;
aptitude in grasping truths, relationships, facts, Values are those aspects in life that include customs,
meanings, etc. traditions, etc., which the people regard as necessary and
important in their dealings with one another (Agoncillo
(6) Respect - os a formal expression or gesture of et al., 2010). One of the Filipino values is ‘pakikisama’
greeting, esteem, or friendship: deference to a right, or sense or togetherness. It refers to doing somebody a
privilege, privileged position, or someone or something good deed, such as helping a relative or neighbor build a
considered to have certain rights or privileges; proper house without asking for compensation, or helping
acceptance or courtesy; acknowledgment: respect for a someone looking for a job and so on (Agoncillo et al.,
suspect's right to counsel; to show respect for the flag; 2010). It is not only practiced in neighborhood but also
respect for the elderly. at work and school. Helping other people even in small
(7) Equality – is the state or quality of being equal; little way may show ‘pakikisama.’ Like offering help if
correspondence in quantity, degree, value, rank, or someone cannot carry a bunch of documents or buy
ability: promoting equality of opportunity in the goods that an office-mate or classmate sells to support
workplace. his/her relative in medication or education (Arcega et al.,
2018). According to De Guzman et al. 2017,
(8) Justice – is the quality of being just; righteousness, ‘pakikisama’ is having and maintaining ‘good public
equitableness, or moral rightness: to uphold the justice relations.’ This is usually being practiced to avoid clash
of a cause. with other people or a certain group. Just like other
Filipino values, ‘pakikisama’ can work either positively
(9) Nature – is the material world, especially as or destructively. To elude open displays of conflicts,
surrounding humankind and existing independently of clashes, and confrontations, Filipinos, because of
human activities. ‘pakikisama,’ may submit to group opinion,
overgenerous praise one another, using metaphorical
(10) Health – is the general condition of the body or language rather than candid terms, concealing negative
mind with reference to soundness and vigor: good feelinsg or unhappy spirits underneath a pleasant
health; poor health. soundness of body or mind; freedom demeanor, smiling even when things go wrong, avoiding
from disease or ailment to have one's health; to lose to say ‘no,’ and refraining from venting anger or losing
one's health temper (De Guzman et al. 2017).
6.4 THE HUMAN DIGNITY
‘Utang na loob’ or dept or gratitude is very important to to be a fault, but it is devastating to be publicly
Filipinos. It is recognizing and returning the favor to that criticized, insulted, belittled, or humiliated or to lose
person in the same measure who help them in times of one’s self-respect (“Amor Propio.” n.d). According to
need (Agoncillo et al., 2010). According to Arcega et al., De Guzman et al., (2017), ‘amor propio’ comes from the
(2018), Filipinos may have ‘utang na loob’ if other person’s tendency to protect is or her dignity and honor.
people help them during sickness, medication, sending Because of pride or amor proprio, for instance, a person
their children to school, finding a job, or they were saved may refuse offers even if he/she wants to accept them.
in a life threatening situation. Once Filipinos surpass
those challenges in life, they will return to the person Filipino Traits Trait is a distinguishing feature or
whom they have debt of gratitude to give back the favor character of a person or a group of people (Agoncillo et
they received or they will help that person in times of al., 2010). One of the common traits among Filipino is
need. However ‘utang na loob’ may not be good if the hospitality or keeping the strangers feel warm and
person is forced to do somethings even against his/ her welcome. Filipinos are known by other nations through
will or against the law just to pay the debt of gratitude. this trait because they really make an effort to welcome
The person will do this to avoid being reproved or their guests. It is not only applied to foreigners but it also
having confrontations, clashes and conflicts with the applied to everybody.
person whom they have ‘utang na loob.’
New kitchen utensils, bed sheets and pillow covers, bath
‘Hiya’ or ‘kahihiyan’ or sense of shame is another towels etc., are used by their guests. They
Filipino values (Agoncillo et al., 2010). ‘Hiya’ may be
observed to Filipinos in accepting the food that are Family is the unit of society and consists, at least very
offered to them. Even thoughthey are hungry, they will recent times, of the parent, grandparents, and the
feel sense of shame accepting the food given to them or children (Agoncillo et al., 2010). Filipinos are also
they will say that they are not yet hungry. They also feel known for having close family ties. As much as possible,
‘hiya’ in approaching higher authorities like school they want to live in a house together with their
principal, teachers/ professors, deans, and executives. grandparents, parents, children and grandchildren. Father
They will look someone whom they think have the is the head and the provider of the family. All of his
courage to approach higher authorities (Arcega et al., salary will be given to his wife to budget all the
2018). On the other hand, expenses and needs of the family. He will fix anything
that are damaged in their house. On the other hand,
‘kahihiyan’ maybe observed in the Filipino families. mother is the light of their home. She will guide their
They try to avoid doing things that may dishonor their children in their assignment and school activities. She
family’s name and reputation. If problems arise in the will do the house chores like going to market, cleaning
family, as much as they could, they will hide it within the house, cooking dishes, washing and ironing the
the family because for them, the stink of a member will clothes and etc (Arcega et al., 2018). On the other hand,
be the stink of the whole family (Arcega et al., 2018). this Filipino trait may not be good sometimes if
Sense of shame maybe observed also during family’s daughters and sons who have their own family still live
occasion like wedding, baptism and feast (Agoncillo et under their parents’ custody. Their aging parents who
al., 2010). Others will borrow money from relatives should be enjoying their retirement age, still support
their children and grandchildren in many ways such as
or other people offering 5/6 or with higher interest rates providing them basic needs, shoulder the payment of
just to be used in the occasion. They will spend so much utilities, or even support grandchildren in their studies
not to receive bad comments from other people that they because the former either have no capacity to support
cannot afford to spend money for the event. At the end, their family, have no stable job, are immature parents or
they need to settle their obligations or else the interests used to be dependent to parents even they have their own
will get higher (Arcega et al., 2018). family.

Like ‘hiya,’ the Filipino value of ‘amor propio’ is Respect for the elders is also observed to the Filipinos.
derived from the concept of ‘face.’ Although commonly They obey elderly and consider their suggestions in
translated as self-respect or self-esteem, ‘amor propio’ major life decisions like choosing a course in college,
has been characterized as the high degree of sensitivity marriage, burial, changed of residents and others. Saying
that makes a person intolerant to criticism and causes po and opo as well as mano po are taught to children as
him to have an easily wounded pride (“Amor Propio.” sign of respect to elders. Children are also taught not to
n.d). Concerning this Filipino value, some observe that interrupt or mingle with the elders while they are having
conversations. Calling kuya or ate the person who is
Filipinos learn to withstand a loss of face in some older in age even they are not biologically related is also
situations, particulalrly when they perceive themselves a a way f showing respect (Arcega et al., 2018). When
excessive, nonetheless, respect to elders make one (1) excellences ofthoughts and (2) excellences of
dependent or irrationally obedient to parents or elders character (De Guzman et al., 2017). Now, in virtue
(De Guzman etal. 2017). ethics, one does not ask the question, “what morally
ought we to do?”; rather, virtue ethics posits that the
These Filipino social values are important to maintain basic function of morality is the moral character of
harmony in Filipino relationships in social institutions persons (Beauchamp, 2001). In relation to this,
such as famly, school, and community. The ‘smooth Beauchamp suggests that virtue should not be thought of
interpersonal relationship,’ together with Filipino as a moral requirement, because this confuses with a
‘pakikipagkapwa-tao,’ has been deemed as a central core principle or rule. Rather, virtue is a character trait that is
of essential cultural traits that form and define an almost socially valued Aristotle considered goodness of
stereotypic Filipino character and mora behavior (De character as a product of the practice of virtuous
Guzman et al. 2017). behavior. This means that for Aristotle, virtuous acts are
not the end results of a good character. In fact, according
Moral Character and its Development to Aristotle, virtues are tendencies to act, to feel, and
Moral character refers to the existence or lack of virtues judge, tendencies which are developed from natural
such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty, and capacity through proper training and exercise (Yarza,
loyalty. To say that a certain person has a good moral 1994). He believed, therefore, that practice creates a
character means that he/she is a good person and a good habit of acting in a virtuous way. Again, it is for this
citizen with a sound moral compass (De Guzman et al., reason that virtue is something that can be learned and
2017). It can be conceptualized as an individual’s improved (Yarza, 1994). It is important to note that for
disposition to think, feel, and behave in an ethical versus Aristotle, virtue depends on “clear judgment, self-
unethical manner, or as the subset of individual control, symmetry of desire, and artistry ofmeans”
differences relevant to morality (Cohen & Carnegie, (Durant, 1926, 75). Hence, virtue can be viewed as a
2014). Development of moral character can be explained fruit of intelligent pursuit. The virtue of excellence, for
by the following approaches: virtues, disposition, and example, can be achieved by training and habituation,
circular relations of acts and character, and theoretical and that a virtuous character is created by repeatedly
perspectives (DeGuzman et al., 2017 and acting in a virtuous manner (philonotes.com).
philonotes.com).
But how can a person be virtuous? It is important to note
Moral Character and Virtues that a virtuous behavior for Aristotle means practicing
Etymologically, the term “character” comes from the moderation, that is, avoiding both excess and deficiency
ancient Greek term charaktêr, which initially referred to (Temporal, Notes, 2016. See also the chapter on
the mark impressed upon a coin. The term charaktêr later Aristotle’s virtue ethics). Aristotle calls this the doctrine
came to refer more generally to any distinctive feature of the mean. This “doctrine of the mean” is a principle
by which one thing is distinguished from others. Along that suggests that a moral behavior is one that is in the
this general line, in contemporary usage character often middle of two extremes. For example, between gain and
refers to a set of qualities or characteristics that can be disadvantage is justice, and between shameless and
used to differentiate between persons. It is used this way, touchiness is modesty (Temporal). Indeed, moral virtue
for example, commonly in literature. In philosophy, can be defined simply as the just mean (philonotes.com).
however, the term character is typically used to refer to Moral Character as Dispositions
the particularly moral dimension of a person. For
example, Aristotle most often used the term ēthē for Dispositions are particular kinds of properties or
character, which is etymologically linked to “ethics” and characteristics that objects can possess.
“morality” (via the Latin equivalent mores) (Timpe,
2002). Examples of dispositions include the solubility of a
sugar-cube in water, the fragility of porcelain, the
One way to explain character development is through the elasticity of a rubber band, and the magnetism of a
virtue ethics approach. Virtue ethics represents the lodestone (Timpe, 2002).
concept that individual’s actions are based upon inner
moral virtue whereAristotle was the leading figure of it Moral character traits are those dispositions of character
(philonotes.com). Virtue is a central concept in for which it is appropriate to hold agents morally
responsible. A trait for which the agent is deserving of a
his Nicomachean Ethics wherein there are two distinct of positive reactive attitude, such as praise or gratitude, is a
human excellences, virtue, and a vice is a trait for which the agent is
deserving of a negative reactive attitude, such as
resentment or blame. Moral character traits are relatively
stable, fixed and reliable dispositions of action and affect the situation arises. For example, I see a person without
that ought to be rationally informed. The subsequent a coat shivering in the middle of winter and give them
sub-sections will further elucidate these various aspects my coat, and on and on (Mitchell, 2015). While this
of moral character traits (Timpe, 2002). Moral character example is about charity, there is nothing about habitus
affects one’s moral decision. This character is a that requires it to be good. One may also will to be
personality trait or disposition that has become miserly and act in a miserly way and therefore develop a
habituated in the individual moral agent. Indeed, it is bad disposition or habitus of miserliness. The morality
something that is developed, nurtured and cultivated of the action also determines the morality of the habitus.
(philonotes.com). But not all acts can be cataloged as moral or immoral.
There are different types or categories of actions
Moral character traits are not just dispositions to engage
in certain outward behaviors; they can also be
dispositions to have certain emotions or affections. For
example, justice is the disposition to treat others as they
deserve to be treated, while courageousness is the
disposition to feel the appropriate amount of fear called B. The Type of Action
for by a situation. Additionally, as mentioned above with Because human beings are body/soul unities, actions of
regard to dispositions in general, an individual can have the body are actions of the self. Digestion of food is
a particular moral character trait and not currently be certainly an action, as is jumping when startled or
manifesting trait-relevant behavior or affect. An yawning when tired. Aquinas calls these acts of a human
individual may be generous in her giving to charity, even being (actus humanus) and distinguishes them from
if she is not engaged presently in any charitable action human acts (actus humanis) (Mitchell, 2015). Human
(Timpe, 2002). It is important to consider that moral acts are rational acts and are more closely associated
character is not something that is imposed from the with character than are acts of human beings, because
outside, but something that springs from the will of the the former actions come from the whole person.
moral agent. Hence, a moral character develops as Laughing at funny things is a moral act, in contrast to
he/she grows into maturity. We may view moral laughing because one is being tickled, which is an act of
character as a disposition or tendency to act or think in a a human being. In the former, there is choice. One can
specific way for which a person can be held morally choose to laugh or not. Laughing that is ridicule is a bad
responsible moral act. Laughing at oneself can be good (e.g.,
The Circular Relation of Acts and Character humbling). In fact, training oneself to not laugh at racist
jokes or sexual innuendos is considered by many to be a
The other side of the relation between moral character moral responsibility (Mitchell, 2015).
and action is the effect of action on character. Three
aspects of action relevant to this are repetition of action C. Intention and Responsibility
and its effect on the person, the type of action, and Two important aspects of the revelatory nature of action
intention and responsibility (Mitchell, 2015). are responsibility and intention. Human beings own their
A. Repetition of Action and its Effect on the Person actions and the consequences of them. This even applies
to actions that are accidental rather than willed and
Actions can be repetitive or automatic in (at least) three chosen. The will is the rational power of human beings
different ways: by habit, by education, and by habitus to act. It is the ability to choose what is good (or what
(Mitchell, 2015). When an action is constantly repeated, one thinks is good) directed by reason
over time it can become a habit. For example, the
physician who automatically writes a prescription for Responsibility and intention are rooted in the will, which
contraception for patients who ask and no longer thinks is the source of the self- possession and self-governance
it through has acquired a habit. Another type of of human beings. Self-possession is different from
automatic action is a skill (education). Actions become possession of an object. One can own or hold an object,
skills through repetition and experience. For example, such as a rock, and therefore have possession of it. But
the baker automatically stops kneading the bread dough one owns and holds oneself internally in a way one
when it reaches a certain elasticity. These actions are cannot with a rock. We are conscious of the rock as
done without consciously thinking through all the steps something that is external, but we are conscious of
and reasoning and judgments. A third way actions ourselves from the inside. We are both the object of our
become automatic is through what Aquinas calls habitus, consciousness and the subject (Wrathall, 2005). One can
that is, inclination or disposition, an inclination, a be prevented from doing something by external forces,
willingness, to respond charitably to anyone in need as but carrying through with an action has an element of the
voluntary, of willing to do it and therefore cannot be
forced. For example, a physician may feel forced to
write prescriptions for contraception through fear of
ostracism or losing his job, but at the point at which he
actually writes the prescription, he is no longer forced
but actually willing the writing of the prescription
(Aristotle, n.d. and Another way the will can be hindered
is by lack of knowledge. One may attempt to drive
across a flooded bridge thinking the water is low enough
to get through but then get stuck, because it was really
two feet above the bridge. But if one knows that the
water is that high, one would not drive across it or will
to drive across it, because one knows the car will stall in
the middle