5/11/2020 Hegemony - Wikipedia

Hegemony
Hegemony (UK: /hɪˈɡɛməni, hɪˈdʒɛməni/, US: /hɪˈdʒɛməni/ ( pronunciation ) or /ˈhɛdʒəˌmoʊni/) is
the political, economic, or military predominance or control of one state over others.[1][2][3][4][5] In
ancient Greece (8th century BC – 6th century AD), hegemony denoted the politico-military
dominance of a city-state over other city-states.[6] The dominant state is known as the hegemon.[7] In
the 19th century, hegemony came to denote the "Social or cultural predominance or ascendancy;
predominance by one group within a society or milieu". Later, it could be used to mean "a group or
regime which exerts undue influence within a society".[8] Also, it could be used for the geopolitical
and the cultural predominance of one country over others, from which was derived hegemonism, as
in the idea that the Great Powers meant to establish European hegemony over Africa, Asia and Latin
America.[9]

In cultural imperialism, the leader state dictates the internal politics and the societal character of the
subordinate states that constitute the hegemonic sphere of influence, either by an internal, sponsored
government or by an external, installed government.

In international relations theory, hegemony denotes a situation of (i) great material asymmetry in
favour of one state, that has (ii) enough military power to systematically defeat any potential
contester in the system, (iii) controls the access to raw materials, natural resources, capital and
markets, (iv) has competitive advantages in the production of value added goods, (v) generates an
accepted ideology reflecting this status quo; and (vi) is functionally differentiated from other states in
the system, being expected to provide certain public goods such as security, or commercial and
financial stability.[10]

The Marxist theory of cultural hegemony, associated particularly with Antonio Gramsci, is the idea
that the ruling class can manipulate the value system and mores of a society, so that their view
becomes the world view (Weltanschauung): in Terry Eagleton's words, "Gramsci normally uses the
word hegemony to mean the ways in which a governing power wins consent to its rule from those it
subjugates".[11] In contrast to authoritarian rule, cultural hegemony "is hegemonic only if those
affected by it also consent to and struggle over its common sense".[12]

Contents
Etymology
Historical examples
8th–1st centuries BC
1st–14th centuries AD
15th–19th centuries
20th century
21st century
Political science
Sociology
See also
Ancient Greece under the hegemony of Thebes,
References 371–362 BC
Further reading
External links
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Etymology
From the post-classical Latin word hegemonia (1513
or earlier) from the Greek word ἡγεμονία hēgemonía,
meaning "authority, rule, political supremacy",
related to the word ἡγεμών hēgemōn "leader".[13]

Historical examples

8th–1st centuries BC

In the Greco–Roman world of 5th century BC

European classical antiquity, the city-state of Sparta
was the hegemon of the Peloponnesian League (6th to The League of Corinth hegemony: the Kingdom of
4th centuries BC) and King Philip II of Macedon was Macedonia (362 BC) (red) and the Corinthian
the hegemon of the League of Corinth in 337 BC (a League (yellow)
kingship he willed to his son, Alexander the Great).
Likewise, the role of Athens within the short-lived
Delian League (478–404 BC) was that of a "hegemon".[14] The super-regional Persian Achaemenid
Empire of 550 BC–330 BC dominated these sub-regional hegemonies prior to its collapse.

Ancient historians such as Herodotus (c. 484 BC – c. 425 BC). Xenophon (c. 431 BC – 354 BC) and
Ephorus (c. 400 BC – 330 BC) pioneered the use of the term hēgemonía in the modern sense of
hegemony.[15]

In Ancient East Asia, Chinese hegemony existed during the Spring and Autumn period (c. 770–480
BC), when the weakened rule of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty led to the relative autonomy of the Five
Hegemons (Ba in Chinese [ 霸 ]). They were appointed by feudal lord conferences, and thus were
nominally obliged to uphold the imperium of the Zhou Dynasty over the subordinate states.[16]

1st–14th centuries AD

1st and 2nd century Europe was dominated by the hegemonic peace of the Pax Romana. It was
instituted by the emperor Augustus, and was accompanied by a series of brutal military
campaigns.[17]

From the 7th century to the 12th century, the Umayyad Caliphate and later Abbasid Caliphate
dominated the vast territories they governed, with other states like the Byzantine Empire paying
tribute.[18]

In 7th century India, Harsha, ruler of a large empire in northern India from AD 606 to 647, brought
most of the north under his hegemony. He preferred not to rule as a central government, but left
"conquered kings on their thrones and contenting himself with tribute and homage."[19]

From the late 9th to the early 11th century, the empire developed by Charlemagne achieved
hegemony in Europe, with dominance over France, Italy and Burgundy.[20]

During the 14th century, the Crown of Aragon became the hegemon in the Mediterranean Sea.[21]

15th–19th centuries
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In The Politics of International Political Economy, Jayantha Jayman writes "If we consider the
Western dominated global system from as early as the 15th century, there have been several
hegemonic powers and contenders that have attempted to create the world order in their own
images." He lists several contenders for historical hegemony.[22]

Portugal 1494 to 1580 (end of Italian Wars to Spanish-Portuguese Union). Based on

Portugal's dominance in navigation.
Spain 1516 to 1659 (Ascension of Charles I of Spain to Treaty of the Pyrenees).
Based on the Spanish dominance of the European battlefields and the global
exploration and colonization of the New World.
The Netherlands 1580 to 1688 (1579 Treaty of Utrecht marks the foundation of the
Dutch Republic to the Glorious Revolution, William of Orange's arrival in England).
Based on Dutch control of credit and money.
France 1643 to 1763 Since Louis XIV to Seven Years' War
Britain 1688 to 1792 (Glorious Revolution to Napoleonic Wars). Based on British
textiles and command of the high seas.
French Revolution and Napoleonic France 1789 to 1815
Britain 1815 to 1914 (Congress of Vienna to World War I). Based on British industrial
supremacy and railroads.

Phillip IV tried to restore the Habsburg dominance but, by the middle of the 17th century "Spain's
pretensions to hegemony (in Europe) had definitely and irremediably failed."[23][24]

In late 16th and 17th-century Holland, the Dutch Republic's mercantilist dominion was an early
instance of commercial hegemony, made feasible with the development of wind power for the
efficient production and delivery of goods and services. This, in turn, made possible the Amsterdam
stock market and concomitant dominance of world trade.[25]

In France, King Louis XIV (1638–1715) and (Emperor) Napoleon I (1799–1815) attempted French
true hegemony via economic, cultural and military domination of most of Continental Europe.
However, Jeremy Black writes that, because of Britain, France "was unable to enjoy the benefits" of
this hegemony.[26]

After the defeat and exile of Napoleon, hegemony largely passed

to the British Empire, which became the largest empire in
history, with Queen Victoria (1837–1901) ruling over one-
quarter of the world's land and population at its zenith. Like the
Dutch, the British Empire was primarily seaborne; many British
possessions were located around the rim of the Indian Ocean, as
well as numerous islands in the Pacific Ocean and the
Caribbean Sea. Britain also controlled the Indian subcontinent
and large portions of Africa.[27]

In Europe, Germany, rather than Britain, may have been the Map of the British Empire (as of
strongest power after 1871, but Samuel Newland writes: 1910). At its height, it was the largest
empire in history.

Bismarck defined the road ahead as … no expansion,

no push for hegemony in Europe. Germany was to
be the strongest power in Europe but without being
a hegemon. … His basic axioms were first, no
conflict among major powers in Central Europe; and
second, German security without German
hegemony."[28]

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20th century

The early 20th century, like the late 19th century was
characterized by multiple Great Powers but no global hegemon.
World War I strengthened the United States and, to a lesser
extent, Japan. Both of these states' governments pursued policies
to expand their regional spheres of influence, the US in Latin
America and Japan in East Asia. France, the UK, Italy, the Soviet
Union and later Nazi Germany (1933–1945) all either maintained
imperialist policies based on spheres of influence or attempted to
conquer territory but none achieved the status of a global
hegemonic power.[29]

After the Second World War, the United Nations was established
The Soviet Union and the United
and the five strongest global powers (China, France, the UK, the
States dominated world affairs
US, and the USSR) were given permanent seats on the U.N.
during the Cold War
Security Council, the organization's most powerful decision
making body. Following the war, the US and the USSR were the
two strongest global powers and this created a bi-polar power
dynamic in international affairs, commonly referred to as the Cold War. The hegemonic conflict was
ideological, between communism and capitalism, as well as geopolitical, between the Warsaw Pact
countries (1955–1991) and NATO/SEATO/CENTO countries (1949–present). During the Cold War
both hegemons competed against each other directly (during the arms race) and indirectly (via proxy
wars). The result was that many countries, no matter how remote, were drawn into the conflict when
it was suspected that their governments' policies might destabilize the balance of power. Reinhard
Hildebrandt calls this a period of "dual-hegemony", where "two dominant states have been stabilizing
their European spheres of influence against and alongside each other."[30] Proxy wars became battle
grounds between forces supported either directly or indirectly by the hegemonic powers and included
the Korean War, the Laotian Civil War, the Arab–Israeli conflict, the Vietnam War, the Afghan War,
the Angolan Civil War, and the Central American Civil Wars.[31]

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 the United States was the world's sole
hegemonic power.[32]

21st century

Various perspectives on whether the US was or continues to be a hegemon have been presented since
the end of the Cold War. The American political scientists John Mearsheimer and Joseph Nye have
argued that the US is not a true hegemon because it has neither the financial nor the military
resources to impose a proper, formal, global hegemony.[33] On the other hand, Anna Cornelia Beyer,
in her book about counter-terrorism, argues that global governance is a product of American
leadership and describes it as hegemonic governance.[34] Within NATO, moreover, the United States
remains a dispensable hegemonic force, as seen in the decline in the alliance's external value
profile.[35]

The French Socialist politician Hubert Védrine in 1999 described the US as a hegemonic hyperpower,
because of its unilateral military actions worldwide.[36]

Pentagon strategist Edward Luttwak, in The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire,[37] outlined three
stages, with hegemonic being the first, followed by imperial. In his view the transformation proved to
be fatal and eventually led to the fall of the Roman Empire. His book gives implicit advice to
Washington to continue the present hegemonic strategy and refrain from establishing an empire.
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In 2006, author Zhu Zhiqun claimed that

China is already on the way to becoming the
world hegemon and that the focus should be
on how a peaceful transfer of power can be
achieved between the US and China,[38] but
has faced opposition to this claim.[39]
According to the recent study published in
2019, the authors argued that a "third‐way
hegemony" or Dutch‐style hegemony apart
from a peaceful or violent hegemonic rise may
be the most feasible option to describe China
in its global hegemony in the future.[40]

Political science
In the historical writing of the 19th century, A pie chart showing global military expenditures by
the denotation of hegemony extended to country for 2018, in US$ billions, according to SIPRI.
describe the predominance of one country
upon other
countries; and, by extension,
hegemonism denoted the Great
Power politics (c. 1880s – 1914) for
establishing hegemony (indirect
imperial rule), that then leads to a
definition of imperialism (direct
foreign rule). In the early 20th
century, in the field of international
relations, the Italian Marxist
philosopher Antonio Gramsci
developed the theory of cultural
domination (an analysis of
economic class) to include social NATO countries account for over
Antonio Gramsci (1891– class; hence, the philosophic and 70% of global military
1937), the theoretician of sociologic theory of cultural expenditure,[41] with the United
cultural hegemony hegemony analysed the social States alone accounting for 43% of
norms that established the social global military expenditure in
structures (social and economic 2009.[42]
classes) with which the ruling class establish and exert cultural
dominance to impose their Weltanschauung (world view)—
justifying the social, political, and economic status quo—as natural, inevitable, and beneficial to every
social class, rather than as artificial social constructs beneficial solely to the ruling class.[6][9][43]

From the Gramsci analysis derived the political science denotation of hegemony as leadership; thus,
the historical example of Prussia as the militarily and culturally predominant province of the German
Empire (Second Reich 1871–1918); and the personal and intellectual predominance of Napoleon
Bonaparte upon the French Consulate (1799–1804).[44] Contemporarily, in Hegemony and Socialist
Strategy (1985), Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe defined hegemony as a political relationship of
power wherein a sub-ordinate society (collectivity) perform social tasks that are culturally unnatural
and not beneficial to them, but that are in exclusive benefit to the imperial interests of the hegemon,
the superior, ordinate power; hegemony is a military, political, and economic relationship that occurs
as an articulation within political discourse.[45] Beyer analysed the contemporary hegemony of the
United States at the example of the Global War on Terrorism and presented the mechanisms and
processes of American exercise of power in 'hegemonic governance'.[34]

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Sociology
Academics have argued that in the praxis of hegemony, imperial dominance is established by means
of cultural imperialism, whereby the leader state (hegemon) dictates the internal politics and the
societal character of the subordinate states that constitute the hegemonic sphere of influence, either
by an internal, sponsored government or by an external, installed government. The imposition of the
hegemon's way of life—an imperial lingua franca and bureaucracies (social, economic, educational,
governing)—transforms the concrete imperialism of direct military domination into the abstract
power of the status quo, indirect imperial domination.[46] Critics have said that this view is "deeply
condescending" and "treats people ... as blank slates on which global capitalism's moving finger
writes its message, leaving behind another cultural automaton as it moves on."[47]

Culturally, hegemony also is established by means of language, specifically the imposed lingua franca
of the hegemon (leader state), which then is the official source of information for the people of the
society of the sub-ordinate state. Writing on language and power, Andrea Mayr says, "As a practice of
power, hegemony operates largely through language."[48] In contemporary society, an example of the
use of language in this way is in the way Western countries set up educational systems in African
countries mediated by Western languages.[49]

Suggested examples of cultural imperialism include the latter-stage Spanish and British Empires, the
19th- and 20th-century Reichs of unified Germany (1871–1945),[50] and by the end of the 20th
century, the United States.[51]

See also
1954 Guatemalan coup d'état Monetary hegemony
Noam Chomsky Post-hegemony
Counter-hegemonic globalization Regional hegemony
Colonialism Soft power
Dominant ideology Edward Soja
David Harvey State collapse
Hegemonic masculinity Supremacism
Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism

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44. Cook, Chris (1983). Dictionary of Historical Terms. London: MacMillan. p. 142. ISBN 0-333-
44972-X.
45. Laclau, Ernest; Mouffe, Chantal (2001). Hegemony and Socialist Strategy (https://archive.org/det
ails/hegemonysocialis00lacl) (Second ed.). London: Verso. pp. 40 (https://archive.org/details/heg
emonysocialis00lacl/page/n57)–59, 125–44. ISBN 1-85984-330-1.
46. Bush, B., Imperialism and Postcolonialism (https://books.google.com/books?id=kG2hAwAAQBAJ
&dq=impose+cultural+imperialism&q=%22power+imposing%22#v=snippet&q=%22power%20imp
osing%22&f=false), Routledge, 2014, p. 123.
47. Brutt-Griffler, J., in Karlfried Knapp, Barbara Seidlhofer, H. G. Widdowson, Handbook of Foreign
Language Communication and Learning (https://books.google.com/books?id=3klgGNmjVpEC&pg
=PA264&dq=impose+cultural+imperialism&hl=en&sa=X&ei=4fFgVJe-L6jLsAT7soGgCg&ved=0C
CEQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage&q=impose%20cultural%20imperialism&f=false), Walter de Gruyter,
2009, p. 264.
48. Mayr, A., Language and Power: An Introduction to Institutional Discourse (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=nIjpTHCNYsUC&pg=PA14&dq=language+hegemony&hl=en&sa=X&ei=6NtfVO74C8
qu7AamioDoAw&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAjgo#v=onepage&q=language%20hegemony&f=false), A&C
Black, 2008, p. 14.
49. Clayton, T., Rethinking Hegemony (https://books.google.com/books?id=fKQ4csjlktIC&printsec=fro
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671-65991-X. "European coalitions were likely to arise to contain Germany's Nazis growing,
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(https://archive.org/details/beneathunitedsta00scho). Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Further reading
Anderson, Perry (2017). The H-Word: The Peripeteia of Hegemony. London: Verso.
Beyer, Anna Cornelia (2010). Counterterrorism and International Power Relations: The EU,
ASEAN and Hegemonic Global Governance. London: IB Tauris.
DuBois, T. D. (2005). "Hegemony, Imperialism and the Construction of Religion in East and
Southeast Asia". History & Theory. 44 (4): 113–31. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2303.2005.00345.x (https://
doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-2303.2005.00345.x).
Hopper, P. (2007). Understanding Cultural Globalization (1st ed.). Malden, MA: Polity Press.
ISBN 978-0-7456-3557-6.
Howson, Richard, ed. (2008). Hegemony: Studies in Consensus and Coercion (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=Nhq3fV6tWfwC). Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-95544-7. Retrieved
2016-02-24.
Joseph, Jonathan (2002). Hegemony: A Realist Analysis. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-26836-2.
Larsen, Henrik Boesen Lindbo (2019). NATO's Democratic Retrenchment: Hegemony After the
Return of History. Routledge. ISBN 9781138585287.
Slack, Jennifer Daryl (1996). "The Theory and Method of Articulation in Cultural Studies". In
Morley, David; Chen, Kuan-Hsing (eds.). Stuart Hall: Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies (https://
archive.org/details/stuarthallcritic00morl). Routledge. pp. 112 (https://archive.org/details/stuarthall
critic00morl/page/n123)–27.
Schenoni, Luis (2019). "Hegemony". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of International Studies.
Oxford University Press.

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External links
Hegemony (political science) (https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1922977) at the
Encyclopædia Britannica
"Hegemony" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Hegemony).
Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 208.
Hegemonism Hegemony (https://curlie.org/Society/Issues/Global/Hegemonism/) at Curlie
Mike Dorsher, Ph.D., Hegemony Online: The Quiet Convergence of Power, Culture and
Computers (https://web.archive.org/web/20140914012708/http://people.uwec.edu/mdorsher/ica2
001/hegemony_online.htm)
Hegemony and the Hidden Persuaders – the Power of Un-common sense (http://www.caledonia.
org.uk/hegemony.htm)
Parag Khanna, Waving Goodbye to Hegemony (https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/27/magazine/2
7world-t.html?ex=1359176400&en=1af8c9c386cc212d&ei=5124&partner=permalink&exprod=per
malink)

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