TISSUES 1. Protecting underlying structures.

Tissues are groups of cells that perform the same

general function.
2. Acting as a barrier

1. Epithelial 3. Permitting the passage of substances

2. Connective
4. Secreting substances
3. Muscle

4. Nervous tissue.
5. Absorbing substances

EPITHELIAL TISSUE Classification of Epithelia

• Epithelial tissues are classified primarily
Epithelial tissue covers and protects surfaces, both
according to the number of cell layers and
outside and inside the body.
the shape of the superficial cells.
• Included under the classification of
• The cell layers can be simple, stratified, or
epithelial tissue are the exocrine and
pseudostratified.
endocrine glands.
• The cell shapes can be squamous, cuboidal,
Characteristics of Epithelial columnar, or a special transitional shape,
that varies with the degree of stretch.
Tissue
1. Mostly composed of cells. Types of Epithelium based on
 Epithelial tissue consists almost
Number of Cell Layers
entirely of cells, with very little
1. Simple epithelium
extracellular matrix between them.
consists of a single
2. Covers body surfaces. layer of cells, with
each cell extending
 Epithelial tissue covers body from the basement
surfaces and forms glands. membrane to the
free surface.
3. Distinct cell surfaces.
2. Stratified
 Most epithelial tissues have cells epithelium consists
with one free, or apical, surface not of more than one
attached to other cells; a lateral layer of cells, but
surface attached to other epithelial only the basal layer
cells; and a basal surface attached attaches the deepest
to a basement membrane layer to the
basement
4. Cell and matrix connections. membrane.

3. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is a

 Specialized cell contacts bind
special type of simple epithelium that
adjacent epithelial cells together
appears to be falsely stratified.
and to the extracellular matrix of
the basement membrane.

5. Nonvascular.

 Blood vessels in the underlying

connective tissue do not penetrate
the basement membrane to reach
the epithelium.

6. Capable of regeneration.

 Epithelial cells retain the ability to

undergo mitosis.

Functions of Epithelial Tissues

Types of Epithelium based on Simple Columnar Epithelium
the Shape of Cell • Simple columnar epithelium is a single layer
of tall, thin cells.
• Squamous cells are flat or scale like.
• The large size of these cells enables them to
• Cuboidal cells are cube- shaped—about as perform complex functions, such as
wide as they are tall. secretion.

• Columnar cells tend to be taller than they are • The simple columnar epithelium of the small
wide. intestine produces and secretes mucus and
digestive enzymes.
Simple Squamous Epithelium • Facilitates movement of particles out of the
bronchioles of the lungs by ciliated cells

• Simple squamous epithelium is a single Pseudostratified Columnar

layer of thin, flat cells.
Epithelium
• Some substances easily pass through this
thin layer of cells, but other substances do • Single layer of cells; some cells are tall and
not. thin and reach the free surface, and others
do not; the nuclei of these cells are at
• The lungs, simple squamous epithelium, different levels and appear stratified; the
allows for gas exchange. cells are almost always ciliated and are
associated with goblet cells that secrete
• The kidneys, simple squamous epithelium, mucus onto the free surface.

• Function: Synthesize and secrete mucus onto

the free surface; move mucus (or fluid) that
contains foreign particles over the surface
of the free surface and from passages

Stratified Squamous
Epithelium
• Multiple layers of cells that are cube-shaped
helps filter wastes from the blood while
in the basal layer and progressively flattened
keeping blood cells inside the blood vessels
toward the surface; the epithelium can be
nonkeratinized (moist) or keratinized.
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
• Nonkeratinized stratified squamous
• Simple cuboidal epithelium is a single layer epithelium; the surface cells retain a nucleus
of cube-like cells. and cytoplasm.

• Functions: Secretion and absorption by cells

of the kidney tubules; secretion by cells of
glands and choroid plexuses; movement of
particles embedded in mucus out of the
terminal bronchioles by ciliated cells
 • Glands are secretory organs that secrete
substances onto a surface, into a cavity, or
into the bloodstream.

• Keratinized stratified epithelium, the

cytoplasm of cells at the surface is replaced
• Glands are composed primarily of
by a protein called keratin, and the cells are epithelium, with a supporting network of
dead connective tissue.

Stratified Cuboidal
Epithelium
• Exocrine glands are glands with ducts

• Consists of more than one layer of cuboidal

epithelial cells. This epithelial type is
• Endocrine glands are ductless glands; they
relatively rare and is found in sweat gland secrete their products into the bloodstream
ducts, ovarian follicular cells, and the
Exocrine Glands
• Most exocrine glands are multicellular.
Some exocrine glands are composed of a
single cell, like goblet cells.

• Multicellular exocrine glands can be

classified according to the structure of their
ducts and secretory regions.

salivary glands. It functions in absorption, • Simple glands have a single, non-branched

secretion, and protection

Stratified Columnar
Epithelium
• Stratified columnar epithelium consists of
more than one layer of epithelial cells; the
surface cells are columnar but the deeper
cells are irregular or cuboidal in shape. duct, some have branched ducts.
• Stratified columnar epithelium is relatively
rare, found in the mammary gland ducts, the
larynx, and a portion of the male urethra.
This epithelium carries out secretion,
protection, and some absorption

Transitional Epithelium
• Transitional epithelium is a special type of
stratified epithelium that can be greatly
stretched. The shape of the cells change as
the epithelium is stretched.

• Transitional epithelium lines cavities that

can expand greatly, such as the urinary
bladder. It also protects underlying
structures, like the urinary bladder, from the
caustic effects of urine.

GLANDS
 • Compound exocrine glands have multiple, tissue also forms layers that
branched ducts. separate tissues and organs.

2. Connecting tissues to one another.

GLANDS  Strong cables, or bands, of
connective tissue called tendons
• Tubular glands are glands with secretory
attach muscles to bone, whereas
regions shaped as tubules. Tubular glands connective tissue bands called
can be straight or coiled ligaments hold bones together.
3. Supporting and moving parts of the body.
• Acinar or alveolar are glands shaped in
saclike structures  Bones of the skeletal system
provide rigid support for the body,
and the semi rigid cartilage
supports structures such as the
nose, ears, and joint surfaces.
 Joints between bones allow one
part of the body to move relative to
other parts.

• Glands with a combination of the two are

called tubuloacinar or tubuloalveolar.

Exocrine glands can also be classified

according to how products leave the cell:

• Merocrine secretion involves the release of 4. Storing compounds.

secretory products by exocytosis.
 Adipose tissue (fat) stores high-
energy molecules, and bones store
• Apocrine secretion involves the release of
minerals.
secretory products as pinched-off fragments 5. Cushioning and insulating.
of the gland cells.
 Adipose tissue cushions and
• Holocrine secretion involves the protects the tissue it surrounds and
shedding of entire cells provides an insulating layer
beneath the skin that helps conserve
Connective Tissue 6.
heat.
Transporting.
 Blood transports the gases,
• Connective tissue is a diverse primary tissue
nutrients, enzymes, hormones, and
type that makes up part of every organ in the
cells of the immune system
body.
throughout the body.
• Connective tissue differs from the other
three tissue types in that it consists of cells
separated from each other by abundant
extracellular matrix.

• Connective tissue is diverse in both structure 7. Protecting.

and function. Connective tissue is  Cells of the immune system and
comprised of cells, protein fibers, and an blood protect against toxins and
extracellular matrix tissue injury, as well as against
microorganisms. Bones protect
underlying structures from injury.

Functions of Connective Tissue Matrix Protein Fibers

1. Enclosing and separating other tissues. • Three types of protein fibers—collagen,
• Sheets of connective tissue form reticular, and elastic—help form most
capsules around organs, such as the connective tissues.
liver and kidneys. Connective
  Function: Packing material, thermal
insulation, energy storage, and
protection of organs against injury
from being bumped.

 Location: Predominantly in
1. Collagen fibers, which resemble subcutaneous areas, in
microscopic ropes, are very flexible but mesenteries, in renal pelvis, around
resist stretching. kidneys, attached to the surface of
the colon, in mammary glands
2. Reticular fibers are very fine, short
collagen fibers that branch to form a
supporting network.

3. Elastic fibers have the ability to return to

their original shape after being stretched or
compressed, giving tissue an elastic quality.

Loose Connective Tissue

• Loose connective tissue consists of
relatively few protein fibers that form a lacy
network, with numerous spaces filled with
ground substance and fluid.

• Three subdivisions of loose connective

tissue are areolar, adipose, and reticular.
Reticular Tissue
• Reticular tissue forms the framework of
1. Areolar Tissue lymphatic tissue, such as in the spleen and
lymph nodes, as well as in bone marrow and
 Areolar tissue is the “loose the liver.
packing” material of most organs
and other tissues; it attaches the • It is characterized by a network of reticular
skin to underlying tissues. It fibers and reticular cells.
contains collagen, reticular, and
elastic fibers and a variety of cells. • Function: Provides a superstructure for
lymphatic and hemopoietic tissues.
 Widely distributed throughout the
body. • Location: Within the lymph nodes, spleen,
bone marrow, liver
 Functions: Loose packing, support,
and nourishment for the structures
with which it is associated. Dense Connective Tissue
• Dense connective tissue has a relatively
large number of protein fibers that form

2. Adipose Tissue
 Adipose tissue consists of
adipocytes, which contain large
amounts of lipid for energy storage.

 Adipose tissue pads and protects

parts of the body and acts as a thick bundles and fill nearly all of the
thermal insulator. extracellular space.
• Dense connective tissue can be subdivided  Function: Capable of strength,
into two major groups: regular and irregular. with stretching and recoil in
several directions.
Dense Regular Collagenous
Connective Tissue CARTILAGE
• Cartilage is composed of cartilage cells
• Dense regular collagenous connective tissue
within an extensive and relatively rigid
has abundant collagen fibers, which give this
matrix.
tissue a white appearance.
• The surface of nearly all cartilage is
• Dense regular collagenous connective tissue
surrounded by a layer of dense irregular
forms structures such as tendons, and most
connective tissue called the perichondrium.
ligaments, which connect bones to bones
• Once completely surrounded by matrix the
Dense Regular Elastic cartilage cells are called chondrocytes and
the spaces in which they are located are
Connective Tissue called lacunae.
• Dense regular elastic connective tissue • Cartilage heals slowly after injury because
consists of parallel bundles of collagen blood vessels do not penetrate the interior
fibers and abundant elastic fibers. The cartilage structures.
elastin in elastic ligaments gives them a
slightly yellow color. • Cells and necessary nutrients do not reach
the damage area.
• Dense regular elastic connective tissue
forms some elastic ligaments, such as those • There are three types of cartilage: Hyaline
in the vocal folds and the nuchal, helping Cartilage, Fibrocartilage, Elastic
hold the head upright. cartilage

• When elastic ligaments are stretched, they 1. Hyaline Cartilage

tend to shorten to their original length
 Function: Allows the growth of
long bones; provides rigidity with
Dense Irregular Connective some flexibility in the trachea,
Tissue bronchi, ribs, and nose; forms
rugged, smooth, yet somewhat
• Dense irregular collagenous connective flexible articulating surfaces; forms
tissue forms most of the dermis, which is the embryonic skeleton.
the tough, inner portion of the skin, as well
as the connective tissue capsules that  Location: Growing long bones,
surround organs such as the kidney and cartilage rings of the respiratory
spleen system, costal cartilage of ribs,
nasal cartilages, articulating
• Function: Tensile strength capable of
surface of bones, embryonic
withstanding stretching in all directions.
skeleton
• Location: Sheaths; most of the dermis of the
skin; organ capsules and septa; outer 2. Fibrocartilage
covering of body tubes  Function: Somewhat flexible and
capable of withstanding
Dense Irregular Elastic considerable pressure; connects
structures subjected to great
Connective Tissue pressure.

 Dense irregular elastic

 Location: Intervertebral disks,
connective tissue is found in
symphysis pubis articular disks
the walls of elastic arteries. In
(e.g., knee and temporomandibular
addition to collagen fibers, the
joints)
layers of this tissue contain
abundant elastic fibers.
3. Elastic Cartilage
  Function: Provides rigidity with  Cardiac muscle is the muscle of the
even more flexibility than hyaline heart; it is responsible for pumping
cartilage because elastic fibers blood.
return to their original shape after
being stretched.  Cardiac muscle is under
involuntary control, although a
 Location: External ears, epiglottis, person can learn to influence the
auditory tubes. heart rate by using techniques like
meditation

BONE
• Bone is a hard connective tissue that consists
of living cells and a mineralized matrix.

• Two types of bone tissue exist: spongy

bone and compact bone.
3. Smooth Muscle Tissues
 Smooth muscle forms the walls of
BLOOD hollow organs; it is also found in
the skin and eyes.
 Blood is a
liquid
 Smooth muscle is responsible for
connective
moving of food through the
tissue
digestive tract and emptying the
urinary bladder.
 It contains
a liquid
 Smooth muscle is controlled
matrix, along with formed elements.
involuntarily.

 The formed elements are erythrocytes,

leukocytes, and thrombocytes.
NERVOUS TISSUE
 Nervous tissue is
 It functions in transport of food, oxygen,
found in the brain,
waste, hormones, and other substances.
spinal cord, and nerves
and is characterized by
MUSCLE TISSUES the ability to conduct
electrical signals
 Muscle tissues are tissues made of cells that called action
permit contraction and as such generate potentials.
movement.
 Nervous tissue consists of neurons, which
 The three types of muscle tissue are are responsible for its conductive ability, and
skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. support cells called neuroglia.

1. Skeletal Muscle Tissues

 Skeletal muscle attaches to the
skeleton and enables the body to
move.

 Constitute 40% of a person’s body

weight.

 Skeletal muscle is a voluntary

muscle.

2. Cardiac Muscle Tissues

  Neuron is composed of three parts: a cell  Some mediators induce dilation of
body, dendrites, and an axon. blood vessels and produce redness and
heat.

NEURON  Chemical mediators also stimulate pain

receptors and increase the permeability
TISSUE INFLAMMATION of blood vessels.

 Inflammation is the response that occurs  As proteins from the blood move into
when tissues are damaged. the tissue, they change the osmotic
relationship between the blood and the
 Although many tissue. Water follows the proteins by
agents cause osmosis, and the
injury, such as tissue swells,
microorganisms, producing
cold, heat, edema.
chemicals,
electricity, and  Edema
mechanical increases the
trauma, the pressure in the
inflammatory tissue, which
response to all of them is similar. can also
stimulate
neurons and
 The inflammatory response mobilizes the cause pain.
body’s defenses, isolates and destroys
microorganisms and other injurious agents,  Clotting proteins present in blood
and removes foreign materials and damaged diffuse into the interstitial spaces and
cells, so that tissue repair can proceed. form a clot. Clotting also occurs by
platelet aggregation in the injured blood
 Inflammation has five major manifestations: vessels.
redness, heat, swelling, pain, and
disturbed function.

Inflammatory Process
 Clotting isolates the injurious agent and
separates it from the rest of the body.
Foreign particles and microorganisms at
the site of injury are “walled off” from
tissues by the clotting process.

 Pain, limitation of movement resulting

from edema, and tissue destruction all
contribute to the disturbed function.

 Sometimes
the

 After a person is injured, chemical

substances called chemical mediators
are released or activated in the tissues
and the adjacent blood vessels.

 The mediators are histamine, kinins,

prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and
others.
 inflammatory response lasts longer or is
more intense than is desirable, and the
patient is given drugs to suppress the
symptoms.

Medication that Suppress

Inflammation Symptoms
 Antihistamines block the effects of
histamine.

 Aspirin prevents the synthesis of

prostaglandins.

 Cortisone reduces the release of several

chemical mediators that cause inflammation.

Antibiotics
• If the inflammatory response by itself may
not be enough to combat the effects of injury
or fight off an infection, and the patient may
require antibiotics.