Human Resource Management Week 4

CHAPTER 4 | JOB ANALYSIS AND

JOB DESIGN
Job analysis is “the process of determining and reporting pertinent information
relating to the nature of a specific job. It is the determination of the tasks that comprise
the job and the skills, knowledge, abilities, and responsibilities required of the holder
for successful job performance. Job analysis serves as the beginning point of many
human resource functions.
Job design is the process of structuring work and designating the specific work
activities of an individual or group of individuals to achieve certain organizational
objectives.
In practice, most job analyses are performed on existing jobs that have previously been
designed. Job analysis and job design processes are usually conducted by industrial
engineers and entry level human resource specialists.

1. BASIC TERMINOLOGY
Today, the word job has different meanings depending on how, when, or by whom it is
used. It is often used interchangeably with the words position and task.
The simplest unit of work is the micromotion. Micromotion - Simplest unit of work;
involves very elementary movements, such as reaching, grasping, positioning, or
releasing an object.
An aggregation of two or more micromotions forms an element. Element – Aggregation
of two or more micromotions; usually thought of as a complete entity, such as picking
up or transporting an object.
A grouping of work elements makes up a work task. Task – Consisting of one or more
elements; one of the distinct activities that constitute logical and necessary steps in the
performance of work by an employee. A task is performed whenever human effort,
physical or mental, is exerted for a specific purpose
Related tasks compromise the duties of a job. Duties – One or more tasks performed in
carrying out a job responsibility.
One task, as part of this duty, would be to respond to all routine inquiries.
Responsibilities – Obligations to perform certain tasks and assume certain duties.
 Duties, when combined with responsibilities (obligations to be performed), define a
Position – Collection of tasks and responsibilities constituting the total work
assignment of a single employee.
A group of positions that are identical with respect to their major tasks and
responsibilities form a Job – Group of positions that are identical with respect to their
major or significant tasks and responsibilities and sufficiently alike to justify their being
covered by a single analysis. One or many persons may be employed in the same job.
The difference between a position and a job is that a job may be held by more than one
person, whereas a position cannot.
A group of similar jobs forms an occupation. Occupation – A grouping of similar jobs or
job classes.

2. JOB ANALYSIS
Job analysis is the process of determining and reporting pertinent information relating
to the nature of a specific job. The end product of a job analysis is a job description,
which is a written description of the actual requirements of the job. Job descriptions are
discussed later in this section. These activities include the following:
i. Job definition - A job analysis results in a description of the duties and
responsibilities of the jobs.
ii. Job redesign – A job analysis often indicates when a job needs to be redesigned.
iii. Recruitment – Process of seeking and attracting a pool of people from which
qualified candidates for job vacancies can be chosen. A job analysis not only
identifies the job requirements but also outlines the skills needed to perform the
job.
iv. Selection and placement – Process of choosing from those available the
individuals who are most likely to perform successfully in a job. A job analysis
determines the importance of different skills and abilities.
v. Orientation – Introduction of new employee to the organization, work unit, and
job.
vi. Training – Learning process that involves the acquisition of skills, concepts,
rules, or attitudes to increase employee performance.
vii. Career counseling – Managers and human resource specialists are in a much
better position to counsel employees about their careers when they have a
complete understanding of the different jobs in the organization.
viii. Employee safety – A thorough job analysis often uncovers unsafe practices
and/or environmental conditions associated with a job.
ix. Performance appraisal – The objective of performance appraisal is to evaluate
an individual employee’s performance on a job.

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 x. Compensation – A proper job analysis helps ensure that employees receive fair
compensation for their jobs.
When performing a job analysis, the job and its requirements (as opposed to the
characteristics of the person currently holding the job) are studied. The analyst lists the
tasks that comprise the job and determines the skills, personality characteristics,
educational background, and training necessary for successfully performing the job.

A. Products of Job Analysis

xi. Job description – concentrates on describing the job as it is currently being
performed.
xii. Job specification – concentrates on the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other
characteristics (KSAOs) needed to perform the job.
Often the job description is not periodically updated to reflect changes that have
occurred in the job.

B. Job analysis method

Four of the most frequently used methods are discussed below, as is O*NET, an
important tool that all these methods can utilize.
i. Observation
Observation is a method of analyzing jobs that is relatively simple and straightforward.
This information includes such things as what was done, how it was done, how long it
took, what the job environment was like, and what equipment was used.
1. Motion study (sometimes called methods study) involves determining the
most efficient way to do a task or job.
2. Time study is the analysis of a job or task to determine the elements of
work required to perform it, the order in which these elements occur, and
the times required to perform them effectively.
One drawback to using the observation method is that the observer must be carefully
trained to know what to look for and what to record.
A second drawback of most observation methods is that the application is somewhat
limited to jobs involving short and repetitive cycles.
On the other hand, the job analyst can use direct observation to get a feel for a particular
job and then combine this method with another method to thoroughly analyze the job.
Another possibility is to use work sampling. Work sampling is a type of observation
method based on taking statistical samples of job actions throughout the workday, as
opposed to continuous observation of all actions.

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 ii. Interviews
The interview method requires that the person conducting the job analysis meet with
and interview the jobholder.
The major drawback to the interview method is that it can be extremely time-
consuming because of the time required to schedule, get to, and actually conduct the
interview.

iii. Questionnaires
Job analysis questionnaires are typically three to five pages long and contain both
objective and open-ended questions. The questionnaire method can obtain information
from a large number of employees in a relatively short time period.
A major disadvantage is the possibility that either the respondent or the job analyst will
misinterpret the information.
1. Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) - a highly specialized
instrument for analyzing any job in terms of employee activities. It uses
six major categories of employee activities. Using a five-point scale, one
can analyze each description for the degree to which it applies to the job.
The primary advantage of the PAQ is that it can be used to analyze almost
any type of job. The major disadvantage is the sheer length of the
questionnaire.
2. Management Position Description Questionnaire (MPDQ) - The MPDQ
is a highly structured questionnaire designed specifically for analyzing
managerial jobs. It contains 208 items relating to managerial
responsibilities, restrictions, demands, and other miscellaneous position
characteristics

iv. Functional Job Analysis

Functional job analysis (FJA) is a job analysis method developed by the Employment
and Training Administration of the Department of Labor. FJA uses standardized
statements and terminology to describe the content of jobs. Functional job analysis
collects detailed task statements and then rates them according to function level or
function orientation. Function level describes how an employee interacts with data,
people, and things.

v. Occupational Information Network (O*NET)

The United States’ primary source of occupational information. The O*NET database is a
comprehensive online database of employee attributes and job characteristics.
www.onet.center.org It provides definitions and concepts for describing employee
attributes and workplace requirements that can be broadly understood.

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Called the Content Model, this model encapsulates the key features of an occupation into
a standardized, measurable set of variables called “descriptors.” The model starts with
six domains that describe the day-to-day aspects of the job and the qualifications and
interests of the typical worker.
The model also allows occupational information to be applied across jobs, sectors, or
industries (cross-occupation descriptors) and within occupations (occupational-
specific descriptors).

C. The ADA and job analysis

The ADA and the ADAAA also require the identification of the essential functions of each
job and a reasonable accommodation to the disabilities of qualified individuals.
An essential job function is one that is fundamental to successful performance of the
job; in contrast, marginal job functions may be performed at certain times but are
incidental to the main purpose of the job. A particular job function is considered
marginal if its performance is a matter of convenience and not a necessity.
Reasonable accommodation means the employer may be required to alter the
conditions of a particular job so as to enable the candidate to perform all essential
functions.

D. Potential problem with Job Analysis

i. Top management support is missing. Top management should at least make
it clear to all employees that their full and honest participation is extremely
important to the process.
ii. Only a single means and source are used for gathering data. As discussed in
this chapter, there are many proven methods for gathering job data.
iii. The supervisor and the jobholder do not participate in the design of the
job analysis procedure. Too many analyses are planned and implemented by
one person who assumes exclusive responsibility for the project.
iv. No training or motivation exists for jobholders. Job incumbents are
potentially a great source of information about the job. Unfortunately, they are
seldom trained or prepared to generate quality data for a job analysis.
v. Employees are not allowed sufficient time to complete the analysis. Usually
a job analysis is conducted as though it were a crash program, and employees
are not given sufficient time to do a thorough job analysis.
vi. Activities may be distorted. Without proper training and preparation,
employees may submit distorted data, either intentionally or not.
vii. Participants fail to critique the job. Many job analyses do not go beyond the
initial phase of reporting what the jobholder currently does.

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3. JOB DESIGN
As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, job design is the process of structuring
work and designating the specific work activities of an individual or group of
individuals to achieve certain organizational objectives.
The job design process can generally be divided into three phases:
i. The specification of individual tasks: What different tasks must be performed?
ii. The specification of the method of performing each task: Specifically, how will
each task be performed?
iii.
The combination of individual tasks into specific jobs to be assigned to
individuals: How will the different tasks be grouped to form jobs?
The overall goal of job design is to develop work assignments that meet the
requirements of the organization and the technology, and that satisfy the personal and
individual requirements of the jobholder.
The idea is to specialize but not overdo it. HRM in Action 4.2 discusses a very early
example of specialization.

A. Job scope and job depth

Job Scope – Number and variety of tasks performed by the jobholder.
Job Depth – Freedom of jobholders to plan and organize their own work, work at their
own pace, and move around and communicate.
A job can be high in job scope and low in job depth, or vice versa.

B. Sociotechnical approach to job design

The sociotechnical approach to job design was first introduced as an alternative to
viewing job design strictly as a matter of specializing the job as much as possible.
The following guidelines use the sociotechnical approach to designing jobs:
iv. A job needs to be reasonably demanding for the individual in terms other than
sheer endurance, yet provide some variety (not necessarily novelty).
v. Employees need to be able to learn on the job and to continue learning.
vi. Employees need some minimum area of decision making that they can call their
own.
vii. Employees need some minimal degree of social support and recognition in the
workplace.
viii. Employees need to be able to relate what they do and what they produce to their
social lives.
ix. Employees need to believe that the job leads to some sort of desirable future.

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The sociotechnical approach to job design has been applied in many countries, often
under the heading “autonomous work groups,” “Japanese-style work groups,” or
employee involvement (EI) teams.

B. The physical work environment

The physical work environment, which includes factors such as temperature, humidity,
ventilation, noise, lighting, color, and spatial density, can have an impact on the design
of jobs. In general, the physical work environment should allow for normal lighting,
temperature, ventilation, and humidity.
If employees must be exposed to less-than-ideal physical conditions, it is wise to limit
these exposures to short periods of time to minimize the probability that the employee
will suffer any permanent physical or psychological damage.
When designing jobs, thought should also be given to the mental and psychological
impacts of the physical environment. Consideration should be given to how the physical
work environment of the job impacts the mental stress of the jobholder.
The implementation of the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) in 1970
magnified the importance of safety considerations in the design process.

C. Flexible Work Agreements (FWAs)

Other factors and arrangements that affect job design are the work schedule and
alternative work arrangements.
Flexible work arrangements – (FWAs) is a relatively new term that refers to
alternative work schedules and arrangements. FWAs allow an employee to alter the
time and/or place when/where work is conducted on a regular basis, consistent and
predictable with the employer’s operations.
i. Flextime
Flextime, or flexible working hours, allows employees to choose, within certain limits,
when they start and end their workday. Usually the organization defines a core period
(such as 10 A.M. to 3 P.M.) when all employees will be at work.
Flextime has the advantage of allowing employees to accommodate different lifestyles
and schedules. Other potential advantages include avoiding rush hours, having less
absenteeism and tardiness, and improved health.
On the downside, flextime can create communication and coordination problems for
supervisors and managers.
ii. Telecommuting
Telecommuting is the practice of working at home or while traveling and being able to
interact with the office.

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 Advantages of telecommuting include less travel time and travel expenses, avoiding
rush hour, avoiding distractions at the office, and being able to work flexible hours.
Another drawback is that some state and local laws restrict just what work can be done
at home. Evidence has emerged indicating that, when given a choice, employees prefer a
mix of working part of the time from home and part of the time in the office.
iii. Job sharing
Job sharing is a relatively new concept whereby two or more part-time individuals
perform a job that would normally be held by one full-time person. Job sharing can be in
the form of equally shared responsibilities, split duties, or a combination of both.
In recessionary times and when organizations are cutting back, job sharing can be used
to avoid layoffs and to retain trained employees.
iv. Condensed workweek
Under the condensed workweek, the number of hours worked per day is increased and
the number of days in the workweek is decreased.
Advantages of the condensed workweek are lower absenteeism and tardiness, less
start-up time, and more time available for employees to take care of personal business.
One potential disadvantage is the fatigue that often accompanies longer hours.
v. Contingent workers
The U.S. Labor Department’s Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) separates contingent
workers into two groups: (1) independent contractors and on-call workers, who are
called to work only when needed, and (2) temporary or short-term workers.
Some people also include part-time and leased employees under the category of
contingent workers
Contingent workers present certain challenges for human resource people, among
which
are the following:
1. Management issues. Who manages the different contingent workers and
what role does HR play?
2. Tracking and reporting. How do contingents fi t into the different HR
system such as payroll?
3. Compensation. How are contingents compensated compared to other
employees?
4. Retention. Since most contingents don’t receive benefits, they can be hard
to retain.
5. Attitude and work quality. Most contingents do not share the same degree
of commitment as other employees.
6. Orientation and training. Orientation and training can be difficult to
schedule because of scheduling conflicts with other jobs.

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 7. Legal issues. Contingent workers must meet the legal definition of
“independent contractor” under IRS rules.
8. Use of company resources. This can include everything from company
discounts to participation in company educational programs.
9. Physical security. Do contingent workers have the same access to
company facilities as other employees?