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Land Degradation Detection Using Geo-Information Technology for Some

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Article · September 2009

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 Journal of Al-Nahrain University Vol.12 (3), September, 2009, pp. 94-108 Science

Land Degradation Detection Using Geo-Information Technology

for Some Sites in Iraq

Ayad Mohammed Fadhil

Soil and Water Sci. Dept., Agriculture College, Salahaddin University - Erbil,
Kurdistan Region, Iraq.
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
This study aimed at monitoring, mapping, and assessing the land degradation in the upper
Mesopotamian plain of Iraq. The country suffers severely due to land degradation and
desertification problems, especially in its central and southern parts. Five vegetative, soil, and water
indices related to land degradation were applied to two Landsat TM and ETM+ imageries to assess
the extent of land degradation for the study area during the period from 1990 to 2000. A
computerized land degradation severity assessment was adopted using ERMapper 7.1, Erdas
Imagine 9.2, ArcView 3.3, and ArcGIS 9.1 environments to process, manage, and analysis the
raster and thematic datasets. The indices used in this research are: The Normalized Difference
Vegetation Index “NDVI”, The Normalized Differential Water Index “NDWI”, Tasseled Cap
Transformation Wetness “TCW”, and a new index proposed in this study that is the Normalized
Differential Sand Dune Index "NDSDI". The results showed a clear deterioration in vegetative
cover (2,620.4 km2), an increase of sand dune accumulations (1,018.8 km2), and a decrease in
soil/vegetation wetness (1,720.4 km2), accounting for 12.9, 5.0, and 8.5 percent, respectively, of the
total study area. In addition, a decrease in the water bodies area was detected (228.1 km2). Sand
dunes accumulations had increased in the total study area, with an annual increasing expansion rate
of (10.2 km2year-1) during the ten years covered by the study. The land degradation risk in the study
area has increased by 111% during the study period. The statistical analysis of the results indicated
that the soil/vegetation wetness is the biggest influence in the process of land degradation in the
study area. The high performance of the NDSDI is promising and effective for identifying the sand
dunes accumulations in the area of study. This study finds reveals that most of the counties in the
study area are exposed to a serious risk of land degradation and drought water bodies.

Key Words: Land degradation, Landsat, Remote sensing, GIS, NDSDI, Iraq.

1. Introduction degradation in arid, half-arid and dry sub-

Land degradation is one of the most humid areas, resulting from various factors,
serious ecological problems in the world. It including climatic variations and human
entails two interrelated, complex systems: the activities.
natural ecosystem and the human social It is estimated that about one sixth of
system. Causes of land degradation are not the world's population and one quarter of
only biophysical, but also socio-economic global terrestrial land is threatened by land
(marketing, income, human health, degradation (UNCED. 1994). UNEP (2000)
institutional support, poverty), undermining refers to land degradation as the diminution of
food production and political stability current and/or potential capability of soils to
(UNCCD, 2004; and WMO, 2006). produce quantities or qualities of goods or
Desertification appears when land services as a result of one or more
degradation becomes irreversible or when loss degradation processes.
of total productivity reaches 50% to 66% Geoinformation technology (Remote
(Katyal and Vlek, 2000). UNCED (1992) in Sensing „RS‟, Geographic Information
Rio de Janeiro adopted this definition for Systems „GIS‟, and Global Positioning
desertification; desertification is land System „GPS‟) and their integration are the

94
 Ayad Mohammed Fadhil

basal and essential technical core of the 48o45', comprising a total area of 437,072.0
system of geospace information science that km2. Over the whole area of the country there
play an important role for assessing and are five broad physiographic regions that can
monitoring the environment and its be distinguished: the Zagrous Mountains, the
components. Monitoring desertification and foot hills, the Jezireh, the Northern and
land changes over time is required in order to Southern deserts, and the lower
determine land condition trends: whether Mesopotamian plain (Buringh, 1960). In Iraq,
conditions are becoming worse, better, or the most typical and serious form of land
staying the same. Ideally, indicators of change degradation is desertification. In the west of
should be quantitative, sensitive to small the upper part of the Mesopotamia sand dunes
changes, few in number, and simple to accumulations and the drifting sands spread
measure. Finding indicators that are over large area in Salahaddin governorate.
unambiguously related to certain land While there are wide areas in the middle and
degradation process or to desertification in southern parts of the country infected by the
general is important. soils salinization phenomenon, as well as to
Baugh et. al. (2006) quantitatively existing of the sand dunes and drifting sands.
evaluated fourteen vegetation indices (VIs) In order to bring land degradation in the
using a Landsat TM dataset spanning 17 years area effectively under control, severity of
over the San Luis Valley, Colorado, USA to degradation and spatial distribution of
find the best VI for use in sparsely vegetated degraded land have to be assessed
arid regions. His results showed that realistically. Land degradation assessment
NDVIoffset index is effective for use in the requires identification and inclusion of
study regions. Remote sensing has long been various indicators of desertification, both
recommended for its potential role to detect, natural and man-made.
map and monitor degradation problems with The objectives of this study are:
spatial and spectral resolution and for the 1. Assess the land degradation severity
detection of degraded areas including their and calculate land degradation risk in
spread effects with time (Sabins, 1987; and the ecologically vulnerable area in
Sujatha et al., 2000). upper Mesopotamian plain of Iraq at
Raina, et al. (1993) found in his study County level using Geo-Information
the cultivation of marginal areas and technology.
overgrazing of pastures have resulted in 2. Develop a new index for monitoring,
degradation of land. Accelerated wind erosion assessing, and mapping the Iraqi sand
on sandy surfaces and water erosion on the dunes accumulations, and assessment
shallow soils of piedmont areas are both the sand dunes expansion rate in the
common. Landsat Thematic Mapper sub- study area, and then differentiate
scenes have been used to map the type, extent regional trends in land degradation.
and degree of degradation. In an area of over
5000 km2, 42% was affected by wind erosion 2. The Study Area
and 50% by accelerated water erosion. A Because of the arid climate, water
quarter of the whole area needs urgent deficiency, soil erosion, and drifting sands,
attention for soil conservation. Begzsuren upper Mesopotamian plain of Iraq is
(2007) studied the land degradation and confronted with several challenges and
desertification at Bulgan area, Mongolia using ecological degradation, so, it has been selected
remote sensing technique. He applied many as the scope of this research. The study area
soil and vegetation indices in his study. His suffers from land degradation and
results showed that the land degradation in the desertification problems, as well as to the
study area increased from 1990 to 2005 and existence of large areas of sand dunes
94% of the area is considered to be degraded accumulations in the east of Al-Daur and
to varying degrees. southwest of Tuz counties. The area is
Iraq lies between latitude 29o 05' and comprised of portions of seven counties
37 15', and between longitude 38o 45' and
o situated in three different governorates. The
counties in this study that belong to Salah Al-
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 Journal of Al-Nahrain University Vol.12 (3), September, 2009, pp. 94-108 Science

ddin governorate are: Samarra, Tikrit, Tuz, 0.08, indicating a very dry environment
and Al-Daur. The counties that belong to (tab.1).
Kirkuk governorate are: Daquq and Hawija, The study area is with a total area of
and the county that belongs to Diyala 20,338.5 km2, accounting 4.7% of the total
governorate is Khalis. area of Iraq. It extends between latitude N 33°
Physiographicaly, the study area (fig.1) 39' to N 35° 33', longitude E 42° 41' to 45°
is located in the lower part of the foot hills 07'. From the field observations and the
and Jezireh regions, and in the upper part of satellite images it appeared that there are
the Mesopotamian plain. Annual rainfall in several types of sand dunes accumulations in
the study area ranges between 100-250 mm, the southern part of Tuz and in the northern
arriving primarily between October and April. part of Al-Daur counties. The sand dunes
The air temperature is characterized by great descended from the northwest to the
variation between day and night, as well as southeast. The active dunes formed of small
summer and winter, with maximum annual barchans and compound dunes. The mean
swings of up to 42-48 Co (Ministry of height of the sand dunes ranges between 4-8
Planning, 2002). The degree of bio-climatic meters. Among the studied areas, Al-Daur
aridity was defined by the ratio of the mean and Tuz are the counties most dominated by
annual precipitation 'P' to the mean annual aeolian landforms and sand dunes
potential evapotranspiration 'ETP' (Abrahams accumulations. The major environmental
and Parsons, 1994). Thus the humidity index problems in the study areas are land
(P/PET) of the study areas ranges from 0.03– degradation and sand dunes accumulations.

Figure 1- Location map of the study area in the Northern of middle part of Iraq
and its ETM+ satellite image for the year of 2000.

3. Materials and Methods The pre-processing for the dataset

3.1 Satellite Remote Sensing Data and included image registration, radiometric
Processing calibration, and radiometric normalisation.
The following Multi-temporal Landsat Rectification and registration of TM and
imageries (path 169, raw 36) were assembled ETM+ imageries were based on control points
for the study area, then preprocessed, collected from vector files of the large and
processed, and analysed for this study: TM small rivers at the study area using fifty
image (dated March 04, 1990) and ETM+ ground control points (GCP). The remotely
image (dated April 16, 2000). sensed dataset were geometrically corrected
in the datum WGS84 and projection UTM
zone N38 using the first order (linear) of
3.1.1 Preprocessing polynomial function and Nearest Neighbor
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 Ayad Mohammed Fadhil

rectification re-sampling, which was chosen was 0.10 to 0.14 pixel with image to image
in order to preserve the radiometry and registration.
spectral information in the imagery (Richards The Landsat imageries were radiometric
and Jia, 1999). Image to image registration calibrated for sensor differences, converted
was done in order to register the ETM+ image into spectral radiance and normalized for
(dated 2000) with geocoded TM image dated illumination properties through differences in
1990 (master image). The RMS error of the sun-elevation angle and sun–earth distance by
image-to-map was 0.40 to 0.45 pixel, while recalculating the pixel values into at-satellite
reflectance.

Table 1- Mean annual precipitation and potential evapotranspiration

of Tikrit county in the study area
(Iraqi Meteorological Foundation. 2006. personal communication).

P ETP Aridity
Location Ye a r P/ETP Index
(mm) Class
Arid
1989 246.6 2996 0.082
zone
Arid
1990 115.1 3870.5 0.030
zone
Tikrit
Arid
1999 109.4 3238 0.034
zone
Arid
2000 166.7 2762.4 0.060
zone

3.2 Vegetation, Soil, and Water Indices R  SWIR

The geometrically rectified and NDWI 
R  SWIR
radiometrically calibrated TM, ETM+ bands
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7 were used to derive the 3.2.3 Normalized Differential Sand Dune Index
studied indices. Satellite derived indices (NDSDI)
images were produced to portray surface The new index NDSDI is proposed and
changes. applied in this study for identify and
highlighting the existence of the sand dune
3.2.1 The Normalized Difference Vegetation accumulations at the study area. The
Index (NDVI) suggested index based on the normalized
Rouse et al. (1974) initially proposed difference between the RED and the SWIR2
the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index spectral values. This index is aimed at
“NDVI”. The NDVI derived from the ratio of differentiating between sand dune
band 3 and band 4 in Landsat TM and ETM+ accumulations, bare soils, and the other types
images data was applied for monitoring of soils. A threshold was used in order to
vegetation changes in the study area within mask and extraction the sand dune
the years of 1990 and 2000. accumulations in the processed image.
NIR  R
NDVI  Proposed the NDSDI has the form:
NIR  R R  SWIR 2
NDSDI 
R  SWIR 2
3.2.2 The Normalized Differential Water Index Where R is the reflectance of red
(NDWI)
(band3: 0.63-0.69 µm), and SWIR2 is the
The Normalized Differential Water
short wavelength infrared (band7: 2.08-2.35
Index “NDWI” was used to oversee the
µm) of the Landsat TM/ETM+ sensors.
situation of the Water bodies in the study
Taking into consideration the reflectance of
area. The ratio between Red and SWIR
different sand dune and drifting sand surfaces
spectral region clearly enhanced water bodies
and vegetation, the difference between band R
to the brighter pixels (CPM, 2003).
and SWIR2 in the NDSDI equation is
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 Journal of Al-Nahrain University Vol.12 (3), September, 2009, pp. 94-108 Science

designed to distinguish among the vegetated identifying the nature of the change,
or water surface, sands, and bare soil; while measuring the real extent of the change and
the accumulation of the reflectance in the R, assessing the spatial pattern of the change
SWIR2 bands can discriminate the mineral (RTO, 2007).
and rock types; sensitive to soil and Land degradation is usually detected
vegetation moisture content. efficiently by remote sensing analysis. The
Threshold was applied based on field change detection methods are grouped into
knowledge of sand dune accumulations and seven categories: (1) algebra, (2)
the visual interpretation. Selection an transformation, (3) classification, (4)
appropriate threshold value through visual advanced models, (5) Geographical
comparison on the images with the aid of Information System (GIS) approaches, (6)
experience that gained during the field work visual analysis, and (7) other approaches. (Lu
is an important step to derive the different et. Al, 2003).
sand dunes accumulations in the study area. Generally, there are two typical
Valuesof the NDSDI is ranged between methods to realize the change detection. The
(-1≤ NDSDI ≤1); whereas the sand dunes first one is the post-classification comparison,
accumulations and drifting sands often take aiming to uncover differences between the
values less than zero (< 0),while the classified images of two different dates
vegetative cover takes values more than zero (Singh, 1989; and Weismiller et al., 1997).
(> 0), and the water bodies take the highest The second one which proposed by other
values. authors is the image differencing to perform
the detection (Jensen et al., 1982; and Lambin
3.3 Data Transformation 1997). The image differencing was conducted
3.3.1 Tasseled Cap Transformation Wetness to two Landsat TM and ETM+ images to
(TCW) detect the land cover changes in the study
The Tasseled Cap Transformation areas and complemented with visual
“TCT” was first introduced by Kauth and comparison to distinguish and quantify the
Thomas (1976) as a data transformation to be county-level change types.
used with Landsat MSS data that provided In this study the post classification
valuable soil and vegetation information for comparison were performed on the two
agricultural assessments. Then TCT was feature images of NDVI and NDSDI for the
update by Crist (1985) for use with Landsat year 1990 and 2000 in order to calculate the
TM data. TCT transforms the six Landsat TM differences between them. On the other side,
(ETM+) bands into three indicators of known image differencing technique was used for
characteristics: soil brightness (TCB), NDWI and TCW images of the two years
vegetation greenness (TCG), and 1990 and 2000. The thresholds of NDWI and
soil/vegetation wetness (TCW). Tasseled cap TCW differences were then used to develop a
wetness TCW was used to determine the change map. The zones of positive, negative
amount of moisture being held by the and no changes were determined by
vegetation or soil, thus termed wetness (Crist, establishing a threshold value then applying a
1985). TCW applied to TM and ETM+ mask. According to this criterion the positive
images of the study area using TCT algorithm and negative change images were produced
with ERMapper 7.1 by ERMapper package as a raster dataset, and
. then converted to a GIS environment
3.4 Land Degradation Detection Methods (ArcView 3.3) as ESRI shape files.
In general, change detection involves the use Locations were selected using a
of multitemporal data sets to quantitatively portable GPS device (Garmin) during field
analyze the temporal effects of the work to collect the ground truth and to
phenomenon (Lu et al, 2004). Four aspects of perform the field checking for the obtained
change detection are important when results. An accuracy assessment of the
monitoring naturally occurring phenomena: classification undertaken with used indices
detecting the changes that have occurred, was done.

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 Ayad Mohammed Fadhil

for productive use. The vegetative cover and

3.5 Land Degradation Severity Assessment the sand dunes accumulation images were
Realistic assessment of desertification used for this assessment which derived both
severity relies, first and foremost, on the of them from Landsat TM and ETM+
identification of pertinent indicators (Rubio imageries using NDVI and NDSDI
and Bochet, 1998). Four indicators have been algorithms, respectively. The higher value of
identified (tab.2) as critical to assessment the LDI indicates a more severe level of land
desertification severity in the study area: degradation. It is calculated using the
vegetative cover, extent of drifting sand, following formula:
desertification rate, and population pressure.
The first two factors are prime indicators of Land Degradation Risk Index (LDI) =
the land degradation and directly derivable n

from satellite imagery. Population pressure 

i 1
P Ci-q
and expansion rate of desertified land are
indirect, and dynamic indices (Yansui et. al. where LDI (0  LDI  1) represents the
2003). The increase in population is one of risk of the land degradation in the county; Ci
the significant factors that influencing is the rank at which the land in an assessment
strongly, and leading to accelerated land unit has been degraded; P refers to the areal
degradation by creating a great pressure on percentage of the land having a rank I, n
the land and other natural resources. The stands for the number of indicator classes
threshold for each rank of a given indicator (four in this case); and q denotes the exponent
was set in accordance with the United of rank. Empirical values of 0.4, 0.25, and
Nations‟ indices for desertification 0.15 were adopted for q after experimentation
assessment (UNEP, 1992), and with actual in this study for vegetation cover, drifting
field observations. sand coverage, and annual desertification
rates respectively. In order to study the
3.6 Land Degradation Risk Index (LDI) temporal dynamics, the land degradation risk
Land degradation risk LDI is indicative index was calculated for each county in the
of the overall degree of the difficulty in year of 1990 and 2000.
rehabilitating degraded land in a given region

Table 2- Indices and weights for factors used in the assessment of land degradation risk in the study area.

Severity level
Indicator Weight
I II III IV
Severe High Medium Low

Vegetation cover (%) <10 10-25 25-40 >40 0.40

Drifting sand
>65 15-65 5-15 <5 0.25
coverage (%)
Annual desertification
>5 2-5 1-2 <1 0.15
rate (%)
Population pressure
>50 30-50 0-30 -30-0 0.20
(%)

3.7 Use of Geo-Information Technology soil/vegetation wetness. Then the raster files
Geo-information technology was then were converted to Geotiff format in order
employed in this study for monitoring the land to open them later in a GIS environment with
degradation in the study area. Algorithms of ArcView GIS 3.3. By using ArcView; raster
NDVI, NDWI, NDSDI, and TCW were utilised files were converted to vector (shape format)
in the study in order to extract the feature raster files, then the spatial database for vector files
file related to the vegetative cover, water were built. Intersection by theme was done for
bodies, sand dunes accumulations, and the each theme map with county‟s border theme to

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 Journal of Al-Nahrain University Vol.12 (3), September, 2009, pp. 94-108 Science

create a feature theme map for each county. increase in the sand dune accumulation, a
Finally by field calculator; total area of decrease in the water bodies area, and a
extracted feature was computed. decrease in the soil moisture during the study
period. The vegetation deterioration rate in
3.8 Ancillary Data and Software Packages the study area was 26.2 km2Year-1. The areal
County - level socio - economic, percentage of the vegetative cover decreased
population census, meteorological data and from 27.1 to 17.2% of the total study area,
software such as ERMapper ver 7.1 and Erdas means it converted from medium vegetative
Imagine ver 9.2 were used for the digital degraded level (III) to highly vegetative
image processing and analysing. ArcView degraded level (II) through ten years
GIS ver 3.3 and ArcGIS 9.1 were used for according to the UN indices for
analysing and presenting the results in a GIS desertification assessment. The vegetative
environment. Statgraphics XV.I, NCSS-2007, degradation accompanied with an increase in
and MS-Excel-2007 packages were utilized the sand dune accumulation area from 2.5 to
for the statistical analysis, calculations, and 5.0% from the whole study area, increasing
presenting of the results. from the low degraded (IV) to medium
degraded level (III). Rate of sand dunes
4. Results and Discussion expansion during the ten years of study was
NDVI, NDSDI, NDWI, TCW, and LDI 10.2 km2Year-1.
indices were computed and obtained for the The decrease in the water bodies area
multi-temporal Landsat TM and ETM+ was 228.1 km2, while about 8.5% of total
images and tried to analyze the environmental study area had a negative change in their
changes and assess the land degradation soil/vegetation wetness, showing an
severity at the study area. 2 -1
expansion rate of 92.8 km Year during the
4.1 Assessment of Land Degradation Severity study period. Figures 2, 3, 4, and 5 show the
Based on the NDVI, NDSDI, NDWI, spatial distribution of the vegetative cover in
and TCW indices images derived from the study area for the years 1990 and 2000,
Landsat TM and ETM+ remotely sensed while tables 3, 4, 5, and 6 provide related
dataset for the years 1990 and 2000, it statistics.
appeared that the study area got a significant
decline in the vegetative cover and a high

Figure 2- Spatial distribution of the vegetative cover extracted by NDVI in the study area
for the years 1990 and 2000.

100
 Ayad Mohammed Fadhil

Table 3- County-level vegetative cover extracted by NDVI results of the study area
for the period from 1990 to 2000
County Vegetation
County 1990 2000 2000-1990
area change rate
name
km2 km2 % km2 % km2 % km2 Year-1
Tuz 2,555.9 1,114.2 43.6 227.9 8.9 -886.3 -34.7 -88.6
Al-Daur 3,063.3 462.7 15.1 368.9 12 -93.8 -3.1 -9.4
Hawija 2,926.2 1,313.20 44.9 783.4 26.8 -529.8 -18.1 -53.0
Khalis 1,564.6 223.3 14.3 370.8 23.7 147.5 9.4 14.8
Daquq 2,206.8 1,079.90 48.9 500.5 22.7 -579.4 -26.3 -57.9
Samarra 4,734.1 264.9 5.6 358.3 7.6 93.4 2.0 9.3
Tikrit 3,287.6 1,047.50 31.9 275.5 8.4 -772.0 -23.5 -77.2
Sum 20,338.5 5,505.70 27.1 2885.3 14.2 -2,620.40 -12.9 -262.0
Average -26.2

Figure 3- Spatial distribution of sand dune accumulations extracted by NDSDI in the study area
for the years 1990 and 2000.

Table 4- Sand dunes accumulations extracted by NDSDI in the study area at county-level
for the period from 1990 to 2000
Expansion
County County area 1990 2000 2000-1990
rate
name
km2 km2 % km2 % km2 % km2 Year-1
Tuz 2,555.9 139.9 5.5 592.1 23.2 452.2 17.7 45.2
Al-Daur 3,063.3 282.0 9.2 713.0 23.3 431.0 14.1 43.1
Hawija 2,926.2 15.9 0.5 20.5 0.7 4.7 0.2 0.5
Khalis 1,564.6 3.1 0.2 10.8 0.7 7.7 0.5 0.8
Daquq 2,206.8 36.3 1.6 39.9 1.8 3.6 0.2 0.4
Samarra 4,734.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Tikrit 3,287.6 34.0 1.0 153.7 4.7 119.6 3.6 12.0

Sum 20,338.5 511.2 2.5 1,530 7.5 1,018.8 5.0 102

Average 10.2

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Journal of Al-Nahrain University Vol.12 (3), September, 2009, pp. 94-108 Science

Table 5- Water bodies surface area reduction during the period 1990 - 2000.

Water body
County dryness area
name
km2
Tuz 0.225
Al-Daur 24.154
Hawija 7.503
Khalis 3.587
Daquq 0.136
Samarra 177.867
Tikrit 14.586
Sum 228.1

Figure 4- Water bodies decrease (rivers and lakes) at the study areas which extracted
from the Landsat TM for 1990 and Landsat ETM+ for 2000.

Figure 5- The Negative and positive changes of Tasseled Cap Wetness TCW indicator
during the period 1990-2000

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 Ayad Mohammed Fadhil

Table 6- County-level Tasseled Cap Wetness TCW results of the study area
for the period from 1990 to 2000
County TCW TCW
TCW_pos TCW_neg No change p-n
area _pos rate _neg rate
County Name
km2 km2 % km2 % km2 % % km2Year-1 km2Year-1

Tuz 2,555.9 119.9 4.7 608.2 23.8 1,827.9 71.5 -19.1 12.0 60.8
Al-Daur 3,063.3 300.2 9.8 419.0 13.7 2,344.1 76.5 -3.9 30.0 41.9
Hawija 2,926.2 411.1 14.0 465.9 15.9 2,049.2 70.0 -1.9 41.1 46.6
Khalis 1,564.6 176.1 11.3 177.5 11.3 1,211.1 77.4 -0.1 17.6 17.7
Daquq 2,206.8 255.6 11.6 429.2 19.4 1,522.0 69.0 -7.9 25.6 42.9
Samarra 4,734.1 177.2 3.7 633.3 13.4 3,923.7 82.9 -9.6 17.7 63.3
Tikrit 3,287.6 124.8 3.8 552.1 16.8 2,610.7 79.4 -13.0 12.5 55.2
Sum 20,338.5 1,564.9 7.7 3,285.3 16.2 15,488.7 76.1 -55.5 156.5 328.4
Average 15.7 92.8

4.2 Spatial Distribution of Land Degradation accumulations at the study area. The results
Tuz, Samarra, and Tikrit had lowest indicated an obvious increase (table-4) of the
percentage of the vegetative cover among all sand dune accumulations at the study area
studied counties during the study period. during the ten year study period, especially in
Three counties had a vegetative cover less Tuz County, which got the highest increase in
than 10% in the year 2000, which is the sand dune accumulation area at the study
designated them as severely degraded level (I) region during the years from 1990 to 2000
land which accounting 44.9% of the total area that was 452.2 km2, while Al-Daur County
of the study region (tables 1, 2 and fig.2). Al- was at the second order, its increase was
Daur, Khalis, and Daquq suffered from the 431.0 km2. Tuz and A-Daur were the highly
highly degraded level (II) land accounts for degraded level according to the United
33.6 % in areal proportion, and degradation Nations Indices of sand dune accumulations
has been caused mainly by sand dunes in the year 2000, while they were at medium
accumulations and vegetation deterioration. degraded level in the year 1990. The sand
Hawija County had a medium degraded level dune accumulation situation changed strongly
(III) land, accounting 26.8% of the total study toward the worst during the ten years of
area. study.
In comparison between the vegetative In recent years shrunk the amounts of
cover area for each county during the two water reaching Iraq through the Tigris and
years 1990 and 2000, it observed a highly Euphrates rivers and their tributaries. That led
decrease in the vegetative cover in most of the to drought and reduced many areas of water
studied counties. Tuz, Daquq, and Tikrit bodies in Iraq, such as rivers, lakes and
registered the worst situation and the highest adversely affecting the cultivated areas and
decline (tab.3) in the vegetative cover during agricultural activities of the people and led to
the mentioned years. They were 34.7, 26.3, the degradation of many agricultural lands
and 23.5% of the total area of each county, and then to the acceleration of desertification.
respectively. As a result of above in the study area; Shari
It was found through the application of Lake dried up entirely while Tharthar Lake
NDSDI for the sand dunes in the study area lost parts of its surface water by drought of 2-
and its neighboring areas; it is effective and 4 km depth of its beaches (fig.4), while Little
efficient in a isolate and highlight the Zab and Al-Udhaim rivers had gained narrow
presence of sand dunes and drifting sands. in their flow.
The NDSDI was specifically designed for Results of NDWI clarified a significant
using Landsat TM/ETM+ data sets. Obtained decrease in the area covered by water bodies
results of NDSDI gave a good impression and during the study period from 1990 to 2000.
promising ability on its capability for Water bodies at Samara, Al-Daur, and Tikrit
identifying and highlighting the sand dune counties suffered significant loss in the areas

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 Journal of Al-Nahrain University Vol.12 (3), September, 2009, pp. 94-108 Science

covered by water. The measured reduction in population growth is a decrease in the

water cover was 177.8, 24.1, and 14.5 km2 in availability of arable lands, and increasing
Samara, Al-Daur, and Tikrit counties, stress on the existing resources leading to
respectively. TCW results showed an increase rising of land degradation in the region.
in the negative change of the soil/vegetation
wetness in the whole study area. Tuz and 4.3 Risk of Land Degradation
Tikrit counties had the biggest decrease in the The Land Degradation Index LDI for the
soil moisture among the studied counties. studied counties has been found to range from
They registered a decrease of 19.1 and 13.0% 0.96, 0.46, and 0.13 for Al-Daur, Tuz, and
of the total area of two counties. Obliviously, Hawija counties in the year 2000, while they
the rate of land degradation has accelerated were 0.19, 0.14, and 0.11 in the year 1990 for
during the study period within the study the same counties, respectively. As a
region. percentage, these changes correspond to an
Although it is not possible to collect increase in LDI of 352.6%, 228.5%, and
ground reference data for this type of study, a 18.1%. Using the LDI as a summarization
surrogate method was adopted, that is; a indication of the four land degradation indices
visual interpretation of the imagery at sample shows that three counties which suffer the
locations in situ. The estimated accuracy of most due to desertification and land
the studied indices results for study area was degradation are Al-Daur, Tuz, and Tikrit, with
91.3%. LDI values equal to 0.96, 0.46, and 0.39
The population in the region increased respectively (see fig.7). The LDI value of the
during the ten years of study as well as to the whole area increased 111% during the ten
decline in the water supplied by the rivers in years of study, reflecting the increasing in the
the study area, since the discharges of the vegetative deterioration and sand dune
local rivers had decreased during the study accumulations in the study area.
period. One of the direct impacts of

Figure 6- Land degradation risk index for the studied counties.

That desertification is linked to the lead to contribute to environmental

conflicts among the concerns of human destruction. The low mean of rainfall and
interest, increasing population pressure on declining river discharge in the region has led
limited natural resources and fragile to pressure on the natural sources of rivers
ecosystem. Activities such as irrational and other water bodies and then accelerated
exploitation of natural resources and poor desertification.
management of land to a certain extent that

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 Ayad Mohammed Fadhil

Generally speaking, the results of this NDVI and TCW, while the correlation
study indicated two counties; Tuz and Al- between NDVI and LDI was significant
Daur, had the worst problems and at a high negative (-0.71). Therefore, it is clear that the
risk of land degradation and desertification soil/vegetation wetness TCW had the
among the studied counties during the ten strongest effect on the land degradation risk
years from 1990 to 2000. index LDI more than the vegetative index
NDVI. That is logically; because there is no
4.4 Statistical Analysis for the Study Results vegetation without water, so, the most
By the statistical analysis with effective factor on the land degradation
Statgraphics XV.I and NCSS-2007 packages acceleration in the study area is the deficiency
for the study results it appeared that there was of water in addition to the socio-economic
a significant negative correlation (-0.83) factors. Table 7 shows the correlation and the
between the Land degradation risk index LDI regression equation among the studies
and the tasseled cap transformation wetness indices.
indicator TCW. Another significant positive
correlation (0.77) was found between the

Table 7- Correlation matrix and regression equations

LDI TCW NDVI
LDI 1 -0.83 -0.71
TCW -0.83 1 0.77
NDVI -0.71 0.77 1

Regression Equations
LDI= - 0.0497- 0.0306 (TCW) r2=84.1%
LDI= 0.0709 – 0.0091 (NDVI) r2=73.4%
NDVI= 0.2256 + 1.7019 (TCW) r2=79.4%

5. Conclusions accumulation by 5.0 percent, a decrease

Increasing land degradation lead to the in the wetted soil by 8.5 percent, as well
acceleration of the sensitivity of the land as to the reduction in surface area of
surface to wind erosion and then to formation water bodies in the region by 228.1 km2.
of dust storms which has negatively serious The land degradation risk in the study
impact on the environment and public health. area has increased by 111% during the
The results of this study show clearly study period.
and unequivocally the state of land 3. The results of the new index NDSDI for
degradation and desertification experienced assessing, monitoring, and mapping the
by the studied areas in the upper sand dune accumulations were promising
Mesopotamian plain of Iraq. and gave a good impression for its good
1. It highlighted the need to develop plans capability in highlighting the sand dune
in short and long term to address the accumulations in the study area.
situation of land degradation and to 4. The findings in this study have profound
combat desertification and loss of water implications on how to reduce the
bodies in most of the studied counties of severity of desertification risk in the
the study area. study areas. In accordance with Fadhil
2. Overall results of the study indicated a (2002 and 2004) who indicated to the
general vegetation deterioration of 12.9 importance of soil conditioners, re-
percent, an increase in the sand dune vegetation, and the afforestation for the

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 Journal of Al-Nahrain University Vol.12 (3), September, 2009, pp. 94-108 Science

fixation and stabilization of mobile sand to gradually re-vegetate the degraded

dunes in Iraq and China. Zhu (1993) lands.
indicated to the plants should be grown 6. Briefly, no single means can work
and mechanical fences to control effectively in isolation without the
movement of sand should be set up to support. Coordinated efforts aimed to
stabilize shifting sands. reducing and reversing desertification
5. The efforts should be directed to the must given to the study area.
improved irrigation situation would 7. Rehabilitation endeavors should be
enhance farmland productivity, and hence directed to both areas of severely
reduce over-cultivation and grazing. If degraded and also to the area that are not
the reasonably water resource in the area at high risk to lessen the overall of
could be adequately utilized through desertification.
agricultural projects, it would be feasible

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To cite this Research: Fadhil, A. M. (2009). "Land Degradation Detection Using Geo-Information
Technology for Some Sites in Iraq". Journal of Al Nahrain University-Science (JNUS), Vol.
12(3):94-108

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 Journal of Al-Nahrain University Vol.12 (3), September, 2009, pp. 94-108 Science

‫تشخيص تذهور األراضي بإستخذام التقنيات الجيو مكانية لبعض المناطك في العراق‬

‫ أياد محمذ فاضل‬.‫د‬

‫أستاذ هساعد‬
‫قسن علوم التربة والوياه‬
‫كلية الزراعة‬
‫جاهعة صالح الديي – أربيل‬
‫ أقلين كوردستاى‬- ‫أربيل‬
‫العراق‬
[email protected] :‫بريد الكتروًي‬

‫المستخلص‬

.2000 1990 ETM+ TM

ArcView Erdas Imagine 9.2 ERMapper 7.1
ArcGIS 9.1 3.3
“TCW” Tasseled “NDWI” “NDVI”
“NDSDI”
2 2
1018.8 2620.4
2
8.5 5.0 12.9 1720.4
2
228.1
1 2
10.2
111
“NDSDI”

.Iraq ،NDSDI ،GIS ،Remote sensing ،Landsat ،Land degradation :‫الكلمات المفتاحية‬

108

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