Diatomaceous earth

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Diatom ace ous e arth ( /ˌdaɪ.ətəˌmeɪʃəs ˈɜːrθ/, DE), diatom ite or k ie s e lgur/k ie s e lguhr is a naturally occurring, sof t,
siliceous sedimentary rock that is crumbled into a f ine w hite to of f -w hite pow der. It has a particle size ranging f rom less than 3
μm to more than 1 mm, but typically 10 to 200 μm. Depending on the granularity, this pow der can have an abrasive f eel, similar
to pumice pow der, and has a low density as a result of its high porosity. The typical chemical composition of oven-dried
diatomaceous earth is 80–90% silica, w ith 2–4% alumina (attributed mostly to clay minerals) and 0.5–2% iron oxide.[1]

Diatomaceous earth consists of f ossilized remains of diatoms, a type of hard-shelled protist. It is used as a f iltration aid, mild
abrasive in products including metal polishes and toothpaste, mechanical insecticide, absorbent f or liquids, matting agent f or
coatings, reinf orcing f iller in plastics and rubber, anti-block in plastic f ilms, porous support f or chemical catalysts, cat litter,
activator in blood clotting studies, a stabilizing component of dynamite, a thermal insulator, and a soil f or potted plants and trees
like bonsai.[2][3]
A sample of f ood-grade diatomaceous earth
Contents [hide]
1 Composition
2 Formation
3 Discovery
4 Other deposits
5 Commercial form
6 Usage
7 Specific varieties
8 Microbial degradation
9 Climatologic importance Diatomaceous earth as v iewed under
bright f ield illumination on a light microscope.
10 Safety considerations
This image of diatomaceous earth particles in
11 See also water is at a scale of 6.236 pixels/μm, the
12 References entire image cov ering a region of
approximately 1.13 by 0.69 mm.
13 External links

Composition [ edit ]

Each deposit of diatomaceous earth is dif f erent, w ith varying blends of pure diatomaceous earth combined w ith other natural clays
and minerals. The diatoms in each deposit contain dif f erent amounts of silica, depending on the age of the deposit. The species of
diatom may also dif f er among deposits. The species of diatom is dependent upon the age and paleoenvironment of the deposit. In
turn, the shape of a diatom is determined by its species.

Many deposits throughout British Columbia, such as Red Lake Earth, are f rom the Miocene epoch and contain a species of diatom
know n as Melosira granulata. These diatoms are approximately 12 to 13 million years old and have a small globular shape. A
deposit containing diatoms f rom this epoch can provide many more benef its than that of an older deposit. For example, diatoms f rom
the Eocene epoch (approximately 40 to 50 million years old) are not as ef f ective in their ability to absorb f luids because older SEM photo of diatomaceous earth
diatoms recrystallize, their small pores becoming f illed w ith silica.[4]

Formation [ edit ]

Diatomite f orms by the accumulation of the amorphous silica (opal, SiO2·nH2O) remains of dead diatoms (microscopic single-celled algae) in lacustrine or marine sediments. The
f ossil remains consist of a pair of symmetrical shells or f rustules.[1]

Discovery [ edit ]

In 1836 or 1837, German peasant Peter Kasten discovered diatomaceous earth (German: Kieselgur) w hen sinking a w ell on the northern slopes of the Haußelberg hill, in the
Lüneburg Heath in North Germany.[5][6][7]

Extraction and storage sites in the Lüneburg Heath

Neuohe – extraction f rom 1863 to 1994

Wiechel f rom 1871 to 1978
Hützel f rom 1876 to 1969
Hösseringen f rom c.1880 to 1894
Hammerstorf f rom c.1880 to 1920
Oberohe f rom 1884 to 1970
Schmarbeck f rom 1896 to c. 1925
Steinbeck f rom 1897 to 1928
Breloh f rom 1907 to 1975
Schw indebeck f rom 1913 to 1973
Hetendorf f rom 1970 to 1994

The deposits are up to 28 metres (92 f t) thick and are all of f reshw ater diatomaceous earth.
 c. 1900–1910 c. 1900–1910 a drying 1913: Staff at the Neuohe
Diatomaceous earth pit at area: one firing pile is factory, with workers and a
Neuohe being prepared; another female cook in front of a
is under way drying shed

Until the First World War almost the entire w orldw ide production of diatomaceous earth w as f rom this region.

Other deposits [ edit ]

In Germany, diatomaceous earth w as also extracted at Altenschlirf [8] on the Vogelsberg (Upper Hesse) and at Klieken[9] (Saxony-Anhalt).

There is a layer of diatomaceous earth up to 4 metres (13 f t) thick in the nature reserve of Soos in the Czech Republic.

Deposits on the isle of Skye, of f the w est coast of Scotland, w ere mined until 1960. [10]

In Colorado and in Clark County, Nevada, United States, there are deposits that are up to several hundred metres thick in places. Marine deposits have been w orked in the
Sisquoc Formation in Santa Barbara County, Calif ornia near Lompoc and along the Southern Calif ornia coast. Additional marine deposits have been w orked in Maryland, Virginia,
Algeria and the MoClay of Denmark. Freshw ater lake deposits occur in Nevada, Oregon, Washington and Calif ornia. Lake deposits also occur in interglacial lakes in the eastern
United States, in Canada and in Europe in Germany, France, Denmark and the Czech Republic. The w orldw ide association of diatomite deposits and volcanic deposits suggests
that the availability of silica f rom volcanic ash may be necessary f or thick diatomite deposits.[11]

Diatomaceous earth is sometimes f ound on desert surf aces. Research has show n that the erosion of diatomaceous earth in such areas (such as the Bodélé Depression in the
Sahara) is one of the most important sources of climate-af f ecting dust in the atmosphere.

The siliceous f rustules of diatoms accumulate in f resh and brackish w etlands and lakes. Some peats and mucks contain a suf f icient abundance of f rustules that they can be
mined. Most of Florida's diatomaceous earths have been f ound in the muck of w etlands or lakes. The American Diatomite Corporation, f rom 1935 to 1946, ref ined a maximum of
145 tons per year f rom their processing plant near Clermont, Florida. Muck f rom several locations in Lake County, Florida w as dried and burned (calcined) to produce the
diatomaceous earth.[12] It w as f ormerly extracted f rom Lake Mývatn in Iceland.

The commercial deposits of diatomite are restricted to Tertiary or Quaternary periods. Older deposits f rom as early as the Cretaceous Period are know n, but are of low quality.[11]

Commercial form [ edit ]

Diatomaceous earth is available commercially in several f ormats:

granulated diatomaceous earth is a raw material simply crushed f or convenient packaging

milled or micronized diatomaceous earth is especially f ine (10 μm to 50 μm) and used f or insecticides.
calcined diatomaceous earth is heat-treated and activated f or f ilters.

Usage [ edit ]

Explos ive s

In 1866, Alf red Nobel discovered that nitroglycerin could be made much more stable if absorbed in diatomite. This allow s much saf er
transport and handling than nitroglycerin in its raw f orm. He patented this mixture as dynamite in 1867; the mixture is also called guhr
dynamite.[13]

Filtration

The Celle engineer Wilhelm Berkef eld recognized the ability of the diatomaceous earth to f ilter, and he developed tubular f ilters (know n as Indiv idual diatom cell walls of ten
f ilter candles) f ired f rom diatomaceous earth.[14] During the cholera epidemic in Hamburg in 1892, these Berkef eld f ilters w ere used maintain their shape ev en in
commercially processed f ilter media,
successf ully. One f orm of diatomaceous earth is used as a f ilter medium, especially f or sw imming pools. It has a high porosity because it
such as this one f or swimming pools
is composed of microscopically small, hollow particles. Diatomaceous earth (sometimes ref erred to by trademarked brand names such as
Celite) is used in chemistry as a f iltration aid, to increase f low rate and f ilter very f ine particles that w ould otherw ise pass through or clog
f ilter paper. It is also used to f ilter w ater, particularly in the drinking w ater treatment process and in f ish tanks, and other liquids, such as
beer and w ine. It can also f ilter syrups, sugar, and honey w ithout removing or altering their color, taste, or nutritional properties. [15]

Abras ive

The oldest use of diatomite is as a very mild abrasive and, f or this purpose, it has been used both in toothpaste and in metal polishes, as
w ell as in some f acial scrubs.

Pe s t control
Liv e marine diatoms f rom
Diatomite is of value as an insecticide, because of its abrasive and physico-sorptive properties.[16] The f ine pow der adsorbs lipids f rom Antarctica (magnif ied)
the w axy outer layer of the exoskeletons of many species of insects; this layer acts as a barrier that resists the loss of w ater vapour
f rom the insect's body. Damaging the layer increases the evaporation of w ater f rom their bodies, so that they dehydrate, of ten f atally.

Arthropods die as a result of the w ater pressure def iciency, based on Fick's law of dif f usion. This also w orks against gastropods and is commonly employed in gardening to
def eat slugs. How ever, since slugs inhabit humid environments, ef f icacy is very low . Diatomaceous earth is sometimes mixed w ith an attractant or other additives to increase its
ef f ectiveness.

The shape of the diatoms contained in a deposit has not been proven to af f ect their f unctionality w hen it comes to the adsorption of lipids; how ever, certain applications, such as
that f or slugs and snails, do w ork best w hen a particular shaped diatom is used, suggesting that lipid adsorption is not the w hole story. For example, in the case of slugs and
snails large, spiny diatoms w ork best to lacerate the epithelium of the mollusk. Diatom shells w ill w ork to some degree on the vast majority of animals that undergo ecdysis in
shedding cuticle, such as arthropods or nematodes. It also may have other ef f ects on lophotrochozoans, such as mollusks or annelids.

Medical-grade diatomite has been studied f or its ef f icacy as a dew orming agent in cattle; in both studies cited the groups being treated w ith diatomaceous earth did not f are any
better than control groups.[17][18] It is commonly used in lieu of boric acid, and can be used to help control and possibly eliminate bed bug,[19] house dust mite, cockroach, ant and
f lea inf estations.[20]

Diatomaceous earth is w idely applied f or insect control in grain storage.[21]

In order to be ef f ective as an insecticide, diatomaceous earth must be uncalcinated (i.e., it must not be heat-treated prior to application) [22] and have a mean particle size below
about 12 μm (i.e., f ood grade—see below ).

Although considered to be relatively low -risk, pesticides containing diatomaceous earth are not exempt f rom regulation in the United States under the Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act and must be registered w ith the Environmental Protection Agency.[23]

The rm al

Its thermal properties enable it to be used as the barrier material in some f ire resistant saf es. [citation needed] It is also used in evacuated pow der insulation f or use w ith
cryogenics.[24] Diatomaceous earth pow der is inserted into the vacuum space to aid in the ef f ectiveness of vacuum insulation. It w as used in the classical AGA cookers as a
thermal heat barrier.

Catalys t s upport

Diatomaceous earth also f inds some use as a support f or catalysts, generally serving to maximize a catalyst's surf ace area and activity. For example, nickel can be supported on
the material—the combination is called Ni–Kieselguhr—to improve its activity as a hydrogenation catalyst.[25]

Agriculture

Natural f reshw ater diatomaceous earth is used in agriculture f or grain storage as an anticaking agent, as w ell as an insecticide.[26] It is approved by the Food and Drug
Administration as a f eed additive[27] to prevent caking.

Some believe it may be used as a natural anthelmintic (dew ormer), although studies have not show n it to be ef f ective.[17][18] Some f armers add it to their livestock and poultry
f eed to prevent the caking of f eed.[28] "Food-Grade Diatomaceous Earth" is w idely available in agricultural f eed supply stores.

Freshw ater diatomite can be used as a grow ing medium in hydroponic gardens.

It is also used as a grow ing medium in potted plants, particularly as bonsai soil. Bonsai enthusiasts use it as a soil additive, or pot a bonsai tree in 100% diatomaceous earth. In
vegetable gardening it is sometimes used as a soil conditioner, because like perlite, vermiculite, and expanded clay, it retains w ater and nutrients, w hile draining f ast and f reely,
allow ing high oxygen circulation w ithin the grow ing medium.

M ark e r in live s tock nutrition e xpe rim e nts

Natural dried, not calcinated diatomaceous earth is regularly used in livestock nutrition research as a source of acid insoluble ash (AIA), w hich is used as an indigestible marker.
By measuring the content of AIA relative to nutrients in test diets and f eces or digesta sampled f rom the terminal ileum (last third of the small intestine) the percentage of that
nutrient digested can be calculated using the f ollow ing equation:

w here:

N is the nutrient digestibility (%)

Nf is the amount of nutrients in the f eces (%)
NF is the amount of nutrients in the f eed (%)
A f is the amount of AIA in the f eces (%)
A F is the amount of AIA in the f eed (%)

Natural f reshw ater diatomaceous earth is pref erred by many researchers over chromic oxide, w hich has been w idely used f or the same purpose, the latter being a know n
carcinogen and, theref ore, a potential hazard to research personnel.

Cons truction

Spent diatomaceous earth f rom the brew ing process can be added to ceramic mass f or the production of red bricks w ith higher open porosity. [29]

Diatomaceous earth is considered a very prominent inorganic non-metallic material that can be utilized f or the production various ceramics, including production of porous
ceramics under low temperature hydrothermal technology.[30]

Specific varieties [ edit ]

Tripolite is the variety f ound in Tripoli, Libya.

Bann clay is the variety f ound in the Low er Bann valley in Northern Ireland.
M ole r (M o-clay) is the variety f ound in northw estern Denmark, especially on the islands of Fur and Mors.
Fre s hw ate r-de rive d food grade diatomaceous earth is the type used in United States agriculture f or grain storage, as f eed supplement, and as an insecticide. It is
produced uncalcinated, has a very f ine particle size, and is very low in crystal silica (<2%).
Salt-w ate r-de rive d pool / be e r / w ine filte r grade is not suitable f or human consumption or ef f ective as an insecticide. Usually calcinated bef ore being sold to remove
impurities and undesirable volatile contents, it is composed of larger particles than the f reshw ater version and has a high crystalline silica content (>60%).

Microbial degradation [ edit ]

Certain species of bacteria in oceans and lakes can accelerate the rate of dissolution of silica in dead and living diatoms; by using hydrolytic enzymes to break dow n the organic
algal material.[31][32]

Climatologic importance [ edit ]

The Earth's climate is af f ected by dust in the atmosphere, so locating major sources of atmospheric dust is important f or climatology. Recent research indicates that surf ace
deposits of diatomaceous earth play an important role. Research show s that signif icant dust comes f rom the Bodélé Depression in Chad, w here storms push diatomite gravel
over dunes, generating dust by abrasion.[33]

Safety considerations [ edit ]

Inhalation of crystalline silica is harmf ul to the lungs, causing silicosis. Amorphous silica is considered to have low toxicity, but prolonged inhalation causes changes to the
lungs.[34] Diatomaceous earth is mostly amorphous silica, but contains some crystalline silica, especially in the saltw ater f orms. [35] In a study of w orkers, those exposed to natural
D.E. f or over 5 years had no signif icant lung changes, w hile 40% of those exposed to the calcined f orm had developed pneumoconiosis.[36] Today's common D.E. f ormulations
are saf er to use as they are predominantly made up of amorphous silica and contain little or no crystalline silica. [37]

The crystalline silica content of D.E. is regulated in the United States by the Occupational Saf ety and Health Administration (OSHA), and there are guidelines f rom the National
Institute f or Occupational Saf ety and Health setting maximum amounts allow able in the product (1%) and in the air near the breathing zone of w orkers, w ith a recommended
exposure limit at 6 mg/m3 over an 8-hour w orkday.[37] OSHA has set a permissible exposure limit f or diatomaceous earth as 20 mppcf (80 mg/m3/%SiO2). At levels of 3000 mg/m3,
diatomaceous earth is immediately dangerous to lif e and health.[38]

In the 1930s, long-term occupational exposure among w orkers in the cristobalite D.E. industry w ho w ere exposed to high levels of airborne crystalline silica over decades w ere
f ound to have an increased risk of silicosis.[39]

Today, w orkers are required to use respiratory-protection measures w hen concentrations of silica exceed allow able levels.

Diatomite produced f or pool f ilters is treated w ith high heat (calcination) and a f luxing agent (soda ash), causing the f ormerly harmless amorphous silicon dioxide to assume its
crystalline f orm.[37]

See also [ edit ]

Biomineralization – Process by w hich living organisms produce minerals

Diatom – A class of microalgae, f ound in the oceans, w aterw ays and soils of the w orld
Frustule
Fuller's earth – Any clay material that can decolorise oil or other liquids
Perlite – Amorphous volcanic glass
Rock f lour
Silica aerogel
Siliceous ooze
Zeolite – Microporous, aluminosilicate minerals commonly used as commercial adsorbents and catalysts

References [ edit ]

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Occupational exposure to crystalline silica and autoimmune disease.

External links [ edit ]

International Chemical Saf ety Card 0248

CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
Diatomite: Statistics and Inf ormation – USGS
Tripolite: Tripolite mineral data Citat: "...A diatomaceous earth consisting of opaline silica..."
DIATOMACEOUS EARTH: A Non Toxic Pesticide