DESIGN GUIDE

ON HYDRAULIC PUMPS

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brought to you by:

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HYDRAULIC PUMPS DESIGN GUIDE

Hydraulic pumps are one of the most necessary components

in a hydraulic system, as it is the pump that converts
mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. A number of
hydraulic pump designs exist, each with their pros and cons
for system design and application.

These positive-displacement machines direct flow and power

to cylinders, motors, etc.
▼
In this Design Guide, the editors of Fluid Power World MARY GANNON
provide tips on the different styles available, sizing and Editor
selection, symbology depiction, and special uses particularly
in mobile machinery.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
▼

What are positive-displacement pumps?................... 2 ▼

PAUL HENEY
Hydraulic symbology 205 – hydraulic pumps............. 4 VP, Editorial Director

Hydraulic fixed-displacement pumps: Review ........... 7

Pump cavitation: 7 ways to avoid in mobile

hydraulic systems........................................................ 9

What is the difference between fixed and

variable pumps?........................................................ 12

Hydraulic pumps in mobile machinery..................... 14

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What are
positive-
displacement
pumps?
P
ositive-displacement pumps, also called hydrostatic pumps, Internal gear pumps contain one internal and one external
are used in fluid power motion control applications. They gear. They pump fluid in the same manner as external spur gear
have a very small clearance between rotating and stationary pumps. In the basic design, the internal gear, which drives the
parts. These pumps deliver a specific amount of fluid to the system outer gear, has one tooth less than the outer gear. As they mesh,
for each revolution. Positive-displacement pumps can be further the teeth create sliding seal points. Because their transition zone
divided into two categories: Fixed- and variable-displacement. from low to high pressure (the area over the crescent) is relatively
Fixed-delivery pumps provide a single, specific volume long, internal gear pumps can offer lower noise levels than some
displacement per revolution. In variable-displacement pumps, other types of pumps.
displacement per cycle can be varied from zero to maximum
volumetric capacity. Some of the more widely used types of Gears are made of special steel and are often case hardened
positive-displacement pumps are gear, piston, and vane types. and quench hardened. Then gears are ground and fine finished.
Proper tooth profile design and geometric proportions can
Gear pumps can be either internal or external styles. External reduce pulsation and noise levels during pump operation.
gear pumps are one of the most popular types used in modern
hydraulic systems. Gear pumps produce flow by using the
teeth of two meshing gears to move the fluid. Their simple
construction ensures limited purchase costs and servicing. Gear
pumps work under heavy operating conditions and transmit
high amounts of hydraulic power. They feature decent hydraulic,
mechanical and volumetric efficiency, compact dimensions, and
low weight/power ratio. This balance of efficiency and economy
make external gear pumps a popular choice for auxiliary systems
in a number of different machines.

External gear pumps can be equipped with straight spur (the most
common type), helical,
or herringbone gears. In Piston pumps supply high flows at high rpm. Two types of piston
operation, the drive gear pumps, axial- and radial-piston, are manufactured in both fixed-
and driven gear rotate, and variable-displacement versions. Axial-piston pumps contain
creating a partial vacuum one or more pistons that convert rotary shaft motion into axial
at the pump inlet (where reciprocating motion. An angled cam (or wobble plate) rotates,
gear teeth unmesh) that causing pistons to reciprocate and take fluid in as they move
draws fluid into gear toward the thin part of the plate. Fluid is expelled as pistons
teeth. Gear teeth mesh approach the thick end. In one version, the bent-axis design, both
at the outlet, forcing fluid pistons and shaft rotate, making a wobble plate unnecessary.
out of the pump. Bent-axis pumps use the drive shaft to rotate pistons.

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 HYDRAULIC PUMPS DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
What are positive-displacement pumps?

With the longer sealing paths along the piston walls, piston A critical element in vane pump design is how the vanes are
pump efficiencies tend to be higher than other types of pumps. pushed into contact with the pump housing, and how the vane
In addition, variable-displacement pumps can provide savings by tips are machined at this very point. Several type of “lip” designs
only providing the pumping necessary for the function, saving are used, and the main objective is to provide a tight seal
additional energy and costs. between the inside of the housing and the vane, and at the same
time to minimize wear and metal-to-metal contact. Forcing the
Radial-piston pumps (fixed-displacement) are used especially vane out of the rotating center and towards the pump housing is
for high pressure and relatively small flows. Pressures of up to accomplished using spring-loaded vanes, or more traditionally,
5000 psi are common. Variable-displacement is not possible, but vanes loaded hydrodynamically (via the pressurized system fluid).
sometimes the pump is designed in such a way that the plungers
can be switched off one by one, so that a sort of variable- Considerations when selecting a hydraulic pump:
displacement pump is obtained. • Pressure
• Angle
Radial-piston pumps are characterized by a radial piston • Related torque
arrangement within a cylinder block. As pistons reciprocate, • Weight
they convert rotary shaft motion into radial motion. One version • Mounting configuration
has cylindrical pistons, while another uses ball-shaped pistons.
Another classification refers to porting: check-valve radial-piston
pumps use a rotating cam to reciprocate pistons; pintle-valve
pumps have a rotating cylinder block, and piston heads contact
an eccentric stationary reaction ring.

Rotary vane pumps (fixed and simple adjustable displacement)

generally have higher efficiencies and lower noise levels than
gear pumps. They can be used for mid pressures of 2500 psi and
modern units can exceed 4500 psi in continuous operation.

Some types of vane pumps can change the center of the vane
body, so that a simple adjustable pump is obtained. These
adjustable vane pumps are in general constant pressure or
constant power pumps: the displacement is increased until
the required pressure or power is reached and subsequently
the displacement or swept volume is decreased until equilibrium
is reached.

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Hydraulic symbology 205 –
hydraulic pumps
T
he base symbol for the hydraulic pump (Figure 1) is actually quite simple. It starts with
the standard circle and a directional arrow pointing out one end from within that circle.
The solid-filled triangle makes this a hydraulic pump while pneumatic pumps (and
most pneumatic symbols) are outlines only. There exist no other options for this particular
pump symbol, which can be accurately described as a fixed displacement, unidirectional
hydraulic pump.

It’s rare to see a pump in any orientation but North when reading schematics, and they are
often paired below to a line terminating into the reservoir symbol, which I show just once. If
multiple components such as filters, ball valves, accessories or even other pumps are used,
the tank line can be widened as needed. Other designers prefer to show every tank line
terminate into the same small symbol, while others will place a tank symbol right at every
component requiring it, just is done in electrics with the ground symbol.

Figure 1. Hydraulic pump symbology

Unfortunately, and except for rare circumstances, there are no symbology differences
between the type of pumps available. The symbols for a gear pump, a vane pump, a
piston pump or any other type of physical configuration does not carry with it any symbolic
difference, nor does it matter as you’ll find out by the end of this.

The second pump is not much different from the first, with the exception of the second
black directional triangle, which informs us this pump can expel fluid from what would
otherwise be the suction port. This is the symbol for a bi-rotational pump, which is rare
outside of advanced mobile machinery, especially in the fixed displacement version as
shown. Although a series of check valves could allow both ports to become either the tank
or pressure lines, depending upon the direction of rotation, this is still a rare concept.

The third symbol in Figure 1 illustrates the very simplified version of the variable
displacement, pressure compensated, unidirectional hydraulic pump. It includes the
variable arrow across the entire symbol, explaining that the pump displacement can be

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 HYDRAULIC PUMPS DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
Hydraulic symbology 205 – hydraulic pumps

modified. To the left is a smaller arrow, and as you may have with a variability arrow, which represents the pressure compensator
picked up on from earlier symbol articles, it tells us the pump spring, itself semi-enclosed and attached to the bottom of the
displacement varies automatically with pressure compensation. pump’s variable arrow. Opposite the spring is a triangular input for
As a fan of ISO 1219 symbology, I don’t find this symbol visually pilot pressure, and this juxtaposition is intentional.
pleasing, concise as it is.
The orange pilot signal is taken directly from the red system
My favourite symbol to express the pressure compensated pressure line exiting the pump, with the dashed orange line
pump is the smaller of the two symbols in Figure 2. This is a confirming it is indeed pilot energy. The spring setting fights
slightly more detailed example of the symbol I depicted in with pilot pressure to infinitely and smoothly adjust the flow rate
Hydraulic Symbology 101, and I’ve added colour to help with to match downstream pressure drop equal to the compensator
the explanation. Don’t worry about the scary looking object to setting. For example, if the setting is 3,000 psi, any downstream
the right, we’ll get to that shortly. combination of load and flow-related pressure below 3,000 psi
will see the spring maintain full displacement of the swashplate,
For this particular symbol of the pressure compensated pump, producing full pump flow.
the shaft sticks out to the right, which can be attached to the
square of a combustion engine prime mover symbol or the circular As downstream pressure rises, pilot energy acts upon the
symbol of an electric motor. The semicircular arrow shows us the (undepicted) control piston, reducing flow until downstream
shaft rotates clockwise, or to the right since rotation direction is load and flow-related pressure equalizes to 3,000 psi. Should
always observed from the vantage point of the shaft end. downstream pressure continue to rise, the control piston being
pushed on by orange pilot energy can reduce the swashplate
The variable arrow bisects the pump symbol and of course angle to near zero, where the only flow is that which is being
tells us the pump is adjustable displacement. The method absorbed through lubrication and leakage. The leakage is lost
of displacement control is defined by the compound symbol through the blue dashed line going to tank, which may or may
attached to the pump’s left. Under the long rectangle is a spring not be drawn together with the green suction line which obviously
initiates at the reservoir.

Moving along to the scary looking thing on the right, we have

here the detailed breakdown of the variable displacement,
pressure compensated, load-sensing, unidirectional hydraulic
pump. You’ve likely seen this symbol before because the
manufacturers prefer to show this level of detail, especially
to differentiate advanced controls options like remoted
compensation or horsepower control. This “load-sensing pump”
will make sense to you shortly. I’ll warn that it will take some time
and effort to understand this symbol as you methodically work
through the rest of this article.

Starting with the pump (a), it has the diagonal variability arrow
bisecting the circle and is attached to the rod ends of two
cylinders. Cylinder (b) is the bias piston meant to force the pump
to full displacement whenever possible, a task made easier by
spring pushing the piston forward. Some pumps make do with
only a strong spring, but this example is balanced with pilot
energy. Affixed on the right is a tiny object with a variable arrow,
which can be adjusted to move left or right within the cylinder.
Not all pumps have this additional component, which is the
minimum volume stop, preventing the bias piston from retracting
fully, which subsequently prevents fully standby of the pump.
Figure 2. Pressure compensated hyraulic pump

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 HYDRAULIC PUMPS DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
Hydraulic symbology 205 – hydraulic pumps
If you’re familiar with cylinder symbols, you’ll see that (c) also Now when a downstream directional valve is opened, a flow
looks like a single acting cylinder with a stroke adjustor at the path is created that drops system pressure to below the setting
cap side. This is the control piston, which will always be a larger of the (d) compensator, and it immediately succumbs to spring
bore diameter than the bias piston. The control piston’s stroke pressure and snaps back to near its neutral setting, opening the
adjustment is called the maximum volume stop and is used to drain lines once again to tank. The orifices (e) and (f) dampen the
modify the maximum displacement of the pump, convenient when motion of the compensator, preventing rapid oscillations, but
you need a displacement between the two sizes available for the the orifice also prevents pressure spikes into the pump’s case.
chosen pump. The two “cylinders” are attached by their rods to They also ensure that pressure doesn’t decay from the control
each other, and as one extends the other must retract and vice piston (c) when system pressure degrades rapidly for fractions of
versa, and I’ll explain shortly why and how their battle develops. a second. Flow from the pump will be balanced by the opposing
bias and control pistons to match downstream pressure drop at
Because all load sensing pumps must be pressure compensated, exactly the pressure compensator setting.
I’ll start with (d), which is the pressure compensator. Although
it looks different, it is essentially a relief valve governing the Finally, we look at the operation of the load sense compensator
control piston (c). It’s shown in its neutral condition, where it (g) shown on top. It also receives a pilot signal directly from the
bleeds the chamber of the control piston (c) through orifice (e), pump outlet, but you’ll see that it also gets a competing signal
orifice (f), and also through the other compensator (g) where from the work line after the metering orifice. The pressure signal
it can choose any flow path directly to tank. Regardless of its at (g) compares the combined effort of the spring value and
flow path, pilot energy inside the control piston (c) is zero, so it the load-sense pilot signal just before (h). The setting of the
loses the battle with the bias piston (b) and the pump is on full pressure compensator (d) is much higher than the setting of the
displacement pump at its highest rate. load sense compensator (g), which is set to create reasonable
pressure drop across (j). If the (d) compensator is set to 3,000 psi,
The load sense compensator (g) looks much the same as the it’ll only see this pressure on standby or max load pressure, while
pressure compensator (d) and is similar in function except where the (g) compensator might be set to 300 psi, where it measures
it takes pilot energy and what it does with it afterward. As with pressure drop across (j) valve.
the pressure compensator symbol (d), it is a 3-way, 2-position
valve that is spring-offset with adjustable pressure settings for Typically a load sense circuit will have multiple orifices in a load
both. Each is supplemented with the parallel lines above and sense network all feeding back a pilot signal to the load sense
below both positional envelopes, and these lines tell us the valve compensator (g), where it picks the highest pressure signal and
is infinitely variable between the two positions. meters the pump’s flow to match that pressure differential and
provides just enough flow to satisfy the desired flow rate at
The variable orifice at (j) could be any flow control, lever the desired work pressure plus the pressure of the load sense
valve or proportional valve used to adjust flow (which creates compensator’s spring value. For example, if load pressure is
backpressure when reduced) in the red system pressure line 1,000 psi, the pump will hold pressure at 1,300 psi, providing the
starting at the pump. You can see the node just after the pump extra 300 psi just to create flow across the metering valve (j).
outlet that combines system pressure with pilot lines supplying
the bias piston and both compensators. Let’s first take the load This symbol shows you that no matter the initial feeling of
sense compensator (g) out of the picture and describe the complexity, breaking down any schematic thoughtfully reveals
pressure compensator (d) and what occurs during operation. its purpose of design. I fell in love with hydraulics when I
learned about the load sensing concept. That just using columns
When the pump fires up, and assuming all downstream of fluid pressure to create an efficient supply and demand
directional valves are closed, the spring inside the bias piston (b) scenario to satisfy many downstream actuators with essentially
fully strokes the pump to max displacement. This immediately the exact flow and pressure they need for the job, and little
creates pressure in the work and pilot lines as fluid fills the more, I found exhilarating.
plumbing with no exit strategy, and this rise in pressure at the
pilot line at (d) forces the pressure compensator to shift to the
right. The second pilot line attached to the top of compensator
(d) allows pilot energy to enter through line (i) where it fills the
control piston (c) rapidly. Because the control piston is larger
bore than the bias piston, it wins the fight and moves the pump’s
variable arrow to reduce displacement until the only flow is what
is required to overcome leakage. The pump is on “standby.”

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Hydraulic
fixed-displacement
pumps: Review
I
n my continuing series on a mechanic’s guide to a hydraulic output speed. It is important that the operators do not drop below
system, we have already discussed the importance of the fluid’s the minimum or exceed the maximum speed limit of the pump.
viscosity, cleanliness, flow rate, cooling and reservoir level to
ensure a positive head pressure (NPSHA) to the suction side of The pumping action of any hydraulic pump can be understood if
the pump. Now, it’s time to discuss the heart of the hydraulic one understands Boyle’s law:
system—the pump.
Boyle’s law—at constant temperature for a fixed mass, the
Proper selection and operation of the pump will have a major absolute pressure and the volume of a gas are inversely
influence on the system’s overall performance, operational proportional.
efficiency and operational cost.
Simply stated, when the volume decreases, the pressure
In all pump classes, you will hear “Pumps don’t suck nor do they increases (discharge stroke). When volume increases, the
pump pressure.” Although pumps come in a variety of shapes and pressure decreases (suction stroke).
sizes with different operating mechanisms, they all do one thing—
Where a dynamic (centrifugal) pump’s capacity (gpm) will go
create flow by transferring mechanical energy to fluid velocity.
down as head pressure increases, a positive displacement pump
To understand this, we must first know that the energy comes delivers a constant output flow (gpm) regardless of the head
from the motor. The motor takes electrical energy and converts pressure.
it to a twisting force known as torque. There is a relationship
The size of a positive displacement pump is expressed in terms
between horsepower, speed and torque. The formula below will
of the number of cubic inches displaced during one revolution of
make it clear.
the drive shaft.

Another method of representing the size of a positive

displacement pump is the nominal flow at a specific drive speed.
Hydraulic pump manufacturers simply refer to these pumps sizes
as 8 gpm, 10 gpm, and so on.

Torque is the mechanical energy that is transferred from the In theory, a pump that displaces 25 in.3/rev will deliver 25 in.3
motor shaft to the pump shaft and then converted to velocity in of fluid for each revolution. In actuality, the pump output will be
the fluid. reduced due to internal slippage (the fluid flows from the pump’s
output to the pump’s input). For a given clearance, the higher
Because the pump has a maximum speed rating, most industrial the outlet pressure, the higher the slippage.
hydraulic systems use either a motor with a nominal rating of
1,200 rpm (actual 1,140 rpm) or nominal rating of 1,800 rpm
(actual 1,750 rpm). On mobile hydraulic systems that use internal
combustion engines, a variable drive is used to regulate the

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 HYDRAULIC PUMPS DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
Hydraulic fixed-displacement pumps: Review

The mechanical efficiency can be found by dividing the Multiple applications exist where fixed-displacement pumps do
theoretical torque value by the actual torque required to drive the job. Fixed-displacement pumps can be selected for use as
the pump. long as the following conditions don’t need to be met:
• maintains system pressure on a stalled actuator
• during operation of the cycle, the actuator must be operated
at relatively low speeds
• circuit operates at varies speed ranges
• the pump is unable to unload by the circuit

Overall efficiency includes both volumetric and mechanical It is imperative to select a pump of precise size. A fixed-
efficiencies. displacement pump is a positive displacement type where
the amount of displacement (gpm) cannot be varied, only
by changing the drive speed to the pump. Since industrial
hydraulic systems are usually driven by constant speed electric
motors, applications of a fixed-displacement pump are limited.
In the next article, I will discuss the different types of fixed-
displacement pumps and their applications.
It is important that the operator and maintenance personnel
have a thorough understanding of these values and how they
relate to their system.

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Pump cavitation:
7 ways to avoid in mobile hydraulic systems

P
ump cavitation is one of the most searched topics on fluid Cavitation bubbles would rather form within the imperfections
power, which is justified, because cavitation is unfortunately on the surface of the metal parts of your pump, such as the
an all-too-common cause of pump failure on mobile lens plate of a piston pump, or the gear of a gear pump, rather
equipment. Liquids are able to hold dissolved gasses in solution, than just popping into existence in the middle of the fluid. The
and the gas saturation level within any liquid is dependent upon damage from cavitation occurs when the bubbles make their way
the pressure, the temperature and the type of liquid itself, among around to the pressure size of the pump, where they implode
other things. Cavitation is literally the bubbles spontaneously under pressure, creating super-hot jets of fluid that pierce the
formed during conditions that prevent the liquid from holding that bubble. Because the bubbles are most often located on metal
gas in saturation, such as a drop in relative pressure. parts, these little implosion jets heat up the surface of the metal,
and you end up with little pits that destroy the pump’s efficiency
The best example to explain the gas saturation concept and until it just can’t pump at all.
the cavitation principle can be found for a couple bucks at the
convenience store—a trusty bottle of soda pop. To ensure the pop Cavitation is difficult to detect on mobile equipment because
is fizzy when it hits your lips, carbon dioxide is super-saturated of the noise of the engine or the machine itself, but if it ever
within the delicious beverage, and pressure maintains that artificial sounds like someone threw a bag of marbles into your pump, it’s
level of fizz until you open the bottle. Upon opening the bottle, probably a result of cavitation. However, a diesel engine knock
you can see cavitation at work, as bubbles seem to form out sounds not-unlike cavitation, making it difficult to distinguish
of nowhere, and other than the fact hydraulic fluid simply has cavitation noise, especially from inside the cab. Also, cavitation
common air dissolved within itself, the principle is the same. can be unnoticeable even in quiet ambient conditions if it’s not
severe, and damage may not be discovered until the pump fails.
The problem with my example is in trying to translate some
harmless bubbles that tickle your taste
buds into the damage that can eat
away at solid metal. Cavitation bubbles
themselves do little damage just floating
around in your hydraulic oil, but it’s when
the bubbles reach the pressure side of
your pump that they do their harm.

Cavitation damage is
clearly seen on this valve
plate mounted on a
hydraulic pump.

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 HYDRAULIC PUMPS DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
Pump cavitation: 7 ways to avoid in
mobile hydraulic systems

Because cavitation is bad, and cannot be corrected or repaired 3 – DON’T LEAVE RAGS IN THE RESERVOIR.
by your dentist, I’m going to give you seven tips on how to avoid
cavitation in your hydraulic system. If these tips are heeded, I It may sound ridiculous for me to offer that as a suggestion,
promise you cavitation will be a thing of your past, like your plaid but every hydraulic technician worth their weight in oil counts
grunge look or that weekend in Bangkok. the number of rags they show up to and leave a job with. The
best tools for cleaning out reservoirs are rags, and you will have
to trust me when I say that it’s more common than you’d think
1 – DON’T USE A SUCTION STRAINER. to leave them in the reservoir. And if you leave a rag in the
reservoir, it will most definitely find its way to the suction tube of
Suction strainers are installed in the reservoir on the suction line the pump(s), starving them and causing cavitation.
of the hydraulic pump. They are intended to protect the pump
from ingesting dirt and filth, which should subsequently protect While we’re at it, be considerate of more than just rags when
the pump. However, think about the method in which a suction maintaining a hydraulic machine. I’ve heard of tools, cell
strainer prevents dirt from entering the pump; it collects it across phones and dead animals finding their way into reservoirs,
its flow path. Larger particles and other junk get trapped in the not all of which can clog a suction strainer or pump inlet, but
suction strainer, but over time it gets clogged. their existence there is cause for concern. For a possum to
make its way into a tank for a nap, a cover must have been
Most often, maintenance personnel don’t know the power unit left off, and this lack of consideration for the hydraulic system
even has a suction strainer, so it can get overlooked during is unacceptable. Reservoirs are buttoned up for a reason, so I
routine maintenance, especially because most mobile reservoirs recommend keeping it that way if you care about the health of
have no clean-out panel. Don’t get me wrong, it could take an your machine.
easy decade to clog a suction filter, but when it does clog, it will
cause slowly increasing levels of cavitation. You might as well
have a clamp over the suction hose that you tighten at regular 4 – PROPERLY SIZE INLET PLUMBING.
intervals. The biggest problem I have with suction strainers
is that they’re redundant anyway if your hydraulic system is The recommended maximum velocity for suction lines is only
designed and maintained well to begin with. a few feet per second, and because the relative action of fluid
being “pulled” into the pump already causes a drop in suction
pressure, the condition of sucking too much fluid through a small
2 – ENSURE PUMPS HAVE FLOODED SUCTION. straw will cause cavitation. By simply sizing suction plumbing
large enough, especially if you’re running a pump far from the
A pump can create vacuum at the inlet port to pull up fluid
reservoir, you can reduce the chance of cavitation.
a short distance, but excessive pump head height will cause
cavitation. A flooded suction condition uses the force of gravity
and atmospheric pressure to push fluid into the pump, rather 5 – USE HIGH QUALITY HYDRAULIC FLUID.
than the pump having to draw it in. A flooded suction is easy
for PTO-mounted pumps because the pumps sit so low in The quality of hydraulic fluid is often overlooked, and
the chassis, but with pumps driven off the engine, you may unfortunately, the good stuff is very expensive. Synthetic
want to consider mounting your tank high on the machine to hydraulic fluid has many properties making it superior to
compensate for the long run to the front of the truck. With a standard dino oil, which has limited capacity to work well
pump mounted below or to the side of the reservoir, cavitation outside a narrow window of operating conditions. Speaking on
is nearly impossible unless something catastrophic occurs, like a viscosity alone, thicker oil is harder to pump and is more prone
rag being thrown into the reservoir and blocking the suction line. to cavitation.

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 HYDRAULIC PUMPS DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
Pump cavitation: 7 ways to avoid in
mobile hydraulic systems

Problems occur during machine start-up, such as on a cold 7 – KEEP YOUR OIL DRY.
morning, when standard hydraulic fluid is rather thick, making
it difficult to pump. If cold and thick oil is not given time to This recommendation comes from a specific example of pump
warm before the machine is run at full pressure, cavitation could cavitation, which could have been prevented by considering a
result. Even if the period of cavitation is short, because oil can few of these tips. This brutal past winter broke down more than
heat quickly, the damage can accumulate during every cold one hydraulic machine, and this particular example occurred on
start. By switching to synthetic fluid with a high viscosity index, a half-dozen machines powered by a 12 VDC electric power unit.
you help ensure cold starts provide little drama. Viscosity index Excessive water saturation within these power units caused ice
is the quality of oil to maintain its tested viscosity over a wide to form on the suction strainers, both cavitating the pumps and
temperature range, and the bigger the number, the better. So imploding the strainers.
even with a 46 cSt oil which could be prone to cavitating a pump
These units already had the highest quality arctic oil on the market,
at 20° below if it were normal oil, a high quality oil will still be
but excessive water saturation was never accounted for, and even
relatively thin and easy to pump.
thin oil couldn’t make its way past the ice forming on the strainers.
These units now have heated enclosures, water-removing filter
6 – HEAT YOUR HYDRAULIC OIL. elements and have had their suction strainers removed.

Odd as it may sound, because heating oil in mobile machinery By following these tips, your chances of experiencing pump
is rare, heating the oil before machine start-up can also help cavitation are slim to none. Mobile hydraulic systems already
prevent cavitation due to cold-related high-viscosity. You have so much to worry about; creating conditions conducive to
wouldn’t fire up your rig and drive off without letting the engine cavitation should not be one of them.
warm up, so the same consideration should be paid to the
hydraulic system. Oil doesn’t need much time to come up to
temperature in most cases, so just running the pump to circulate
oil through the system and operating some low pressure
functions could heat up the oil before the serious work begins.

Keeping your oil in its ideal viscosity range is good practice in

any circumstance, and if design limitations prevent the heeding
of previous tips, this fact is especially true.

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What is the difference between
fixed and variable
pumps?
F
or novices in the fluid power industry, lack of understanding
between the fixed flow and variable flow pumping concepts is
quite common. A hydraulic pump has one mission, and that is
to transform incoming mechanical energy at its shaft into hydraulic
energy capable of transferring force to actuators somewhere
downstream. This transfer of force is common to both fixed and
variable pumps, but the method delivery is quite different.

The displacement of a pump is defined by the theoretical

volume the gears, vanes or pistons will displace in one
revolution. If a pump is 30 cc, it will theoretically push 30 ml
of fluid in a single rotation, or about 1.8 in.3. With a fixed
displacement pump, these 30 cm3 do not change, regardless
of how the pump is controlled or what occurs downstream.
In reality, actual flow varies based on efficiency, speed and
pressure, but that’s a different story. If you need less flow than
the pump is rated for, the excess flow must be diverted or
relieved to tank.

Piston pump

A variable displacement pump has a method of increasing

or reducing displacement either manually, hydraulically or
electronically. The method of displacement change depends
upon the pump’s structure, differing between piston and vane
pumps, and between those two, iterations still.

An axial piston pump’s maximum displacement is determined

by the quantity and bore area of the pistons multiplied by the
stroke length. Although the stroke length can be fixed, such
as with most radial and bent-axis piston motors, the stroke can
also be varied. Variable displacement axial piston pumps use
a swashplate to guide the pistons as they reciprocate while
rotating about the shaft’s axis. The angle the swashplate sits
Fixed and variable pumps symbols at relative to the pistons dictates how long or short the piston
stroke is, and with variable pumps, the swashplate is supported
by bearings or bushings.

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 HYDRAULIC PUMPS DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
What is the difference between
fixed and variable pumps?

On opposing sides of the swashplate sits a bias piston (and A variable-displacement pressure-compensated vane pump
spring) and a control piston. A variable displacement piston works quite differently from a piston pump. Instead of
pump is designed to be “on stroke,” meaning it wants to pump reciprocating pistons, the rotating group of a vane pump is
with full displacement whenever possible. The control piston is exposed to suction and pressure chambers inside the housing.
operated by what is essentially a relief valve, and if downstream The vanes move outward and inward inside the cam ring which
pressure rises above this pressure compensator setting, it is offset compared to the axis of the rotating group. There exists
will push the control piston out to reduce the angle of the a control piston in a variable vane pump, but this time it pushes
swashplate. With the swashplate angle reduced, the pistons now against the cam ring. When downstream pressure rises, the
travel a fraction of their stroke potential. Because displacement control piston pushes the cam ring towards the center of the
is dictated by the area, quantity and stroke of the pistons, pump housing, reducing the difference in alignment between it and the
volume is now reduced. If downstream pressure is still higher rotating group. This reduces effective displacement, reducing
than the compensator setting, the stroke will be reduced until flow to reduce downstream pressure.
the swashplate angle is nearly zero, where it only pumps enough
to maintain lubrication.

Swashplate angle can be changed mechanically, with a lever or

wheel, but in advanced applications, electro-proportional valves
operate the control piston to adjust pump flow as required. This
is an advanced concept used in closed loop electronic control
applications. A proportional pressure valve will adjust the control
piston of the pump with guidance from the PLC, providing exact
flow required by the machine under varying conditions.

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Hydraulic pumps
in mobile machinery

T
here are a lot of components in a hydraulic system that
are not required to achieve the result of work, but you
wouldn’t get very far without a pump. The hydraulic pump
is the heart of any mobile machine, converting mechanical
energy to hydraulic energy, and then pumping it out into the
system. That a hydraulic pump actually pumps is often where
similarities stop, as pump design and construction can vary vastly

When applying a pump, one first considers the pressure required

to meet the design criteria. The choice in pump construction can
often be decided by the operating pressure, as a piston pump
will be more reliable at 5,000 psi than, say, a vane pump. Once in variable displacement vane pumps, the offset distance is
pump design is finalized, you will need to choose the physical what dictates volume. Vane pumps are quiet, reliable and easy
displacement of the pump, which is the fluid volume it can pump to repair. They are most popular in industrial applications,
in a single rotation, normally expressed in cubic centimeters or especially those running lower pressure.
cubic inches per minute.
Piston pumps are used in the majority of high-pressure
Pump construction is often a matter of preference, but some applications. The lion’s share of the market is the variable-
designs are better suited from some applications than others. displacement, axial-piston pump, with the remaining piston
The three main types of pump are gear, vane and piston. The designs claiming a small slice of the pie. This pump is highly
gear pump family has two siblings; the outside and inside type. efficient, very reliable and relatively easy to rebuild—even
The outside gear pump is the popular one in the family, because though it is not very inexpensive. They are available with
it is effective, reliable and extremely inexpensive. It uses meshed countless control options, such as pressure-compensated, load
spur gears, with one driven and one idle, and is as basic as sensing, remote pressure control, proportional control, etc. Also,
a pump can get. Gear pumps are used in every conceivable the vast majority of closed loop pumps are axial piston type,
application, especially where price is a concern. because of the versatility and robust construction it offers.

Inside gear pumps are the overachieving valedictorian brother to

the spur gear pump. They use an inside gear arrangement, with MOBILE PUMP SELECTION
more complicated construction and tighter tolerances. They are
highly efficient, very quiet, and unfortunately, can cost ten times During selection, you must first know what pressure your system
as much as their little brother. Regardless, they are the number requires. For example, a vane pump is not reliable at pressures
one choice for some fixed-pump applications, such as the of 5,000 psi or higher, but piston pumps will suit that pressure
recently popular servomotor driven closed-loop pump systems. range ideally.

Vane pumps, once one of the most popular choices, use a Next, you must consider the pump’s displacement, which is
rotating group with rectangular vanes pushed out via springs, the volume each design can pump during one rotation. This
centrifugal force or hydraulic pressure. The offset between is normally expressed in measurements of cubic inches or
the vanes and cam ring allows the pump to create flow, and centimeters per minute.

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