Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews: Suellen C.S. Costa, Antonia Sonia A.C. Diniz, Lawrence L. Kazmerski

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 63 (2016) 33–61
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
Dust and soiling issues and impacts relating to solar energy systems:
Literature review update for 2012–2015
Suellen C.S. Costa a, Antonia Sonia A.C. Diniz a, Lawrence L. Kazmerski a,b,n
a
Pontificía Universidade Católica Minas Gerais (PUC Minas), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
b
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute (RASEI), a partnership between the University of Colorado Boulder (CU-Boulder) & the National Renewable
Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, CO, United States
art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The purpose of this review survey is to provide a literature compilation, updating materials reported in
Received 19 November 2015 several review papers on solar-device soiling and mitigation approaches published over the past 5 years.
Received in revised form The focus is on the period 2013–2015, but an updated listing is also provided for the year 2012 for
12 April 2016
completeness. This literature review also provides the first update for a periodic, single collation report
Accepted 26 April 2016
on such publications proposed in this journal two years ago. This review presents a listing of the pub-
lications, their publication source, and some brief tabulated information to help guide the reader into the
Keywords: focus of each of the works.
Photovoltaics & 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Concentrating solar power
Soiling
Dust
Reliability
Performance, mitigation, literature
Contents
1. Introduction and background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2. Review papers (2010–2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3. Discussion of publications 2013–2015 . . . . . . . . . ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Literature Summary (References Presented by Year in Alphabetical Order). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1. Introduction and background Africa, the Middle East, India, as well as the desert areas of China,
Australia, and the United States. Coincidently, these areas are also
Soiling of solar collector surfaces ranks with climate conditions characterized by high airborne-particle environments, intense
(temperature, humidity) and irradiance (spectrum, uniformity, dust storms, and water-availability concerns.
intensity) as the major concerns for component and system The interests and critical nature of these soiling issues are
reliability. Though R&D on soiling or dust accumulation has now reflected by the publication history, represented in the histogram
spanned into its 8th decade, many mechanisms remain to be of Fig. 1. The initial period includes contributions from the solar
understood and problems to be solved. These needs are intensified pioneers (Hottel, Woertz, Tomlinson, Garg – are among the lea-
by the growing markets in the solar-rich areas of the northern ders) who envisioned that avoiding soiling would be important for
the future adoption and use of collectors for their solar-thermal
n
applications. The coming of the oil embargo in the early- to mid-
Corresponding author at: Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute (RASEI), a
1970s brought a focus on solar energy and expanded terrestrial
partnership between the University of Colorado Boulder (CU-Boulder) & the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, CO, United States. applications—with the rise in publications during this period
E-mail address: [email protected] (L.L. Kazmerski). primarily on the effects on heliostats and mirrors used with
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.04.059
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
34 S.C.S. Costa et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 63 (2016) 33–61
concentrating solar-thermal power (CSP). Political changes at the (Table 1, discussed in the next section). It also builds on a com-
start of the 1980s (and the diminishing of energy costs/crises) mitment in a 2013 publication in this journal [see Tarver et al.
resulted in a loss of funding and related publications in solar and 2013 in Table 1] to provide a periodic update to the publication
dust issues. The 1990s heralded some shifts. First, the rise of reference base, as a “living document” to afford readers,
market experiments (e.g., “1000-, 10,000-, 100,000-, million-roof researchers, developers, and system deployers with a literature
programs” worldwide), large central-station CSP, and then the base of research investments, product advancements, and latest
successes of space exploration, and some limited renewed funding research/advancements addressing of critical issues relating to this
for solutions to soiling reliability issues. There was, for example, a dust/soiling reliability area. This document covers the period 2013
major rise in investments coming from the PV-powered NASA through what has transpired through 2015. However, we have
Mars rover (“Sojourner”)—which experienced extreme dust con- included a compilation, a more complete single listing for 2012—
ditions with a remoteness that would not allow firsthand manual contained in the first section of the Literature Summary (Refer-
cleaning! This invigorated research into prevention approaches ences Section). The majority of these 2012-papers continue to
(coatings, vibration/ultrasonics, electrostatics, and especially cover the effect of soiling and dust accumulation on the perfor-
electrodynamic screens) that would, in turn, reignite such high- mance of various solar technologies in various locations in the
tech remedies for earth-based systems as well. world. However, the focus of this literature review is on 2013–
The new century was marked by a growth in PV, both research 2015. In this period, we emphasize journal and conference pub-
and market expansions. This is attributed primarily to incentive lications that can be found through their “DOI” or web identifi-
programs such as the feed-in tariffs in Germany and Europe, and cations—though some open-literature articles are also listed
system buy-down subsidies in Japan and the U.S. Soiling research because of their content and interest.
and product developments shifted as well toward PV because of
the rise in applications and country programs. With the China
dominance of manufacturing (and accompanying beneficial col- 2. Review papers (2010–2015)
lapse in PV prices) starting in 2009/2010—as well as the rise in
interest in new markets and investments in the desert locations Several key review papers covering PV, CPV, and CSP dust and
(Saudi Arabia, Qatar, U.A.E. and other Gulf countries, Egypt, India, soiling have been published over the past few years, and all have
as well as the U.S., Australia, and China), the publications addres- fairly high citation indices indicative of their coverage, interest,
sing dust and soiling issues rose to their highest annual levels; and significance. These papers are summarized in Table 1, which
levels that can be expected to grow further because of the eco- provides the source authors, the publication year, a summary of
nomic and energy benefits of dust mitigation for these solar- the review contribution and focus, and the solar technology cov-
electric generators. ered. This also gives the reference base cited in each. Certainly
This survey follows on reference databases provided in several prominent among these is that in 2010 by M. Mani and R. Pillai,
reviews that have been published on dust/soiling since 2010 which summarized performance investigations, recommendations
Fig. 1. Histogram of publications on dust and soiling showing general technology emphasis and driving forces (colored regions) underlying the positive or negative growth of
the publication levels. Recent rise in publication volume responds to the significant lowering of PV costs and opening of markets in the solar-rich and dust-environment-rich
areas of the world.
S.C.S. Costa et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 63 (2016) 33–61 35
Table 1
Noteworthy recent review papers addressing soiling and dust issues.
Source Contribution/Focus of review Technology
Mani and Pillai (2010) Evaluation of current research status on impact of dust on performance of Flat-panel and concentrating PV
PV systems. In-depth analysis of dust accumulation mechanisms and
potential mitigation approaches. Climate zone definitions—and compre-
hensive evaluation of potential severity of soiling in various world climate
regions/conditions.
[23 References]
Bakirci (2012) Review of methodologies to determine optimum tilt angles for solar col- General solar collectors
lectors; irradiance with indications for soiling/dust.
Case study for irradiance situation in Turkey.
[57 References]
Mekhilef, Rahman, and Kamalisarvestani (2012) Review of the effects of dust accumulation, air velocity, and humidity on Flat-panel PV
the performance of PV cells/systems—and the interrelationships among
these three components. Indications of the effects of these on system
design and deployment. Specific results for Malaysia region highlighted.
[39 References]
Ahmed Darwish, Kazem, and Sopian (2013) Summary review of impact of dust and related environmental conditions PV (flat plate) technologies
on PV performance.
Scope of the review encompasses: dust properties (physical size, mor-
phology, electrostatic deposition behavior), particle biological and electro-
chemical properties, optimization and modeling studies, effects in various
geographical/climatic zones (latitude) considering factor of tilt, altitude,
and orientation, wind patterns and minimum dust accumulation for var-
ious PV module configurations, dust-particle geometry effects on its
deposition behavior, electrostatic attraction on dust settlement, impact of
progressive water (cement formation, staining, etc.) on performance.
Review considers work in periods before and after 1990. Discussion of dust
accumulation models.
[22 References]
Bao, Zhang, Cai, Jiang, Xv, and Jia (2013) Review of dust effects on PV performance (efficiency); dust deposition Flat-panel PV
models/mechanisms, transmission losses and the effects of environmental/
weather conditions on dust deposition. Commonly used PV module
cleaning techniques (electrode screen dust mitigation and mechanical dust
cleaning techniques) are discussed. Research directions evaluated.
[14 References]
Midtdal and Jelle (2013) Comprehensive review of current-market, self-cleaning glazing products Solar applications (using glazing
for soiling mitigation. products)
Future research and technology directions—emphasis on solar applications.
In-depth evaluation of optical property effects/aberrations.
Hydrophobic, catalytic hydrophilic, etc. covered in detail.
[48 References]
Sharma and Chandal (2013) Review and literature on performance and degradation of PV modules PV modules (outdoor exposure)
under outdoor operation for identifying research gaps for long term relia-
bility of PV modules and improving the PV qualification standards for
various geographical and climatic conditions. Reliability includes soiling
issues.
[84 References]
Tarver, Al-Qaraghuli, and Kazmerski (2013) Comprehensive overview of soiling problems, primarily those associated PV (flat-panel and concentration),
with ‘‘dust’’ (e.g. dry sand) and combined dust–moisture conditions. flat-panel solar thermal, CSP (mirrors,
Discussion of key contributions to the understanding, performance effects, heliostats, etc.)
and mitigation of these problems based on nature, pre-emption (e.g., sit-
ing), restoration (cleaning) and preventions (coatings, etc.).
Compilation of compositional, chemical, and morphological analysis of dust
from throughout the world.
Discussion of research needs and directions.
[256 References]
Butuza (2014) Focused literature search for the effects of soiling, dust and other surface PV Panels
deposits, on the performance of solar photovoltaic collectors. (Primarily
provides a procedure for searching.)
[16 References]
Ghazi, Sayigh, and Ip (2014) Review of dust effects on performance PV and solar thermal collectors from Flat-panel PV primarily, some flat
4 different climate zones. Separates review of studies from 3 historical time plate solar thermal
periods. Guidelines for mitigation and cleaning procedures pertinent to
climate conditions presented.
[92 References]
Hernandez, Easterb, Murphy-Mariscal, Maestre, Review direct and indirect environmental impacts – both beneficial and Large-scale solar PV and CSP plants
Tavassoli, Allen, Barrows, Belnap, Ochoa-Hueso, adverse – of utility-scale solar energy (USSE) development, including
Ravi, and Allen (2014) impacts on biodiversity, land-use and land-cover change, soils, water
resources, and human health.
Environmental effects of panel washing (water).
Soil erosion and effect on soil accumulation on panels; reducing effects by
vegetation.
Performance effects reviewed. [156 References]
Table 1 (continued )
Source Contribution/Focus of review Technology
Kazem, Chaichan, and Kazem (2014) Review of effects of soiling and dust conditions on the PV performance in Flat-panel PV
Iraq. Review of studies on the degradation rates and mechanisms. Effects of
moisture and cleaning requirements.
Climate zone issues presented and discussed in relationship to the soiling
problems.
Written to interest research, design, and installer groups.
[130 References]
Sayyah, Horrenstein, and Mazumder. (2014) Comprehensive review of energy-yield losses due to soiling and dust Flat-panel PV primarily (various tech-
accumulation with some focus on the semi-arid and desert locations. nologies included)
Effects of tilt angle, time exposures, various surfaces (materials), and
locations (climate zones). Laboratory and outdoor experiments are inclu-
ded. Summary and evaluation of cleaning techniques (natural, traditional,
and emerging).
[120 References]
Darwish, Kazem, Sopian, Al-Ghoul, and Alawadhi Review of dust pollutant type on performance of PV panels. In-depth eva- Flat-panel PV
(2015) luation of various reports and various compositions of dust, the accumu-
lation properties/mechanisms, and relationships to various PV parameters.
[42 References]
Maghami, Hizam, Gomes, Radzi, Resdad, Hajigh- Review of “key contributions” to the understanding, performance effects, PV Panels
orbani and power loss due to soiling and dust on solar panels. Categorization of
(2016) two shading types. Included are discussions of several cleaning techniques
and dust adhesion prevention approaches.
[55 References]
for mitigation of dust issues, and documented a useful and approach and the large number of investments in installations).
important categorization of climatic-zone influences for flat-panel Finally, some “special reports of interest” are included at the end of
and concentrating PV. This review paper ushered a series of other the annual references. These are reports that include aspects of
important contributions—each with a specific intent, area, and soiling or dust conditions, though the major focus of these pertain
focus. These review papers provide a very useful basis for under- to other aspects of solar technology concerns.
standing the issues, what has been accomplished —from mon- Tables 2–4 provide summaries of the research and develop-
itoring performance through mitigating the problems; from basic ment publications for the years 2013, 2014, and 2015 respectively.
adhesion mechanisms to dust composition and morphology; from The corresponding references (provided in Section 5. Literature
theory and modeling through experimental and measurement Summary) have the “DOI” or internet access links wherever pos-
techniques; and from current comprehension to future sible. The tables provide the geographical location and duration of
research needs. the study (if appropriate), the technology addressed, the major
results, and some related observations on the publication. Inclu-
ded at the end of the Literature Summary are several specialized
3. Discussion of publications 2013–2015 reports and publications that include some higher level discus-
sions of the importance of soiling issues to solar technology
The number of publications during this period continue the reliability. These range from “country programs” and professional
trend beginning in 2009—with a growing volume reflecting both organization reports/forecasts to specialized efforts at establishing
the investment in research funding in reliability and in the solar device reliability/durability associated with specific climate
incredible expansion of installations worldwide. Most of these are or installation requirements.
concerned with the effect of dust or soiling at various locations in Again, the primary purpose of this paper is to provide a “one-
the world. This remains an important contribution to the knowl- stop”, complete-as-possible reference listing of the publications
edge base for several reasons. First, this provides inputs to a for the period 2012 though 2015 (with 2015 having the highest
growing interest in establishing a global encyclopedia of actual number of annual publications to date) as an assistance to those
dust and soiling trends. Second, these data provide important involved with these soiling and dust issues for their own work.
information for installers and system holders. The information
benefits range from assisting in better site location to establishing
reasonable cleaning schedules that can be an immense benefit to
the operation and maintenance costs for the PV systems. And 4. Summary
finally, these studies provide a basis for collaboration among
research and developers (e.g., for PV power plants) to address the This paper has provided an update of publications for the
issues of soiling and mitigation. timeframe 2012–2015, guided by the proposal in the earlier review
The publications also indicate some trends toward these con- in this journal. This compilation builds on the reference basis
cerns with mitigation. This spans the spectrum from restoration provided in the review papers (Table 1) that have appeared in the
(cleaning with brushes, pressurized air/gas, wiping, and use of past 5 years. It is acknowledged that the is a best-effort, knowing
water and various solvents and hybrid methods) to higher- that with the extended literature and publication base in our
technology approaches based on superhydrophobic/super- multi-media world that some significant contributions are not
hydrophilic coatings and electrodynamic and electrostatic screens. included through this period to the end of 2015. Again, we ask the
Though some of the publications address CSP (mirrors, heliostats) help of those working in this area to provide us with any pub-
and CPV, the overwhelming number of these are directed toward lications that we have inadvertently missed. We do anticipate
PV flat-plate technologies (reflecting the price benefits of this solar updating this compilation again for 2016, and annually thereafter.
Table 2
Summary of dust and soiling papers in 2013 indicating primary focus, device/materials investigate, conditions and findings. The Focus Code (for primary contributions) is: *P ¼Performance, *MS¼ Modeling/Simulation;
*CM ¼ Composition/Morphology; *TR¼ Transmission/Reflection; *CE ¼ Cost/Economics; *MC ¼Mitigation/Cleaning; *A¼ ambient conditions/effects; *I¼ Instrumentation, *S ¼spectral effects, *TO¼ Tilt/Orientation.
Publication Source Focus* (see Location [Duration] Solar Device Type Key Findings Comments/Other Conditions
code below)
Adinoyi and Said P, C Saudi Arabia (Eastern Pro- Crystalline Si Modules 50% power loss for uncleaned modules over this period. Temperature effects compared between single-crystal and
(2013) vince) [6 months] Power tracking improves output and decreases dust accumu- multicrystalline technologies
lation.
Dust sample evaluated for composition/particle size
Ahmed Darwish et al. P, CM, ME Laboratory Studies Crystalline Si Modules Discusses and investigates the effect of some environmental Effects of wind speed and direction.
(2013b) variables with dust on the PV performance. Evaluates and Modeling of dust coverage effects.
compares result to other research on effect of dust properties, Module cleaning (effects).
effect of PV system parameters and effects of environment
parameters.
Use of artificial soils for investigations.
S.C.S. Costa et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 63 (2016) 33–61
Al-Ammri et al. P, CM, MC Laboratory Studies Urban Street Lights, Si Power losses by month, with 460% for 3-month period Feb- Indications of performance loss of the panels due to dust
(2013) lights Baghdad, Iraq [3-6 Modules Apr; Comprehensive data provided. accumulation.
months] Morphology evaluations by microscope indicated particles Panels at 26 meters on streetlights.
with irregular shapes (roughly spherical) Temperature/irradiance measured.
Particles have concentrations of carbon-based chemicals from Bird dropping problems (including chemical interactions
local refineries (enhanced adhesion) with modules)
Cleaning requirements discussed.
Al-Sabounchi et al. P, MC Abu Dhabi, UAE Si Modules-36KW Monthly monitoring of PV system loss. July timeframe worst Complete system evaluation (temperature, irradiance,
(2013) [ 46 months] system with 27% loss due to dust. time of day parameters, inverters, etc.)
Monthly cleaning cycle proposed.
Appels et al. (2013) P, CM, MC, TR Central Europe (Belgium) [5 Module cover glass; Si 3%-4% loss after 5 weeks exposure. SEM studies of accumulated particles (dust, pollen, etc.).
weeks] PV modules Water cleaning with soft water required (transmission loss due Cleaning cycles discussed.
to hard water shown).
Studies of glass transmission loss with artificial dust.
Awwad et al. (2013) P Amman, Jordan [3 month 240-W c-Si modules Comparison in power output between cleaned and dust- Cleaning schedule indicated (daily)
period] accumulated modules; “Energy Gap” evaluated
Bai et al. (2013) MS, CE Modeling of Phoenix, Arizona Si modules, 2-residen- Empirical modeling assuming annual 5% soiling loss Study of assumed soiling rates to model costs and other
systems [4 9000 hours] tial systems, 5KW and Extensive and detailed cost, payback, tariff data. consumer issues.
6KW (glass surface) Financial modeling for PV systems
Bi et al. (2013) CM, I Urban Environments General Technique for Novel method for collecting and evaluating dust samples col- Mainly a technique that can be applied to solar collector
Sampling and Analysis lected from roadside locations evaluations
Focus on evaluation of trace elements (e.g., Pb, anthropogenic
contamination in urban areas)
Boyle et al. (2013) TR Outdoors, Commerce City, Module cover glasses For dust accumulations o 1.5 g/m2, light transmission was Periodic procedure to prevent volatilization of deposited
Colorado USA [1.5 years] reduced by 6% per g/m2 of dust accumulation; Incidence angle dust
does not impact the transmission reduction caused by dust Sampling of 4100
deposition.
Brooks et al. (2013) P, MC Tucson, Arizona USA Flat-plate PV Modules Comparison of 3 methodologies comparing cleaned and soiled All modules indicate 1% gain in efficiency after cleaning
modules: (1) Energy yields at MPP; (2) I-V characteristics of
individual modules in field; (3) I-V characteristics of individual
modules under simulator Method 3 reported most precise.
Canada (2013) P, TO Desert Southwest USA [Data - Utility-Scale c-Si PV Soiling evaluated considering: Tilt angle, human activity Washing procedures
20-year period] Annual power loss rates: 3%-6%
Caron and Littmann P, I California USA [ 41 month] Thin-Film CdTe Automated technique (monitoring station) to evaluate effects Periodically cleaned module compared to uncleaned
(2013) of dust accumulation on performance. module.
Complex setup that eliminates sources of errors for precise Small rainfalls ( 0.5 mm rain) enough to restore perfor-
evaluations. mance of frameless module.
Soiling rates of 11.5%/month reported (agricultural areas);
Charabi and Gastli MS, P Case Study for Oman General PV Installa- Effects of dust & temperature during the site assessment for Different PV technologies are evaluated with CPV technology
(2013) tions Modeled; CPV large PV power plant in order to mitigate their vulnerability providing higher potential for implementing large solar
Focus (performance losses) and optimize their operation efficiency. plants. In fact, if all highly suitable land is exploited for CPV
Case study use to eliminate areas from site consideration. plants, supplying more than 750 times the current total
power supply in Oman (estimated at 16.1 TWh in 2010).
37
38
code below)
Dastoori et al. (2013) P,A,TO Laboratory Simulations/Tests Amorphous Si Mod- Experiments to investigate the relation between the amount of Results: Significant effect on PV module voltage
(effects of dust charge) ules (3) charge on dust particles and their impact on the reduction of Epoxy powder used to simulate dust.
the PV modules output voltage.
Complementary effects of tilt angle
Della-Guistina et al. P, I Laboratory Studies Reference Modules Sinton Instruments FMT-350 to measure the effect of soiling Sinton Instruments FMT-350 module I-V flash tester using
(2013) and light induced degradation on PV modules. NREL primary calibration reference modules
Dunn et al. (2013) P Field testing of Soiling Mon- Thin-Film CdTe Soiling Ratio (SR) defined and determined. Detailed description and evaluation of two-module (one
itoring Station Modules Soiling monitoring station designed and evaluated cleaned, one not) station with instrumentation
Uncertainty analysis provided (corrections for external para-
meters-T, irradiance, wind, etc.)
El-Din et al. (2013) P, A Alexandria, Egypt [2 months] Thin-Film PV Module As dust deposition density increased from 0 to 0.36 mg cm-2, Effect of humidity since site was located near Mediterra-
the corresponding reduction of efficiency and short circuit nean Sea.
current Isc are degraded by 17.71%. Reduction in Voc was only to Dust effects more pronounced on cloudy days.
97.86 of the clean module value.
The average degradation of power and efficiency during the
entire period of work (30 days) is 9.86%.
Ghazi et al (2013) P, TO Brighton, UK [1 month] and Glass cover sheets; Transmission as function of soiling for various tilt angles Rainy conditions in UK tended to clean panels—so soiling
Laboratory experiments Examination of c-Si (Brighton outdoor conditions) as function of average dust density was not a major issue. Other sources (birds) provided
module installation Comparisons to indoor controlled tests. issues for PV modules (shading)
Gostein et al. (2013) P, A General outdoor measure- Thin-Film CdTe and Examines the difference between a soiling ratio (SR) metric Establishes differences and needs in monitoring power or
ment conditions/locations Cryst-Si Modules calculated from measured temperature-corrected short-circuit short-circuit current.
current values (SRIsc) (the fraction of irradiance reaching the
soiled modules) versus a SR calculated from measured tem-
perature-corrected PV module maximum power values
(SRPmax) (the fraction of power produced by the soiled mod-
ules compared to clean modules).
Clearly shows the need to determine power and Isc monitoring
as representative.
Gottschaig et al. P, S, A Loughborough, UK [6 years] Thin-Film a-Si, c-Si Focus primarily on operating conditions (temperature, irra- Minor focus on soiling/snow
(2013) and CIGS modules diance, spectrum)
Good analysis our outdoor exposure testing.
Hirohata et al. (2013) P Japan [5 months] PMMA Fresnel Lens Measurements with and without superhydrophobic (SH) Relationship between dust accumulation and wind con-
(CPV) coatings (anti-soiling) ditions discussed.
Without SH: 7.1% reduction after 5 months; With SH: 4.2% in
same period.
John et al. (2013) P India Super-hydrophobic Development of TiO2-based SH coating for dust mitigation, Prototype system
antisoiling coatings coupled with water delivery system.
System design presented.
Kalogirlou et al. P, MC Cyprus and Controlled Mono-, Multicrystal- Performance under prevailing Cyprus soiling conditions. Interesting experiments with moisture.
(2013) Experiments [ 41 year] line and Amorphous Si Artificial dust & dust/moisture controlled experiments Cleaning experiences related (little required in summer;
Modules Power reductions comparisons among 3 technology types (as periodic cycles recommended during other times).
high as 43% loss in power)
Dry dust affects a-Si module less than other two types
Kawamoto and Shi- MC Laboratory Testing PV Panel Cleaning Electrodynamic system using electrostatic force to remove Power used is near zero.
bata (2013) System sand from module surface.
Design uses parallel wire electrodes embedded in a cover glass
plate of a solar pane (with single-phase voltage applied)—80%
effective in dust removal
Kazem et al. (2013) P Laboratory controlled study Multicrystalline Si Study of different dust/particle/pollutant types (ash, sand, red Power output reported as function of time.
with outdoor tests module soil, calcium carbonate, silica gel) on the performance para-
meters of a commercial PV module.
Klimm et al. (2013) P, MC, CE Laboratory Studies 10 MW PV plant as Anti-soiling coatings evaluated for effectiveness (dust mitiga- Comparison of glass types
baseline tion and durability).
Economic analysis of financial gain for 10MW PV plant with
anti-soil investment.
Kumar et al. (2013) CM Laboratory studies (controlled Si panel (12 cm x 8 cm; Modeled showing both exponential and linear dependence of Dust: Bentonite-clay (aluminium phyllosilicate)
conditions) glass surface) the efficiency on the gram-accumulation.
Levitan (2013) P Deserts CSP and Other Solar Popular discussion of what may limit the deployment of solar Scientific American “Clean Energy Wars”
Technologies technologies in the desert regions (dust, water)
Marion et al. (2013) P, MS Colorado, USA [2 winter peri- 6 PV systems Focus on snow Good analogies for particulate soiling (models useful)
ods (2010-2012)] Measured monthly PV losses of up to 90%, annual losses from
1% to 12%.
Residential and non-residential systems
Massi Pavan et al. MS Italy (PV plant data) Labora- Large-scale PV plants Comparison between two different modeling techniques for Modeling and results useful for determining cleaning
(2013) tory modeling effort the determination of the effect (power losses) of soiling on cycles.
large-scale PV plants (neural network based).
Comparisons to standard test condition results.
Mejia and Kleissl P, TO California, USA [year-long Residential and Com- Changes in efficiency of 186 residential and commercial PV Losses reported by geographical location in California
(2013) study] mercial PV sites were quantified during dry periods during 2010 Annual energy yield data
Installations Soiling losses averaged 0.051% per day overall and 26% of the
sites had losses greater than 0.1% per day
Module tilt angles investigated
Midtdal and Jelle P, MS General Mitigation Coatings for Extensive examination and evaluation of mitigation coatings Excellent presentation on mitigation coatings, their use,
(2013) Solar Collectors for solar products. their limitations, and their benefits.
Currently, photocatalytic hydrophilic self-cleaning (dust) pro-
ducts appear superior to the hydrophobic. Perhaps it is that the
the hydrophobic products are “easy-to-clean” rather than
“self-cleaning”.
Hydrophobic products have substantial benefits indoors, see-
ing that photocatalytic actions does not work without UV
radiation, whereas photocatalytic hydrophilic products seem
to have the greatest potential for further use with outdoor
glazing products.
Photocatalytic hydrophilic products require manual cleaning
as well as the hydrophobic products.
Moharram et al. P, MC Cairo, Egypt [ 45 days] 14-KW power plant- Efficiency decreased 50% after 45 days of cleaning with non- German University in Cairo
(2013) Crystalline Si Modules pressurized water Focus on minimizing water use in cleaning
Using cleaning solution of anionic and cationic surfactants, Detailed system description/design
efficiency remained constant (no degradation)
“Cleaning the PV panels using the developed water system and
a mixture of surfactants minimizes the amount of water nee-
ded for cleaning as well as the energy for spraying the water”
Ndaiye et al. (2013) P Senegal [1-year study] Commercial Multi- Losses in module parameters (Voc, Isc, Pm, FF) as a function of Power loss rates up to 17%/month observed.
and Polycrystalline Si dust accumulation over annual exposure. Consideration of shading effects.
modules (2 locations) Power loss 18%-78% (mainly through Im)
Losses in FF differing significantly for mc and pc modules
(different manufacturers)
Piliougine et al. TR, P Southern Spain [1-year] 6-Crystalline Si Evaluation of a new, commercial self-cleaning coating for 3 coated/3 uncoated modules for comparison.
(2013) Modules photovoltaic applications Inhomogeneity of dust distribution caused additional
Mean daily loss: 3.3%/day for uncoated; 2.5%/day for coated. power losses.
Transmission losses: 12% uncoated, 10% coated.
Qasem et al. (2013) P, MS, CM, TO Kuwait [Several years] CdTe Modules Spatially-resolved 3 dimensional model is developed using Temperature-performance for CdTe
circuit analysis software PSPICE to investigate inhomogeneous, Module hot-spots due to dust shading
deposited dust on PV modules
Effect of tilt angle on dust accumulation
Extensive performance and reliability information
Rajput and Sudhakar P Outdoors; Bopal, India Two Si panels (Each Power and efficiency monitored as function of accumulation; Monitored solar radiation, temperature
(2013) [undefined timeframe] 0.404 m2) glass surface Power reduction up to 92% and efficiency loss up to 89%)
Rao et al. (2013) P, A Tropical Locations India PV Technologies Focus PV in tropical locations. Experimental evaluations of panels in field.
Effects of wind, temperature, dust and other environmental Similar to paper published in 2014
conditions are evaluated and discussed.
Sabah and Faraj MC Laboratory Automated Robotic Cleaning cycles determined using sensors Though title indicated “self cleaning solar panels”, an
(2013) Cleaning System Robotic, automated brushing system design is presented for PV automated robotic system with sensors is described.
panels
Mexico City, Mexico Detailed information about overall system performance
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code below)
Santana-Rodriguez, PV System (Power Grid-connected system evaluation

et al. (2013) Plant) 6.1 kW 4 solar PV technologies: mono-Si, poly-Si, a-Si:H, and CdS/
CdTe
Comparison for soiling and other environmental conditions
Typical environmental pollution throughout the year in Mex-
ico City causes the deposition of a fine dust layer onto the
system “practically in a permanent way.”
An estimated loss of around 10% due to dust typical.
Sayyah et al. (2013) P, MC General CSP Focus on the impact of dust accumulation on concentrated Compare natural (rain) cleaning, manual cleaning, and
photovoltaic (CPV) and concentrated solar power (CSP) sys- EDS
tems.
Electrodynamic Screens (EDS) as mitigation methodology
Schaeffer et al. (2013) MC General Dust Mitigation Development of transparent superhydrophobic coatings for Application to instrument protection but also to dust
Coatings large surface areas—based on functionalized silica nanoparticles mitigation.
to coat optical elements and measured their transmission Interesting micro-level physical studies and spectral
between 400 nm to 800 nm. effects.
Smith et al. (2013) P, MC Portland, Oregon USA [ 44 PV Arrays (Si) Power losses up to 4% for uncleaned panels (17 days). Temperature effects reported
months] Beneficial effects of rainfall and manual cleaning reported. Cleaning procedures documented
Sueto et al. (2013) MC Laboratory experiments PMMA Fresnel Lens Anti-soiling coating structure: WO3/Graded Layer/Acrylic Applied coatings to commercial Fresnel lens used in CPV
(CPV) Urethane Capping Layer/PMMA Lens (effective in reducing particle adhesion)
Coating effective in reducing particle adhesion and the surface Detailed information on coating application.
electrostatic potential
Relationship between these parameters investigated
Touati et al. (2013a) P Qatar [100 days] Monocrystalline Si and 10% decrease in efficiency due to dust accumulation during Cleaning schedules indicated.
Amorphous Si this period. Temperature effects on technology types reported.
Modules Amorphous panel surfaces less affected by dust accumulation
than the crystalline Si ones
Touati et al. (2013b) P, CM Qatar Monocrystallin Si Mono-crystalline PV panels, caused the efficiency to decrease Some indications and evaluations of durability (e.g.,
Modules by 10%. This limitation makes solar PV an less reliability power undergoing cleaning)
source for unattended/remote locations
Cleaning challenges discussed (regular cycles)
Tylim (2013) P, CE, MC General PV Discussions of effects on annual energy delivery (case studies). Cleaning schedule requirements
Requirements for periodic cleaning Cost-benefits
Wang, et al. (2013) CM,MC, Laboratory studies; micro- General studies of AFM evaluations of force between particles and insulating Use of AFM to measure force. Good fundamental study.
scale force investigations adhesion surfaces. Result showed that charge is a factor in attracting
particles, but not in the force holding them to the insulator
Yadav et al. (2013) A,CM Laboratory-wind tunnel Heliostats (CSP) Understanding of deposition of dust on heliostats (planar); Air Soil composition of Jodpur studied and saltation in region;
experiments flow and deposition studied for single and multiple heliostat Ash used for experiment comparable to particles collected
configurations; Velocity distribution and flow pattern critical from PV panels in region.
to determining deposition
Zhou et al. (2013) MC Laboratory Studies Western Electrodynamic Physical investigations of dust particle movements on surfaces Detailed modeling and analysis.
China Screens for dust electrodynamic screens.
Mathematical model of the dust removal efficiency and the
optimization method for electric curtain design (multivariate
function optimization methods).
Theory basis for the development of self-cleaning techniques
for large solar systems under climate conditions of western
China
*P ¼Performance, *MS¼ Modeling/Simulation; *CM ¼ Composition/Morphology; *TR¼ Transmission/Reflection; *CE ¼ Cost/Economics; *MC¼ Mitigation/Cleaning; *A ¼ ambient conditions/effects; *I¼ Instrumentation; *S ¼Spectral
Effects; TO ¼ Tilt/Orientation
Table 3
Summary of dust and soiling papers in 2014 indicating primary focus, device/materials investigate, conditions and findings. The Focus Code (for primary contributions) is: *P ¼ Performance, *MS¼ Modeling/Simulation;
*CM ¼Composition/Morphology; *TR ¼Transmission/Reflection; *CE ¼Cost/Economics; *MC ¼ Mitigation/Cleaning; *A ¼ ambient conditions/effects; *I¼ Instrumentation, *S ¼ spectral effects, *TO¼ Tilt/Orientation.
code below)
Abrams et al. (2014) P,TR, MC 12 field stations across the USA [1 Si (module glass) Report of robust dual-function anti-reflective and anti-soiling coating Installations by Sun Edison
year] that is hydrophobic and self-cleaning Procedures on preparation of glass
included
Amarnadh et al. (2014) P, TR, TO, A Vellore, India (Southeast India) [1 Monocrystalline and Poly- Orientation (,) of module data. Temperature, humidity, and solar irra-
month] crystalline Si Modules; Glass Efficiency vs. days of exposure; dust density vs. days of exposure diance data provide.
Plates Transmission of test plates reported vs. dust coverage; Function of tilt.
Al-Jawah et al. (2014) MS, MC Hypothetical 1-MW PV Plant in PV Development, testing, and evaluation of a framework to assist inves- Questionnaire developed for experts to
(Dissertation) Saudi Arabia tors in photovoltaic (PV) power plants in dust-prone and arid regions rate the degree of their agreement or
make informed decisions regarding selection among PV panel cleaning disagreement on a Likert scale. Average
alternatives. results indicate agreement that the
Multi-criteria decision method (MCDM) used to select among cleaning study can improve selection among PV
alternatives in light of competing criteria. panel cleaning alternatives.
Anshir Bashir et al. P, A, TO Taxila, Pakistan [Winter Months- a-Si (single junction), single- Some review of past performance reports associating performance Mono- and polycrystalline modules:
(2014) January - March] crystal & multicrystalline Si with dust accumulation. Better performance in high-irradiance
modules Indications that soiling lowers the module operating temperature. condition with lower power output at
Discussion of tilt, humidity, and wind effects. low irradiance.
Amorphous Si: Good performance in low
irradiance (better light absorption)
Boyle et al. (2014) TR, A, CM Colorado Glass Cover Plates Airborne concentrations of particles (smaller than 10 mm) are collected Purpose for future modeling and dust
simultaneously dust accumulated on PV glass cover plates. accumulation interpretations.
Differences reported; effects of wind velocity.
Burton and King P, TR, CM Laboratory Studies (standardized Multicrystalline Si Cells Laboratory techniques to apply (simulated) soil to a specimen with Aim at correlating laboratory studies
(2014a) soil testing) quantification of results of the film on the transmission of incident with outdoor results and mitigation of
light. soiling effects.
Artificial soil is used and applied by aerosol spray device.
Transmission performance loss due to deposited soil is predicted over
a range of mass loadings.
Demonstration that the composition (NIST traceable) of the blend,
(termed “standard grime” by the authors) had a significant and
reproducible influence on measured performance loss.
Burton and King P, CM, S Laboratory Studies PV glass coupons Spectral loss due to the color profile (spectral effects) of the accumu- Focus on laboratory studies that can link
(2014b) lated soiling material investigated. with outdoor soiling results and effects
Use mixtures of previously reported “standard grime” with common of spectral content and relationships to
mineral pigments (Fe2O3 and göthite). “color” effects of soils.
Results show: Soils rich in red pigments (Fe2O3) - greater integrated
response than göthite containing soils rich in yellow pigment.
The yellow soils caused a greater attenuation in 300-450 nm spectrum
region and can have significant implications to specific devices (e.g.,
CdTe and mutlicrystalline Si technologies).
Burton and King I, TR, MC Laboratory Studies Glass Cover Sheets Expansion of earlier technique to measure the optical losses due to an Interesting observations and analysis
(2014c) artificially applied dust film. about ensuring that the losses due to soil
Sprayed artificial soil (described in paper). accumulation are outside the instru-
1 gm/m2 determined to be the limit of mass sensitivity to changing mental error.
reflection characteristics (about same as a daily observed soil accu- Also, importance to CPV of these parti-
mulation) cular studies are stressed.
Linear decreases observed between 1 gm/m2 and 5 gm/m2
Cano et al. (2014) P, CM, A, TO, Mesa, Arizona USA [3-month Crystalline Si Reference Cell Investigations of the interrelationships among soiling loss, terrain of Detailed discussions, descriptions, and
I Janurary through March period] Coupons the installation, tilt angle, rain frequency/intensity. applications of developed test station.
Design and development of inexpensive soiling station which evaluates Computations of the solar irradiance
soiling loss at different tilt angles (0°, 5°, 10°, 15°, 20°, 23°, 30°, 33°, 40°). performed.
Hot-dry climate results: the 0° tilt angle showed a 2.02% loss whereas 23°
and 33° showed soiling loss close to 1% (during the first 3 months of 2011).
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Chamaria et al. (2014) MS Laboratory Simulation and Model- 50 kW c-Si System Loss modeled and calculated in terms of kWh. Modeling and simulation of this 50kW
ing India Low latitudes having medium dust density should also have daily system in India.
cleaning due to lower tilt angle and higher dust deposition. Discussions of critical impact factors for
Less of a problem in higher latitude regions. dust loss for PV panels.
Cristaldi et al. (2014) I, P, A, M Milan, Italy and Laboratory Studies Commercial Si module Development of a (simple) method to evaluate dust on the perfor- Good discussion of techniques and lim-
mance of PV modules. itations
Estimates reduction in PV performance. Computations of the solar irradiance
Accuracy/errors of measurements/technique evaluated. performed.
System includes pyramometer and PV module. Method differentiates between dust
issues and other module ageing
problems.
Fernández-Garcia et al. MC, TR Spain CSP Outdoor exposure of solar reflectors and applying different cleaning Interesting investigation of a variety of
(2014) methods. cleaning processes for reflectors.
Most effective cleaning method is using demineralized water and a
brush, with an average efficiency of 98.8 % in rainy periods and 97.2 %
in dry seasons.
Innovative cleaning method based on a steam device with a soft tissue
was inefficient (efficiency of 97.3 % in a rainy period).
Ghosh and Ghosh P,MS,MC India PV Evaluation of the effects of dust adherence to module surface on effi- Description of cell and system operation.
(2015) ciency.
Modeling of the efficiency loss (Power, IV characteristics, irradiance)
Evaluation of mitigation approaches (coatings, cleaning)
Gostein et al. (2014) P, MC Desert Southwest USA, Arabian Thin-Film CdTe Power Plants Discussion on correct data collection methods. Soiling Ration (SR) utilized.
Peninsula, Western Australia Soiling levels correlated with PV power plant performance. Identified soiling as “3rd most significant
[Annual Data] Discussions of measurement precision, non-uniformity soiling issues, factor affecting PV power plant perfor-
& rainfall required for performance recovery. mance”—after irradiance and
temperature.
Griffith et al. (2014) P South Africa [ 1 year] CSP Mirrors Candidate CSP site cleanliness assessment using dust collection buck- Reflectivity loss (soiling) measured on a
ets and loss of reflectivity on mirror samples installed at the site. monthly cycle using a specially designed
Instrumentation design presented. portable imaging-instrument.
this purpose.
Herrmann et al. MS, A Laboratory Studies General GIS Analysis for Dust Use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to model the soiling Contribution to the development of
(2014b) Risks at Geo Locations potentials in Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries. appropriate indoor durability testing
Major result: Dust risk map of the MENA region, showing significant procedures and the identification of the
differentiation of soiling potentials. most favorable solar locations.
Herrmann et al. MS, A Focus on MENA region PV Discussions of parameters and events controlling soiling. Preliminary but important modeling
(2014a) Modeling of soiling (influences of climate conditions and collector directions.
characteristics). Discussions of soiling conditions, con-
Global soiling rates estimated by GIS. trolling environments, etc.
MENA information.
Hunter et al. (2014) MC Southwest U.S. Laboratory Studies CSP mirrors and heliostats Development and discussion of low cost, easy to apply anti-soiling Coatings have excellent SH properties
coatings based on superhydrophobic (SH) functionalized nano-silica with water contact angles 4165° and
materials and polymer binders that mitigate dust adhesion problems rolling angles o5°.
and significantly reducing mirror cleaning costs/facility downtime
Iberraken (2014) P, A Sahara Desert (Maghreb Countries, Crystalline Si Modules Effects of fine dust, dust wind, & sandstorms on the PV I-V character- Extensive report on reliability issues in
primarily Algeria) istics reported. these harsh, desert climates (e.g., EVA
discoloration).
John et al. (2014b) P, TO, MS Arizona Crystalline Si Modules from Tilt evaluations (angle-of-incidence-AOI) and effects. Performed on specially developed tilt
Field PV modules retrieved from the field that had different dust densities fixtures for precise evaluations.
have been measured for the dependence of the AOI curves on the dust
gravimetric densities.
Measured AOI curves were fitted and validated with the analytical/
empirical models (literature reports).
John et al. (2014a) P, TR, S, CM Mesa, Arizona USA [1.5 years] Crystalline Si Modules Spectral reflectance and quantum efficiency changes at various wave- Various dust layer thickness studies for
lengths for dust accumulations. spectral changes/effect.
Heavily soiled solar cell ( 74.6gm/m2): very high reflectance loss and
very low quantum efficiency at all wavelengths (measured vs cleaned
panel).
Examined 3-soiled solar cells cleaned using 3 different cleaning tech-
niques - 60psi compressed air clean, brush assisted 30psi compressed
air clean and water cleaned. Short circuit current, spectral reflectance's
and quantum efficiency's dependence on wavelengths is reported
before and after each cleaning steps
Kazem et al. (2014a) P, TR Iraq (outdoor) [1 year] Crystalline Si Modules Compares the energy performance of four identical PV-panels with 20 Climatic and weather conditions
watt power; one cleaned daily, one weekly, and one uncleaned. by included.
using Solmetric PV Analyzer for a period of Efficiency of panels
determined: significant decrease in the relative conversion efficiency
which was ( 7.9%, 20%, 27%) for the weekly cleaned, monthly cleaned
and seasonally cleaned panels respectively relative to daily cleaned
panel and the reduction in average performance factor was ( 5.7 , 12.6
,17.2 ) for weekly cleaned, monthly cleaned and seasonally cleaned
panels respectively.
Kazmerski et al. (2014) P, MC MENA and India [4 1 year] Crystalline Si primarily; Some Microanalysis of the chemistry and morphology of dust particles from Indications and evaluation of cementi-
CdTe thin film these desert regions. tious-layer formations due to moisture.
Scanning of individual grains for composition.
Effectiveness of dust mitigation coatings (from Saudi Arabia mea-
surements)
Overview of ongoing and past research.
Ketjoy and Kony (2014) P,MS Thailand [5-month perio] Mono- and Multi-crystalline Approach: 40 W of amorphous silicon, 75 W of monocrystalline silicon Modeling: relationship between the
u and Amorphous Si and 125 W of multicrystalline silicon; cleaned and exposed module accumulative dust on photovoltaic
from each group. module and electrical energy output of
Dust accumulation measured by dust-fall jar methods. PV module
The quantity of dust on PV module 55 mg/m2.d, 260 mg/m2.d and 425
mg/m2 effect to decrease solar radiation of 3.71 %, 11.15 % and also
effect to decrease electrical energy output from PV module of; 3.50 % of
amorphous silicon when quantity of dust is equal to 260 mg and 7.28 %
when quantity of dust is equal to 425 mg, 2.96 % of mono crystalline
silicon when quantity of dust is equal to 260 mg and 5.79 % when
quantity of dust is equal to 425 mg and 2.83 % of multi crystalline
silicon when quantity of dust is equal to 260 mg and 6.03 % when
quantity of dust is equal to 425 mg.
Khonkar et al. (2014) P, MC, CE Saudi Arabia Desert Conditions CPV arrays ( 41000x Differences between CPV (high conc.) and flat-plate PV. Study indicates need for further model-
concentration) Dust 5-times greater effect on these CPV than flat-plate PV. ing.
I-V characteristics monitored to determine soiling effects. Questions on cost-effectiveness of
Current cleaning procedures discussed for these CPV cleaning in desert regions.
Kumar and Kaur (2014) P China [ 1 year] PV general Impact: blocking transmission of sunlight, increasing of temperature of Discussions of general reliability issues
the and surface corrosion (due to chemical nature of the dust). and operation of PV cells/systems
Leloux et al. (2014) P, M High DNI Regions CSV Bankability issues relating to soiling, dust, climate, performance DNI and environmental conditions
Lombardo et al. (2014) P, MC Various European Locations Glass Materials in the Built Examination of rural, urban, and industrial environments for particu- Extensive chemical analysis.
Environment late matter deposited on glass. Indications for solar panel issues
The formation of the deposit at the glass surface is a quite complex (including possible ageing)
phenomenon controlled by the deposition of both gaseous and or
particulate matter– complex reactions taking place before (in the
atmosphere), during and after the deposition (at the glass surface)
Lorenz et al. (2014) P, MS, CE Laboratory Simulations Module Cover Glass Sheets Evaluation of hydrophobic and hydrophilic dust mitigation coatings. Detailed modeling results for “dry years”
Gains of 43% over uncoated surfaces (transmittance) and “wet years”
Cost simulations and modeling based on lab simulations of dust cov-
erage (with and without mitigation coatings)
Lorenzo et al. (2014) P Southeast Spain 2-MW PV Plant Non-uniform dust deposits lead to more than the short-circuit current Non uniform temperature distributions
reduction resulting from transmittance losses. When the affected PV result from the “shading” effects of the
modules are in a string together with other cleaned (or less dusty) non-uniform dust distribution—‘hot
ones, operation voltage losses arise-leading to power losses. spots’
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code below)
Maghami et al. (2014) MC Malaysia, Industrial Area Si Modules Identified industry-source dust on panel surface: siliceous, alumina Also, highway (traffic) pollutants and
and cement identified by EDX bird droppings.
Impurity distributions on particle surfaces (maps of dust samples) Elemental identifications
Mallineni et al. (2014) P, A, TO Arizona 4-16 year-old PV Power Plants Soiling losses in hot-dry climate zone. Excellent basis from reliability observa-
Soiling losses in 4-PV power plants with two different surroundings tions on these installations.
(urban and rural) and 3-different installation types (ground mount -
fixed tilt, 1-axis tracking and rooftop - fixed tilt)
Major Results: Site 3 (Glendale, Arizona) - rural, 1-axis tracking, 12 years,
6.9% soiling loss; Site 4b (Mesa, Arizona) - urban, horizontal tilt (ground),
16 years, 11.1% soiling loss; Site 4c (Mesa, Arizona) - urban, 1-axis
tracking, 4 years, 5.5% soiling loss; Site 6 (Tempe, Arizona) - urban, 5o
fixed tilt (rooftop), 8 years, 3.8% soiling loss.
Mazumder et al. (2014) P, I, TR, CM Laboratory Studies Electrodynamic Screen Systems Report on transparent electrodynamic screens (EDS) and their appli- Very detailed description of technique,
for PV (and CSP) cations for self-cleaning operation of solar mirrors - primary focus on use, limitations, and effectiveness.
the removal dust particles o 30-mm diameter while maintaining
specular reflection efficiency o 90%.
Focus: (1) loss of specular reflection efficiency as a function of particle
size distribution of deposited dust, and (2) the effects of the electrode
design and materials used for minimizing initial loss of specular
reflectivity in producing EDS-integrated solar mirrors.
Mejia et al. (2014) P, I San Diego, CA USA [ 3 months Large PV (86.4 KW) System Large PV system: Soiling losses were found to be 0.21% Correlated with weather station data
summer] per day, with an observed efficiency decrease from 7.2% to 5.6% during located about 3.4 Km from site.
a 108 day dry period (summer). Good irradiance correlations.
Following this observation, rain event restored most of the lost effi-
ciency to 7.1%.
Ndiaye et al. (2014) P Dakar, Senegal Multi- and Monocrystalline Si Pmax loss from 18 to 78% respectively for the polycrystalline module Exposure times (dust accumulation)
Modules (pc-Si) and monocrystalline module (mc-si). Imax loss from 23 to 80% FF also monitored.
respectively pc-Si and mc-Si modules.
Vmax and Voc are not affected by dust accumulation for both
technologies.
Naeem (2014) P,MC Metro Phoenix, Arizona USA Si Modules Two studies that focus on investigating the soiling effect on the per- 5 cities in Phoenix area considered.
formance of the PV modules: Good description of experimental setup.
(1) investigate the optimum cleaning frequency for cleaning PV mod-
ules installed in Mesa, AZ
(2) evaluating the soiling loss in different locations of Metro Phoenix
area of Arizona, to validate the daily soiling rate obtained from the
mock rooftop setup
Soiling rates: (1) -0.061% for 20° tilt, and (2) -0.057 to -0.85% for 13-28°
tilt.
Pape et al. (2014) P, ME, MC Spain [Cleaning 3-26 day periods] CSP systems (solar resource Effects of dust on irradiance affecting solar thermal plant performance Very useful discussions of solar resource
monitoring systems) and monitoring systems. monitoring equipment under various
Soiling characteristics of the rotating shadow band pyranometers environmental conditions.
compared to pyroheliometers. Correction algorithms to improve the
The pyroheliometer suffered of linearly growing errors of up to 30% accuracy of the RSP sensors explained
after one month, the soiling impact on the rotating shadow band and presented.
device generally stayed below 2%, without any visible trend of growing Instrument cleaning evaluated.
errors
Polizos et al. (2014a) MC Coatings (Laboratory Studies) CSP Transparent superhydrophobic (SH) coatings based on multifunctional Promising long-life coatings for CSP
silica nanoparticles and polymeric binders developed and evaluated. applications and PV as well
Key findings:
The optical clarity of the coatings. The particles (average size smaller
than 200 nm ) were uniformly dispersed in organic binders and
resulted in coatings with an average roughness value smaller than 30
nm. The nano-particles do not scatter light at wavelengths 4 250 nm
because of their small dimensions.
Enhanced particle binder interfaces with
multifunctional configuration significantly improves the abrasion resis-
tance of the coatings without degrading their SH properties.
Accelerated weathering durability (UV exposure). Indications that
the coatings are environmentally durable over several years of
simulated UVA exposure.
Polizos et al. (2014b) MC Laboratory Studies Coating Development Method for fabricating scalable and cost-effective superhydrophobic Potential application for dust mitigation/
coatings. protection for modules
Chemical modification of diatomaceous earth nanostructured
particles.
Abrasive resistance depends on the size and geometry of the dia-
tomaceous earth (potential for long life).
Qasem et al. (2014) P, TO, S, TR Laboratory Studies (comparisons to Amorphous Si, CIGS, CdTe, and PV performance and cover glass transmittance measurements. Extensive correlations among dust den-
Kuwait data) Crystalline Si Modules (and Experiments as functions of tilt angle. sity, light transmission, and performance
glass sheets) Demonstration of relationship between dust density and light trans- degradation.
mittance (through glass) for dust below 19mg/cm2. Chemical and physical data of dust used
Higher-bandgap technologies (e.g., a-Si) more affected because of in these studies.
spectral response than lower bandgap (e.g., c-Si)
Rao et al. (2014) P Bangaluru, India (Laboratory and Si PV modules Effect of outdoor exposure (dust) on I-V characteristics Extensive I-V measurements and com-
Outdoor Testing) Indoor simulations parisons between outdoor and labora-
Isc is sensitive to measuring dust-induced losses (from both indoor and tory (controlled conditions)
outdoor measurements) measurements.
Sakhuja et al. (2014) TR, MC, CM Singapore [3 months] Si Modules (glass surfaces) Development, production, and testing of self-cleaning nanostructured Durability results promising for these
glasses for mitigation. nanostructured layers.
Results: Loss of 2% in efficiency for planar glass packaged solar mod-
ule; and loss of 0.3% in efficiency for nanostructured glass packaged
solar module.
Sansom et al. (2014) P, MC Laboratory Studies CSP (polymer and glass covers) Comparisons of the optical properties and surface texture of glass and Measurements: specular and hemi-
polymer film collectors for concentrating applications. spherical reflectance, surface roughness,
Degradation of glass and polymer reflecting surfaces with sand and and electron microscopy.
dust abrasion. Results interesting for CPV as well.
Anti-soiling and self-cleaning coatings tested on glass and polymer Cleaning processes.
film collector surfaces
Said and Walwil (2014) P, MC, TR, A Dhahran, Saudi Arabia [45 days] Module glass covers and PV Effects of dust deposition of PV performance and cover glass trans- Interesting and novel AFM studies of
panels mission. adhesive forces (fundamental studies of
ARC glass effects (indicated reduction in soiling) adhesion).
Higher particle size—higher adhesion forces Extensive studies of composition.
Effects of moisture on enhanced adhesion
20% reduction in power output (5 gm2 dust accumulation) after 45
days exposure
Sayyah et al. (2014) P Laboratory Studies (Electro- PV modules Database reported for soiling losses in different parts of the world. Detailed overview of electrodynamic
dynamic Screens) Environmental and design parameters of dust deposition discussed screen effectiveness and use.
and evaluated.
Laboratory, outdoor, and predictive soiling studies.
Emerging method of electrodynamic screen for dust removal
introduced and evaluated
Schaeffer et al. (2014b) MC Laboratory (superhydrophobic) Solar anti-soiling coatings Simple, durable spray-on SH coating based on functionalized SiO See also paper Schaeffer et al. (2014a).
nanoparticles that can easily be applied to surfaces (e.g., optical sen-
sors, photovoltaics, sights and lenses, textiles, construction materials,
and electronic devices.
Durability and mechanical properties reported.
Schaeffer et al. (2014c) MC, ME Laboratory (superhydrophobic) Solar anti-soiling coatings Development of silica nanoparticle-based nano-coatings that can be Contact angles, morphology, etc. repor-
(large area) applied to large surface areas (modules). ted.
Focus on transparency between 400 nm and 800 nm. Modeling of coatings
Semaoui et al. (2014) P Algeria ( Southern desert) Si Modules Dust accumulation over several months, with average loss of 4.38%/ Ghardaia region, 600 km south of Algiers
month
Sharma et al. (2014) P, A Gurgaon, India [4 28 months] HIT and multicrystalline Si Reliability and performance of HIT and multicrystalline Si modules Wide-ranging investigations of the per-
Modules under operating conditions, including soiling. formance of two module technologies
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All tested modules had observed soiling issues. under operating conditions at the SERC
Enhanced soiling effects at module edges (mounting points) (now NISE) test facility near New Delhi.
Sibai (2014) P,MS Saudi Arabia (hot dry desert) Modeling of PV module Mathematical model for series-parallel photovoltaic modules, evaluate Modeling for general hot climate condi-
performancee the model, and present the I-V and P-V characteristic plots for various tions—with additional analysis for dust
temperatures, irradiance, and diode ideality factors – dust
considerations.
Sinha et al. (2014) P, A Various Si technologies Atmospheric variables considered: temperature, humidity, aerosols, Temperature and humidity effects
clouds, soiling, and snowfall, for arid versus temperate regions, with received special attention.
specific comparison of the U.S. Southwest and Saudi Arabia with the U.
S. Southeast and Ontario, Canada.
Specific dust/snow results: -3% for soiling with cleaning, and 0 to o ;-
5% for snowfall
Smith et al. (2014) P Laboratory and Outdoor Testing Crystalline Si Modules Flowing water system investigated to improve PV module perfor- Focus on temperature and irradiance
mance, including the avoidance of soiling. benefits for improvements in
performance.
Stark et al. (2014) P,TR Laboratory Experiments, Modeling CSP Investigation of the application of electrodynamic screens for “efficient Modeling, ray tracing
and cost-effective” dust removal from CSP mirrors Specular reflectivity measured inside
Prototype mirrors constructed and evaluated weather chamber
Incorporation of transparent EDS causes an initial loss of 3% but would
be able to maintain specular reflectivity more than 90% to meet the
industrial requirement for CSP plants
Sulaiman et al. (2014) P, I Laboratory Testing (controlled Crystalline Si Focus: dust, water, sand and moss on the surface of solar photovoltaic Cleaning requirements discussed.
conditions) panel: Primarily development of experimental system for controlled
observations.
Up to 86% loss in performance reported.
Tan, et al. (2014) MS, MC Indoor issues with dust and Indoor surfaces (general) Air-conditioned environments (emphasis) for these indoor studies of Some focus on health issues, but studies
surfaces dust adhesion to various surfaces. of science interest to dust and soiling for
Interrelationships of dust adhesion with degree of surface roughness. PV
Modeling using van de Waals forces.
Toivola, et al. (2014) P Arizona, Florida, Ohio-USA [Multi- CIGS Modules Outdoor testing for reliability of Miasolé thin-film CIGS modules. Product reliability investigation for thin
year outdoor testing] Testing conditions and apparatus described; data shows soiling effects. film CIGS product.
Weber et al. (2014) A, P, MC, I Laboratory Studies Si Modules Development of soiling and abrasion tests for PV module surfaces. Test procedure key to determining the
Beneficial effects of anti-soiling coatings demonstrated (anti abrasive service lifetime of module glass and
and soil mitigation) coatings (dust mitigation, antireflection,
Cleaning procedures discussed/demonstrated-including impact of etc.) under soiling conditions.
cleaning on surface
Abrasive tests and instrumentation designed and tested
Wolfert-stetter et al. I, P General Locations Metrology Stations Effect of dust on MHP monitoring stations. Dust observations on the effects on
(2014) Pyrheliometers extremely sensitive to dust (DNI). Reductions of mea- monitoring equipment.
sured DNI values exceeding 25% in only a few weeks are common.
Methods to improve examined, the soiling level of each individual
sensor can be determined by following a special sequence of sensor
cleaning and brief breaks combined with a close examination of the
sensor responses.
Wu et al. (2014) MD Laboratory Studies ITO Electrodes on Glass (Elec- ITO (transparent) electrons deposited in “forked” pattern on a glass First of two studies (other in 2015 that
tro-dynamic) substrate to electrodynamically mitigate dust issues. improves on this approach)
Report of 95% effective.
*P ¼Performance, *MS¼ Modeling/Simulation; *CM ¼ Composition/Morphology; *TR¼ Transmission/Reflection; *CE ¼ Cost/Economics; *MC ¼Mitigation/Cleaning; *A ¼ ambient conditions/effects; *I ¼Instrumentation; *S ¼Spectral
Effects; TO ¼ Tilt/Orientation.
Table 4
Summary of dust and soiling papers in 2015 indicating primary focus, device/materials investigate, conditions and findings. The Focus Code (for primary contributions) is: *P ¼ Performance, *MS¼ Modeling/Simulation;
*CM ¼Composition/Morphology; *TR ¼Transmission/Reflection; *CE ¼Cost/Economics; *MC ¼ Mitigation/Cleaning/Maintenance; *A ¼ ambient conditions/effects; *I ¼Instrumentation, *S¼ spectral effects, *TO¼ Tilt/Orientation.
Publication Source Focus Location [Duration] Solar Device Type Key Findings Comments/Other Conditions
Code*
Alami Merrouni et al. TR, MC Morocco (Eastern) [3 months] Solar Mirrors (CSP) First reporting of the effect of dust on different solar mirror Detailed analysis of the cleanliness of the mirror
(2015) materials in Morocco. materials under the outdoor exposure conditions.
For glass and aluminum mirror materials, the” drop on
cleanliness per time interval” was same for all the mirrors
(over all the test periods).
Highest average cleanliness drop per month for the hor-
izontal mirrors was 45 % and 33 % for the glass and alu-
minum mirrors
The þ45° mirrors are less effective with a cleanliness drop
of about 14 % for both reflectors.
Mirrors installed on the 0° and -45° angles remained
cleaner with a cleanliness average of about 97 % for both
mirrors
Ali et al. (2015) P Taxila, Pakistan [3-4 month] Si PV Modules (single and poly) Two modules of each type exposed for 3 months in winter Decrease of module efficiency (clean - dirty) in case of
timeframe. monocrystalline and polycrystalline module was
Monocrystalline and polycrystalline modules showed 3.55% and 3.01%, respectively
about 20% and 16% decrease of average output power
respectively compared to the clean modules.
Loss of output power and module efficiency in mono-
crystalline module was more compared to the poly-
crystalline module
Alnaser et al. (2015) P, MC, Bahrain [ 6 months] Crystalline Si 500-kWp Array Density of accumulated dust ranged from 5‐12 g/m2 with Interesting study and discussions of the 8 of 2088
CM an average PV power loss up to 40% of maximum available. panels in array.
Compositional analysis: Si ( 15%) and Ca ( 15%) in Detailed explanation of performance of this large
addition to Al ( 6%), Mg ( 5%), and Fe ( 5%). array with micro inverters (individual for each panel)
Modeling with result of prediction (equation) of loss in Some discussion of cleaning.
transmission with dust accumulation. Energy management discussions.
Alqatari et al. (2015) M, P, MC Saudi Arabia Modeling of dust mitigation in Case study: modeling for dust mitigation in Saudi Arabia Modeling uses Saudi Arabia as a test case for validity.
Saudi Arabia (large-scale PV)
Spatiotemporal model analyzes atmospheric dust in the
simulation of PV system performance in KSA.
Modeling and analysis also considers dust mitigation,
allowing for optimizing choice of self-cleaning
technology at a particular time and location (aimed at
recovering losses due to the soiling)
Al Saluos (2015) P,CM Jordan, Laboratory Studies Crystalline Si Modules Module parameters (Voc, Jsc, Pm) as a function of dust Reduction in system efficiency reported.
depositions showing power losses of 90%.
Investigation of dust characteristics
Bashker and Arya P, India PV Panels (Si) Accumulated dust on the surface of PV solar panel can Specific for India.
(2015) decreases the PV system’s overall efficiency up to 35% per Discussions of maintenance.
month.
Performance of PV panes is studied experimentally and
used in calculating the effect of deposited dust on the
energy efficiency of PV systems.
Benatiallah et al. P, A Sahara Areas Crystalline Si Modules Interrelated dust and wind effects on the electrical per- Abstract of studies
(2015) formance of modules
Bhattacharya et al. P, MC Tripura, India [ 6 months] 2-identical 37-W crystalline Si Reduction of Voc, Isc, and efficiency reported (ranging from Data on Isc and Voc as function of irradiance level.
(2015) modules 9% to 13% loss in efficiency for 6 month duration. Cleaning recommended.
One module cleaned other left for exposure.
Bohra et. Al (2015) P Bangalore, India Urban environ- Rooftop PV 4 technologies: Poly-Si, Mono-Si, HIT, and CdTe thin film Metropolitan areas considered for dust effects on PV
ments [1-month] studied (for suitability in the urban environment). performance
CdTe had highese soiling lossis (10.88%) after one-week Rooftop installations for these studies.
and Poly-Si the least (4.21%).
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Code*
Boppana (2015) P, M Arizona USA PV Power Plants (Si and CdTe) Outdoor characterization of dust on two power plants 18 and 19-year old power plants analyzed.
located in cold, dry climate. Frameless and framed modules compared
Statistical risk analysis for power plant through failure
mode, effect, and criticality analysis based on non-
destructive field techniques and count data of the failure
modes.
Bouaddi and Ihlal P, TR Southwest Morocco CSP Mirrors Evaluation of the rate of soiling of exposed solar mirrors by Agadir, Southwest Morocco (30°26'3.8"N 9°29'31.1"
(2015) performing extensive reflectance measurements every 3-4 W), a site isolated from urban pollution and industrial
days activity.
Results: summer period (dry with predominant wind from Weather data provided.
Northeast) the cleanliness of the mirrors has dropped sig-
nificantly: average monthly cleanliness is 69%, 68%, 76% for
glass mirrors, and 76%, 74% , 72% for first type Al mirrors
measured respectively in July, August, and September.
Bouchalkha (2015) MS, MC Modeling for Solar PV Panelsin Abu PV Light scattering calculations from dust particles using the Detailed layer-by-layer modeling to calculate dust
Dhabi T-matrix model to estimate the effect of dust accumulation effects on transmitted light.
on the module surface
Results: 10% reduction in module output after few days.
Conclusion: Cleaning every 10-15 days (under normal Abu
Dhabi ambient conditions)
Boyle et al. (2015) P Colorado USA (2-Front Range Loca- PV Glass Cover Plates Mass accumulation rates between 1 and 50 mg/m2/day Uncertainties in the measurements evaluated and
tions) [1-5 weeks] were observed (with variations over the year, location, and discussed.
tilt angle). Semi-arid area.
Total mass accumulations up to 2 g/m2 for 1-5 week per-
iod, with transmissions losses to 11%.
Transmission was a linear function of the mass of the dust
accumulation (and not a function of the tilt or location)—
with reduction of 4.1% for every g/m2 accumulation.
Brophy et al. (2015) P, MC Field and Laboratory Studies PV modules Field performance of anti-soiling coatings on PV modules Hydrophobic, low surface energy coatings
Local conditions (climate zone) are critical to performance Dual purpose (also ARC)
of the coatings. Two years date in field
Tests on “robust dual-function antireflective and anti-soil-
ing coating that is dense, homogeneous and intrinsically
hydrophobic.”
Hydrophobic coatings have strongest anti dust adhesion
properties
Burton et al. (2015a) TR, MC Laboratory Studies Module Glass Coupons Objective: Low mass loadings of soil of PV module surfaces Collected field-soil samples analyzed to develop a
are common but difficult to quantify. compositional analog for lab studies.
Synthetic soil analog was sprayed onto glass coupons at
with a high-volume, low-pressure pneumatic sprayer.
A 0.1-g/m2 soil loading determined to be the limit of mass
measurement sensitivity (similar to some reports of daily
soil accumulation).
Burton et al. (2015b) TR, MS, P Laboratory Studies High-Concentration PV Systems Modeling of the performance of 3-junction concentrator Transmission changes evaluated on glass coupons.
(CPV) cell systems to various color pigments mixed in naturally Modeling of effects of these different soils on the solar
occurring soils (spectral response changes). spectrum.
Wide changes in the responses (transmission) with differ-
ent soils shown to be important for these CPV technologies.
Major effect on altering the current balance between the
top and middle cells in the 3-cell structure, especially with
“yellow” pigmented soils.
Cáceres et al (2015) CE Santiago, Chile PV Economic study of PV installations for residential PV in PM-10 considerations
Santiago, Chile. Effects of dust on panel performance and
on the LCOE for on-grid and off-grid.
Cekirge and Elhassan P General CSP (Towers and Parabolic Modeling of tower and trough systems for viability and Good system comparisons
(2015) Troughs) operation
Small discussion of dust effects and potential impacts
Chakraborty and P Coal City, India Mono-Si, HIT, Poly-Si, Micro- “Technical mapping of PV” Environmental conditions include soiling.
Sadhu (2015) morph, a-Si:H, CIGS, CdTe A-Si:H modules perform better under the typical tem- Technology comparisons.
Modules perature variant and dry environmental condition of the
Coal City of India
Choi et al. (2015) MC Development of dust prevention Dust mitigation coatings Superhydrophobic coatings with high haze (micro- Optoelectronic applications of these anti dust coating
coatings (laboratory) structured films) is the intent.
Studied gradient-index (n) material-based microstructures,
i.e., magnesium fluoride (MgF2, n 1.37) film-coated SU8
ultraviolet curable polymer (n 1.59) microcones (MCs)
with tapered architectures, on silicon (Si, n 3.9) sub-
strates
Some report of antireflection properties of layers
Doumane et al. (2015) MS Laboratory Si PV Module modeled by an equivalent electrical circuit (com- Extensive electrical engineering treatment of the
ponents have time-dependent characteristics determined module (circuit approach)
under accelerated tests).
Optical transmission loss leads to as much as a 11.5% over
25 years.
Ferrada et al. (2015) P Chile (coastal desert zone) [16 mc-Si and crystalline Si modules Difference of energy yield between the technologies larger Studies include uncertainty analysis.
months] for summer and smaller for winter.
Performance ratio decreased due to the dust accumulation
between 0.04%/day up to 0.13%/day (positive ambient
temperature gradient), and between 0.13%/day up to
0.18%/day (negative ambient temperature gradient).
Fuentealba et al. P Atacama Desert, Chile [638 days] a-Si/mc-Si tandem cell and Multi- Thin-film module performance: Decreased due to the dust Coastal zone of Chile.
(2015) crystalline Si Modules accumulation at a rate from 4.2%-3.7%/month (decreasing Electricity rate costs reported for each technology—
temperature conditions) and from 4.8%-4.4%/month based on performance measurements.
(increasing temperature). Cleaning thin-film modules had better return on
Multicrystalline silicon module performance: Degradation electricity price than for cleaning the mc-Si
rates were 2.4%-1.8%/month (decreasing temperature), and technology.
6.2%-3.7%/month (increasing temperature).
Guo et al. (2015) P, MS Doha, Qatar [7 months] Si Modules in Test Field PV performance, ambient dust and weather conditions Very good discussion of conditions and of measure-
measured continuously from June 1 through December 31, ment approaches.
2014
Performance losses: 0.0042 þ/-0.0080 per day for modules
cleaned every sixth month, and 0.0045 þ/-0.0091 per day
for modules cleaned every second month, in terms of a
“cleanness index” based on the PV module’s temperature.
Modeling of dust performance.
Hacke et al.(2015) P, MC Laboratory Reliability links with dust/soiling Effects of module soiling on module glass surface resisting “Sea salt yielded a 3.5 orders of magnitude decrease in
and resulting potential induced degradation (PID) resistance on the glass surface when the RH was
Compared 3-soil types (Arizona road dust, soot, and sea salt) increased over this RH range. Arizona road dust
Variation in results for the soil type showed reduced sheet resistance at lower RH, but
PID correlation with resistance. with less humidity sensitivity over the range tested.
The soot sample did not show significant resistivity
change compared to the unsoiled control.”
Jasim et al. (2015) P,MC,CE Crystalline Si PV (cleaning Effects of dust on PV panel performance.
systems) Presents automated, closed-water cleaning system
Techno-economic analysis is provided
Jiang and Lu (2015) P,A Laboratory studies (Effect of module Monocrystalline Si Modules (156 Effects of temperature on dust accumulation on Si modules. “Most obvious temperature gradient” for the ther-
surface T on dust deposition) mm x 156 mm) Measured deposition densities of dust particles were found to mophoresis force was found to be lower than 40 C.
range from 0.50 mg/ m2-0.84 mg/m2.
Higher surface temperature modules has a lower density due
to the effect of thermophoresis force arising from the tem-
perature gradient between its surface and the surrounding air;
energy output ratios were found to increase from 0.947 to
0.971 with the increase of temperature gradient.
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Code*
Jin et al. (2015) MS Modeling and experimental studies Modeling of nanoscale roughness General studies of colloidal- and nano-scale particles on This is a general paper on how particle are deposited
(Laboratory) effects on particle collection surfaces. on surface and how they interact with the surface.
Interesting look at surface roughness at the nanoscale and Mostly modeling—some experimental results.
the effect of adhesion.
Non-PV overall
John et al. (2015) P,S Laboratory Studies (India dust Si, CdTe, CIGS Controlled artificial dust (from various climate-zone loca- Excellent report on spectral effects (quantum effi-
samples from various locations) tions in India) deposition on module surfaces. ciency measurements on cells).
Example: Soiling loss on a Si cell with Mumbai dust (17.1%) “The dust collected from Mumbai showed highest
is about two times that of Jodhpur dust (9.8%) for the same spectral
soil gravimetric density of 3g/m2. loss, followed by Pondicherry, Agra, Hanle, Jodhpur
Spectral effects is highlighted by technology (Si, CIGS, and
CdTe)—corresponding to those bandgaps. Gurgaon. The worst affected module technology was
amorphous
silicon (17.7%) followed by cadmium telluride (15.7%),
crystalline silicon (15.4%) and CIGS (14.5%) for the
same
density (2.5g/m2) of dust from Mumbai”
Karim et al. (2015) A,S,TR Morocco CSP Exposed mirrors in natural aging sites present low loss in Ageing studies involving outdoor testing and labora-
reflectivity which doesn’t exceed 0.4% after 240 days of tory experiments.
outdoor exposure.
The effect of sand properties on erosion phenomenon was
found that the sand hardness affect the roughness para-
meters, while the sharp forms influence on the impacts
properties(roughness parameters, impacts number,
impacted area, impacts size diameter).
Increasing the sand particle's size also increases the
impacted area and the losses in relative specular
reflectivity.
Kawamoto and Shi- MC Laboratory Studies Si Modules Cleaning using electrostatic force to remove sand from the Power consumption 0.
bata (2015) surface of solar panels. Parallel wires embedded in cover glass plate.
Effectiveness: more than 90% of the adhering sand is
repelled from the surface of the slightly inclined panel after
the cleaning operation.
Kazmerski et al. P, MC Laboratory Studies of individual Module glass surfaces Chemical/compositional measurements of dust samples Studies of fundamental adhesion of single-dust par-
(2015) dust particles (from Middle East from various geographical locations. ticles to PV module glass surfaces.
and from Brasil) Adhesion measurement by AFM of individual soiling grains Cementation effects of moisture and from diesel fuel
on module glass surfaces indicating the relationship emissions indicated.
between particle surface chemistry and the adhesion. Samples from Saudi Arabia and Brasil.
Comparative measurements on glass and glass coated with
superhydrophobic and superhydrophilic films.
King (2015) P, MS Laboratory Simulations and Experi- PV module performance Derating of PV module performance for many factors, The advanced soiling portions of this report are
mental Studies including environmental ones such as soiling and dust. important and detailed.
Advanced Soiling Study determining the influence of soil Very good gathering of the influences sources and
composition and morphology on light attenuation and factors for soiling.
scattering.
Developed an improved modeling of angle-of-incidence
accounting for diffuse utilization and soiling
Validated a methodology to predict the string mismatch
“derate factor” from available module characterization
results (also relating to soiling)
Klimm et al. (2015) A,MC,TR Laboratory and Field Testing PV Module Glass Soiling and abrasion testing for harsh climates. Laboratory apparatus description for testing
Laboratory sand trickling test stand according to DIN 52 348.
Results of the outdoor and indoor tested material show the
strong influence of dust types and material properties on
soiling and durability of the surfaces.
Klugmann-Rad- P, MC, Gdansk, Poland (3 locations) Si PV Modules Linear relationship between the thickness of the soiling Module cleaning methods reported.
ziemska (2015) CM layer and the performance of the module (with reported Good background section providing foundation for
observation of 25.5%/mm loss in power for naturally these studies.
deposited dust).
Maximum observed daily loss of 0.8%.
Studies of morphology and chemistry of collected dust.
Lee et al. (2015) MC Taiwan CIGS Modules Development of a dust-monitoring platform system. WIKI site that is providing fast access to PV monitor-
CIGS modules monitored since 12/2012 ing results.
Daily soiling loss (up to 30%/month) reported and impact
on utility-scale plants and return-on-investment discussed
Leem et al. (2015) MC Laboratory Si mini-modules 2-dimensional periodic conical micrograting structured Fabrication procedures provided for the nanos-
(MGS) polymer films are studied for both “light harvest- tructured PET films.
ing”-ARC and self-cleaning for Si PV modules.
Careful and detailed experimental studies.
Leem and Yu (2015) MC Laboratory [Month] III-V solar cells Self-cleaning surfaces for III-V solar cell applications. Used GaAs cells with a cover glass
“Artificial inverted compound eye structured (ICESs)”
(polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) films with ARC and self-
cleaning functions for the enhancement of solar power
generation in encapsulated GaAs solar cells
Li et al. (2015a) MS, MC Modeling and simulation PV Modules Modeling and simulation of a device for the removal of Brush studies primarily
dust from module surfaces.
PV module light electrical parameters analyzed for various
directions of dust removal from the module.
Li et al. (2015b) MS, P Modeling of Performance PV Plant Electricity quality and performance modeling based upon Modeling that includes effects of shading (e.g., from
operating factors (including dust) dust)
Operating Statuses Identification (OSI)is utilized in the
simulation formulation.
Lim et al. (2015) MC, TR, P Laboratory Studies Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC) Hydrophobic polymers evaluated for dust mitigation and Studies of the degree of hydrophobicity of the surfaces
for antireflection properties for PV modules. of these films.
polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) patterned with negatively ARC-dust mitigation dual purpose.
tapered nanoholes (NHs) as a protective antireflection
layer of the external glass surface.
Lopes de Jesus et al. TR, MC, Laboratory Studies PV Module Glass Hydrophilic, transparency, and adhesion studies of TiO2 Self-cleaning attributes of these films reported.
(2015) CM /SiO2 composites containing different titanium content. Superhydrophilic coatings.
Contact angles near 0° obtained.
Abrasion and durability data provided.
Martinez-Plaza et al. P, MC Qatar PV (tracking, fixed) Results of outdoor exposure of a specific model of multi- Discussions of durability and cleaning requirements
(2015) crystalline silicon (mc-Si) photovoltaic (PV) modules after (detailed)
their first complete year of operation at STF.
Impact of module cleaning frequency, use of commercial
anti-soiling coatings and module mounting on either fixed,
one-axis-tracking or two-axis-tracking systems was
studied.
Martinez et al. (2015) P, MC Qatar Various PV technology perfor- Descripton of the Qatar Foundation test facility (testing PV The Qatar Foundation group has extensive facilities
mance evaluation for dust technologies most suited for the Qatar climate). and staffing for dust investigations.
situations Study examines several thin-film technologies for envir- Possible indications of the better performance of high
onmental conditions (including dust) Eg thin films in heat/dust
Michels et al. (2015) P,TO Paraná, Brasil Solarex MSX56 Si Modules Dust levels reduced electricity production (power) levels Mainly study of outdoor performance reliability
by approximately 16%.
Mondal and Bansal MC General PV Modules Cleaning of PV panels with specially designed robotic arm Cost effectiveness and versatility of the system is
(2015) (SPCRA) with 4-degrees of freedom. discussed.
Arm has 2 prismatic and 2 revolute joints; system has System design and operation is provided.
unique end effector with water sprinkler, air blower and Nice summary of various cleaning systems
wiper.
Negash and Tadiwose P,TO Ethiopia Si PV Modules (site of 10kW PV Soiling losses for eight different tilt angle (00, 250 tilt angle had a least insolation loss and largest
(2015) plant) 50,11.60,150,21.50,250,300 and 350) including the latitude of amount of energy absorbed
Bahir Dar City (11.60), Ethiopia
Nazar (2015) P, MC Discussions and Effects General PV Modules Improving the efficiency of panel by dust cleaning. Includes discussion of solar trackers
Robots, self-cleaning surfaces (electrodynamic screens,
robotic vacuum cleaners are discussed.
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Code*
Naeem and Talizh- Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Correlations between climate zone (meteorological and Conference paper presentation that summarized use-
mani (2015) other) conditions and the dust conditions. ful information for Jeddah, KSA and similar climate
Requirements for local cleaning of PV module frequency zones.
and needs.
Modeling of dust conditions on performance over time.
Pettersen et al. (2015) P Nordic Climates Soiling/Snow on PV modules SPICE modeling. Cleaning in all cases provided better results than
Effects of panel orientation for snow and dust. coatings.
Experiments for dust on mini-modules with and without Snow especially critical for non-uniformity (shading)
anti-soiling coatings. issues.
Dry and wet cleaning of modules evaluated
Pettersen (2015) P, MS Modeling and Experiment (Various Si PV Module and Module Glass Model to predict and quantify the effects of partial shad- Results for snow depth reported.
Norway Conditions) [ 1 year]
Masters Thesis ing (e.g., by dust) on PV module output using LTspiceIV. Extensive modeling results provided on shading
Experimental validation under Norway climatic conditions: effects.
reduction in transmission of 0.92% for untreated module
glass and 1.1% with anti-soiling coating (no effectiveness of
coating)-over 1 week.
Snow accumulations and effect on output also studied.
Penetta et al. (2015) P,TR Queensland, Australia CSP Reflectors Dust accumulation effects on CSP performance. Discussion of dust compromising mirror reflectivity.
Correlations among humidity, temperature, and dust
accumulation
Phinikarides et al. P, MS Cyprus [3-4 years] PV System Performance Seasonable variations, including those due to dust and Not significant focus on dust and soiling
(2015) PV (c-Si, CIGS, CdTe) soiling; estimated linear degradation rates
Seasonal variations varied by technology. Differences in
degradation rates reported by technology
Piotrowska-Woroniak P, MS Poland (Great Lakes Region) PV 264 Si panels [50.16 kW] Dust emissions modeled (kg/year) Indirect analysis of dust effects on performance
et al. (2015) [2012-2013] Analysis showed the installation resulted in reduction of
dust emissions into the atmosphere—as well as greenhouse
gases.
Rahman et al. (2015) P Laboratory Studied Si PV Module (90W) Observed module power reduced by 7.70 W due to dust Studies primarily directed to temperature and climate
falling on the surface of the solar module. effects.
Rajasekar (2015) Laboratory Studies of Soiling; Field PV Panel Surfaces; Development of indoor experimental simulation techni- Characterization tests: I-V, reflectance and quantum
Studies for Power Plant Poly-Si minimodules and single ques for soiling of PV surfaces. efficiency (QE) on both soiled, & cleaned coupons
mono-Si cells Failure and degradation modes of about 744 poly-Si glass/ Controlled and well-reported laboratory experiments
polymer frameless modules fielded for 18 years under the
cold-dry climate of New York was evaluated.
Thesis reports primarily results of indoor soiling studies.
Sansom et al. (2015) P,MC Egypt and Libya CSP Methodology to predicting the optical performance and Characterization of dust particles
physical topography of the glass collector surfaces of any CSP plant in Egypt, plus sand and dust samples from
given CSP plant in the presence of sand and dust storms, two desert locations in Libya
providing that local climate conditions are known &
representative sand and dust particles samples are
available
Scanlon (2015) P International All PV Technologies Summary of NREL R&D efforts in reliability, testing, stan- General report on reliability.
dards development, and quality assurance—and coordi- Reference to NREL webcast.
nating such work internationally.
Portion on importance of dust effects.
Schaeffer et al. (2015) MC Laboratory (superhydrophobic Solar Collectors Functionalized silica nanoparticles to coat various optical Focus on windows and mirrors.
coatings) elements with measured contact angles and optical trans- Discussions of various hydrophobic properties.
mission between 190 and 1100 nm on these elements.
A described solution of the functionalized silica nano-
particles exhibited superhydrophobic behavior with a sta-
tic contact angles ⩾ 160°.
Schill et al. (2015) P Gran Canary Island (Spain) [ 45 Crystalline Si Modules Soiling due primarily to building construction in area. Extensive instrumentation for monitoring of perfor-
months] 20% loss in efficiency (monitoring of I-V characteristics) in mance, climatic conditions, and irradiance.
5-month period.
Non-uniformity in distribution (caused by rain effect) Detailed information on experimental setup and data
detected by shape of I-V characteristics. acquisition.
Heavy rain event reported to clean the modules—and
completely restore the performance.
Sengupta et al. (2015) I, S General (worldwide best-practices) General best practices for solar Effect of dust and other airborne particles on the measured Handbook links with major research and solar
measurements solar resource; Effect of these particles and other atmo- resource determinations in harsh climates such as
spheric components on the calibration of instrumentation. Saudi Arabia (see KACARE portal:
Very detailed information on maintenance and calibration
of instrumentation.
Shi (2015) P,CE China CSP Viability of CSP technology in China power market. M.S. Thesis
Consideration of dust as a obstacle to deployment and Good discussions of issues in China relating to other
economics parts of the world.
Shirakawa et al. P, CM, A São Paulo, Brazil [6-18 months] Crystalline Si Modules Sub-aerial biofilm (SAB) development on PV module sur- No differences between 6- and 12-month power
(2015) faces (tropical conditions). observations in modules attributed to dual nature of
Fungi were an important component of these biofilms; soiling.
very few phototrophs were observed. Soiling effects removed by light rain.
Major microorganisms detected were melanised meriste-
matic ascomycetes and pigmented bacterial genera
Arthrobacter and Tetracoccus; Some diverse algae, cyano-
bacteria and bacteria were identified in biofilms.
Photovoltaic modules: significant power reductions after 6,
12 (both 7%) and 18 (11%) months.
Sleiman et al. (2015) TR General Solar Roofs Primarily a “cool roof” study, but this paper also examines The 3rd in a series of 3 papers on “cool roof”. The other
solar reflectivity. two are cited in the notable others section.
Accelerated aging method for solar is both repeatable and
reproducible within an acceptable range of standard
deviations: the repeatability standard deviation sr ranged
from 0.008 to 0.015 (relative standard deviation of 1.2–
2.1%) and the reproducibility standard deviation sR ranged
from 0.022 to 0.036 (relative standard deviation of 3.2–
5.8%).
Spataru et al. (2015) MS Denmark Crystalline Si PV Test System and Shading and soiling considerations. Practical application: the diagnostic parameters and
Laboratory Modeling Proposes a complete diagnostic method for detecting rules applied “as is” to a field test setup consisting of a
shading, increased series-resistance losses, and potential- crystalline silicon based PV string and a commercial
induced degradation of the PV generator by analyzing string inverter capable of measuring the I-V curve of
changes its current-voltage characteristics. the PV string, yielding a similar high-detection rate.
Sulaiman et al. (2015) P Malaysia Crystalline Si Modules Effects of dust accumulation on the performance of PV Characterization of local Malaysia climate zone.
panels. Experiment; dust particles on solar panels with a
constant-power light source, to determine the resulting
electrical power generated and efficiency.
Results: the accumulated dust on the surface of photo-
voltaic solar panel can reduce the system’s efficiency by up
to 50%
Tanesab et al. (2015) P, MC, TR Perth, Australia Temperate Climate PV Modules Properties of dust: particles deposited on PV modules’ Modules were in field for 18 years with no cleaning
Zones surface were dominated by fine particles built of large schedule
amounts of quartz (SiO2), followed by calcium oxide (CaO)
and some minors of feldspars minerals (KAlSi3O8), which
are primarily responsible for transmittance losses.
Module degradation for this 18þ year installation was
mostly due to non-dust issues, but dust can be attributed
to some levels in the range of 16%-29%.
Verma and Singhal P Gujrat, India Plant commissioned in Grid-Connected PV Plant (20 Major causes of cells/modules operating outside standard Consideration of all loss mechanisms for this large
(2015) 2012 MW) a-Si:H modules conditions: Voltage drop in the dc cables and protection thin-film PV plant; detailed review of power plant
diodes; Dirt and dust, Shade; Dispersion of parameters operation/reliability.
among the PV modules; Operation voltage out of the
maximum power point (MPP); Spectrum and angle of
incidence.
Bird droppings major cause of “shading” Always returned
to within 1% of rating after cleaning
53
54
Code*
Weber et al. (2015) P Worldwide overview of issues Soling and Cleaning of PV Mod- Importance of relationships among soiling, cleaning, and Discussion of PVQAT activities with dust/interactions
ules; Potential effects on module abrasion of module surfaces. Very good overviews of cleaning, indoor simulations,
abrasion Abrasion of coatings (e.g., ARCs) testing, standard procedures, abrasion, etc.)
Climate zone informations requirements (wind speed/
direction, dust compositions, moisture, natural cleaning,
water availability)
Power reduction (more severe in desert countries than
Germany)
Wu at al. (2015) MC Laboratory Study Electrodynamic Coatings Transparent ITO “fork electrodes” were configured on glass Follow up on previous work in 2014
substrates with different widths and separations.
The effects of the electrode width, the electrode spacing,
voltage, frequency, waveform, and the duty ratio on the
dust removal efficiency were investigated for artificial dust
removal..
Optimum conditions of dust removal: voltage - 1500 V,
frequency - 15 Hz, square wave, 10% duty ratio, the elec-
trode width - 0.5 mm, electrodes spacing -1.3 mm; dust
removal with with 99% effiency.
Xu et al. (2015) TR Laboratory and New York City Glass Covers Development and testing of high-performance polymeric Mechanical and chemical durability investigated and
coating on glass with a nano-scale surface roughness: both reported (suggests 30-year lifetime in NYC).
anti-reflective (ARC) as well as superhydrophobic
properties.
Yang et al. (2015) ME Acceptance procedures Utility-Scale Methodology for performance acceptance testing of solar Methodology anticipated to improvement in the
boilers using Linear Fresnel Reflectors (LFR) with Direct operation of next LFR power plants.
Steam Generation (DSG).
Proposed methodology is based on relevant ISO and
American standards applying an adapted parameter iden-
tification technique.
Discussions regarding soiling and measurement require-
ments and uncertainty analysis are also provided.
Yilbas et al. (2015) P, TR, CM Laboratory Measurements PV Glass Surfaces (Chemical/ Effects of soiling and mud on the optical, chemical, and Extensive chemical and physical measurements of
compositional properties of dust mechanical properties of PV module glass. dust partical properties.
& adhesion to surfaces) The characteristics of the dust and the mud (cementitous Interesting and useful investigations of adhesive for-
layers) formed from ces holding dust and “mud” to the module glass sur-
this dust examined by analytical techniques (optical & faces (macroscale determinations of force)
scanning electron microscopy, AFM, XRD, energy spectro-
scopy, FTIR).
Microtribometer used to measure adhesion, cohesion and
frictional forces required for the removal of dry mud from
the glass surfaces.
Zell et al. (2015) P, A, S Saudi Arabia Solar Resource Assessment In-depth and comprehensive discussion/analysis of solar Excellent discussion and analysis of the solar resource
resource assessment (results for Saudi Arabia) in the desert regions-especially Saudi Arabia.
Stresses that accurate measurements of the solar Studies tied with the important KACARE program for
Resource depend critically on environmental conditions solar deployment and research in KSA
such as ambient air temperature and dust levels that affect/ See website for detailed info on solar resources:
control project output, and are critical to project deploy- https://rratlas.kacare.gov.sa/RRMMPublicPortal/ )
ment.
Affect of dust on solar spectra—and on the output from the
PV system in these desert regions because of dust
adhesion.
*P ¼Performance, *MS¼ Modeling/Simulation; *CM ¼ Composition/Morphology; *TR¼ Transmission/Reflection; *CE ¼ Cost/Economics; *MC¼ Mitigation/Cleaning; *A ¼ ambient conditions/effects; *I¼ Instrumentation; *S ¼Spectral
Effects; TO ¼ Tilt/Orientation
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 63 (2016) 33–61

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

1. Introduction and background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Source Contribution/Focus of review Technology

Source Contribution/Focus of review Technology

Santana-Rodriguez, PV System (Power Grid-connected system evaluation

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