Atul Garg Ethics Sec A

1
Civil Services GS Paper-IV
Ethics Integrity and Aptitude

Section A
By
ATUL GARG
Address
17, 3rd Floor, Pusa Road, Karol Bagh, New Delhi-110005
Mob: 9810949873, 9643772112, 9582203127, www.orientias.com
Add.: 17, 3rd Floor, Pusa Road, Karol Bagh, New Delhi-110005 Mob: 9810949873, 9643772112, 9582203127, www.orientias.com
2
https://telegram.me/pdf4exams ⬅ JOIN NOW ➡ https://telegram.me/pdf4exams
Contents
Unit - 1 : Ethics and Human Interface
1. Basic Concepts: Human Behaviour, Ethics, Morals, Values and their Interrelation........................... 8 - 10
2. Other Terms Related to Ethics and Morality ......................................................................................... 11
3. Essence of Ethics .............................................................................................................................. 12-13
4. Determinants of Ethics ..................................................................................................................... 14-16
5. Consequences of Ethics in Human Actions ...................................................................................... 17-18
6. Dimensions of Ethics ........................................................................................................................ 19-21
7. Particular Fields of Applied Ethics .................................................................................................... 22-34
8. Ethics in Private and Public Relationships ........................................................................................ 35-37
9. Human Values: Role of Family, Society and Educational Institutions in Inculcating Values ............. 38-45
10. Human Values – Lessons from the Lives and Teachings of Great Leaders, ....................................... 46-73
Reformers and Administrators
11. Notes on some committed Indian Civil Servants .............................................................................. 74-78
Unit - 2 : Attitude
1. Concept of Attitude........................................................................................................................... 80-82
2. Content of Attitude .......................................................................................................................... 83-86
3. Structure of Attitude ............................................................................................................................. 87
4. Functions of Attitude ........................................................................................................................ 87-88
5. Its influence and relation with thought and behaviour .................................................................... 89-91
6. Attitude Formation and Change ....................................................................................................... 92-95
7. Attributions ...................................................................................................................................... 96-97
8. Social Influence and Persuasion ..................................................................................................... 98-104
9. Moral Attitudes and Political Attitudes ........................................................................................ 105-110
10. Attitudes Quotation ............................................................................................................................. 110
Unit - 3 : Aptitude and Foundational Values for Civil Service

1. Aptitude and Related Concepts..................................................................................................... 111-115
2. Foundational values for civil services: Integrity, Impartiality and Non-Partisanship, ................... 116-130
Objectivity, Dedication to Public Service, Empathy, Tolerance and Compassion
Towards the Weaker Sections
3. Other Important Values................................................................................................................ 131-139
Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Unit - 4 : Emotional Intelligence

1. Basic Concepts ............................................................................................................................. 140-142
2. Emotional Intelligence .................................................................................................................. 143-146
3. Emotional Intelligence in Indian Context ..................................................................................... 147-148
4. Applications of EI in Administration and Governance .................................................................. 149-155
5. Emotional Intelligence Quotes ............................................................................................................ 156
Unit - 5 : Contributions of Moral Thinkers and

Philosophers from India and World
1. Moral Philosophy ......................................................................................................................... 157-158
2. Milestones in the Development of Moral Philosophy .................................................................. 159-162
3. Western Moral Thinkers ............................................................................................................... 163-186
4. Indian Moral Philosophy and Thinkers ......................................................................................... 187-211
Unit - 6 : Public/Civil Service Values and Ethics in Public Administration

1. Status of Values and Ethics in Public Administration ................................................................... 212-214
2. Problems of Values and Ethics in Public Administration .............................................................. 215-216
3. Ethical Concerns in Government and Private Institutions ............................................................ 217-221
4. Ethical Dilemmas in Government and Private Institutions ........................................................... 222-231
5. Laws, Rules, Regulations as Sources of Ethical Guidance ............................................................. 232-235
6. Conscience as Sources of Ethical Guidance .................................................................................. 236-239
7. Accountability and Ethical Governance ........................................................................................ 240-243
8. Strengthening of Ethical and Moral Values in Governance .......................................................... 244-245
9. Ethical Issues in International Relations ....................................................................................... 246-250
10. Ethical Issues in International Funding ......................................................................................... 251-253
11. Corporate Governance ................................................................................................................. 254-259
Unit - 7 : Probity in Governance

1. Concept of public service ............................................................................................................. 260-261
2. Philosophical Basis of Governance and Probity ........................................................................... 262-266
3. Information Sharing and Transparency in Government ............................................................... 267-269
4. Right to Information ..................................................................................................................... 270-276
5. Citizen’s Charters .......................................................................................................................... 277-279
6. Codes of Ethics and Codes of Conduct ......................................................................................... 280-291
7. Work Culture ................................................................................................................................ 292-294
8. Quality of Service Delivery ........................................................................................................... 295-298
9. Utilization of Public Funds ............................................................................................................ 299-301
10. Challenges of Corruption .............................................................................................................. 302-313

SECTION - B
Unit - 8 : Case Studies
Assignment Sheets for Section ‘A’
1. Section ‘A’ Assignment - 1 ................................................................................................................... 314
10. Section ‘A’ Assignment - 10.................................................................................................................. 323

Civil Services Mains Paper - IV

Syllabus
As per UPSC’s notification, this paper will include questions to test the candidates’ attitude and approach
to issues relating to integrity, probity in public life and his problem solving approach to various issues and
conflicts faced by him in dealing with society. Questions may utilize the case study approach to determine
these aspects. The following broad areas will be covered:
Unit 1: Ethics and Human Interface

●● Essence, determinants and consequences of Ethics in human actions
●● Dimensions of ethics
●● Ethics in private and public relationships
●● Human Values – lessons from the lives and teachings of great leaders, reformers and administrators
●● Role of family, society and educational institutions in inculcating values
Unit 2: Attitude
●● Content, structure, function
●● Its influence and relation with thought and behaviour
●● Moral and political attitudes
●● Social influence and persuasion
Unit 3: Aptitude and foundational values for Civil Service

●● Aptitude
●● Integrity, impartiality and non-partisanship, objectivity, dedication to public service, empathy, tolerance
and compassion towards the weaker sections
Unit 4: Emotional intelligence

●● Concepts, and their utilities
●● Application in administration and governance
Unit 5: Contributions of moral thinkers and philosophers

from India and world.

Unit 6: Public/Civil service values and Ethics in Public administration

●● Status and problems
●● Ethical concerns and dilemmas in government and private institutions
●● Laws, rules, regulations and conscience as sources of ethical guidance;
●● Accountability and ethical governance;
●● Strengthening of ethical and moral values in governance;
●● Ethical issues in international relations and funding;
●● Corporate governance
Unit 7: Probity in Governance

●● Concept of public service
●● Philosophical basis of governance and probity
●● Information sharing and transparency in government
●● Right to Information
●● Codes of Ethics and Codes of Conduct
●● Citizen’s Charters
●● Work culture
●● Quality of service delivery
●● Utilization of public funds
●● challenges of corruption
Unit 8: Case Studies on above issues
nn

Unit - 1 Chapter - 1
Ethics and Human Interface
Basic Concepts: Human Behavior, Ethics,
Morals, Values and their Interrelation
I
n order to capture the essence of GS Paper -IV, it is first of all important to understand the basic concepts
of beliefs, values, ethics and morality and the relation between them. These terms are different but are
highly inter-related to each other. For example, all ethics are values but all values are not ethics. One must
also take into account that all these concepts are highly abstract in nature and they must be defined according
to the context and relation in which they are discussed.
Beliefs
A belief is the simplest form of mental representation and therefore one of the building blocks of conscious
thought. It is an internal feeling that something is true, even though that belief may be unproven and irrational.
For example, “I believe that there is life after death”. Beliefs can be economical, political, social etc.
An individual usually tend to internalize the beliefs of the people around him during childhood. Political beliefs
depend more strongly on the political beliefs most common in the community where we live. Most individuals
believe the religion they were taught in childhood. People may also adopt the beliefs of a charismatic leader, even
if those beliefs are against all previous beliefs. Persuasion techniques like advertising can also affect the belief
system of a person.
Values
Values describe what is important in a person’s life. Basically they The Big Four
are the standards on the basis of which we evaluate something or Beliefs : Smallest units of awareness,
make judgment about how desirable or undesirable that thing is to centered on an object, person or event
us. That thing can be a person, a place, an object or any event. Attitude : Collection on beliefs, likes and
Values influence our behaviour and the behaviour of all those with dislikes, guiding behavior
whom we interact. What we value guides not only our personal Behavior : An Action
choices but also our perceptions of the worth of others. We are Values : Special subset of Beliefs,
more likely, for example, to evaluate highly someone who holds the enduring and salient
same hard-work value as we do than someone who finds work distasteful, with personal gratification a more
important value. We may also call the person lazy and worthless, a negative value label.
Every person has certain principle or cardinal values on which his other values are based. A person having
justice as a cardinal value may also have value for fairness, democratic institutions, judicial and parliamentary
processes etc.
Examples of values are material success, individualism, efficiency, freedom, courage, hard work, competition,
patriotism, punctuality, honesty, truthfulness, fairness, and humaneness etc. They are all value standards.
Relation between values and beliefs: There are certain beliefs which are amenable (open and responsive) to
change. For example, a person with almost no exposure to American society believes that all Americans are
bad. Then one day he watches an American helping an old man crossing the street. This changed his believe
system. This happened because his belief system was based on less and poor information. When he got new
data, his belief was changed. But values are hard core beliefs; they do not change easily and requires a great

9
deal of effort. There making also requires lots of time and hence it is suggested that value education should
start early in the childhood. Ex. Patriotism. Child sees republic day parade every year. He sees, war heroes
getting honored and are respected everywhere. Slowly, he learns that being patriotic is good and is valued in
the society. And hence, he starts valuing patriotism. Now this belief will not change even if the person saw
patriotism getting punished in society. In fact, he’ll fight for saving this value.
Attitudes
An attitude is an expression of favor or disfavor (or positive or negative evaluation) toward a person, place,
thing, or event. Attitude can be formed from a person’s past and present. Attitude is also measurable and
changeable by influencing the person’s emotion, beliefs and behaviour. One’s attitude is usually a reflection
of the behaviour he or she will portray in specific situations. For example, a negative attitude towards people
of lower caste may lead to the behaviour of discrimination.
Human behaviour
Every human is defined by certain characteristics like his appearances, his education and most importantly
his behaviour. Human behaviour refers to the range of behaviours (a response to a stimuli) exhibited by
humans and which are influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis,
persuasion, coercion and genetics. Beliefs and values happen to be the buildings blocks of human behaviour.
Due to the inherently conformist nature of human society in general, humans are pressurized into following
certain rules and display certain behaviours in society, which conditions the way people behave. Different
behaviours are deemed to be either acceptable or unacceptable in different societies and cultures. Core faith
can be perceived through the religion and philosophy of that individual. It shapes the way a person thinks and
this in turn results in different human behaviours.
Ethics and Morals

Ethics and morals both relate to “right” and “wrong” conduct. The term ethics comes from the Greek word ethos,
which means custom or habit. Morality on other hand comes from the Latin word moralitas which means
manner, character or proper behaviour. Ethical and moral judgments focus more precisely on degrees of rightness
and wrongness in human behaviour. These are the standards on the basis of which one can decide what is right
and what is wrong.
Ethics is also defined as the study of what we understand to be good and right behaviour and how people make
those judgments. When one acts in ways that are consistent with our moral values, we’ll characterize that as
acting ethically.
Defining what is ethical is not an individual exercise. However, if it is, then one could have argued that what
Hitler did was ethical since his actions conformed to his definition of right, fair and good. The ethics of our
decisions and actions is defined by society and not individually.
So it can be said that “ethics is the discipline that examines one’s moral standards or the moral standards of
the society. It asks how these moral standards apply to our lives and whether these standards are reasonable
or unreasonable- that is whether good reasons or poor ones support them.
Difference between Values and Ethics or Morals: Imagine a person who has a strong value of achievement
and success. Knowing only that this value is important to him gives us a general expectation of his behaviour,
i.e. we would expect him to be goal oriented, gaining the skills necessary to get what he wants, etc. However,
we cannot know whether he will cheat to get what he wants or “do an honest day’s work each day”. The latter
dimension is a matter of ethics and morality.
Also, just as there are no universally accepted standards of ethics, there are no values which are applicable to
all individuals and societies. Values can be moral, immoral or amoral depending upon whether they conform
to, go against or are indifferent towards certain norms of morality. But ethics represents only ethical values.
Should one eat vegetarian or non-vegetarian food? Should the workers’ wages be increased by an enterprise
whenever its profits increase? Such questions involve value judgment.

10
Our values influence what we will determine as ethical. In fact, value is considered as the language of ethics.
We usually value only those things which are considered ethical in the society. This close relationship between
importance and right and wrong is a powerful influence on our behaviour and how we evaluate the behaviour
of others.
Difference between Ethics and Morals

Ethics and morals both relate to “right” and “wrong” conduct. However, ethics refer to the series of rules
provided to an individual by an external source like their profession, society or religion. On the other hand,
morals refer to an individual’s own principles regarding right and wrong. Some other differences are in table.
Morals and ethics are usually congruent with each other as an individual is a part of his society only. Most of
his fundamental beliefs are formed within the context of a society which has certain ethics. Ethics and norms
of society are generally passed to the individual through the process of enculturation. However, there can be
many situations which can lead to a conflict between an individual’s morals and societies or organizational
ethics.
Ethics Morals
What is it? The rules of conduct recognised Principles or habits with respect to right
in respect to a particular class of or wrong conduct. It defines how things
human actions or a particular groups, should work according to an individual
culture, etc. it defines how thing are ideas and principal.
according to the rules.
Source Social system / external Individual / internal
Why we do it? Because society says it is the right Because we believe in something being
thing to do. right or wrong.
What if we don’t do it? We will face peer / sociatal Doing something against one’s morals
disapproval or even be fired from our and principles can have different effects
job. on different people, they may feel
uncomfortable, remorse, depressed etc.
Flexibility Ethics are dependent on others for Usually consistent although can change if
definition. They tend to be consistent an individual’s beliefs change.
within a certain context but can vary
One professional example of ethics conflicting with morals is the work of a defense lawyer. A lawyer’s
morals may tell him that murder is reprehensible and that murderers should be punished, but his ethics as a
professional lawyer, require him to defend the client to the best of his abilities, even if he knows that the client
is guilty. Another example can be of a doctor who is in a situation where he has to operate a murderer who has
been injured while killing another individual.
nn

11
Chapter - 2
Other Terms Related to Ethics and Morality
●● Conventions: A convention is a set of agreed or generally accepted standards, norms, social norms,
or criteria, often taking the form of a custom. Certain types of rules or customs may become law and
regulatory legislation may be introduced to formalize or enforce the convention. In a social context, a
convention may retain the character of an “unwritten law” of custom (for example, the manner in which
people greet each other, such as by shaking each other’s hands or saying Namaste while holding both
hands together).
●● Traditions: A tradition is a belief or behaviour passed down within a group or society with symbolic
meaning or special significance with origins in the past. Common examples include holidays or impractical
but socially meaningful clothes (like lawyer wigs or woolen caps of police officers). Traditions can persist
and evolve for thousands of years—the word “tradition” itself derives from the Latin tradere literally
meaning to transmit, to hand over, to give for safekeeping.
●● Principles refers to an individual’s code of action and enable a person to behave with integrity. They
are the manifestation of values, morals and ethics. For example, a person who acts upon the principle of
transparency may be reflecting the core value of honesty and fairness among people. A person who acts
upon the principle of honest financial dealings may be reflecting the core value of fairness and equality
among people. A principle is a more general term comprising both norms and code of conducts.
●● Regime has been defined as “sets of implicit or explicit principles, norms, rules, and decision making
procedures that govern a society. For example political regime of India contains democratic values,
parliamentary procedures, principles of majority etc.
●● Code of conducts organizational ethics are often translated into more concrete practical codes of conduct
found in formal institutions and professions.
●● Norms are expressions of values at social level. Norms are values in action or practices. For example,
treating your parents with respect, arrange marriage, going to temple every morning etc. are certain norms
prevailing in a particular society.
●● Virtues A virtue is a positive value, trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and is valued by
the society. These are considered important for being a good person. Honesty, courage, compassion,
generosity, fidelity, integrity, fairness, self-control, and prudence are all examples of virtues. The opposite
of virtue is vice. Virtues help a person in reaching or accomplishing his ideals. Ideals are usually the goals
whereas virtues provide the way to reach the ideals.
●● Ideals An ideal is a principle or value that one actively pursues as a goal, usually in the context of ethics.
An ideal is a standard of perfection or excellence; an ultimate object or aim of Endeavour, especially one
of high or noble character. Ideal come from the word idea and different people have different ideas about
objects and events. Every person perceives ideals differently like ideal son, ideal wife and an ideal civil
servant.
●● Maxims a maxim is a principle or rule of conduct. It generally refers to any simple and memorable rule
or guide for living. For example, “the maxim that action speaks louder than words”.
●● Customs: Customs refers to a pattern of behavior that is established, accepted and cherished in a particular
society. Unlike law, these patterns of behavior are prescribed by society and are regulated by society itself.
nn

12
Chapter - 3
Essence of Ethics
E
ssence of ethics refers to the intrinsic or indispensable properties that characterise ethics. Just like right
to self-determination is the essence of democracy, similarly, following properties can define the essence
of ethics:
1. Ethics cannot be shaped and sustained in isolation. A person’s environment interacts with his or her
genotype to influence the behavioural outcomes. A person is not born with an ethical system or moral
setup. External environment like society and culture in interaction with the genetic structure shapes it for
the person. A person may born with the capacity to behave ethically but what is ethical and what is not is
learned after coming in this world. Also people perceive their environment in different ways according to
their genotype.
Many socio-political theories postulate that socialization provides only a partial explanation for human
beliefs and behaviours, maintaining that agents are not ‘blank slates’ predetermined by their environment.
Scientific research provides some evidence that people might be shaped by both social influences and
genes. Genetic studies have shown that a person’s environment interacts with his or her genotype to
influence behavioural outcomes.
2. A man is not only the product but also the producer of his culture. A person not only learns from the culture
but may also lead to a change in ethical system of the society. For example, slavery and discrimination
were earlier accepted as social norms but not now. It is because of few great personalities which have
brought about the changes. Humans judge and analyse information gained from the environment on their
own standards of morals. Different people have different capacity to adhere the norms of the society as
well as different meaning is given to values and ethics by different individuals.
A culture is a society’s total way of living and a society is a group that live in a defined territory and
participate in common culture. The culture of a society are the customs, set of tolerated beliefs whether
open or closed, living habits that specifically identify that society, the range of values that is condoned, a
society’s regard for education, the arts, the sciences, etc.
Socialisation is the process of learning how to behave according to the expected norms of your culture.
Enculturation is the process by which people learn the requirements of their surrounding culture and
acquire values and behaviours appropriate or necessary in that culture
3. Ethics depend upon the context in which they are operating. They vary in their meaning and intensity
according to time, place and person. For example, spitting, urinating and littering on roads considered
unethical in Europe but may not in India so ethics depends upon social context.
4. Ethics operates at different levels like individual, organisational, socio-cultural, political and international
level. Ethics at each level affect each other.
5. Ethics are subjective in nature i.e. they are affected by individual’s emotions and perception. Like an
angry person may behave in a highly unethical manner. It happens during riots.
6. Ethics are inter-related to each other. Increase in the importance of one can lead to the decrease in
importance of others. For example, because local and international economies have become stagnant,
the value of economic efficiency has become more important. This may lead to serious repercussion for
environmental ethics. It may lead to government moving towards goal orientation. No matter what means
are used even if they lead to environmental pollution and global warming.

13
7. Ethical behaviour also comes into play when human interact with other things also like machines, animals,
environment etc.
8. Ethics originate from the sense of justice prevailing in a particular society for ex. A child slaps another
child. Third child watching finds it unethical because he believes in social justice that every human is
equal and has the right to live with dignity (article 21, protection of life and personal liberty).
9. Ethics are maintained and sustained by a sense of responsibility and not mere accountability to some
external agency but also to something within.
10. Ethical standards may transcend the narrow stipulations of law or rule book and code of regulation. Many
acts of omission and commission may not violate the law as such but may run counter to ethics for ex.
Police not helping victim as the incident has happened outside the area of their jurisdiction.
nn

14
Chapter - 4
Determinants of Ethics
D
etermination of what is right or wrong behaviour is not an easy task. This task is complicated by
the fact that the criteria of judging what is right or wrong is neither absolute nor universal but
variable depending on the person, place and time. Stating differently there is no objective way of
justifying any ethical principle as valid for all people and societies in different frames of time. Abortion for
example is morally wrong for some people but is not for others. Pornography is acceptable in some societies
but unacceptable in others. At one time for instance slavery was not morally wrong in some parts of
United States whereas it is considered highly unethical in most of the modern societies. Three determinants
of ethics are:
1. Person: presence of ethical behaviour depends upon the mental make of an individual. It depends upon
how the person has internalised personal attitudes and values regarding ethical behaviour. It depends upon
certain qualities like optimism, willingness to take risk, courage to be impersonal and courage to decide
and fairness tempered with charity. Following ethics is not an easy task especially in a hostile environment.
Every individual has a different genetic structure which when combines with the environmental conditions
produce a different set of ethics. Same ethical values may have a different meaning for an individual along
with different degree and different place in the hierarchy of ethical setup.
2. Place: Place refers to the external environment which includes culture, organisation, family, school,
religion etc. For example, as children, we were taught by our parents that it is wrong to lie, cheat, and
steal. As we grow up and enter into the real world with some knowledge of right and wrong, we see, first
hand, the importance of ethics as well as its complexity.
Ethics are learned throughout our lives as we associate with others and especially in the early years of
childhood. During years of schooling, we learn ethics as we interact with teachers and classmates and learn
respect and other skills. In the work place, we learn responsibility, teamwork, punctuality, and communication
skills. When we understand why these ethical values are necessary, we realize the importance they have in our
success as well as our everyday lives. We use these skills, along with our knowledge of right and wrong as we
go about various activities such as driving, buying milk at the supermarket, filing out an application, etc. We
know that it is unlawful to run a red light, shop-lift, and lie under oath. Because good ethics make us honest,
law-abiding citizens, we contribute to the good of society.
Ethical framework of the government depends upon the constitution and history. In Indian constitution,
values of social, economic and political justice are envisaged in the preamble and are elongated in the FR’s
and DPSP’s.
Part of the problem with universally defining social ethics is that there are many different elements that
contribute to them. Language, race, gender and culture all come into the equation; religion and education also
play a role. The standards used to enforce social ethics are also numerous, including family values, religious
beliefs, morality, integrity, and so forth.
3. Time: Time also happens to be an important factor. Different individuals, societies and cultures have
different set of moral codes at different times. One example of this is the civil right movement. It was
once considered ethical to own a slave. Now that concept is considered unethical\Immoral. Imperialism
and colonialism as state concepts were justified in the first half of twentieth century but were discarded
as against human rights and sovereignty of state in the second half of the last century. Practice of Sati
and discrimination between humans on different basis was once considered ethical in Indian society. But
today such practices are not only unethical but are also against the law.

15
Moral Philosophy Context

Three contrasting schools are there:
A. Ethical/Moral Universalism
Also called moral objectivism, this school of philosophy argues for the existence of a universal ethics. Certain
behaviors are simply wrong regardless of the circumstances. In a 2007 interview, Noam Chomsky defined
universalism as If something’s right for me, it’s right for you; if it’s wrong for you, it’s wrong for me.
Universalism is based on the idea of a rational test that can be applied to any ethical dilemma. The exact
nature of this test varies widely among different factions of Universalists. For example, utilitarianism states
that the correct rational test is: - Does my action create the maximum good for the maximum number of
people? If the answer is yes, then utilitarianism would say that the action is morally correct.
Moral universalism in the form of human rights has become widely accepted in the past several decades. The
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, issued by the United Nations in 1948, and the Geneva Conventions
(whichdefine fair treatment of prisoners of war) are based on the theory of moral universalism. In other words,
human beings all have certain rights and to deny those rights is always immoral.
B. Ethical/Moral Relativism
Different cultures and individuals have different standards of right and wrong. Moral standards also change
over time in the same culture. For example, slavery was considered moral in the United States at one time but
not anymore.
Moral relativists argue that there is no known universal rule that defines right and wrong. Instead, morality
is determined by the standards of a person’s own authorities. These authorities might be a government, a
religion or even a family member.
To carry the argument further, if one society believes that slavery is wrong and another believes that slavery
is right, a moral relativist would say that either side may be correct. We have no way of knowing for sure
whether slavery is ethically right or wrong, since human beings have not yet found an absolute moral yardstick
with which we can judge.
Criticism of Relativism
1. Many ethicists reject the theory of ethical relativism. Some claim that while the moral practices of societies
may differ, the fundamental moral principles underlying these practices do not.
For example, in some societies, killing one’s parents after they reached a certain age was common practice,
stemming from the belief
that people were better off in
the afterlife if they entered
it while still physically
active and vigorous. While
such a practice would be
condemned in our society,
we would agree with these
societies on the underlying
moral principle -- the duty
to care for parents. Societies,
then, may differ in their
application of fundamental
moral principles but agree
on the principles.
2. Also, it is argued, it may be
the case that some moral
beliefs are culturally relative

16
whereas others are not. Certain practices, such as customs regarding dress and decency, may depend on
local custom whereas other practices, such as slavery, torture, or political repression, may be governed by
universal moral standards and judged wrong despite the many other differences that exist among cultures.
Simply because some practices are relative does not mean that all practices are relative.
3. Other philosophers criticize ethical relativism because of its implications for individual moral beliefs.
These philosophers assert that if the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on a society’s norms,
then it follows that one must obey the norms of one’s society and to diverge from those norms is to act
immorally. This means that if I am a member of a society that believes that racial or sexist practices are
morally permissible, then I must accept those practices as morally right. But such a view promotes social
conformity and leaves no room for moral reform or improvement in a society. Furthermore, members of
the same society may hold different views on practices. In the United States, for example, a variety of
moral opinions exists on matters ranging from animal experimentation to abortion. What constitutes right
action when social consensus is lacking?
4. Perhaps the strongest argument against ethical relativism comes from those who assert that universal
moral standards can exist even if some moral practices and beliefs vary among cultures. In other words,
we can acknowledge cultural differences in moral practices and beliefs and still hold that some of these
practices and beliefs are morally wrong. The practice of slavery in pre-Civil war U.S. society or the
practice of apartheid in South Africa is wrong despite the beliefs of those societies. The treatment of the
Jews in Nazi society is morally reprehensible regardless of the moral beliefs of Nazi society.
For these philosophers, ethics is an inquiry into right and wrong through a critical examination of the reasons
underlying practices and beliefs. As a theory for justifying moral practices and beliefs, ethical relativism fails
to recognize that some societies have better reasons for holding their views than others.
C. Moral Nihilism
In its most extreme form, moral relativism becomes moral nihilism. Also called amorality, this philosophy takes
moral relativism a step further by stating that there is no absolute basis for right and wrong. Therefore,
morality is meaningless: a person’s or culture’s ethical rules are entirely artificial, created to keep a society
running smoothly. To a moral nihilist, if a society decides that murder is wrong, this is just as arbitrary a
decision as if it decided that a red traffic light means stop.
nn

17
Chapter - 5
Consequences of Ethics in Human Actions
E
thics play an important role in human life and society. Ethics are like electricity. It is not apparent to
naked eye but can be felt instantaneously in specific conditions and visible when power is switched on.
No government can get to the long distance without embracing ethical behaviour. Ethics play many
functions for us like:
●● Satisfying Basic Human Needs: Being fair, honest and ethical is one the basic human needs. If we take
an optimistic view of society, we can say that every employee desires to be a good person and to work for
an organization that is fair and ethical in its practices. Humanistic psychology suggests that every human
is basically good and wanted to be good provided he gets the just environment.
●● Creating Credibility: An organization that is believed to be driven by moral values is respected in
the society even by those who may have no information about the working and the businesses or an
organization. Infosys, for example is perceived as an organization for good corporate governance and
social responsibility initiatives. This perception is held far and wide even by those who do not even know
what business the organization is into.
●● Uniting People and Leadership: An organization driven by values is revered by its employees also.
They are the common thread that brings the employees and the decision makers on a common platform.
This goes a long way in aligning behaviours within the organization towards achievement of one common
goal or mission.
●● Securing the Society: Often ethics succeeds law in safeguarding the society. The law machinery is often
found acting as a mute spectator, unable to save the society and the environment. Technology, for example
is growing at such a fast pace that the by the time law comes up with a regulation we have a newer
technology with new threats replacing the older one. Lawyers and public interest litigations may not help
a great deal but ethics can.
●● Ethics helps us to arrive at decisions more quickly as it assists making choices.
●● It reveals the value dimension of a decision that would otherwise seems value free. They help us to make
ethical analysis.
●● For administrators it helps in making in more reflective judgments, one that can be defended in public. It
helps in bringing integration and stability to the society.
In the absence of ethics, these functions become tougher than before. Absence of ethical behaviour in present
times may lead to chaos in the society. Today, the consequences of loss of ethics are powerful enough to shape
the destiny of an individual or an organization. Its consequences can be felt at different levels or different
fields:
1. Political level: A successful political system requires trust and commitment from the citizens. This trust
comes only when the ethics are high. Examples like Arab spring, Indian movement against corruption
shows what loss of ethics at political level can do. Loss of ethics in Indian political system has led to:
●● Hung parliament: no single party gets the majority.
●● Coalition governments: By nature, they are unstable and decision- making is slow. Demands of various
sections have to be taken into account. Political corruption is rampant in such scenario.
●● Loss of constitutional values of social, economic and political justice.
●● Criminalization of politics – participation of criminals in the electoral process.
2. International level: Trust deficit is increasing among the nations. Problem between India and Pakistan
have become more complex largely due to loss of ethical behaviour. Issues like violation of ceasefire
at borders, beheading of Indian soldiers, allowing terrorists to plot against India on their land are more

18
ethical in nature. Recent Italian marines issue got an ethical dimension when earlier Italy refused to
send back the marines. Decrease in soft loans from international organizations like World Bank as good
governance is the pre-condition, and good governance essentially means an ethical government.
3. Organizational level: The biggest manifestation of loss of ethics is corruption. Other repercussions can be:
●● Nepotism
●● Lawlessness
●● Loss of trust in the administration:
●● Rise in inequalities
●● Decrease in efficiency, economy and effectiveness
●● Destruction of work culture
2nd ARC in its fourth report ‘Ethics In Governance’ has said that there is need for ethics in every profession,
voluntary organization and civil society structure as these entities are now vitally involved in the process of
governance. Finally, there should be ethics in citizen behaviour because such behaviour impinges directly on
ethics in government a3nd administration. It is unfortunate that corruption has, for many, become a matter
of habit, ranging from grand corruption involving persons in high places to retail corruption touching the
everyday life of common people.
4. Social level
●● Corruption has become a norm as people now do not consider it wrong
●● Rise in crime rate in general as well as against women.
●● At societal level, loss of ethics may lead to a new set of ethics like capital punishment. Gandhi’s noble
idea of a society based on truth and nonviolence is becoming a thing of past. People are favoring capital
punishment as violence has become a solution.
●● People have started acknowledging mafia and local goons.
●● Regionalism: castes, religious groups have taken over the ethics of secularism, nationhood and brotherhood.
●● Things like clothing style, parent’s respect, joint family, drug addiction etc. are also affected.
5. Individual level
●● Petty crime has been increasing l People urinating and spitting on roads
●● Jumping red light l Abusive language
●● Domestic violence l Crime against the aged
In different fields also, loss of ethics can have some huge repercussions:
6. Environment Ethics
●● Loss in flora and fauna
●● Environmental degradation
●● Polluter shall pay concept is diminishing
●● Developed countries not taking the responsibility
●● Increased level of pollutions.
7. Loss of Bioethics
●● Abortion l Animal rights
●● Artificial life l Blood transfusion
●● Body modification l Cloning
●● Confidentiality (medical records) l Consent
●● Euthanasia (human, animal) l Exorcism
●● Genetically modified organisms l Human cloning
●● Human enhancement l Human experimentation in the United States
●● Human genetic engineering l Sperm and egg donation
●● Stem cell research l Suicide
nn

19
Chapter - 6
Dimensions of Ethics
T
he existing studies and practice of ethics encompasses diverse disciplines or fields such as, philosophy,
political science, public administration, military science, earth sciences, organisational behaviour
etc. Taking a comprehensive view, ethics today can be viewed and studied along the following four
dimensions:
1. Metaethics: The term “meta” means after or beyond, and, consequently, the notion of metaethics involves
a bird’s eye view of the entire project of ethics. Metaethics deals with the theoretical meaning and
reference of moral propositions and how their truth values (if any) may be determined. This dimension of
ethics investigates where our ethical principles come from, and what they mean. Are they merely social
inventions? Do they involve more than expressions of our individual emotions? It covers multiple issues
from moral semantics to moral epistemology. Two issues, though, are prominent:
Metaphysical issues: Metaphysics is the study of the kinds of things that exist in the universe. Some
things in the universe are made of physical stuff, such as rocks; and perhaps other things are nonphysical
in nature, such as thoughts, spirits, and gods. The metaphysical component of meta-ethics involves
discovering specifically whether moral values are eternal truths that exist in a spirit-like realm, or simply
human conventions. There are two general directions that discussions of this topic take, one other-worldly
and one this-worldly.
Proponents of the other-worldly view typically hold that moral values are objective in the sense that they
exist in a spirit-like realm beyond subjective human conventions. They also hold that they are absolute,
or eternal, in that they never change, and also that they are universal insofar as they apply to all rational
creatures around the world and throughout time.
The second and more this-worldly approach to the metaphysical status of morality follows in the skeptical
philosophical tradition, such as that articulated by Greek philosopher Sextus Empiricus and denies the
objective status of moral values. Technically, skeptics did not reject moral values themselves, but only
denied that values exist as spirit-like objects, or as divine commands in the mind of God. Moral values,
they argued, are strictly human inventions, a position that has since been called moral relativism.
Psychological issues: A second area of meta-ethics involves the psychological basis of our moral
judgments and conduct, particularly understanding what motivates us to be moral. We might explore this
subject by asking the simple question, “Why be moral?” Even if I am aware of basic moral standards, such
as don’t kill and don’t steal, this does not necessarily mean that I will be psychologically compelled to act
on them. Some answers to the question “Why be moral?” are to avoid punishment, to gain praise, to attain
happiness, to be dignified, or to fit in with society.
2. Descriptive Ethics: Descriptive Ethics, also known as
The following examples of questions that
comparative ethics, is the study of people’s beliefs about
might be considered in each field illustrate
morality. It contrasts with prescriptive or normative ethics,
the differences between the fields:
which is the study of ethical theories that prescribe how
people ought to act, and with meta-ethics, which is the ●● Descriptive Ethics: What do people
study of what ethical terms and theories actually refer to. think is right?
Descriptive ethics is on the less philosophical end of the ●● Normative (prescriptive) Ethics:
spectrum, since it seeks to gather particular information How should people act?
about how people live and draw general conclusions based ●● Applied ethics: How do we take moral
on observed patterns. Abstract and theoretical questions knowledge and put it into practice?
that are more clearly philosophical—such as, “Is ethical ●● Meta-Ethics: What does “right” even
knowledge possible?”—are not central to descriptive mean?

20
ethics. Descriptive ethics offers a value-free approach to ethics, which defines it as a social science rather
than humanity.
3. Normative ethics: Normative ethics takes on a more practical task, which is to arrive at moral standards
that regulate right and wrong conduct. This may involve articulating the good habits that we should
acquire, the duties that we should follow, or the consequences of our behaviour on others.
Thus, one can say that normative ethics is a search for an ideal litmus test of proper behaviour. The Golden
Rule is a classic example of a normative principle: We should do to others what we would want others to
do to us. Since I do not want my neighbour to steal my car, then it is wrong for me to steal her car. Since
I would want people to feed me if I was starving, then I should help feed starving people. Using this same
reasoning, I can theoretically determine whether any possible action is right or wrong. So, based on the
Golden Rule, it would also be wrong for me to lie to, harass, victimize, assault, or kill others. The Golden
Rule is an example of a normative theory that establishes a single principle against which we judge all
actions. Other normative theories focus on a set of foundational principles, or a set of good character
traits.
The key assumption in normative ethics is that there is only one ultimate criterion of moral conduct, whether
it is a single rule or a set of principles. Three strategies will be noted here:
A. Virtue theories: Many philosophers believe that morality consists of following precisely defined rules of
conduct, such as “don’t kill,” or “don’t steal.” Presumably, I must learn these rules, and then make sure
each of my actions live up to the rules. Virtue ethics, however, places less emphasis on learning rules,
and instead stresses the importance of developing good habits of character, such as benevolence. Once
I’ve acquired benevolence, for example, I will then habitually act in a benevolent manner. Historically,
virtue theory is one of the oldest normative traditions in Western philosophy, having its roots in ancient
Greek civilization. Plato emphasized four virtues in particular, which were later called cardinal virtues:
wisdom, courage, temperance and justice. Other important virtues are fortitude, generosity, self-respect,
good temper, and sincerity. In addition to advocating good habits of character, virtue theorists hold that we
should avoid acquiring bad character traits, or vices, such as cowardice, insensibility, injustice, and vanity.
Virtue theory emphasizes moral education since virtuous character traits are developed in one’s youth.
Adults, therefore, are responsible for instilling virtues in the young. Aristotle argued that virtues are good
habits that we acquire, which regulate our emotions. For example, in response to my natural feelings of
fear, I should develop the virtue of courage which allows me to be firm when facing danger.
B. Duty theories: Many of us feel that there are clear obligations we have as human beings, such as to
care for our children, and to not commit murder. Duty theories base morality on specific, foundational
principles of obligation. These theories are sometimes called deontological, from the Greek word deon,
or duty, in view of the foundational nature of our duty or obligation. They are also sometimes called
nonconsequentialist since these principles are obligatory, irrespective of the consequences that might
follow from our actions. For example, it is wrong to not care for our children even if it results in some
great benefit, such as financial savings.
C. Consequentialist theories: It is common for us to determine our moral responsibility by weighing the
consequences of our actions. According to consequentialism, correct moral conduct is determined solely
by a cost-benefit analysis of an action’s consequences. Consequentialism suggests that an action is morally
right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable. Consequentialist normative
principles require that we first tally both the good and bad consequences of an action. Second, we then
determine whether the
total good consequences
outweigh the total bad
consequences. If the
good consequences are
greater, then the action is
morally proper. If the bad
consequences are greater,

21
then the action is morally improper. Consequentialist theories are sometimes called teleological theories,
from the Greek word telos, or end, since the end result of the action is the sole determining factor of its
morality.
4. Applied Ethics: Applied ethics is a branch of moral philosophy that attempts to apply ethical theory
to real-life situations. It is an attempt to use ethical approaches to identify the morally correct course of
action in various fields of everyday life. For example, Environmental ethics is concerned with ecological
questions such as the responsibility of government and corporations to clean up pollution.
People in-general are more comfortable with dichotomies (two opposites). However, in ethics, the issues
are most often multifaceted and the best proposed actions address many different areas concurrently. In
ethical decisions the answer is almost never a “yes or no”, “right or wrong” statement. Many buttons are
pushed so that the overall condition is improved and not to the benefit of any particular faction.
nn

22
Chapter - 7
Particular Fields of Applied Ethics
1. Bioethics
Bioethics is the study of controversial ethics brought about by advances in biology and medicine. Bioethicists
are concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among life sciences, biotechnology,
medicine, politics, law, and philosophy.
Bioethics also needs to address emerging bio-technologies that affect basic biology and future humans. Areas
of health sciences that are the subject of bioethical analysis include:
1. Abortion:is the ending of pregnancy by removing a fetus or embryo before it can survive outside the
uterus. An abortion which occurs spontaneously is also known as a miscarriage. Abortion is considered
highly unethical especially in catholic countries. The most prevalent argument that the fetus has a moral
status disallowing abortion is:
●● A fetus is a member of the biological species homo sapiens (i.e., a human being).To destroy a human
being deliberately is unethical (it’s murder).Therefore, abortion is unethical (murder), since it constitutes
the deliberate destruction of a human being.
●● Life and death are in the hands of god. Humans should not interfere in them.
●● Right to self-determination for pregnant women.
●● Right to live a dignified life for children born with disorders.
●● State’s responsibility in providing maternity relief.
●● Right to life of fetus
Sonography and amniocentesis also allow parents to determine sex before childbirth. The development of
this technology has led to sex-selective abortion, or the termination of a fetus based on sex. The selective
termination of a female fetus is most common in countries like India.
2. Animal rights: Animal rights is the idea that some, or all, non-human animals are entitled to the possession
of their own lives and that their most basic interests—such as the need to avoid suffering—should be
afforded the same consideration as similar interests of human beings. Biocentrism vs. humano-centrism is
one of the central debates in giving rights to animals.
3. Biological patent: A biological patent is a patent on an invention in the field of biology that by law allows
the patent holder to exclude others from making, using, selling, or importing the protected invention for
a limited period of time. The scope and reach of biological patents vary among jurisdictions, and may
include biological technology and products, genetically modified organisms and genetic material. The
applicability of patents to substances and processes wholly or partially natural in origin is a subject of
debate. The issue involves:
●● Natural resources as a common good
●● Rights of local people to avail benefits from environment
●● Justice to local people
●● Maximum good for maximum number of people
4. Bio-piracy: describes a practice in which indigenous knowledge of nature, originating with indigenous
peoples, is used by others for profit, without permission from and with little or no compensation or
recognition to the indigenous people themselves. For example, when bio-prospectors draw on indigenous
knowledge of medicinal plants which is later patented by medical companies without recognizing the
fact that the knowledge is not new, or invented by the patenter, and depriving the indigenous community
to the rights to commercial exploitation of the technology that they themselves had developed. Critics
of this practice, such as Greenpeace, claim these practices contribute to inequality between developing

23
countries rich in biodiversity, and developed countries hosting companies that engage in ‘bio-piracy’. It
also includes unequal distribution of benefits and burdens.
5. Cloning: There are a variety of ethical positions regarding the possibilities of cloning, especially human
cloning. While many of these views are religious in origin, the questions raised by cloning are faced
by secular perspectives as well. Perspectives on human cloning are theoretical, as human therapeutic
and reproductive cloning are not commercially used; animals are currently cloned in laboratories and in
livestock production.
Advocates support development of therapeutic cloning in order to generate tissues and whole organs to treat
patients who otherwise cannot obtain transplants, to avoid the need for immunosuppressive drugs, and to stave
off the effects of aging.It thus includes right to dignified life. Advocates for reproductive cloning believe that
parents who cannot otherwise procreate should have access to the technology. Thus empathy and compassion
is there.
Opponents of cloning have concerns that technology is not yet developed enough to be safe and that it could
be prone to abuse (leading to the generation of humans from whom organs and tissues would be harvested),as
well as concerns about how cloned individuals could integrate with families and with society at large.
Religious groups are divided, with some opposing the technology as usurping “God’s place” and, to the extent
embryos are used, destroying a human life; others support therapeutic cloning’s potential life-saving benefits.
Cloning of animals is opposed by animal-groups due to the number of cloned animals that suffer from
malformations before they die, and while food from cloned animals has been approved by the US FDA, its
use is opposed by groups concerned about food safety.
6. Euthanasia (human, non-human animal): Euthanasia or good death is the practice of intentionally
ending a life in order to relieve pain and suffering.There are different euthanasia laws in each country.
The British House of Lords Select Committee on Medical Ethics defines euthanasia as “a deliberate
intervention undertaken with the express intention of ending a life, to relieve intractable suffering”. In the
Netherlands and Flanders, euthanasia is understood as “termination of life by a doctor at the request of a
patient”.
Euthanasia is categorized in different ways, which include voluntary, non-voluntary, or involuntary. Voluntary
euthanasia is legal in some countries. Non-voluntary euthanasia (patient’s consent unavailable) is illegal in
all countries. Involuntary euthanasia (without asking consent or against the patient’s will) is also illegal in
all countries and is usually considered murder. As of 2006, euthanasia is the most active area of research in
contemporary bioethics.
In some countries there is a divisive public controversy over the moral, ethical, and legal issues of euthanasia.
Those who are against euthanasia may argue for the sanctity of life, duty of doctors, right to self-determination
of patients, while proponents of euthanasia rights emphasize alleviating suffering, and preserving bodily
integrity, self-determination, and personal autonomy.Reasons for opposing euthanasia:
●● Hippocratic Oath: it is contrary to the original Hippocratic Oath of 400 B.C.E., stating “I will give no
deadly medicine to anyone if asked, nor suggest any such counsel”. The original oath however has been
modified many times and, contrary to popular belief, is not required by most modern medical schools,
although some have adopted modern versions that suit many in the profession in the 21st century.
●● The Declaration of Geneva: The Declaration of Geneva is a revision of the Hippocratic Oath, first
drafted in 1948 by the World Medical Association in response to euthanasia, eugenics and other medical
crimes performed in Nazi Germany. It contains, “I will maintain the utmost respect for human life.”
●● The International Code of Medical Ethics: The International Code of Medical Ethics, last revised in
2006, includes “A physician shall always bear in mind the obligation to respect human life” in the section
“Duties of physicians to patients”.
●● Buddhism: Because assisted suicide and euthanasia constitute deliberate killing of another person,
these practices contradict the fundamental religious principle of refraining from killing a living being.
According to Buddhism, suicide is an uncompassionate act as it causes grief to others and is believed to
deprive them of spiritual development.

24
7. Exorcism: is the religious or spiritual practice of purportedly evicting demons or other spiritual entities
from a person or an area they are believed to have possessed. Depending on the spiritual beliefs of the
exorcist, this may be done by causing the entity to swear an oath, performing an elaborate ritual, or simply
by commanding it to depart in the name of a higher power. The practice is ancient and part of the belief
system of many cultures and religions. Ethical issues involve rights of mentally ill patients to get proper
treatment, right to live a dignified life, discrimination and justice.
8. Human experimentation: Unethical human experimentation in states like United States, Russia and
Germany describes numerous experiments performed on human test subjects that have been considered
unethical, and were often performed illegally, without the knowledge, consent, or informed consent of the
test subjects. Such tests have occurred throughout history, but particularly in the 20th century.
The experiments include: the deliberate infection of people with deadly or debilitating diseases, exposure
of people to biological and chemical weapons, human radiation experiments, injection of people with toxic
and radioactive chemicals, surgical experiments, interrogation and torture experiments, tests involving mind-
altering substances, and a wide variety of others. Many of these tests were performed on children, the sick,
and mentally disabled individuals, often under the guise of “medical treatment”. In many of the studies, a
large portion of the subjects were poor, racial minorities or prisoners. The human research programs are
usually highly secretive, and in many cases information about them are not released until many years after
the studies had been performed.
9. Stem cell research: The stem cell controversy is the consideration of the ethics of research involving the
development, usage, and destruction of human embryos. Most commonly, this controversy focuses on
embryonic stem cells. Not all stem cell research involves the creation, usage and destruction of human
embryos. For example, adult stem cells, amniotic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells do not
involve creating, using or destroying human embryos and thus are minimally, if at all, controversial. Many
less controversial sources of acquiring stem cells include using cells from the umbilical cord, breast milk,
and bone marrow.
World Bioethics Day

It is celebrated every year on October 19, to mark universal declaration of human rights by UNESCO.The UNESCO
bioethical principles are:
l espect for human dignity and human rights (Article 3.1)
l Priority of the individual’s interests and welfare over the sole interest of science or society (Article 3.2)
l Beneficence and non‐maleficence (Article 4)
l Autonomy (Article 5)
l Informed consent (Article 6)
l Protection of persons unable to consent (Article 7)
l Special attention to vulnerable persons (Article 8)
l Privacy and confidentiality (Article 9)
l Equality, justice and equity (Article 10)
l Non‐discrimination and non‐stigmatization (Article 11)
l Respect for cultural diversity and pluralism (Article 12)
l Solidarity and cooperation (Article 13)
l Access to healthcare and essential medicines (Article 14)
l Benefit sharing (Article 15)
l Protection of future generations (Article 16)
l Protection of the environment, the biosphere and biodiversity (Article 17)
10. Surrogacy: A surrogacy arrangement or surrogacy agreement is the carrying of a pregnancy for intended
parents. Intended parents may seek a surrogacy arrangement when either pregnancy is medically impossible,
pregnancy risks present an unacceptable danger to the mother’s health or is a same sex couple’s preferred
method of procreation. Monetary compensation may or may not be involved in these arrangements. If
the surrogate receives money for the surrogacy the arrangement is considered commercial surrogacy, if

25
she receives only compensation beyond reimbursement of medical and other reasonable expenses it is
referred to as altruistic. The legality and costs of surrogacy vary widely between jurisdictions, sometimes
resulting in interstate or international surrogacy arrangements. Ethical issues that have been raised with
regards to surrogacy include:
●● To what extent should society be concerned about exploitation, commoditization, and/or coercion when
women are paid to be pregnant and deliver babies, especially in cases where there are large wealth and
power differentials between intended parents and surrogates?
●● To what extent is it right for society to permit women to make contracts about the use of their bodies?
●● To what extent is it a woman’s human right to make contracts regarding the use of her body?
●● Is contracting for surrogacy more like contracting for employment/labor, or more like contracting for
prostitution, or more like contracting for slavery? Which, if any, of these kinds of contracts should be
enforceable?
●● Should the state be able to force a woman to carry out “specific performance” of her contract if that
requires her to give birth to an embryo she would like to abort, or to abort an embryo she would like to
carry to term?
●● What does motherhood mean?
●● What is the relationship between genetic motherhood, gestational motherhood, and social motherhood?
●● Is it possible to socially or legally conceive of multiple modes of motherhood and/or the recognition of
multiple mothers?
●● Should a child born via surrogacy have the right to know the identity of any/all of the people involved in
that child’s conception and delivery?
2. Business ethics
Business ethics (also corporate ethics) is a form of applied ethics or professional ethics that examines ethical
principles and moral or ethical problems that arise in a business environment in private sector. It applies to all
aspects of business conduct and is relevant to the conduct of individuals and entire organizations.
Note: This topic will be discussed later in unit-6.
3. Military ethics
Military ethics are concerned with questions regarding the application of force and the ethos of the soldier and
are often understood as applied professional ethics. Just war theory is generally seen to set the background
terms of military ethics. However individual countries and traditions have different fields of attention. Military
ethics involves multiple subareas, including the following among others:
●● what, if any, should be the laws of war
●● justification for the initiation of military force
●● decisions about who may be targeted in warfare
●● decisions on choice of weaponry, and what collateral effects such weaponry may have
●● standards for handling military prisoners
●● methods of dealing with violations of the laws of war
Note: This section will be discussed further under international ethics.
4. Political ethics
Politics (from Greek word Politika which means “affairs of the cities”) is the process of making decisions
applying to all members of each group. It also refers to an organized control over a human community,
particularly a state.
Politics is an essential human activity – essential in building societiesand communities based on rules, laws and
a balance of conflictinginterests. Politics is complex and difficult. It requires a high level of responsibilityand
commitment from citizens, political parties, parliamentarians,government executives, the judiciary, the media,
business, nongovernmentalorganizations, and religious and educational institutions.

26
But polls on all continents on the confidence of people in institutionsshow that people do not place much trust
in politics and politicians.They are often seen as selfish and corrupt power-players, defending specialinterests
instead of the common good. “Ethics in politics” seems to many a contradiction in terms,even though many
politicians try to give their best for the commoncause of a country or the international community. Trust in
and respect for politics and politicians is vital for living togetherin communities and societies – especially in
democracies. Whereit is missing, populist, fascist or dictatorial tendencies can easily grow.
However, the literature in political ethics is much less developed and theprofound skepticism that ethics in
politics is feasible remains strong. Atthe same time, many movements show the thirst for credible politics:
TheArab spring with its call for freedom and democracy, the Indian broadmovement against corruption
in politics, the European replacement ofgovernments in Greece and Italy by technocrats and intellectuals
whosemandate is to rebuild national unity, African initiatives for responsibleleadership, Latin American
movements for peoples’ participation and citizenship, North American social network campaigns andmany
others.
Ethics in politics cover two areas. The first is the ethics of process (or the ethics of office), which deals with
public officials and the methods they use. The second area, the ethics of policy (or ethics and public policy)
concerns judgments about policies and laws.
Principles of politics: Politics can evolve in a virtuous way once political actors adopt three basic principles:
1. Power should be limited by institutions and procedures, the rule of law, power sharing, devolution and
mandates, open and fair competition,and a sense of modesty;
2. Power should be accountable to the common good, the community and its representatives, setting the
ground for wider acceptance andcommitment, securing smooth change and reducing retribution;
3. Power should be effective and efficient, results-driven, turning assets into benefits for all and containing
the corruption that capturescommon wealth for particular interests.
Power exercised in these ways serves sound governance, preventingpopulism, autocracy and dictatorial rule.
In meeting the challenges of a globalized, interdependent world, six ethical values in politics are cardinal:
1. Identity with diversity: Combining national sovereignty, pride, and independence with diversity of
cultures and backgrounds, avoidingthe traps of ethnic purity and populism.
2. Peace and security: Maintaining a state monopoly on violence and managing conflicts through the
regulated use of force, fostering self-rule,backing a culture of peace, respect, dialogue, reciprocal
commitment,and reconciliation.
3. Responsibility and freedom: Focusing on the interaction between freedom and responsibility, promoting
initiative and risk-taking, acknowledginghuman rights, being committed to open reporting.
4. Equity: Abiding by the rule of law, promoting equal access to resources, information and influence,
tackling any tendency towardsprivilege or discrimination.
5. Solidarity: Developing fair mechanisms of cooperation with impoverished regions and underprivileged
minorities or social groups, withoutpaternalism or creating lasting dependency.
6. Sustainability: Securing an effective respect towards the earth and the future by refraining from
overexploiting natural resources, limiting environmental damage and fining polluters, managing public
goods prudently, and looking for reasonable trade-offs between immediate, long-term and earth-wide
interests.
5. Public sector ethics

Ethics in the public sector is a broad topic that is usually considered a branch of political ethics. In the
public sector, ethics addresses the fundamental premise of a public administrator’s duty as a “steward” to the
public. In other words, it is the moral justification and consideration for decisions and actions made during
the completion of daily duties when working to provide the general services of government and nonprofit
organizations.
Note: this section will be discussed later in detail.

27
6. Publication ethics
Publication ethics is the set of principles that guide the writing and publishing process for all professional
publications. In order to follow the set of principles, authors should verify that the publication does not
contain plagiarism or publication bias. As a way to avoid misconduct in research these principles can also
be applied to experiments which are referenced or analyzed in publications by ensuring the data is recorded,
honestly and accurately.
Plagiarism is the failure to give credit to another author’s work or ideas, when it is used in the publication. It
is the obligation of the editor of the journal to ensure the article does not contain any plagiarism before it is
published. If a publication which has already been published is proven to contain plagiarism, then the editor
of the journal can proceed to have the article retracted.
Publication bias occurs when the publication is one-sided or “prejudiced against results”. In best practice,
an author should try to include information from all parties involved, or affected by the topic. If an author is
prejudiced against certain results, then it can “lead to erroneous conclusions being drawn.”
Misconduct in research can occur when information from an experiment is falsely recorded or altered. Falsely
recorded information occurs when the researcher “fakes” information or data, which was not used when
conducting the actual experiment. By faking the data, the researcher can alter the results from the experiment
to better fit the hypothesis they originally predicted. When conducting medical research, it is important to
honor the healthcare rights of a patient by protecting their anonymity in the publication.
7. Environmental ethics
Environmental ethics is the part of environmental philosophy which considers extending the traditional
boundaries of ethics from solely including humans to including the non-human world. It exerts influence
on a large range of disciplines including environmental law, environmental sociology, ecotheology
(interrelationships of religion and nature), ecological economics, ecology and environmental geography.
There are many ethical decisions that human beings make with respect to the environment. For example:
●● Should we continue to clear cut forests for the sake of human consumption?
●● Why should we continue to propagate our species, and life itself?
●● Should we continue to make gasoline powered vehicles?
●● What environmental obligations do we need to keep for future generations?
●● Is it right for humans to knowingly cause the extinction of a species for the convenience of humanity?
●● How should we best use and conserve the space environment to secure and expand life?
●● Questions related to sustainable development.
Environmental Ethics in Indian Tradition
Since Vedic times, the main motto of social life was “to live in harmony with nature”.Sages, saints and great
teachers of India lived in forests, mediated and expressed themselves in the form of Vedas, Upanishads,
Smritis and Dharma. Thus we can imply that all the divine thoughts and literature which served as ideal for
living life and taught guidelines how to live life came up when these saints and great thinkers were in touch
with the nature. This literature of Olden times preached in one form or the other a worshipful attitude towards
plants, trees, mother earth, sky (akash), air (vayu), water(jal) and animals and to keep benevolent attitude
towards them. It was regarded a sacred of every person to protect them. The Hindu religion enshrines a
respect for nature, environmental harmony and conservation. It instructed man to show reverence of divinity
in nature. Therefore, trees, animals, hills, mountains, rivers are worshiped as symbol of reverence to these
representative sample of nature. A perusal of Hindu religious scriptures reveals that the principles.
1. To respect nature and protect it,
2. Nonviolence is the dharma of highest order (Ahinsa parmo dharma) one should be non violent towards
animals, trees and other organisms.
3. Hinsa was considered as sin therefore not eating of meet in Hinduism is considered both as conduct and a
duty.

28
Purity of thought and expression, and cleanliness of the environment around us should be observed.All lives,
human and non-human including trees are of equal value and all have same right to existence. It shows that
the principle of sanctity of life is clearly ingrained in Hindu religion.
In Current scenario people have forgotten their age old traditions of living in harmony with nature and
conserving natural environment and natural resources. In the mad rush for industrialization and industrial
development we are forgetting the importance of environment. Earlier man coexisted with nature like other
creatures but slowly he started thinking that whole universe is meant for man and he is the master of whole
universe. Previously he cared for the environment in which he lives in because he had place in his heart for
everything and he was sensitive towards other organism but as civilization progressed the sensitive attitude of
man towards nature started deteriorating and he had totally forgotten the importance of nature and he though
is well aware of the fact that Industrialization brings with it problems of environmental pollution but doesn’t
at all wants to understand this simple fact.
Environmental Ethics and Constitution of India: “India has age old tradition of tolerance, non-violence,
equity and compassion for animate objects. In olden times they were part of daily life and synthesized with
religion. Religious teachings social and political norms and economic policies treated as a part of nature not
as molder or superior.All the living beings are creatures of one superior power –GOD”.
The above philosophy of peaceful coexistence with nature got mentioned in the Constitution in one way or
the other in following articles:
1. Articl 48-A : State shall endeavor to protect and improve environment and to safeguard forest and wildlife
of the country.
2. Article 51-a (g) : It is the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve natural environment
including forest, lake, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures.
Example case of Jallikattu: Different perspectives
Perspective Arguments in favour Arguments against Jallikattu
Cultural ●● Jallikattu is not mere organized ●● As per SC, Jallikattu is an age-old tradition,
heritage entertainment but an age-old tradition so was child marriage and the practice of
practised for time immemorial (since Sati until both were declared as a crime.
Tamil classical period). ●● Many animal welfare organisations have
●● Even Spanish Senate in 2013 declared given evidence that bulls are fed liquor
the “far more cruel” sport of bull- and have chilli powder thrown into their
fighting a cultural heritage. eyes before they are released from a
holding pen and chased by revellers.
●● There have also been reports of bulls
having their horns sharpened with
broken glass, while the "taming" can
lead to serious injury and a painful death
for the animals.
●● Also, over the years, dozens of people
have also been killed and hundreds more
wounded at Jallikattu events.
Biodiversity ●● The sport is good for maintaining bio- ●● Their population will thrive in wild,
diversity as it encourages breeding of even if no indigenous artificial breeding
indigenous bulls. is done.
●● Breeders say Jallikattu and bullock ●● The practice is against the welfare of
cart racing gave the region a healthy bulls that falls in the category of drought
male-to-female ratio of native cattle. animals and hence got a constitutional
safeguard.

29
●● Tamil Nadu is the most urbanised ●● Animal activists and PETA India have
state in India, with a well-established protested against the practice over the
manufacturing and services sector. years. Along with human injuries and
Due to the mechanisation of agriculture fatalities, sometimes bulls themselves
and transport, the economic rationale sustain injuries which people believe as
for owning a bull has declined. bad omen for the village.
Dairy farmers, too, are turning their back Most importantly, the practice leads to great
on native cattle and prefer high-yielding injustice to animals as burden falls upon
buffaloes and cross breeds. Most of the them and benefits are taken away by the
small dairy farmers own only cows and society.
buy in the services of Jallikattu bulls.
Usually, old bulls are sold off. But now
younger and fitter bulls are being sold to
meat traders
Social factors The sport provides opportunity for As per SC, The event is a “paid entertainment"
people to come together and share their and is not a socio-cultural event with any
happiness. religious association.
It leads to greater social cohesion and It supports violence which is against the
social capital. common good of peace and empathy in the
The event is just like a horse race which is society.
legal in India.
Animal rights No rights are violated as the event is The SC has identified “the five freedoms”
and freedom regulated through a state act. The event of animals, including freedom from hunger,
in fact safeguards their rights by assuring thirst and malnutrition, freedom from fear and
proper care, feed and regard. distress, freedom from physical and thermal
Jallikattu inspires people to hold onto discomfort, freedom from pain, injury and
their bulls. Farmers provided extra care disease, and freedom to express normal
for the animal since the bull represents the patterns of behaviour.
pride of their family and community. Some or all of these freedoms are violated at
one or another time during the event.
Rationale As per Tamil Nadu government, when As per SC, humans have free will, but bulls
humans ran marathons, why could not are forced into running.
bulls be part of a sport?
Constitutional The ban has affected the fundamental As per Article 48 (DPSP), the Constitution
right to religion enshrined under Article requires the State to “take steps for
25 of the Indian Constitution. preserving and improving the breeds, and
prohibiting the slaughter, of cows and calves
in other milch and draught cattle.”
As per Article 51A, the Constitution places
a duty on every citizen to “protect and
improve the natural environment including
forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to
have compassion for living creatures.”
As per the SC, the event is meant for the
sheer entertainment of man at the expense
of the animal and has nothing to do with
religious freedom.

30
Legal Tamil Nadu government maintains that SC bench has said that the very act of "taming
Jallikattu is not cruelty and is defined as a bull" to perform in an event runs counter to
an act of "taming" of bulls as per a 2009 the concept of welfare of the animal, which
State law enacted to "regulate" the event. is the basic foundation of the Prevention of
The 2009 Act was introduced by Tamil Cruelty to Animals Act of 1960.
Nadu government to stop any kind of
torture. One cannot ban Jallikattu just The SC has also invoked the doctrine of
because there was torture long ago. It is parens patriae to take care of the rights of
like a bank stopping all loans just because animals, since they were unable to take care
somebody had cheated it once long ago. of themselves as against humans.
What can be done?
As per the government, the bulls are specifically identified, trained and nourished for these sporting events,
and their owners spend considerable sums on their upkeep. No tickets are sold for Jallikattu or bullock-cart
races, and not much pain or suffering is caused to the animal. Thus, they argue, while these events may be
regulated, they ought not to be completely prohibited. If any individual is caught doing harm to a bull, catch
him and prosecute him.
But, the SC has rightly taken a hard view over the event and has ordered its complete ban. It has even asked
the Parliament to “elevate rights of animals to that of constitutional rights, as done by many of the countries
around the world, so as to protect their dignity and honour”.
The Indian constitution and culture calls for compassion to animals, which must be assured to them by the
government as well as people. Banning this practice is not only virtues but also lead to greatest good in the
long term, both for the animals, as well as mankind.
8. Ethics in Journalism
Freedom of the press and journalistic ethics is an important topic today in India — with the word ‘press’
encompassing the electronic media also. Thediscussion under this topic includes issues of the responsibilities
of the press, since the media have become very prominent and very powerful.
In India, freedom of the press has been treated as part of the freedom of speech and expression guaranteed by
Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution. However, as mentioned in Article 19(2), reasonable restrictions can be
placed on this right, on different counts. Hence, freedom of the media is not an absolute freedom.
The importance of the freedom of the press lies in the fact that it is the means by which people receive free
flow of information and ideas, which is essential to intelligent self-governance, that is, democracy.
Some of the ethical issues involved are:
1. Paid news: one can trace the origins of the unethical practice of paid news back to the liberalization of
the Indian economy in 1991. With market forces at play and public investment in private companies,
journalists found it sometimes lucrative to write only partially true stories of companies waiting to list on
the stock exchanges.
The mid-2000s saw business schemes that swapped ad space in newspapers for equity in companies,
and as documented by journalist Mrinal Pande, many of these went belly up. During the 2008 assembly
elections, Hindi dailies published stories about candidates who had no particular news value, even
predicting record victories for them. In 2003 Bennett Coleman and Company Ltd (BCCL), publisher of
The Times of India, started a paid content service to send journalists out to cover events for a fee.
2. Opaque private treaties: Another questionable BCCL scheme involved private treaties by which
a company would allot equity to BCCL in return for ad space, the report says. P Sainath was one
journalist who exposed the nexus of political and corporate entities in the news media through such
schemes. In 2008, in the midst of stiff opposition to the government granting permission to trial runs of
genetically-modified crops The Times of India ran a story about how no farmer suicides were reported

31
from two villages that had switched to GM seeds. The same story was later republished in August 2011
followed by a barrage of advertisement by GM giant Mahyco-Monsanto Biotech India. The 2011 reprint
was a frantic lobbying response to the government’s failure to table the GM bill in parliament, says
the report.
3. Blatant blackmail: In 2012 senior editors of the television channel Zee News were arrested for allegedly
demanding Rs 100 crore from Jindal Power and Steel Ltd. In return for this pay-off they offered to dilute
their network’s campaign against the company in the coal scam. The blackmail was exposed when JSPL
chairman and Congress MP Naveen Jindal conducted a reverse sting on the network’s executives.
4. Widening legal regulatory gap: The Press Council of India has dragged its feet on addressing paid news
and other unethical practices. In April 2003, a photojournalist tipped the Council off on the practice of
advertisements being published as news for a fee. Instead of investigating the matter, the Council merely
asked media companies to consider how their credibility is affected, and issued guidelines they should
follow to distinguish news from advertisements.
The PCI also failed to act on a damning report produced by journalists Paranjoy Guha Thakurta and K
Sreenivas Reddy on the immunity of the media using paid news. Instead of publishing the report, the
Council chose to keep it reference material because it could dent the image of media houses! The report
came into the public domain only later based on a Right to Information petition.
5. Flawed measurements of audience reach and readership: The yardsticks to measure the reach and
impact of the Indian media are dubious at best. One example is of the Indian Readership Survey of 2013,
which claims that the readership of English newspapers fell by a whopping 20% without attributing any
reasons to the fall. Moreover, the survey found that the leading English paper in Nagpur Hitvada didn’t
appear to have a single reader while it had a certified circulation of more than 60,000.
Television ratings also fail to tell the real picture. Ratings consultants are paid off by TV channels to
tamper with the system and they do so in ingenious ways. New TVs are gifted to homes in which the
supposedly-secret meters are located and residents are told that they can watch anything on it as long as
they are tuned into certain channels on the TV connected to the meter.
6. Use of deception: Also, sometimes the media present twisted or distorted news that may contain an
element of truth but also an element of untruth. This, too, should be avoided because a half-truth can be
more dangerous than a total lie. The media should avoid giving any slant to news, and avoid sensationalism
and yellow journalism. Only then will they gain the respect of the people and fulfill their true role in a
democracy.
Yellow journalism, or the yellow press, is a type of journalism that presents little or no legitimate well-
researched news and instead uses eye-catching headlines to sell more newspapers. Techniques may include
exaggerations of news events, scandal-mongering or sensationalism.
7. Media trials: Media comments on pending cases, especially on criminal cases where the life or liberty of
a citizen is involved, are a delicate issue and should be carefully considered. After all, judges are human
beings too, and sometimes it may be difficult for them not to be influenced by such news. The British
law is that when a case is sub-judice, no comment can be made on it, whereas U.S. law permits such
comment. In India we may have to take an intermediate view on this issue: while on the one hand we have
a written Constitution that guarantees freedom of speech in Article 19(1)(a) — which the unwritten British
Constitution does not — the life and liberty of a citizen is a fundamental right guaranteed by Article 21
and should not lightly be jeopardized. Hence, a balanced view has to be taken on this.
8. content of news: Also, often the media publish correct news but place too much emphasis on frivolous
news such as those concerning the activities of film stars, models, cricketers and so on, while giving very
little prominence to much more important issues that are basically socio-economic in nature.
What do we see on television these days? Some channels show film stars, pop music, disco-dancing and
fashion parades (often with scantily clad young women), astrology, or cricket. Is it not a cruel irony and an
affront to our poor people that so much time and resources are spent on such things? What have the Indian
masses, who are facing terrible economic problems, to do with such things?

32
What should be the role of media: Historically, the media have been organs of the people against feudal
oppression. In Europe, the media played a major role in transforming a feudal society into a modern one. The
print media played a role in preparing for, and during, the British, American and French Revolutions. The
print media were used by writers such as Rousseau, Voltaire, Thomas Paine, Junius and John Wilkes in the
people’s fight against feudalism and despotism. Everyone knows of the great stir created by Thomas Paine’s
pamphlet ‘Common Sense’ during the American Revolution, or of the letters of Junius during the reign of the
despotic George III.
The media became powerful tools in the hands of the people then because they could not express themselves
through the established organs of power: those organs were in the hands of feudal and despotic rulers. Hence,
the people had to create new organs that would serve them. It is for this reason that that the print media
became known as the Fourth Estate. In Europe and America, they represented the voice of the future, in
contrast to the feudal or despotic organs that wanted to preserve the status quo in society. In the 20th century,
other types of media emerged: radio, television and the Internet.
In underdeveloped countries like India the media have a great responsibility to fight backward ideas such
as casteism and communalism, and help the people in their struggle against poverty and other social evils.
Since a large section of the people is backward and ignorant, it is all the more necessary that modern ideas are
brought to them and their backwardness removed so that they become part of enlightened India. The media
have a great responsibility in this respect.
9. Ethics in Sports
To understand the role ethics plays in sport and competition, it is important to make a distinction between
gamesmanship and sportsmanship.
Gamesmanship is built on the principle that winning is everything. Athletes and coaches are encouraged to
bend the rules wherever possible in order to gain a competitive advantage over an opponent, and to pay less
attention to the safety and welfare of the competition. Some of the key tenants of gamesmanship are:
●● Winning is everything
●● It’s only cheating if you get caught
●● It is the referee’s job to catch wrongdoing, and the athletes and coaches have no inherent responsibility to
follow the rules
●● The ends always justify the means
Some examples of gamesmanship are:
●● Faking a foul or injury
●● Attempting to get a head start in a race
●● Tampering with equipment, such as cricket bat in order to hit the ball farther
●● The use of performance-enhancing drugs
●● Taunting or intimidating an opponent
Sportsmanship: Under a sportsmanship model, healthy competition is seen as a means of cultivating personal
honor, virtue, and character. It contributes to a community of respect and trust between competitors and in
society. The goal in sportsmanship is not simply to win, but to pursue victory with honor by giving one’s best
effort.Ethics in sport requires four key virtues: fairness, integrity, responsibility, and respect.
The sportsmanship model is built on the idea that sport both demonstrates and encourages character
development, which then influences the moral character of the broader community. How we each compete in
sports can have an effect on our personal moral and ethical behavior outside of the competition.
Some argue for a “bracketed morality” within sports. This approach holds that sport and competition are set
apart from real life, and occupy a realm where ethics and moral codes do not apply. Instead, some argue,
sports serve as an outlet for our primal aggression and a selfish need for recognition and respect gained
through the conquering of an opponent. In this view, aggression and victory are the only virtues. For example,
a football player may be described as mean and nasty on the field, but kind and gentle in everyday life. His

33
violent disposition on the field is not wrong because when he is playing the game he is part of an amoral
reality that is dictated only by the principle of winning.
An ethical approach to sport rejects this bracketed morality and honors the game and one’s opponent through
tough but fair play. This means understanding the rules and their importance in encouraging respect for your
opponent, which pushes you to be your best.
10. Cyber-ethics
Cyber-ethics is a branch of applied ethics that examines moral, legal, and social issues at the intersection of
computer/information and communication technologies. Some of the issues involved in cyber-ethics are:
Privacy: Privacy is central to dignity and individuality. Privacy is also indispensable to a sense of autonomy
— to ‘a feeling that there is an area of an indi-
vidual’s life that is totally under his or her con- What is Ethical Hacking
trol, an area that is free from outside intrusion.’ l Ethical hacking : defined “methodology adopted by
The deprivation of privacy can even endanger a ethicla hackers to discover the vulnerabilities existing in
person’s health.Credit card information, social se- information system’ operating environments.”
curity numbers, phone numbers, mothers’ maiden l With the growth of the Internet, computer security has
names, addresses and phone numbers freely col- become a major concern for business and governments.
lected and shared over the internet may lead to a l In their search for a way to approach the problem,
loss of Privacy. organizations came to realize that one of the best ways
to evaluate the intruder threat to their interests would
Fraud and impersonation are some of the malicious be to have independent computer security professionals
activities that occur due to the direct or indirect attampt to break into their computer systems.
abuse of private information. Identity theft is
rising rapidly due to the availability of private information in the internet. Public records search engines and
databases are the main culprits contributing to the rise of cybercrime.
Property: Property has created many clashes in the world of cyberethics. One philosophy of the internet is
centered around the freedom of information. The controversy over ownership occurs when the property of
information is infringed upon or uncertain.
Intellectual property rights:The ever-increasing speed of the internet and the emergence of compression
technology, such as mp3 opened the doors to Peer-to-peer file sharing, a technology that allowed users to
anonymously transfer files to each other.
Proponents of unrestricted file sharing point out how file sharing has given people broader and faster access
to media, has increased exposure to new artists, and has reduced the costs of transferring media (including
less environmental damage). Supporters of restrictions on file sharing argue that we must protect the income
of our artists and other people who work to create our media. This argument is partially answered by pointing
to the small proportion of money artists receive from the legitimate sale of media.
We also see a similar debate over intellectual property rights in respect to software ownership. The two
opposing views are for closed source software distributed under restrictive licenses or for free and open
source software. The argument can be made that restrictions are required because companies would not invest
weeks and months in development if there were no incentive for revenue generated from sales and licensing
fees. A counter argument to this is that standing on shoulders of giants is far cheaper when the giants do not
hold IP rights. Some proponents for open source believe that all programs should be available to anyone who
wants to study them.
Freedom of information: Freedom of information, that is the freedom of speech as well as the freedom to
seek, obtain and impart information brings up the question of who or what, has the jurisdiction in cyberspace.
The right of freedom of information is commonly subject to limitations dependent upon the country, society
and culture concerned.
Generally, there are three standpoints on the issue as it relates to the internet. First is the argument that
the internet is a form of media, put out and accessed by citizens of governments and therefore should be

34
regulated by each individual government within the borders of their respective jurisdictions. Second, is
that, “Governments of the Industrial World... have no sovereignty [over the Internet] ... We have no elected
government, nor are we likely to have one, ... You have no moral right to rule us nor do you possess any
methods of enforcement we have true reason to fear.” A third party believes that the internet supersedes all
tangible borders such as the borders of countries, authority should be given to an international body since
what is legal in one country may be against the law in another.
Digital divide: An issue specific to the ethical issues of the freedom of information is what is known as the
digital divide. This refers to the unequal socio-economic divide between those who have had access to digital
and information technology, such as cyberspace, and those who have had limited or no access at all. This gap
of access between countries or regions of the world is called the global digital divide.
Sexuality and pornography: Sexuality in terms of sexual orientation, infidelity, sex with or between minors,
public display and pornography has always stirred ethical controversy.The availability of pornography
online calls into question jurisdiction as well as brings up the problem of regulation in particular over child
pornography, which is illegal in most countries, as well as pornography involving violence or animals, which
is restricted within most countries.
Online gambling: The accessibility of the internet and its ability to cross geographic-borders have led to
illegal online gambling, often offshore operations. Over the years online gambling, both legal and illegal, has
grown exponentially which has led to difficulties in regulation.
Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics
The ethical values as defined in 1992 by the Computer Ethics Institute; a nonprofit organization whose mission
is to advance technology by ethical means, lists these rules as a guide to computer ethics:
1. Thou shall not use a computer to harm other people.
2. Thou shall not interfere with other people’s computer work.
3. Thou shall not snoop around in other people’s computer files.
4. Thou shall not use a computer to steal.
5. Thou shall not use a computer to bear false witness.
6. Thou shall not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid.
7. Thou shall not use other people’s computer resources without authorization or proper compensation.
8. Thou shall not appropriate other people’s intellectual output.
9. Thou shall think about the social consequences of the program you are writing or the system you are
designing.
10. Thou shall always use a computer in ways that ensure consideration and respect for your fellow humans.
nn

35
Chapter - 8
Ethics in Private and Public Relations

Ethics in Private Relationships
Private or personal relations largely involve relations with family and friends. They are informal in nature
as no formal procedure is there to regulate such relations. These are one to one relations in which contexts
have no role to play. These relations are based on emotional bond and in most cases expression of individual
personality is there. These relation and ethics involved in them will remain same in every context. This
context can be organisational, socio-cultural, political, national or international. Real self is presented in most
cases as people usually do not try to deceive in such relations. Internal control is there on the ethical behaviour
rather than external controls in the form of laws, code of conduct rules and regulations. If A and B are two
individuals than,
‘A’ shares a private relation with ‘B’ If ‘A’ shares a bond with ‘B’ premised on the existence of ‘A’ and ‘B’ as
individual entities without ‘A’ and ‘B’ locating themselves within a particular context.
For example, relation between father and son is a biological relation. In fact, parents have the strongest
biological claim over their children. Such relations by default are private relations. One cannot ignore
emotional bond involved in them.
Ethics in private relations can differ widely from person to person and are demonstrated every day in the way
a person interact with other person with whom he shares a private bond. Such relations are often influenced
by the morality, emotional state and personal interest of the person involved in such relationship. Ethics
shown in private relations often forms a major part of individual ethics or morality. In any society, morality
forms the basis for ethical behaviour in public relations.
Sometimes it has been seen that your emotions prevail over your morality in private relations. For example,
as a principal of a college, you give preference to the son of your friend even when you know it is morally
wrong because you are very closely attached to your friend.
Importance : it is not only the morality which affects the personal relations but personal relations can also
have a considerable influence on the morality of every human being. A person is not born with an ethical
system. Behaviour shown during Child rearing practises and relations between friends play a big role in
shaping the moral system. Ethics shown in private relations often forms a major part of morality.
Like there is a child who lies to his father for not going to the school or a child taking some money from his
friend and not giving back. These are common things but can affect the morality of a person. If these things
happen on regular basis than guilt which arises due to immoral behaviour will start reducing and then same
kind of behaviour is shown in public relations also. That’s why ethics in personal relations are very important.
Father giving bribe to the child for not disclosing some information or doing something secretly can affect
the morality of the child.
Examples of ethics in personal relations are love, honesty, decency, manners, equality between male and
female members, dedication, truthfulness, respect to elders, sharing etc.
Ethics in Public Relationships

Public relations involve relations between individuals in public sphere where individuals perceive themselves
as parts of a context and not as separate entities.
These relations are predictable and formal in nature. Legal or social obligations are there. Under such relations
a person follows the ethical behaviour in the context of external rules and regulations. Ethics shown during
public relations are often influenced by the norms, values and behaviour prevailing in a particular society.

36
Public relations are not defined by individual themselves but by the context with respect to which they are
related. Like relation between three organs of the government; executive, legislature and judiciary. There
relation is defined in the context of constitution. Hence it is a public relation. A civil servant will behave in a
particular manner with a judge or a politician according to rules and procedures.
Ethics in public relations come into play at international, national, socio-cultural, political and organisational level.
International ethics : respecting other nation’s sovereignty, Ethics in diplomacy, international treaties and
extradition treaties.
Socio-cultural ethics : altruism, tolerance towards other sections, sacrifice, following social norms, simple
living, healthy competition, peace and harmony, integration, ecological harmony etc.
Political ethics : constitutional ethics, ethics followed by politicians like loyalty to your party, giving tickets
to criminals, national interest, unity, leadership etc.
Organisational ethics : efficiency, impartiality, honesty, hard work, obeying the commands, integrity,
brotherhood etc.
Relationship between Ethics in Private and Public Relations

Even though the characteristics of private and public relations are quite different, yet distinguishing between
ethics in public and private relations is vague, ambiguous and difficult. Both of them cannot be divided in
water tight compartments. They consistently interact and affect each other. Ethics in private relations helps in
humanising public relations and plays an important role in forming the moral system of a person.
Sometimes a public relation can become a personal relation. A district collector may develop private relations
with tribal people while working on some developmental project. Because he is dedicated towards their
upliftment, some emotions will be there which will remain even if the collector is not working on that project.
Sometimes a private relation may become a public relation. Like relation between two brothers or husband
and wife. No love, no emotions are there. They are acting like brothers because society expects a private
relation between them. Social obligations hold them together.
Sometimes your official decisions are taken on the basis of personal relations. For example, there is a contractor
and a district collector. Now a contract is there and if it is given to that contractor; it will be beneficial for the
government. However due to some personal enmity, district collector gives the contract to some other person.
This is a decision which is taken in public capacity but is based on private relations. This is wrong and against
public interest. It is of utmost importance that personal relations should not be mixed with public relations.
Otherwise impartiality would not be there.
Harmony in Private and Public Ethics

It is very important that there is no conflict between personal and public ethics as it will lead to unrest,
guilt, dissonance and confusion in the mind of the concerned person. For example, there is a person who
is very honest to his family and every other person close to him. He rates this value very high. Now he is
in a government department in which he is forced to indulge in corrupt activities by his political boss. This
situation will create confusion and unrest. Every time he has to make the decision and peace will not be there.
Internal checks come from the ethics shown in private relations only. It is very difficult to imagine a person
who is not honest with his family will be honest with his organisation. Hence, a kind of symbiotic relation is
there. Both of them shape and enforce each other. For complete development, it is important that public and
personal ethics are congruent to each other.
However, this is also true that socio- cultural changes also come through conflict between personal and public
ethics. It is not good to take everything on face value.
Too much congruence of personal and public ethics may lead to stagnation of ideas and change. It may curb
original thinking. Too much conformity and adherence to group decisions will be there which may lead to
negative consequences. Values and norms of society can have a considerable influence over your moral
system. If you see your colleagues involved in corruption, then your resistance towards corruption may also
decrease.

37
For example, khap panchayats are there in India. As per their mandate, it is not ethical to go for inter caste
marriages. Honour killing is justified by them. Now if you also conform to it, then it will lead to concretisation
of bad habits and norms. Every human has a fundamental right to select a life partner of his or her own choice.
If too much congruence is there, then bad things and practices will never change.
It is in this regard only that eccentrics are required in every society. More than a century ago, John Stuart Mill
lamented in his essay titled “On Liberty” that “so few now dare to be eccentric marks the chief danger of the
time”.
India today needs eccentrics no less than it needs artists, scientists, sportspersons and intellectuals among
others (the best of whom are somewhat eccentric). Today, we need people who can break convention so the
“normal” ones can see life beyond it. These are the eccentrics. But most eastern nations, including India,
remain somewhat hostile to eccentricity. As a rule, eccentrics cannot conform. Tragically, this works against
them and they are often mistaken to be threats or as people who are not to be taken seriously.
Who is defining public ethics is also very important. Totalitarian, regimented, conservative states are there
like Taliban regime in Afghanistan. In case of Taliban, if personal ethics are similar to public ethics as defined
by Taliban than only god knows what Afghanistan will become. A healthy, peaceful and progressive society
will never be achieved.
Conflict in Private and Public Ethics

Conflict in private and public ethics will lead to unrest, guilt, dissonance and confusion. This unrest if sustains
for long period may lead to disintegration of society like what happened during Arab Spring in last few years
in many countries. Iraq and Afghanistan are also the examples where long tern conflict has led to destruction
of society.
Ahmed Salman Rushdie, a British Indian novelist was the centre of a major controversy, provoking protests from
Muslims in several countries, some violent, for his fourth novel, The Satanic Verses (1988). Death threats were
made against him, including a fatwa issued by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the Supreme Leader of Iran, on 14
February 1989.
Taslima Nasrin, a Bengali author and former physician who has lived in exile since 1994. Since fleeing
Bangladesh in 1994, she has lived in many countries. She works to build support for secular humanism,
freedom of thought, equality for women, and human rights by publishing, lecturing, and campaigning.
In Tamil Nadu, there was anInter caste marriage in 2012 but the girl disowned her marriage because of the
pressure from the society. Guilt was also there as her father committed suicide in last November 2012. Tragic
end was there as the dalit youth also killed himself in 2013. This case shows that ethics in private relationship
were compromised at the cost of ethics in public relations (Dharmapuri, Divya and E. Ilavarasan case).
But it is also true that this conflict may also lead to socio- cultural changes and development of knowledge
and objectivity. For example, in 1633, Galileo was put under house arrest for supporting the model of
heliocentrism. At that time, church was the principle authority. He goes against the church and public
emotions which supported the geocentric model. However, finally his theory got approval as it was propelled
by experiments and scientific data.
In India only, for example, Raja Ram Mohan Roy advocated for English education in India. This idea was
never liked by the orientalists as at that time, going for western education was considered unethical. But he
stood by it and it led to many progressive changes. India was introduced to western culture and new ideas.
Thus one can say that both harmony and conflict between ethics in private and public relations can be
beneficial as well as harmful for the society. What is required is a right balance between these ethics so that
integrity is maintained in the society but change and progress should also be welcomed if they are for the
good of the society.
nn

38
Chapter - 9
Human Values: Role of Family, Society and

Educational Institutions in Inculcating Values
The word values can have different meanings in different contexts.
●● ‘Value’ comes from the Latin word ‘valere’, which means to be of worth, to be strong.
●● The dictionary gives the following meaning: relative worth utility or importance, degree of excellence,
something intrinsically valuable.
●● Value literally means something that has price, something precious, dear and worthwhile; hence something
for which one is ready to suffer and sacrifice for.
●● From social perspective, values are those standards or codes of conduct, which are conditioned by one’s
cultural tenants, guided by conscience, according to which one is supposed to conduct himself and shape
his life pattern by integrating his beliefs, ideas and attitudes with a view to realize the cherished ideals
and aims or life.
Highvalues lead to objective, fair and correct decision and action and ensure the welfareof all concerned,
while low value do exactly the opposite. Values are essential for comprehensive development as individual is
comprised of physical,intellectual, emotional, and spiritual dimensions.
Classification of Values
a. Personal Values: The principles and ideologies that a person follows in personal life.
b. Human Values: Principles and ideologies that is basic to human nature to make their life smooth and
happy.Human values give direction and firmness and bring joy, satisfaction and peace to life.
c. Religious Values: Persons believe in a particular thought which is a guide for reasoning between good
and bad. E.g.
d. Civic Values: Principles, which guide in the dos and don’ts of the citizens.
e. Moral Values: Principles and directives, which enables us to follow the correct and right path.
f. Spiritual Values: Principles, which gives directives to follow a faith in some philosophical thoughts.
g. National Values: Principles, which encourage a person to imbibe the feelings of patriotism and national
integration.
h. Social Values: Principles and ideologies, which encourage us to live together.
i. Scientific values: Principles and directives which force us to test, analyze, verify inquire etc.
j. Political values: interest in gaining power and influencing other people
k. Aesthetic values: interest in beauty, form and artistic freedom
l. Economic: values like economy, efficiency and effectiveness
It must be noted that these different types of values are not mutually exclusive. For example, cleanliness is
personal, social, aesthetic as well as spiritual value.
Need of Human Values in the Society

Values are general principles to regulate our day-to-day behaviour. They not only give direction to our
behaviour but are also ideals and objectives in themselves. Values deal not so much with what is, but with
what ought to be; in other words, they express moral imperatives. They are the expression of the ultimate
ends, goals or purposes of social action. Our values are the basis of our judgments about what is desirable,
beautiful, proper, correct, important, worthwhile and good as well as what is undesirable, ugly, incorrect,
improper and bad.

39
Earlier in this unit, we discussed the
positive consequences of presence of
ethical values as well as repercussions
of not having ethical values at different
levels. The assertions made themselves
point out the importance of values in
human life.
Functions of values: The main functions
of values are as follows:
1. Values play an important role in the
integration and fulfillment of man’s
basic impulses and desires in a stable
and consistent manner appropriate for
his living.
2. They are generic experiences in social
action made up of both individual and
social responses and attitudes.
3. They build up societies, integrate social relations.
4. They mould the ideal dimensions of personality and range and depth of culture.
5. They influence people’s behaviour and serve as criteria for evaluating the actions of others.
6. They have a great role to play in the conduct of social life.
7. They help in creating norms to guide day-to-day behaviour.
Theory of Basic Human Values

The Theory of Basic Human values, developed by Shalom H. Schwartz, is a theory in the field of intercultural
research. It tries to measure Universal Values that are recognized throughout all major cultures. The theory
recognizes ten universal values, which can be organized in four higher-order groups:
a. Openness to change
1. Self-Direction Independent thought and action—choosing, creating, exploring.
2. Stimulation Excitement, novelty, and challenge in life.
b. Self-enhancement
3. Hedonism Pleasure or sensuous gratification for oneself.
4. Achievement Personal success through demonstrating competence according to social standards.
5. Power Social status and prestige, control or dominance over people and resources.
c. Conservation
6. Security Safety, harmony, and stability of society, of relationships, and of self.
7. Conformity Restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate
social expectations or norms.
8. Tradition Respect, commitment, and acceptance of the customs and ideas that one’s culture or religion
provides.
d. Self-transcendence
9. Benevolence Preserving and enhancing the welfare of those with whom one is in frequent personal contact
(the ‘in-group’).
10. Universalism Understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection for the welfare of all people and for
nature.
Other values: Spirituality was considered as an additional eleventh value, however, it was found that it did
not exist in all cultures.

40
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Values Development
This topic will help in understanding how the morality is developed as well as different explanations to the
question: ‘why be moral?’ it will also help in understanding how one can mould the development of morality
among children.
Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development is based on the assumption that moral reasoning, the basis
for ethical behaviour, has six identifiable developmental stages, each more adequate at responding to moral
dilemmas than its predecessor.
He used a storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. One of the best known of
Kohlberg’s (1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe.
Heinz dilemma
Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might save her. The drug
had been discovered by a local chemist and the Heinz tried desperately to buy some, but the chemist was
charging ten times the money it cost to make the drug and this was much more than the Heinz could afford.
Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He explained to the chemist
that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later.
The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to make money from it. The
husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he broke into the chemist’s and stole the drug.
Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:
1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?
2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?
4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?
By studying the answers from children of different ages to these questions Kohlberg identified three distinct
levels of moral reasoning each with two sub stages. People can only pass through these levels in the order
listed. Each new stage replaces the reasoning typical of the earlier stage. Not everyone achieves all the stages.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

At the pre-conventional level, we don’t have a personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped
by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules.

41
At the conventional level, we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models. Authority is
internalized but not questioned and reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which the person belongs.
In Post-conventional morality, individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is
based on individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as far as most
people get.
Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional
morality). That is to say most people take their moral views from those around them and only a minority
thinks through ethical principles for themselves.
Value Crisis in Contemporary Indian Society

Note: an essay can also come on this topic.
The deepening value crisis in the contemporary Indian society is casting its evil shadow in all walks of our
life. There islack of development of sound moral vision among human being along with thescientific and
technological development. As a result, human being can producesuch powerful means of destruction like
hydrogen and nuclear bombs and destroythe whole world in no time. Wealth worshipped as god, Pride has
become a creed.The promises of the ‘tryst with the destiny’ and the dreams of prosperity, social wellbeing and
human happiness are proving to be false.
One can understand the nature of the value crisis indifferent spheres of our life. These spheres may be
categorized asindividual, societal, intellectual and cultural.
At individual level
●● The sole aim of all the strivings at the individual level has become attainment of personal success. It
is a worldly success, defined in purely materialistic terms as acquisition of money, power and prestige.
All other life values (moral, aesthetic and spiritual) which give meaning, worth and fullness to human
existence are seen as roadblocks and unnecessary diversions from the high road to material success.
●● Similarly, the concept of a good life has been restricted to very narrow confines. Good life is one with
unrestricted enjoyment of sensuous pleasures and fulfillment of unlimited desires, through consumerism.
The new economic policies of liberalization and globalization have further propelled this ever aggressive
march of consumerism.
●● value crisis is also leading to increasingrespectability of selfish individualism. It takes the form of
exclusiveconcern for personal gains without any consideration for the commongood.
●● People today are only concerned about their rights, without fulfilling their obligations towards others. The
common ethical principle that the rights of one can be fulfilled only if others performed their duties seems
to have been forgotten.
●● Another dimension of value crisis is the common mentality ofadopting double standards of value judgment,
a much higher onefor others and a much lower one for ourselves.
At societal level
●● It is this social consciousnesswhich reminds us that all our individual attainments are derivedfrom the
society and have validity only in relation to it. Lack of social consciousness and social cohesiveness are
the major features of the contemporary value crisis at the societallevel.
●● At the time of independence, we gave ourselves a thoroughly enlightened and egalitarian Constitution
for the creation of a goodand a modern society. However, the exercise of power and authority by the
differentorgans of the state retained the arrogant and exploitative characterof the colonial period. Little
has been done to educate the new generations to develop their social consciousness, democratic temper
andcommunitarian attitudes. As a result, there is hardly any feeling of collective commitment towards the
socio-political ideals of theConstitution.
●● The two most devalued words in our society today are politicsand politician. Political pursuit has become
unscrupulousmanipulation for grabbing power and using it for selfish, partisan ends. Political parties
are organized less on the lines of ideologiesand socio-economic programmes, and more on the basis of

42
caste,religion, and regional identities. Corruption, scams, nexus with black marketeers and criminals, has
become the main features ofthe political character.
●● In the absence of distributive justice, the gains of economic progress have been cornered by the small
upper class. The gap between the rich and the poor has widened resulting in increased social tensions and
strife.
●● The new regime of liberalization and globalization, mainly at the level of consumeristic market economy,
is further widening the gulfbetween the haves and the have-nots. It is more of an economic barbarism
based on the discredited Darwinian concept of survival of the fittest. It does not have even the faintest
echo of the value based indigenous concepts of sarvodaya and antyodaya, as propounded by Gandhi and
Vinoba.
●● The strongest value-base of the Indian society has always been the institution of the joint family. It was
the cradle for inculcationof values of sharing and caring, of reconciling divergent needs andpersonalities,
of subordinating individual interests to the collectiveinterests of the family, of co-operative living. It took
good care ofthe aged, the handicapped, and the not so bright members of thefamily.
●● But in the new urban culture the joint family has broken up,partly because of the socio-economic pressures,
and partly becauseof the rising individualism. In the unitary and the nuclear families,the demands of career
success and the necessities of consumeristicfulfillment leave little time and energy for value inculcation.
Insteadof being a social and human unit the family is becoming more of aneconomic unit where the
child is conditioned to work single mindedlyfor career success, to meet the competition in all fields and
tobecome worldly wise.
●● In short one can say that prostitution, illegal marriages, broken home structure, divorce, etc., are also
factors responsible for decline of values. Lack of mutual concern between parents at home, disaffection
and lack of securities in families are other factors responsible for erosion of values.
At intellectual level
●● A related feature of the modern intellectual temper is the divorce of virtues from learning. What is valued
in the intellectual community is the stamp of degrees from prestigious institutions, the impressive list of
publications, awards and recognitions, the linguisticand oratorial skills, and not the virtues of character as
displayed inthe personal and social conduct of academics. There is little evidence of virtues like intellectual
honesty, humility and objectivity whichwere earlier considered the essential hallmarks of a true scholar.
●● At the intellectual level we feel shy of questioning the ruling, fashionable ideologies, particularly those
originating from the West, concerning what constitutes the ends of the good life and what are the means
to that end. This confusion between means and ends ismost glaring in our attitude towards science and
technology. Insteadof treating them as means for providing material conditions necessaryfor the pursuit
of higher values of life, they have been elevated tothe status of absolute values.
At cultural level
●● All values pursued by man are comprehensible under terms culture and civilization. The contemporary
value crisis in the Indian society can therefore be best understood as a cultural crisis.
●● Cultural values, the gracious fruit of centuries of cooperative efforts and moral values, which is
distinguished, which distinguish men from animals, have been totally changed in these years. The modern
youth receiving education are losing their idealism and living in spiritual vacuum. Moral values have no
respect now. Man fails to distinguish between right and wrong, good and evil. Highest respect is being
placed on wealth and power.
●● At the popular level the most talked about point of currentcultural crisis is the fast change in lifestyles,
particularly amongstthe urban middle class. Food habits, dress, forms of greetings,common courtesies,
modes of entertainment, interpersonalrelationships—particularly between members of opposite sex—
have all changed.
●● In Indian thought no human activity isseparated from its moral implications. Dharma is concernedwith all
aspects of life – individual conduct, family relations, sociallife, public administration, political life, etc. It
has a wider ecologicalconnotation of supporting the welfare of all beings, not just humanbeings.

43
●● But now ethics have been reduced to its primary level of personal honesty, sexual morality, and fulfillment
of familial obligations. It has notdeveloped into a social and cultural force to meet the challenges of the
contemporary life. Dharmic pursuits are confined only to performing prescribed poojas, rituals, going to
temples, observanceof fasts etc. Even these are mostly done to ward off evil forces, to gain some selfish
end, or to earn merits in the after-life, and not out of any internal commitment. In the modern English
educated society, the word dharma is used mostly as a synonym for religion, which has further led to more
problems.
●● In its political sense religion has become a basis for differentiating and dividing the society. This religious
division foments the feelings of ‘we’ versus ‘they’, and has causedmuch hatred, violence and strife.
Sources of Values
Sources of values for an individual can be natural as well as environmental. Many personal attributes such
as intelligence, ability and appearance also determines the development of values for example, one’s higher
intelligence may result in faster understanding of values.
Culture is the principles source of values learned from environment. It contains as well as reinforces them.
In Indian culture, peace, cooperation, Harmony, equity, democracy and allied societal values are considered
desirable. However, such values are not fixed but they change very slowly. People indoctrinate values from
their parents, teachers, friends, media and all from those whom they admire and thus try to follow. Moral or
value development is a continuous, cumulative and highly interdependent process touching all the aspects of
personality. The following factors influence the values of people:
A. Role of Familyin Developing Values
Human beings are born as nascent biological entity. Family acts as primary socializing agent to turn human
beings into social beings. Mother is the first teacher and Home is the first informal school. The elders at
home teach the developing baby behavior,dress codes, customs, and aspirations and so on. Following are
significance of family in building the ethical structure of an individual:
●● Family provides informal way of learning. Teachings are not enforced on children but are naturally
acquired by them. Love, compassion, companionship, self-sacrifice and values of sharing and caring
develop implicitly within a child. For instance, children are taught to share their lunch boxes with their
friends and share their toys with siblings, spirit of charity and brotherhood are developed in them.
●● Most of the time spent by children is with the family. Children observe and unconsciously imbibe values.
Looking at the mother who cooks and care for whole family values of compassion is imbibed. If female
members are treated with respect in the family, then respect for women is inculcated in the child.
●● Family makes children recognize what should be learnt from secondary socializations groups. Family
encourages children to be friend with particular kind of boys or girls and also decides which school the
child will go to.
●● Child rearing practices adopted by parents also have strong influence over the psyche of children. Like in
India, authoritarian CRPs are often followed.
●● The emotional attachment with family is very high. This also is a powerful tool in the hand of family
to persuade one of the members to behave ethically. Family uses it to persuade a member to give up
some bad habits like smoking, alcoholism etc. Solving the problem of disrespecting the women can be
effectively solved within the institution of family.
But there are certain negative attitude developed due to the influence of the family like patriarchy, casteism,
communalism and superstition. Also in the present context under the effect of globalization the role of family
is diminishing. Hence the role of other socializing agency should be given equal importance.
B. Role of Society
The child is initiated into learning in the society to which he/she is a member with all facilities atdisposal.
The society is expected:
1. To create homogeneous environment so as the learners may take up valuable lessons on ethics,
behaviour,adjustment, living together, sympathy and service

44
2. To reflect simplicity, honesty, kindness, and fairness in their conduct, for development of positive
habit,attitude, inner capacity, and feeling and wish to live
3. To provide maximum freedom for fuller growth with experiences and with facilitation ofdesired suggestion
and persuasion.
4. To explain its traditions, rituals, mythological stories, consequences and contribution to the modern
orderof society
5. To take the valuable lesson from the lives of different personalities like Gandhian thoughts, ‘do not hear
ill, do not speak ill and do not see ill ofothers’
6. To narrate the cultural socioeconomic life patterns and the values the society members should continue
togive quality lessons taking from the scriptures of Vedas, Upanishads, Geeta, Koran, Bible and
thepreaching of the great men and the saints
7. To make the children emotionally integrated for practicing the values of oneness, unity, neighbourhood,
code of conduct, love and sympathy for the poor. The values of cooperation, sincerity and commitment
canbe learnt in the society
8. As the children are the working force and asset to the society visàvis the nation, they require learning
the‘value of dignity of labour’.
C. Role of School/Educational Institutions
Education is general and valueeducation in particular occupies a prestigious place in the modern context
ofcontemporary society. Education and values are inseparable. They are two sides ofthe same coin. Value
oriented education has come into force to promote a sense ofmorality, aesthetic and intellectual knowledge
among the students.
Value educationhas the capacity to transform a diseased mind to a very young, fresh, innocent,healthy, natural
and attentive mind. The transformed mind is capable of highersensitivity and a high end level of perception.
Sri Ramakrishna Pramahamsa hadstated that education is the process that tells us how to live life well; how
to findhappiness; how to make others happy; how to manage all kinds of people andhappenings as well; and
how to grow and succeed in the right manner.
However,the present day educational system has ignored character trainingaltogether. It lays greater emphasis
on developing memorization and reproductionabilities. Development of values and the sense of one’s duty
towards the nation,community and one’s self, and thinking skills do not find any place in thecurriculum at any
stage of education. As a consequence, there are explicit signs oferosion of values in practically every sphere
of our life.
Role of school: The school is a formal learning channel, which begins to formalize, and coordinate the
experiences receivedin the society. It has a system to function with curriculum; textbooks, resources and
other requiredinfrastructure, teachers, students and the management to develop cumulated value. To make the
value aspect of our education programmes more prominent,the following ideas may be incorporated in the
educational programmes.
i. Developing self-respect, awareness of self-growth, one’s uniqueness, self-confidence.
ii. Promoting selflessness, cooperative spirit, spirit of sharing and empathy.
iii. Imparting clear direction on cleanliness, punctuality, use of refined language, courtesy, proper manner, respect
for elders.
iv. Knowing of surroundings –visiting slums, villages, hospitals, orphanages, old people’s homes.
v. Promoting civic scene, awareness of oneself as a member of a community, civic duties.
vi. Seeking to realize one’s potentialities and talents, disciplined learning in academics, sports, cultivating the
scientific temper.
vii. Independent thinking, not blindly following others.
viii. Exposure to great personalities.
ix. Knowledge of the Constitution, rights, and duties.
x. Protection of environment.

45
xi. Dissemination of cultural heritage.
xii. Awareness of good point in other religions.
xiii. Appreciating the useful views of others and their cultural traditions.
Role of Teachers: If contemporary education is to be value based it can never be donewithout the teachers
themselves understanding, appreciating and upholding the lifesustained moral values. The teacher is a mentor,
facilitator, communicator and manager of the teaching learning activities. He/She isthe source of inspiration
having full of action, thought, vision and wisdom. A teacher is supposed to dischargethe duty as assigned:
1. The teacher is the narrator of the skills to live the life completely and is supposed to act as the friend,
philosopher and guide
2. Honesty, morality, truth, nonviolence should be the forte as the learners copy the behaviour of their
teachers
3. He should have competency, methodology, strategy, technique of teaching and innovative skills at
command to organize learning
4. He requires explaining the social and the national heritage, culture, civilization and its useful values to the
modern adolescents
The Importance of School Atmosphere: The school atmosphere, the personality and behavior of the teachers
andthe facilities provided in the campus have a large say in developing a sense ofvalues. The school assembly,
the curricular and co-curricular activities, thecelebration of festivals of all religions, work experience, team
games, subject clubs,and social service programme –all this can help in including the value ofcooperation and
mutual regard, honesty, and integrity, discipline and socialresponsibility.
For example, every subject can be means of building good character and values. Like, through social science
in general we can develop values like secularism, socialism, hard work and democracy etc. Everything in
nature has a lesson to teach. For example, we can say while blowing up a balloon, if person blows too much
air into it, it will burst. Similarly, if we are too greedy and acquire more material wealth sooner or later, we
will have problems.In mathematics there is a wide scope of imparting values like neatness, accuracy, proper
planning etc.
The co-curricular activities also naturallyhelp in the smooth running of the school and makes the children strong,
steady,healthy and creative. Physical activities help the normal growth and muscular development of the body
along with some values like games mass drill, NCC, NSS, NGC, swimming, boating, yogic exercises, gardening etc.
They play a significant role in the training of emotions. The pent-up emotions find effective outlet through
activities. Co-curricular activities are carried out in a social environment, developing team sprits, fellow
feeling, social unity, cooperation, tolerance, brotherhood, goodwill etc. activities like scouting, first aid, Red
Cross develop social inclination and compassion for the needy.Through sports pupils developed integrity,
uprightness, impartiality, honesty, and also fair play.
nn

46
Chapter - 10
Human Values – Lessons from the Lives and Teachings
of Great Leaders, Reformers and Administrators
O
ne of the important characteristic of values is that they do not exist in vacuum. They need a human
agency to sustain and reinforce them that is values need human intervention to become a part of
cultural and moral consciousness.
Humans are not only influenced by the value system of the society but they also affect the value basis of the
society. Man is the product as well as producer of his culture. A chicken- egg kind of relation is there. Humans
consistently define and redefine values.
There are certain leaders, reformers and administrators who have not only strengthened the existing value
discourse but have also redefined it whenever there was a need. We study these personalities because they
form a common reference point to all of us. They are social figures who have lived an exemplary life. Their
life and teachings shows us the way we can adhere to a value system. They showed us how one can integrate
their value system with his general conduct and live accordingly. These are the people who have shaped our
perception of values.
It is also important to understand that there is not much difference between the three terms i.e. leaders,
reformers and administrators. Most of the leaders and administrators are reformers in one way or other as
reforming or changing the structures, processes and behaviour of others for the good of the society or of an
organization is their primary trait. Such people do not take things for granted and are not afraid of going
against the tide. One can also say that an administrator is also a leader but at a comparatively lower level.
The main role of all individuals in these categories is to influence the behaviour of others in order to enlist their
aid and support for the accomplishment of a common task. Thus social influence is their primary objective
and their value system is their primary weapon to influence the conscience of others.
Since modern Indian culture is highly influenced by its freedom struggle and socio-cultural movement of
eighteenth and nineteenth century, it is important to discuss some of leading personalities who dedicated
their life for the independence movement and socio-cultural reforms and in the process also gave a set of
values which forms the basis of Indian society. Some of the central figures of the last few centuries have been
discussed in this part. Since it is not possible to discuss every personality, it will be on the readers to take the
clue from here and then multiply the context and personalities attach to them.
1. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi

In January 1915, Mahatma Gandhi returned to his homeland after two decades in South Africa. Till then,
despite of the diversities in faith, languages, caste, class and gender, the idea of one nation was born. But it
was Gandhi who nurtured this idea of India as a nation with his teachings and values.
While other leaders possessed conceptions of what India could be, Gandhi was able to put forward a notion
of the good where political freedom was sought after spiritual liberation. In this light, he sought to transform
the nation and those who were in it. He was one of the few leaders who had a vision for how the nation of
India should function.
Gandhism
Gandhism that we often talk about today is a body of ideas and principles that describes the inspiration, vision
and the life work of Mahatma Gandhi. The term “Gandhism” also encompasses what Gandhi’s ideas, words
and actions mean to people around the world, and how they used them for guidance in building their own
future. Gandhism also permeates into the realm of the individual human being, non-political and non-social.

47
However, Gandhi did not approve of ‘Gandhism’. He never tried to give any message but always maintained
that his life is a message. A person should be known by his actions rather than his thoughts and should
always keep on applying and experimenting with his belief structure through his action. This will help in real
internalization and integration of morality with the behaviour. The sense of morality and the substance of
ethics are never frozen and one should keep on experimenting in order to test his morals and thus becoming
better in the process. He had a self-based approach. He once said:
“There is no such thing as “Gandhism,” and I do not want to leave any sect after me. I do not claim to have
originated any new principle or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way to apply the eternal truths to our
daily life and problems...The opinions I have formed and the conclusions I have arrived at are not final. I may
change them tomorrow. I have nothing new to teach the world. Truth and non-violence are as old as the hills.”
Concept of God
The fundamental basis of Gandhism is the conception of god who is self-existentall-knowing living force
which inherits every other force known to the world. He believed in a god who is kind and responsive to the
prayers of the devotee. He equated god with truth which can be realized by spiritual experience, pure and
disciplined holy life and by the persistent endeavour to concretize the norm of ahimsa in one’s action and
motivation.
Gandhi though believed in spiritual experience never negate rational arguments and practical observation.
He claimed to be a true scientist in the sense that he constantly experimented with truth and tried to make his
propositions sounder by the repeated observation. All the movements and agitations initiated by him from
Champaran to Quit India were the experiments in which the norms of faith in god, truth and non-violence
were tested through the techniques of fasting, civil resistance (non-violent resistance) and prayers.
Truth
Of all the moral principles, Gandhi placed truth as the first and foremost. He called it “the sovereign principle”,
which included numerous other principles. It did not merely imply truthfulness in speech, but in thought also
“and not only the relative truth of our conception, but the absolute truth, the eternal principle, that is God”. He
equated God with truth, as he says, “I worship God as truth only. I have not yet found him, but I am seeking
after him. I am prepared to sacrifice the things dearest to me in pursuit of this quest…. Often in my progress,
I have had faint glimpses of the absolute truth, God, and daily the conviction is growing upon me that the
above is real and all else is unreal.”
Means-end relationship
Values are attached both to the process as well as to the result. It is not only important that we have achieved
the goal but it is also important that how we have achieved it. Gandhi advocated the purity not only of ends
but also of means.
It was Gandhi who made us realized that means are also important. For him, if independence is achieved through
violence and killing then there is no reason to become independent. The whole process of Satyagrahawas
based on sanctity of means. He always said that the end of every human endeavor should be absolute truth that
is god. We don’t know what absolute truth is but purity and truthfulness of means is of utmost importance.
He once said:
“What difference does it make to the dead, the orphans, and the homeless, whether the mad destruction is
wrought under the name of totalitarianism or the holy name of liberty and democracy?”
In fact all his experiments and movements were based on a strong value system. For him, ends must be
achieved but not at the cost of values. If a person has the value of welfare, then it must be achieved through
truth only i.e. peace and non-violence.
There is a very old principle of jurisprudence that “Not only must Justice be done; it must also be seen to
be done.”
If someone has committed a crime, then justice is to be done by punishing him. But it is also necessary
that process must be followed in a right way. It should be proved in front of everyone that the person has
committed a crime and according to set procedures equal for all, he has been punished.

48
In today’s world where people are ready to do anything for fulfilling their materialistic need, it is important
that we remember Gandhi who never compromised with the means even when he was fighting for such a big
and noble objective of national independence.
Sarvodaya
Gandhi always believed in the supremacy of ethical values and Sarvodaya (the good of all). Good for all is
good for everyone. One should think about others before thinking about himself. The good of the individual
is contained in the good of all. The philosophy of Sarvodaya is based on the concept of unity of existence i.e.
the entire universe is permeated by the supreme god. It implies a perpetual fight against cruelty on human
beings and animals. It teaches universal love as the only law of life. It refuses to be satisfied with the progress
and well being of a class or a nation but advocates the emancipation and realization of the good of all living
beings.
It was Mahatma Gandhi only who first used the word Sarvodaya in modern times. Etymologically speaking,
Sarvodaya means ‘the rise or welfare of all’. Gandhiji borrowed this concept from John Ruskin’s Unto This
Last. The proper rendering of Unto This Last would be Antyodaya (uplift of the last) rather than Sarvodaya.
Vinobha Bhave rightly says: “Of course the last one’s uplift is included in the uplift of all, but in emphasizing
the last, the object is that work should begin from that end.” For Gandhiji, Sarvodaya is the true panacea for
all types of social or political problems experienced by Indian society.
Satyagraha
Satyagraha which means holding firmly to truth is the exercise of the purest spiritual force or truth force
against all injustice, oppression and exploitation. Suffering and trust are attributes of spiritual force. The
active non-violent resistance makes an immediate appeal to the heart. It wants not to endanger the opponent
but to overwhelmed him by the over flooding power of innocence.
When a person is truthful and non-violent, he will be able to generate love and guilt in the heart of those who
are involved in exploitation. It is there guilt which will change them rather than the violence shown by the
exploited. In fact if you show violence, it will reinforce the government to use violence as a justified source
of curbing any kind of resistance. Satyagraha cannot be resorted to for personal gains. It is a love process and
the appeal is to the heart and not to the sense of fear of the wrong doer. Thus Satyagraha is based on personal
purification.
If the government does not represent the will of the people and if it begins to support the dishonesty and
terrorism than it should be disobeyed but one who wants to vindicate his rights should be prepared to bear all
kinds of sufferings.
The Gandhian stress on purity and truth as criteria of political power is a great contribution to the political
thought. One cannot conceive people governing themselves rightly through a government imposed from
without. For him every ruler is alien that defies public opinion. A state which cannot assure the interest of
down trodden and starving must be is an anarchy that should be resisted peacefully.
Non-violence
According to Gandhi Ahimsa means infinite love and this in it turns means infinite capacity of sufferings.
Gandhi considered truth and non- violence as absolute binding. It is the duty of Satyagrahi to make endless
endeavors for the realization of truth through non- violence. The idea of non- violence should not be lowered
as a concession to one’s weakness. Non-violence is the strongest force known which can be used against the
most powerful government.
Gandhi stressed that non-violence alone could lead to true democracy. As in this case only internal changes
will lead to external changes. First your heart, your soul will accept democracy and then external changes
will be made. And believe in democracy can only be achieved through non-violent and truthful methods.
Democracy not only requires democratic structure but also responsible citizens who can respect and follow
the ideals of democracy.
The true democracy in India can evolve only through decentralization of power, Satyagraha, growth of village
industries, primary education through handicrafts, removal of untouchability, communal harmony and non-

49
violent organization of labour. He regarded it holy wrong and undemocratic for the individuals to take the law
into their own hands.
Swaraj
To Gandhi Swaraj or self governance or freedom from the colonial ruler consist not only national freedom
as emancipation from the bondage of alien rulers and exploiters but also moral freedom as emancipation
from the slavery of passions, and spiritual freedom as emancipation and realization of truth. According to
Gandhi Swaraj is a part of truth which is god. He also advocated freedom of speech and pen that is freedom
of expression and freedom of press.
Secularism
Gandhi described his religious beliefs as being rooted in Hinduism and, in particular, the Bhagavad Gita.
Though he was a Hindu, yet one can say that he was one of the best practicing secularists.
People often call themselves a secularist but when it comes to the application of this principle, Hindu and
Muslim hidden inside them wakes up. Every person cherishes and admires secularism but seldom practice
it. Secularism is not about not practicing any religion but it is about giving respect and showing tolerance
towards other religions while practicing one’s own religion.
For Gandhi, all religions contain truth and therefore are worthy of toleration and respect. Gandhi
believed that at the core of every religion was truth (Satya) and non-violence (Ahimsa). For Gandhi, it is the
religion which forms the basis of morality as religion and morality are synonymous with each other. And
actually they are.
Despite his belief in Hinduism, Gandhi was also critical of many of the social practices of Hindus and
sought to reform the religion. For him, no religion is perfect and hence cannot be regarded as greatest.
Untouchability, caste and their sub-divisions, religious practices, Sati were all the creations of humans and
must be destroyed to purify the religion. Gandhi was critical of the hypocrisy in organized religion, rather
than the principles on which they were based. Later in his life when he was asked whether he was a Hindu,
he replied:
“Yes I am. I am also a Christian, a Muslim, a Buddhist and a Jew”.
Gandhi always accepted the creative force of religion in human history. Religion signified to him belief in the
ordered moral governance of the world. True religion according to Gandhi implied and emphasis on the moral
values of man. As soon as the moral basis is lost, one cannot claim to be religious. All religions are founded
on the same moral laws. Religion according to Gandhi was not merely a means of personal purification but
it was an immensely powerful social bond. The non-violent society of the future can be based on the religion
only. In his words:
“To try to root out religion it from society is a wild goose chase. And were such an attempt to succeed, it
would mean the destruction of society.”
“As soon as we lose the moral basis, we cease to be religious. There is no such thing as religion over-riding
morality. Man, for instance, cannot be untruthful, cruel or incontinent and claim to have God on his side.”
Gandhi said that he wanted to bring religion into politics. Politics bereft of religion are a death trap because
they kill the soul. But by this he did not mean the establishment of any theocracy. Religion in politics
means bringing morality in the politics. Hence the incorporation of religion in politics meant a progressive
movement towards justice and truth, because a man of religion will never tolerate any kind of suppression
and exploitation.
Oceanic circle
Oceanic circle describes Gandhi’s vision of social organization. Gandhi ji believed that for a nonviolent
society to achieve a lasting peace, it must be organized in a decentralized way. In Gandhi’s own words:
“Independence must begin at the bottom. Thus, every village will be a republic or panchayat having full
powers. It follows, therefore, that every village has to be self-sustained and capable of managing its affairs
even to the extent of defending itself against the whole world. It will be trained and prepared to perish in

50
the attempt to defend itself against any onslaught from
without.
Thus, ultimately, it is the individual who is the unit. This
does not exclude dependence on and willing help from
neighbors’ or from the world. It will be free and voluntary
play of mutual forces. Such a society is necessarily
highly cultured in which every man and woman knows
what he or she wants and what is more, knows that no
one should want anything that others cannot have with
equal labour.
In this structure composed of innumerable villages, there
will be ever-widening, never-ascending circles. Life will
not be a pyramid with the apex sustained by the bottom.
But it will be an oceanic circle whose centre will be the
individual always ready to perish for the village, the
latter ready to perish for the circle of villages, till at last the whole becomes one life composed of individuals,
never aggressive in their arrogance, but ever humble, sharing the majesty of the oceanic circle of which they
are integral units.
Therefore, the outermost circumference will not wield power to crush the inner circle, but will give strength
to all within and derive its own strength from it.”
Economic Views
Gandhi has always appeared to be a ruralist. He stood for safeguarding the integrity and foundation of
villages. He gave the slogan “back to the villages”. He accepted the concept of economic equality. All persons
should be supplied with the necessaries to satisfy their natural needs. For the concrete realization of economic
equality it was essential that more emphasis should be given on village industries. He always opposed large
scale industrialization and mechanization and condemned western commercialization and imperialism as
disease. They believed in limitless expansion of capitalism and this result in exploitation of weaker sections.
“Industrialize and perish” was his slogan.
In Gandhian conception of socialism the prince and the peasant, the poor and the rich, the employer and
employee were to be treated equally but this socialism was not to be attained by conquest of political power
by an organized party. It was of the utmost importance that socialist should be truthful, non-violent and pure
hearted. In this case, Gandhi was a little rigid but later on, he said that some basic industries are necessary but
major emphasis should be on the promotion of cottage industries.
For Gandhi, the state of the villages in India was the true index of the state of the country – if the state of the
country was to be satisfactory, the state of its villages had to improve. Gandhi’s solution was the regeneration
of villages through a comprehensive programme of rural uplift covering all areas such as health, education
and employment. Village based industries had to be revived and a taste for their goods had to be created in
urban areas.
Internationalism
Gandhi always emphasized his role as a citizen of the world. The South African and Indian politics had been
the laboratory in which he experimented with his formulas of truth and non- violence. His conception of
the final victory of truth is in contrast to the conception of survival of the fittest. From 1893 to 1914 Gandhi
rendered great services to the cause of freedom and racial equality in South Africa. From 1950 to 1948
Gandhi worked in India for the sake of the country’s freedom.
Untouchability
Gandhi played a memorable role in uplifting the untouchables. Gandhiji popularized the word “Harijan”
meaning “the people of God” who was adopted by him to reduce the usage of word Achoot or untouchables
which itself was derogatory and disrespectful. After the civil disobedience movement which came to an

51
undesirable end, Gandhi announced his retirement from INC in 1934 and started devoting his time to remove
evil practices of Indian society. He made it his life’s mission to wipe out untouchability and to uplift the
depressed and the downtrodden people. He said that
“If untouchability is not wrong, then nothing in the world is wrong.”
He always maintained that the practice of untouchability is a leper wound in the whole-body of Hindu politic.
He always regarded it as “the hate fullest expression of caste”. As a servant of mankind, he preached that all
human beings are equal and hence the Harijans too have a right for social life along with other caste groups.
However, Gandhi believed in the four-fold division of the Hindu society into four varnas which is based on
hereditary occupations. He regarded untouchables as Shudras and not as the Panchamas or fifth Varna. Varnas
are four to mark four universal occupations- imparting knowledge, defending the defenseless, carrying on
agriculture and commerce, and performing service through physical labour. These occupations are common
to all mankind, but Hinduism, having recognized them as the law of our being, has made use of it in regulating
social relations and conduct.
Varna ensures hereditary skills and it may lead to specialization in particular fields. It leads to limited
competition. For him, they are just labels and there is nothing derogatory if someone is called Shudra or it’s
not a complement if someone calls you a kshatriya.
It is a wrong to destroy caste because of the outcaste, as it would be to destroy a body because of an ugly
growth in it or of a crop because of the weeds. Untouchability is the product, therefore, not of the caste
system, but of the distinction of high and low that has crept into Hinduism and is corroding it. The attack on
untouchability is thus an attack upon this ‘high-and-low’ ness.
He was of the opinion that the practice of untouchability was a moral crime. He said that “if untouchability is
not wrong, then nothing in the world is wrong.” He believed that a change of heart on the part of the Hindus
was essential to enable the social and cultural assimilation of Harijans. He was very much moved by their
social distress and started a nationwide movement to remove their disabilities.
Hence he sincerely felt the need for bringing about a basic change in the caste structure by uplifting the
untouchables and not by abolishing the caste as such. He appealed to the conscience of the people to realize
the historical necessity of accommodating the “Harijans” by providing them a rightful place in the society.
Gandhi had much compassion for the Harijans. He said:
“I do not want to be reborn. But if I am to be born, I would like to be born an untouchable, so that I may
share their sorrows and sufferings.”
Gandhiji was not just a preacher. He practiced what he preached. He could win the hearts of millions of
Harijans because of his sincere approach to solve their problems. Gandhi lived with the Harijans and shared
their distress by indicating in them the ideas of better social adjustment with the rest of the Indian community.
He advocated equal opportunities of education and intermingling of Harijan students with those of the upper
castes. He fought for various legal protections against several kinds of injustices done to them. As a result
of his sincere efforts and strong recommendations, untouchability was declared illegal under the Indian
Constitution. At his behest an opportunity was given to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, leader of the depressed classes,
to join the Central Cabinet and to be the chief architect of the Indian Constitution.
Seven Deadly Sins
As per Mahatma Gandhi, there are seven things which destroy us. They are:
1. Wealth Without Work: our tendency to earn more by doing less. Such tendency forces us to compromise
with our morals.
2. Pleasure Without Conscience: acting without the sense of responsibility that how it will effect others and
the society. putting a high-powered sports car in the hands of a teenager who is high on drugs
3. Knowledge Without Character: you are a doctor, but instead of curing patients, you are involved in taking
out their kidney. Knowledge in wrong hands is very dangerous.
4. Commerce (Business) Without Morality (Ethics)
5. Science Without Humanity: human touch should always be there. All creations and innovations in sciences
should be for the development of the society rather than for the destruction of humanity.

52
6. Religion Without Sacrifice: religion teaches us tolerance and sacrifice.
7. Politics Without Principle
Empowering women
Gandhi ji was of the opinion that women were superior to men in their moral and spiritual strength. They
had greater powers of self-sacrifice and suffering. On this account, women were capable of infinite strength,
which they only needed to realize and channel.
Women had a key role to play in the family, in Gandhi’s opinion. The family was the crucible of society
where future citizens, leaders and lawgivers were nurtured. Hence, it was here that the mother could mould
the values and traits of her children in a direction that could lead to social progress. The ultimate aim was to
teach children to be self-reliant and not keep them dependent on the family’s resources.
Gandhi strongly favored the emancipation of women and opposed Purdah, child marriage, untouchability,
and the extreme oppression of Hindu widows including Sati. He especially recruited women to participate
in the salt tax campaigns and the boycott of foreign products. Gandhi’s success in enlisting women in his
campaigns, including the salt tax campaign, anti-untouchability campaign and the peasant movement, gave
many women a new self-confidence and dignity in the mainstream of Indian public life.
Education System
Gandhiji closely aligned morality with education. He believed that knowledge without morality is evil, it can
erode the society like a malicious worm. Also incorporating Plato’s conception in this theme, Gandhiji opined
that education should be the stepping stone to knowledge and wisdom that ultimately help the seeker to move
on the spiritual path. Education was not a narrow means of making careers and achieving social status, but
also seeking a larger role for self and society. Thus, it transpired that education should not only produce
learned minds, but enlightened souls too. Gandhiji also adhered to Hindu scriptures which propagated strict
discipline and self-restraint, including observance of celibacy during student life.
In Gandhi’s opinion, the education system instituted by the British in India functioned as a major instrument
for consolidating their hold over the country. A direct consequence of this was the strengthening and widening
of the fissures in Indian society. He believed that the ancient system of education, though not very efficient,
worked to provide the rudiments of learning to most people.
But with the coming of the British, administrative concern shifted to cities and rural areas were left to fend
for themselves. The result of this was a gross imbalance in the education structure and village institutions
were either closed down or lagged miserably behind their city counterparts. Education became almost non-
existent in the villages, while the educated class of the cities drifted away with no perception of the problems
of villagers. Education, thus, merely widened the rural-urban gulf and offered no values for the cohesion and
advancement of society.
In Gandhi’s view, a significant social dimension of the British system of education was that it tended to
subdue the mental faculties of those receiving it. They lost their imaginative and creative abilities in an
attempt to master the intricacies of a foreign language and foreign culture.
Gandhi uses the word, “denationalized”, for them and says that they were deluded into thinking that everything
indigenous was bad and all things British were superior to their own. To quote him, “The result has been
that we function like blotting paper before western civilization, instead of imbibing the best from it, we have
become its superficial imitators.”
Free primary education: Gandhiji advocated for free and compulsory education for all-boys and girls
between 7 and 14 years. Education should be imparted in primary level in the student’s mother tongue. A free
primary universal education is to be imparted to all the children in the village. This will make the backbone
of a country strong.
Place of vocational education: A love for manual work will be injected in the mind of children. This is
not a compulsion but the child will learn it by doing. Being free from mere bookish knowledge, a student
should resort to manual work. He, thus, put emphasis on vocational and functional education.“Earning while
learning” was the motto of this education. This wills increase the creativity in a student. As Gandhi wanted

53
to make Indian village’s self-sufficient units, he emphasised that vocational education should increase the
efficiency within the students who will make the village as self-sufficient units.
Non-participation in politics: Gandhiji wanted to keep the students away from politics. If students will
participate in politics, they will be pawn at the hands of the politicians who will utilize them for fulfilling their
desire. This will hamper the development of a student and his education will suffer a setback. So, he advised
the students to keep themselves completely away from politics.
Capital and Labour
According to Gandhi, the general erosion of human values in Indian society was also reflected in the relations
between capital and labour. He believed that capital and labour were mutually complementary forces. But
he noted that a work ethic had not evolved and wrote, “The masters care only for the service they get. What
becomes of the labourers does not concern them.
All their endeavours are generally confined to obtaining maximum service with minimum payment. The
labourer, on the other hand, tries to hit upon all the tricks whereby he can get maximum pay with minimum
work. The result is that although the labourers get an increment, there is no improvement in the work turned
out. The relations between the two parties are not purified and the labourers do not make proper use of the
increment they get.”
The living conditions of the labourers, he felt, were a great shame to the industrialists. He knew of labourers
in Mumbai who lived in boxes, literally, though they were called houses.
Public Service
A very important aspect of Gandhi’s thought, which had significant social consequences, was the norms he
set for a ‘public worker’. These were formulated according to his high moral standards without which, he felt;
there could be no wholesome public life. He set the example in 1899 in the following manner.
In recognition of his public service in South Africa, the Indian community there bestowed on him many costly
gifts, including diamonds, silver and a heavy gold chain for his wife. This weighed him down with a sense of
guilt as he had declared previously that such work was done without remuneration.
Moreover, he was preparing himself and his family for a life of selfless service and he had publicly exhorted
people to conquer their infatuation for jewellery. Keeping all this in mind, he decided not to keep these gifts
as personal possessions, despite the protestations of his wife. He created a trust of the gifts to benefit the
community and appointed some leading Indians as its trustees. He was definitely of the opinion that a public
worker should accept no costly gifts.
Gandhi lays down another important guideline for public service. This is that a public worker should not take
upon himself too many burdens, but should devote himself to a few chosen fields. This would lead to the best
results, he feels. In a letter to a friend, he expresses this view, “Surely God has not laid on us the burden of
ending all that suffering (of the world).
Leadership
Gandhi was one of the greatest leaders ever born. His ability to rally thousands of common citizens towards
the cause of Indian independence against the state was stupendous. He was a reformer as he was aware of
the problems of Indian society. In fact his concept of Satyagraha was not only against the alien ruler but also
against the evil practices of Indian society. He was focused on women empowerment and always put great
emphasis on education. Gandhi had a great sense of mass psychology. The way he used to dress like a saint,
symbolism like charkha, khadi etc increased his popularity to an unprecedented level.
Thus,Gandhi was saint and a moral revolutionary who believed that peaceful solution of our problems was
not only possible but was the only way to have a real solution. He had achieved a calmness of spirit and an
integration of personality which are reserved for the blessed few.
He absolutely stuck to the cardinal concepts of truth, non-violence and non- accumulation. Gandhism is not
merely a political creed, it is a message. It is a philosophy of life. His teachings of non-violence are greatly
relevant to the modern world infected with lust and power politics.

54
1. Gandhi ji quotes:
“As human beings, our greatness lies not so much in being able to remake the world - that is the myth of the
atomic age - as in being able to remake ourselves”
1. “You must be the change you want to see in the world.”
2. “As human beings, our greatness lies not so much in being able to remake the world – that is the myth of
the atomic age – as in being able to remake ourselves.”
3. “Nobody can hurt me without my permission.”
4. “The weak can never forgive. Forgiveness is the attribute of the strong.”
5. “An eye for eye only ends up making the whole world blind.”
6. “An ounce of practice is worth more than tons of preaching.”
7. “I claim to be a simple individual liable to err like any other fellow mortal. I own, however, that I have
humility enough to confess my errors and to retrace my steps.”
8. “It is unwise to be too sure of one’s own wisdom. It is healthy to be reminded that the strongest might
weaken and the wisest might err.”
9. “First they ignore you, then they laugh at you, then they fight you, then you win.”
10. “Man becomes great exactly in the degree in which he works for the welfare of his fellow-men.”
11. “I suppose leadership at one time meant muscles; but today it means getting along with people.”
12. “Happiness is when what you think, what you say, and what you do are in harmony.”
13. “Always aim at complete harmony of thought and word and deed. Always aim at purifying your thoughts
and everything will be well.”
14. ” Constant development is the law of life, and a man who always tries to maintain his dogmas in order to
appear consistent drives himself into a false position.”
15. A man is but the product of his thoughts; what he thinks, he becomes.
16. Relationships are based on four principles: respect, understanding, acceptance and appreciation.
17. “Your beliefs become your thoughts, Your thoughts become your words, Your words become your actions,
Your actions become your habits, Your habits become your values, Your values become your destiny.”
18. “The greatness of a nation and its moral progress can be judged by the way its animals are treated.”
19. “Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s needs, but not every man’s greed.”
20. “What difference does it make to the dead, the orphans and the homeless, whether the mad destruction is
wrought under the name of totalitarianism or in the holy name of liberty or democracy?”
2. Jawaharlal Nehru
If Gandhi ji is regarded as the father of the nation, then Nehru is often regarded as the architect of modern
India. Son of Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru (14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964) was one of the chief
figures who brought independence struggle to a successful termination. Among Gandhi’s great lieutenants in
the struggle for freedom Jawaharlal has a pre- eminent place.Nehru was elected by the Congress to assume
office as independent India’s first Prime Minister although the question of leadership had been settled as
far back in 1941, when Gandhi acknowledged Nehru as his political heir and successor. As Prime Minister,
Nehru set out to realize his vision of India. The Constitution of India was enacted in 1950, after which he
embarked on an ambitious program of economic, social and political reforms.
Nehru is considered to be the architect of the modern Indian state as he oversaw India’s transition from a
monarchy to a republic, while nurturing a plural, multi-party democracy. In foreign policy, Nehru took a
leading role in Non-Alignment while projecting India as a regional hegemony in South Asia. He was an
undisputed leader who had an enormous influence over the politics of India for nearly two decades.
Complete independence
Nehru’s main contribution in the pre independence era was that he stood for the ideal of complete independence
for India. Nehru was one of the first leaders to demand that the Congress Party should resolve to make a
complete and explicit break from all ties with the British Empire. He introduced a resolution demanding

55
“Complete National Independence” in 1927, which was rejected because of Gandhi’s opposition
He was the president of INC’s Lahore session which passed historic independence resolution on the midnight
of December 31, 1929. After the Lahore session of the Congress in 1929, Gandhi stepped back into a more
spiritual role and Nehru gradually emerged as the paramount leader of the Indian independence movement.
He suffered nearly three years of imprisonment in 1942 movement.
Ideal of Democracy
Many countries which became independent along with India fall into the trap of dictatorship in their initial
years only but Nehru never led this happen with India. Influenced by Gandhi’s moral approach of non-
violence and peace to politics, Nehru always stuck to the democratic style of leadership. With the kind of
authority Nehru had, he could have shaped India’s polity in any way but he remained adhered to the principle
of democracy.
Nehru firmly believed in the theory and practice of parliamentary democracy. He wanted India to
catch up with advanced industrial nations of the west but not at the cost of democracy. He never wanted
dictatorial mechanized violence which is associated with Nazism and totalitarian states. The long and painful
years of the freedom struggle against British imperialism contributed to his love and deep attachment to civil
liberties.
Democratic institutions
Nehru played an important role in shaping many institutions which are still considered as the
pillars of democracy. Many constitutional bodies like Supreme Court and chief election commission though
draw their power from the constitution derive respect from the people because of the precedent set by
Jawaharlal Nehru.
Nehru always gave due respect to the judicial arm of the government thus playing an important role in
maintaining the cordial relationships. We often learn it from our elders only that how much respect and
priority should be given to a particular person or event. If Nehru had not given due importance and respect to
the judicial and parliamentary process, it was very much possible that judiciary and parliament had lost their
value. Thus one can say that it was Nehru who always tried to maintained balance between different organs
of the government even when majority was with him and he could have led to the establishment of more
powerful executive.
Consensus building
Nehru always believed in consensus building and deliberations even when it was not essential for him.
Nehru was very much aware of the sensitive relations between centre and state governments especially in
the context where power balance was skewed in the favour of centre. Centre could have gained credibility
and trust of states only when decisions were taken on the basis of discussions and consensus building. Soon
after independence, he inaugurated the practice of writing every fortnight to those in charge of running state
governments. This practice ran continuously from 1947 till December 1963.
He explained the first amendment of the constitution in 1951 on the grounds of situational exigencies. The
absence of vital opposition capable of forming an alternative government was a serious gap in the democratic
framework. Nehru was also aware of this gap in the evaluation of Indian democracy. Therefore, he always
gave pivotal importance to disclosures and initiating discussion as strong opposition was not there in the
legislature to do this job. Thus, Nehru’s commitment to democracy was borne out by the respect he showed
to the opposition, state governments, the Press and those with whom he disagreed.
Institution building
Nehru not only shaped democratic institutions but was also involved in institution building. The strength of
determination and the capacity to take risk has always been in the character of Nehru as he initiated reforms to
promote science and technology, planning and management, industrial sector and higher education in India.
The establishment of

56
●● IIMs
●● IITs
●● All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMSs)
●● Atomic Energy Commission of India
●● Planning Commission
●● University Grants Commission,
●● the Atomic Energy Commission and
●● The Defence Science Organisation.
●● Basic and strategic industries
Showed his commitment to create new institutions to meet the challenging demands of speedy development.
In this regard Nehru’s leadership was dynamic and innovative. Most of the institutions established by him
struck roots despite lack of adequate resources and lack of trained personnel.
Nehru envisioned the developing of nuclear weapons and established the Atomic Energy Commission of
India (AEC) in 1948. Nehru also called Dr. Homi J. Bhabha, a nuclear physicist, who was entrusted with
complete authority over all nuclear related affairs and programs and answered only to Nehru himself. Indian
nuclear policy was set by unwritten personal understanding between Nehru and Bhabha. Nehru famously said
to Bhabha, “Professor Bhabha take care of Physics, leave international relation to me”.
From the outset in 1948, Nehru had high ambition to develop this program to stand against the industrialized
states and the basis of this program was to establish an Indian nuclear weapons capability as part of India’s
regional superiority to other South-Asian states, most particularly Pakistan. The basic idea behind this
intention was not to accumulate nuclear power for over powering other states but to become equal so that he
can negotiate with others on equal terms.
Building heavy industries and accelerating the pace of development on the farm and in the factory received
top priority. He felt that “it is on the basis of steel and power that countries are industrialised and advanced.”
Simultaneously he worked for ‘trained personnel’ to effectively implement the policy. The growth of the public
sector was vital though the acceptance of mixed economy underlined the importance of the private sector.
Socialism
Under his leadership, the INC accepted the ideal of a socialistic pattern of society at the Avadi session
in January 1955. The socialistic pattern connoted social ownership or control of the principal means of
production, acceleration of national production and the equitable distribution of the wealth of the nation. In a
speech to Lok Sabha, he pointed out that equality; removal of disparities and the possibility for everyone to
live a good life constitute a socialist pattern of society.
Secularism
Nehru fabricated the secular structure of India at a time when India was very fragile and Communal sensitivity
was there. Nehru was an agnostic, rationalist and a realist as he was not emotionally involved in religious
disputations. Hence he was acceptable even to Mohammad Ali and had deep friendship with Abdul Kalam
Azaad.
As per Nehru, Culture inculcates genuine compassion, altruism, humanism and loyalty to values like liberty,
equality, fraternity, human rights, rationalistic orientation and modesty but the cultural loyalty and fidelity to
justice can only come if a person is free from fundamentalism and religious parochialism.
Nehru was not convinced with the religious explanations of Hindu-Muslims tensions. He offered an economic
analysis which says Hindus had better economic conditions as compared to Muslims due to English language
which was a passport to government services and the professions. The landlord or the village baniya was
usually a Hindu was the money lender and the owner of village store thus Hindus were in positions to oppress
and exploit the tenants and small landholders who were largely Muslims.
Nehru’s loyalty to secularism had been a great relief to the minority groups in India. His devotion to scientific
methodology led to a secularist democracy.

57
Self determination
Nehru had been a firm believer in the concept of self-determination. Jawaharlal had been mainly responsible
for popularizing the idea of the constituent assembly as a soul legitimate organ for the formation of an Indian
constitution (Speech, INC Lucknow session 1936).
Nehru’s belief in self-determination was nurtured on three foundations:
1. The racial arrogance of the British rulers; racial chauvinism. Britishers believed that since they are
superior, they have the right to determine what is right for India.
2. British rule lead to rampant poverty and exploitation of the country.
3. British had the monopoly of decision making. Aspiration and public opinion in India were always
neglected by them. No Indian participation was there in the decisions.
Internationalism
Nehru was an internationalist. His aversion to narrow, egoistic and expansionist nationalism had been
great. According to Nehru (The Discovery of India) the world has become internationalized, production is
international, markets are international and transport is international. No nation is really independent, they
are all interdependent. Therefore, some kind of fusion is necessary between nationalism and internationalism.
Buddhist influence was there as in 1954 he used the Buddhist concept of panchasila in a secular context to
indicate the principles of co-existence in a divided world. The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, known
in India as the Panchsheel (five virtues) Treaty, are a set of principles to govern relations between states.
Nehru policy of non-alignment was based on three considerations:
●● India is a newly emergent nation- state. She has to concentrate on economic and social reconstruction.
Non-alignment thus is a natural policy for a new nation state.
●● Historical grounds: throughout her history, India has followed the policy of peace. She has never sanctioned
expansionist power politics.
●● Non-alignment is supported by the exigencies of the international power politics. In a hostile world divided
into armed sections, it was a wise strategy to strengthen the peace area. This can be done if several states
refuse to join the rival camps and act as mediators in lessoning international tensions. The strengthening
of peace areas would act as necessary deterrent to the clash of the two groups.
Thus he advocated a dynamic approach to non-alignment in which states will take active part in peace process
rather than remaining neutral to the rival camps. Many people have criticized Nehru for running a moral
discourse in international relations but it was the presence of values which gave India a distinct voice in
world sphere. No leader can deny national interest but Nehru always defined national interest in the context
of universal values like peace, disarmament, equality and brotherhood. He was an exponent of a peaceful
approach and accepted the techniques of negotiations and cooperative understanding.
To conclude, one can say that Nehru attempted to strengthen the democracy in India by his scientific approach
and concern for human values. Two of his speeches made during the last months of his life referred to the
threats to national solidarity and unity. He pointed out that variety should not affect unity nor should religion,
caste and language shall disrupt national unity. From Buddha to Gandhi, he observed, India’s heritage
conveyed to the world the lesson of living harmoniously together. Democracy required the spirit of tolerance
and cooperation and he firmly believed in India’s capacity for sustaining the democratic spirit. Nehru’s faith
in the Indian spirit remained throughout unshaken. We are, he explained, not only industrializing the country
through democratic processes but also at the same time trying to maintain the unique features in Indian
philosophy and way of life and individuality of India.
3. B.R. Ambedkar
Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar; (14 April 1891 – 6 December 1956), popularly known as Babasaheb, was an
Indian jurist, political leader, philosopher, historian, orator, economist, teacher, editor, prolific writer and a
revolutionary inspiring Dalit movement in India. He was also the chief architect of the Indian Constitution.
He became one of the first Dalits to obtain college education in India. But he had to overcome numerous
social and financial obstacles in order to do that. He had a first-hand experience of untouchability in school,

58
where he was segregated from caste Hindus. He was allowed to drink water from vessel only if it was poured
from a height by the peon.
Eventually earning a law degree and doctorates for his study and research in law, economics and political
science, Ambedkar gained a reputation as a scholar in economics and practiced law for a few years. He
could have lived a very comfortable life. He was a very intelligent and educated man with degrees from
Columbia University and the London School of Economics. Yet he completely devoted himself to the cause
of depressed classes.
He had experienced the agonies anguishes, frustrations and humiliations of being born in the Mahar cast which
is an untouchable Maharashtrian community. According to Ambedkar, the Hindus scheme of social structure
based on the four varnas breeds inequality and has been the parent of the caste system and untouchability
which are merely forms of inequality. He felt that the problems of untouchables can only be solved through
a radical solution.
He envisioned his ideal in the famous three principles: liberty, equality and fraternity. They were the basis for
the ideal society of his conception. Ambedkar insists that the conception of the ideal society ought to have
them all the three together. Absence of any would not be acceptable to him.
The caste system that subjugated more than one fifth of the population to levels worse than animals’ for
more than two millennia became the prime target of his life. However, this Herculean task almost completely
overshadows the fact that his struggles extend well beyond the caste struggles and rather encompass all other
forms of exploitation. He worked not only for oppressed classes but also for other oppressed entities like
workers, peasants and women.
His struggle was directed towards the emancipation of all the untouchables but also towards annihilation of
the entire caste system. Although he pitched his tents against Brahminism, he never bore any enmity against
the Brahmins or identified any one for his friend or foe by caste.
The Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha that was the launch vehicle of his movement had majority from the forward
caste people in its executive body. Even later, this intention of having a non-caste base for the organization
could be consistently seen in his movement, be it the Mahad struggle or the Indian Labour Party.
Radical Thinker
The anti-caste movements before Ambedkar were mainly welfare oriented. Some wanted a higher rank for
their own caste in the caste hierarchy and some taking the inferior culture of their caste to be the reason for
their suffering, aimed at improving the same. He rightly diagnosed that the caste system is basically sustained
by the peculiar economic constitution of the Indian village of which the land relations were the main features.
Towards breaking this link he toyed with an idea of separate settlement for dalits at one time and at another
exhorted them to leave villages for cities. He had clearly understood that castes stood on multiple props, viz.,
the religio-cultural relations, feudal relations in village setting of which land relations constituted the crux and
the socio-political nexus with the State. Annihilation of castes thus needed destruction of all of them.
He was very practical in his approach and soon realized the necessity of political power for this multi-pronged
attack. Even to bring about the residual change in the belief system either through the cultural or religious
route, he stressed the necessity of political power. In this way, for the first time he brought the problem of
untouchability and caste out of the confines of culture to the political agenda.
Ambedkar always believed that individuals and social groups progress only through healthy competition in
the society. But the state should take into account that weaker sections in the society, paradoxically in a large
number, cannot enter this competition on equal and open basis. This will lead to destruction as progress will
be made but only between the higher caste people. The lower caste will remain untouched thus leading to
increasing gap. This gap may lead to a revolution which may further lead to violent protest and repression.
The best way to ward off revolution was to adopt a liberal generous attitude toward the lower classes. The
upper classes should make concessions gracefully and in good time, and not wait until the lower classes
are roused to exact them. If a revolution happens, it doesn’t show that the people are bad and should have

59
been repressed more thoroughly. What it shows is that the upper classes were not wise enough and self-
confident enough to make reasonable concessions in good time. It accommodates the relatively weaker
sections by extending them some concessions or aids for some time, basically to equip them for this universal
competition. The State performs the role of a referee in this competition. This State is supposed to be run by
the representatives of all the social groups.
Gandhi did not want to disrupt the structure of Hindu society but Ambedkar wanted the separation of the
untouchables or depressed classes from the Hindu society. He was aware of the fact that the society has not
reached upto the level where all caste and class structures can be destructed. Brahmanism will never allow
giving away its apparent superiority. Hence it was important to move away from it. One of the most effective
ways of undermining the caste system is to encourage marriages across caste divides. No less a person than
Ambedkar held this view.
Against Capitalism
Ambedkar was quite aware of the exploitative potential of capitalism and hence he had declared capitalism
and Brahminism as the twin enemy of his movement. He was well aware of the inhuman exploitation of
workers that was unleashed by the rising adherence to the capitalism.
His, Independent Labour Party (ILP in August 1936) was an attempt to take up the question of capitalist
exploitation, as well as to combine the struggle on both caste and class basis. Various workers’ problems
were taken up by the ILP, the leadership of combined strike of the mill workers, parliamentary fight for
the workers’ interest in relation to the Industrial Disputes Act, and various legal reforms that were brought
about while he was in the Executive Council of the Viceroy, can be the examples of his concern for workers’
exploitation. The formation of ILP was not welcomed or supported by the communist leaders arguing that this
will lead to a split in the working-class votes. Ambedkar replied that communist leaders were working for the
rights for the worker but not for the human rights of dalit workers.
Imperialism
Ambedkar’s attitude towards imperialism has been projected in a distorted manner right from the beginning,
mainly because he refused to take part in the freedom struggle or opposed Gandhi who for many was the
anti-imperialism personified. He strategically sought to maintain neutrality vis-à-vis the colonial State. As per
him, it would not be possible for the resource less dalits to fight its mighty foes all together. He did not want
to dissipate and squander his extremely limited resources on several fronts.
He however knew the basic exploitative character of the colonial regime. At several occasions, he burst
out saying that British imperialism and Indian feudalism were the two leaches that clung to Indian people.
However, there was a fundamental difference between his and others’ viewpoint. For instance, he did not
approve equating opposition to imperialism with opposing the British.
He noted that the opposition to imperialism couldn’t be effective until its supporters within the country are left
untouched. He always believed that without struggling against the landlords, mill owners, and moneylenders -
the friends of imperialism within the country, it was not possible to wage an effective fight against imperialism.
It was infact this reason only which led him to question the so-called freedom struggle launched under the
leadership of Congress as an anti-imperialist struggle. He contended that the Congress basically represented
the class of feudal lords and the urban capitalists - the twosome exploiters of Indian masses. Although, it
succeeded through the charismatic leadership of Gandhi in galvanizing masses in its support, it essentially
relied on bargaining with the colonial rulers for securing itself more share of power.
He thus not only saw no point in siding with this more real exploiter of people than perhaps the colonial rulers,
but also did not hesitate to openly oppose it when it came in the way of dalit liberation. He smelt rot in all such
struggles that refused to notice existence of inhuman exploitation of some of their own people within their
precincts and tended to over-externalize their woes. Here lay his second point when he raised a question of
Hindu imperialism perpetrated through its caste system that was certainly seen as more vicious by its victims
than the British rule.

60
Oppression of Women
Besides these mainstream forms of exploitation even the subaltern forms like women’s exploitation, could
not escape his agenda. He viewed them as the most oppressed of all. He raised his voice against women’s
discriminatory situation in the society. His basic law of social engineering was that the social revolutions must
always begin from the standpoint of the most oppressed or the ones on the lowest rung of the society.
He always involved women in his struggles and tended to give them important positions. For example, about
500 women had marched at the head of the historical procession at Mahad (Drinking Water Satyagraha,
Maharashtra, 1927) to assert the untouchables’ right to drink water from the public tank. He also oversaw the
drafting of a new law in 1951 which allow women to choose their partners and give them divorce if necessary.
Religion
Religion was the institution envisaged to control the organization at the level of an individual and society to
curb their latent exploitative instincts. It was a philosophical device that would regulate their lives, including
the interface between them at the most primary level. Ambedkar viewed it as a code of behaviour, a way of
life that is upheld by the multitude. He insisted that this code should be based on and be compatible with the
precepts of modern science. The religion as normally defined or that became a pill of opium for Marx, was
not the religion of his concept either.
When ultimately he embraced Buddhism he claimed to have used the criteria of modern science. Buddhism,
as it was propounded by Gautama Buddha hardly qualified to be called religion in so far as it did not have
even a single of the three necessary features of religion - viz.: belief in God, permanent entity and a set of
rituals. But it is a matter of opinion whether its institutionalized form that we are familiar with still retains
its uniqueness. Shunning the futile debate, it could be definitely said and has been acknowledged that the
Buddhism that he embraced was far more radical than its familiar version. His ‘Buddha and His Dhamma’ is
replete with instances where he reconstructs and redefines Buddhism with a near-scientific approach.
Buddhism, in its purer form, puzzled many people with its radical outlook and rational approach. It did not
have a place for God, ritual of any kind or for any permanent entity that characterize all other religions.
Morality is said to be its basis and surprisingly a pure democratic criterion of ‘happiness and welfare of many’
(Bahujan Hitay, Bahujan Sukhay) as its motto.
To conclude, one may say thatAmbedkar was a social prophet of the untouchables. There is no doubt that he
was a patriot and would not be opposed to the national integration. Nobody can be opposed to his view that
for the untouchable, the liberation from the degrading humiliations and imposed by Hinduism was a matter
of more urgent necessity than even the political liberation from the alien British rule.
Hence Ambedkar deserves the credit for having made Hindus aware of the great tension generating social
problems which must be tackled; otherwise they may eventually bring about the doom not only of the Hindu
society but of the total Indian political system as well. He will have a significant place in history through his
scholarly writings, speeches, leadership and constructive work.
4. Subhas Chandra Bose

Subhas Chandra Bose was one of the most prominent Indian nationalist leaders who attempted to gain India’s
independence from British rule by force during the waning years of World War II. He believed in self denial
and was devoted to political work as a part of the mission of his life.
In 1920, he successfully competed ICS exam but it was in May 1921 he resigned from the services and joined
active politics. A robust and ardent patriotism was the essence of Netaji’s personality.
He was not a political philosopher or a theorist but a dynamic man of action. He was an agitator a propagandist
and an uncompromising fighter and a revolutionary leader rather than a philosopher. His strength lay in big
political activities. He was a militant fighter for Swaraj. He was profoundly devoted to the ideal of Indian
freedom and tirelessly and recklessly worked for its realization.
He was also a great orator. He combined capacity for action and a keen analytical mind. His book “Indian
struggle” is full of sober analysis and keen reflections. His speeches are characterised by force and simplicity.

61
He also had enough fund of emotional warmth in his personality.
His organisational skills which were shown during the establishment of parallel army equipped with modern
weapons were something extraordinary. The way he escaped from India and channelized the resources
through diplomacy and international propaganda to organise INA was next to impossible. Though he failed in
his attempt to free India through armed struggle, yet his persistence, endurance, courage and die hard attitude
infused enthusiasm and patriotism in the heart of millions who never even thought of rebelling against the
mighty British Empire.
Netaji as a realist
Netaji though a great admirer of the Vedantic philosophy, became a social and political realist in later years.
He had always believed in action. He maintained that an exaggerated dose of ahimsa and too much influence
and belief in fate and supernatural is responsible for the decline of India. He wanted the techniques of modern
scientific civilization to be accepted by Indian society. Nothing should be carried to the most absurd length.
Netaji always believed in the creative force of ideas. It is only through his ideas that a man can remain
immortal. One man can die for an idea, but the idea will, after his death, incarnate itself in thousand lives.
That is how the wheels of evolution move on and the ideas and dreams of one generation are transferred to
the next. (In his letter to Governor of Bengal, 1940)
Political ideas
He did not appreciate the mingling of political and ethical issues. He was a critique of Gandhi in this sense
as Gandhi always believed in morality in politics. Netaji always appreciated political realism and would not
stand for mixing up of the spheres of Caesar and Christ.
He earnestly felt that for political freedom it was essential to undergo great sufferings and sacrifice. Bose
believed that Gandhi’s tactics of non-violence would never be sufficient to secure India’s independence, and
advocated violent resistance. He established a separate political party, the All India Forward Bloc for this
purpose only and continued to call for the full and immediate independence of India from British rule. His
famous motto: “Give me blood and I will give you freedom” reflects his idea that freedom cannot be achieved
without blood and sweat. Hence, although he was a realist, he did recognize the supreme necessity of self-
abnegation and suffering on the part of the Indian people.
Social ideas
Bose was not satisfied with mere political freedom. He certainly recognised the urgency of winning the
political freedom of the country, but he was also a realist to understand that the internal social struggles
between the landlord and peasant, capitalist and labourer, rich and poor, could not be postponed. Hence he
always believed that the political and social struggles will have to be conducted simultaneously. The party
that will win political freedom for India will also be the party that will win social and economic freedom for
the masses.
He stated that the eradication of poverty and illiteracy were the great tasks of national reconstruction. He
pleaded for the abolition of landlordism, the liquidation of agriculture indebtness and the provision for cheap
credit in rural sections.
The leftist party which was proposed by him was meant to achieve both the objectives of political as well as
social freedom. The All India Forward Bloc, a leftwing party emerged as a faction within the Indian National
Congress in 1939, was led by Subhash Chandra Bose.
The Forward Bloc of the Indian National Congress was formed on 3 May 1939 by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose
after resigning from the presidency of the Indian National Congress on April 29 after being outmaneuvered
by Mohandas K. Gandhi.
In January 1941 Bose summarized the guiding principles of the forward block:
1. Complete national independence and uncompromising anti-imperialist struggle for attaining it.
2. A thoroughly modern and socialist state.
3. Scientific large scale production for the economic regeneration of the country.

62
4. Social ownership and control of both production and distribution.
5. Freedom of the individual in the matter of religious worship.
6. Equal rights for every individual.
7. Linguistic and cultural autonomy for all sections of the Indian community.
8. Application of the principle of equality and social justice in building up the new order in free India.
These principles show the basic value structure and philosophy of Netaji’s conduct during the national
struggle for independence.
Gandhi and Subhas Bose
Subhas Bose had great respect for the character and personality of Mahatma Gandhi. He had many times in
his speeches recognised the great work of Mahatma Gandhi in the consolidation of the INC and in bringing
about a great mass awakening. But as a political idealist, he could not appreciate the extreme ethical idealism
of Gandhi.
Being realist, Bose believed in the techniques of political bargaining. The secret of political bargaining is to
look more strong than you really are. He could not appreciate the simple humanity and open heartedness with
which Gandhi laid all his cards on the table at the time of second round table conference in 1931, in London.
Bose always felt that non- violence by itself could not bring Swaraj. Non-violent Satyagraha, he recognised,
has the capacity of arousing public opinion but by itself it cannot bring independence. He felt that non-
violence should be supplemented by two other techniques of diplomacy and international propaganda.
Conclusion
As a political worker and leader Bose stood for a strengthened nationalism. Patriotism was the essence of his
personality and supreme expression of his soul. By his effective leadership and his great genius for action,
he has helped in the popularization of the ideal of the supremacy of the nation in the country which has been
dominated by the heritage of the feudalism and despotic imperialism.
5. Vallabhbhai Patel
Sardar Vallabhbhai Jhaverbhai Patel was an Indian barrister and statesman, one of the leaders of the Indian
National Congress and one of the founding fathers of the Republic of India. He was a freedom fighter, a strong
administrator, a devoted patriot and a dedicated servant of the nation. He was a man of tremendous patience
and absolute simplicity who devoted vast energies to concretize some of the Gandhian techniques for political
fight during the struggle for freedom. He is known to be a social leader of India who played an unparalleled
role in the country’s struggle for independence and guided its integration into a united, independent nation.
He was a great organizer and was regarded as a strong man of INC.
He was an established lawyer but gave up his practice during the time of non cooperation movement in order
to follow the path of non-violent struggle shown by the mahatma Gandhi. As a leader of the farmers and one
of Gandhi’s closest associates, he forced the mighty British Government to accept defeat. As the first Deputy
Prime Minister and home minister of free India, he brought about the merger of hundreds of princely states
with the Indian Union, and became the architect of the integrity of India.
He has been called as the “Iron Man of India” for his ruthless policy with regard to consolidation of the
political map of India. He is also remembered as the “Patron Saint” of India’s civil servants for establishing
modern All-India Services.
A realist
Patel was a realist and a visionary. Inspite of his conflicts with Nehru, Patel warned Nehru against counting on
the Chinese friendship in his famous letter written few months before his death. As a realist, he was perturbed
over Chinese imperialistic policies.
There was a tussle between Nehru and Patel, since 1946, for leadership and economic ideas which had the
tendency to become a political menace. It was Patel who averted the situation by giving up the candidature
for the post of PM.

63
Patel always believed that India was a vast country and had still a long way to go for her industrialization.
Indian economy was primarily rural and thus small scale industries on cooperative basis should be preferred
over large scale industrialization imposed by the state.
Patel took the heroic lead in the liquidation of the various princely states and in the integration of their
territories with the rest of India. With regard to the princely states, Patel said that the amputation of a limb is
a painful process but it would be a horrible tragedy if the body of India itself was torn to pieces. Thus, every
possible action can be taken to avoid such situation. He wanted, nevertheless, that the people should not
ridicule or lower the dignity of the rulers. Using frank diplomacy, backed with the option and use of military
force, Patel’s leadership persuaded almost every princely state which did not have a Muslim majority to
accede to India.
Secularism
Religion played a secondary role in the life and politics of Patel. After Jinnah’s demand for Pakistan, Patel
became identified in the public mind with the championship of Hindu political interest but one cannot say
that there was any element of religious devotedness in his personal life. Patel was keen about Hindu-Muslim
reconciliation. In his presidential address at Karachi in 1931, he declared that as a Hindu he would present the
Muslims with a Swadeshi fountain pen and ask them to write out their demands and he would accept them
without any condition or amendment.
He always believed that Hindu - Muslim unity can be built only on the basis of trust and equality. Accepting
the demands of Muslims without any discussion and debate shows his commitment to the cause of harmony
between Hindu and Muslims which was necessary for the early freedom of India from the British raj.
Social and Political views
As a disciple of Gandhi, Patel swore by the gospel of non-violence which he felt had given to the suppressed
poor a consciousness of their rights and their political values and ideals. Sardar Patel was a strong non-
cooperator and took great part in propagating the ideas of Gandhian non-cooperation.
For Sardar Patel any movement of social and economic emancipation in India could succeed only with the
reconstitution of the agrarian system.
He said that the whole world depended upon agriculturist and the laborers. Nevertheless they were being
terrorized and penalized. Hence he wanted the peasants to be brave. He wanted them to realize that the British
Empire had negated the concepts of rights and justice. But unless the people were ready to fight without any
fear of sufferings, they could not make the government realize their legitimate claims.
In 1931 he became the president of the congress at Karachi. It was at Karachi that the congress passed the
resolution on fundamental rights. He criticized government for the execution of Bhagat Singh inspite of
the universal demand for the commutation of the death sentence. He always believed that the government
should be open and receptive towards the public opinion and aspirations. Only then it will be able to maintain
stability and order in the society.
Relations with Mahatma Gandhi
After Gandhi’s death, Patel’s speech at Benaras Hindu University on November 25, 1948, clearly showed that
the relationship between the two was emotional and complex.
“I claim to be nothing more than an obedient soldier of him like the millions who obeyed his call. There was
a time when everyone used to call me his blind follower. But, both he and I knew that I followed him because
our convictions tallied,” said the Sardar in his speech.
Patel wanted to give up his responsibility after differences with Jawaharlal Nehru surfaced and he also wrote
to Gandhi about the same. But, his strong bond of love for Gandhi and his unwavering loyalty to him did
not allow Patel to leave either the side of Gandhi or Nehru. Manilal Patel, editor of fortnightly magazine
Gram Garjana, said if the Sardar had wished, he could have become Prime Minister. But, only because of his
reverence for Gandhi, he did not even show whether he was not happy with the selection of Jawaharlal Nehru
as India’s first Prime Minister.

64
Rizwan Kadri, a historian, believes that Patel was a follower of Gandhi who dared to express his views and
his differences of opinion on certain issues. “However, he expressed his opinion with respect. Despite the
differences, Gandhiji’s words were final for Sardar,” said Kadri. Patel said Gandhi, Sardar and Nehru were
not separate. They complemented one another.
Conclusion
Patel was a realist in politics but his realism would never imply the exaltation of force, fraud or assault
of the opponents. He was a man of action and did not have much time to engage in speculations of abstract
political philosophy. Never the less there were certain basic ideas by which his political activities were guided
and his basic political concept was nationalism. Patel was a Gandhian but never believed in the absolute
sanctity of non-violence. Thus it appears that Patel accepted non-violence only as a policy and not as a
philosophy of life.
6. Bhagat Singh
Bhagat Singh, who was born on 28th September 1907, barely completed 23 years of age when he was
judicially murdered by the British on 23rd March 1931. The ideas of Bhagat Singh surprised many at that
time including the British Government. He was attracted to the writings of Marx and Lenin and the idea of
‘Anarchism’ was very close to him. He believed that Anarchism is complete independence where no one
will be obsessed with religion, money and other desires. Bhagat Singh, a non-believer of Gandhian Ideology,
believed that ‘Satyagraha’ politics would do nothing good to the nation and would only replace one set of
exploiters with another.
Bhagat Singh was a mature political thinker. Although, his life was plucked so early, during the short period
of life he lived, he literally aroused the devotion of the youth towards their country. In his two years of
imprisonment in the Central Jail, he used to write articles and books. He gave terms like ‘Inquilab Zindabad’,
‘political Prisoner’ etc. that served as the source of inspiration for the revolutionaries in the independence
struggle. Even today when Indian Youth protests, be it against rapes or against ‘corruption’, ‘Inquilab
Zindabad’ still happens to be the only word which conveys the spirit of solidarity and independence so well.
‘Why I Am an Atheist’
Bhagat Singh was a non-believer of god. He was attracted neither by the Hindu notion of rebirth nor the
Muslim promise of a paradise. Singh believed that his religion was ‘independence’, his god was ‘socialism’
and his slogan was ‘Inquilab Zindabad’.
To him, religion was irrelevant. He shared Dr B.R. Ambedkar’s vision who once said that, “I do not want that
our loyalty as Indians should be in the slightest way affected by any competitive loyalty, whether that loyalty
arises out of our religion, out of our culture or out of our language. I want all people to be Indians first, Indians
last and nothing else but Indians.” He stood for an inclusive nationalism, not just politically, but socially and
economically as well.
Commitment to rationalism
Bhagat Singh’s commitment to rationalism and critical thinking is also crucial in present times. He
was not for blind flag-waving. His nationalism was embedded in the idea of progress where there is scope
for criticism, disbelief and the capacity to question the old faith. He was uncompromising when he
said, “mere faith and blind faith is dangerous: It dulls the brain and makes a man reactionary. A man
who claims to be a realist has to challenge the whole of the ancient faith. If it does not stand the onslaught
of reason, it crumbles down.” Silencing rationalists or defending obnoxious religious practices can’t be
nationalism.
Bhagat Singh, in ‘Why I am an Atheist’, also questions those who found any criticism of leaders like Mahatma
Gandhi blasphemous. He perceived this hero worship as symptomatic of an unhealthy, regressive politics:
“Go and oppose the prevailing faith, you go and criticise a hero, who is generally believed to be above
criticism because he is thought to be infallible, the strength of your argument shall force the multitude to
decry you..This is due to mental stagnation.” He goes on to say that, “Criticism and independent thinking

65
are the two indispensable qualities of a revolutionary”. There cannot be, therefore, an uncritical exaltation of
either religion, culture, leader or anything else in the name of the nation.
Just a year before Bhagat Singh was arrested, he wrote some insightful pieces in May-June 1928. In one of
them, he was critical of the press, and also spoke about his idea of nationalism, saying, “the real duty of the
newspapers is to educate, to cleanse the minds of people, to save them from narrow sectarian divisiveness,
and to eradicate communal feelings to promote the idea of common nationalism. Instead, their main objective
seems to be spreading ignorance, preaching and propagating sectarianism and chauvinism, communalising
people’s minds leading to the destruction of our composite culture and shared heritage”.
He also warned against dragging religion into politics and gave an example of the early Ghadar revolutionaries
who kept religion in the realm of personal faith and so worked together, espousing a composite nationalism.
Our born-again nationalists today often use the past to subvert the present. They love the medieval past the
most, and for obvious reasons. I wish they cared to read more about the recent past and the freedom struggle
to make some sense of their favorite obsession.
The most interesting idea that attracts people is the way Bhagat Singh valued criticism. He believed that why
just follow anyone blindly, why to trust anyone blindly? Even on the concluding page of his book on Atheism,
he mentioned that do not blindly believe what I say! Read, think and criticize my writings, which only can
make me feel good as a writer! Bhagat Singh strictly believed in the ‘power of ideas’. He thrashed the british
government with his saying:
“You can only suppress me as a person, but you cannot suppress my thought and ideas”
7. Rabindranath Tagore
Poet, philosopher, educationist, patriot, humanist and internationalist, Tagore was one of the spokesman of the
soul of India. If Vivekananda was the philosophical herald of India to America Tagore was the emotional and poetic
vehicle of India mission to the outside world. To a skeptical and materialist world, he has revealed the authentic
moral and spiritual message of the east. His lyrics have an irresistible and universal appeal. Hence he is
regarded as a world singer.
Tagore became the first non-European to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913 for a selection of his
poetry,Gitanjali. He was highly influential in introducing the best of Indian culture to the West and is generally
regarded as the outstanding creative artist of modern India.
Tagore and humanism
Tagore was a humanist because he was a prophet of love, fellowship and co-operation. As a poet, he looked with
indifference upon the narrow diving walls and concentrated his attention on concrete humanity as a whole.
In the Gitanjali he sings about the pervasiveness of divine love and invites his brothers to share in that ocean
of love. Through love alone it is possible to realize god and all sin evil and vice are due to the defect in the
recognition of the mystery of divine love.
Tagore always believed that harmony is the essence of personality. Ethical conduct in his philosophy
originates not in fidelity to caste duty but it based on an awareness of divine harmony and love. He also stood
for harmony between nature and man. Because nature itself is the manifestation of God, harmony with nature
and not the conquest of nature will lead to realization of God.
Tagore always believed in synthesis of cultures that is the combination of ideas taken from different cultures
and conceptualizes an ideal of a universal man. Tagore tried to produce—or had an interest in producing—a
“synthesis” of the different religions as that his outlook was persistently non-sectarian, and his writings show
the influence of different parts of the Indian cultural background as well as of the rest of the world.
Thus Tagore stood for harmony, love and synthesis. According to him truth consists not in facts but in the
harmony of facts and beauty and love are the expressions of harmony. The essence of every civilization is
the love of humanity and not the accumulation of material power. In early years, he was influenced by the
west because of its humanism, rationalism and liberating power of science but the brutal advances of western
imperialism shook his confidence in the west.

66
Tagore and society
Tagore held that man is social, sensitive and imaginative being and not a mechanical identity or a political
animal. Politics is only a specialised and professionalized aspect of society. He was aware of the weaknesses
in the Indian society. Tagore did not put faith in mere political agitation. He always maintained that Indians
had first to set their own house in order before their demands could have any effect on the foreign masters.
A country and a people perpetuating some of the worst form of social tyranny at home would have no moral
conscience to protest against imperial arrogance. Tagore was a societarian to the extent that he regarded the
society as having greater primacy than the state. Hence in place of the negative criticism of the government
he urged the necessity of constructive social efforts which is possible only if a man wishes for collective good
and shows social altruism.
Tagore always believed in functional conception of society. He was opposed to meaningless social stratifications
which lead to inequalities and discrimination. He was also hostile to the parasitic economic class of that time.
Although he himself came from the landlord family, he was disillusioned of the ethics of that class as their
aim was amassing of wealth and not social service and justice.
Tagore and theory of rights
Tagore was a prophet of rights. In “the call of truth” he wrote “man does not have to beg for his rights, he
must create them for himself”. Tagore stressed the necessity of cultivation of strength for the realization of
rights both by the individual and group. Tagore always wanted that the exploited and destitute humanity of
India should cultivate moral force for their regeneration and should refuse to bend before the imperialistic
might.
He urged the masses to avoid victimology and instead seek self-help and education, and he saw the presence of
British administration as a “political symptom of our social disease”. He maintained that, even for those at the
extremes of poverty, “there can be no question of blind revolution”; preferable to it was a “steady and
purposeful education”.
Theory of freedom
He has a spiritual conception of freedom. The essence of freedom is illumination of the soul by the process of
self-realization. Political freedom is a precondition for spiritual freedom as dignity and human worth cannot
be realized by those who rule and also by those who are ruled.
Tagore has always condemned the impersonal rule of England in India where there was no accommodative
communication and social, sympathetic relation between the rulers and the ruled. He always maintained that
those civilizations that practiced callousness of heart and enslaved the weaker population had to pay the price
of extinction. There is a moral law governing civilization. Love and justice are the soul characters of historical
longevity.
Tagore was a champion of political freedom of India and Asia. He eloquently pleaded for self-government to
India. Self-government alone could provide the cure for the political ills of the country.
Tagore and nationalism
Tagore formulated and sponsored a moral approach to politics. As he said only a faithful practice of the values
of justice, purity and freedom could make nations strong. Thus he refused to regard politics as the realm of
the immoral.
He was a patriot and during the days of agitation against the partition of Bengal, his stirring words rang
with strength and he was later on venerated as a national poet. In 1932, during civil disobedient movement
Tagore pleaded for the recognition of the fundamental claims of India humanity and immediate grant of
independence to India. He did believe in co-operation between India and Britain but it should be based on the
friendship and trust.
Though he believed in political freedom, Tagore was a critic of nationalism. Tagore had a deep and passionate
love for India but his sensitive spirit was not in favour of revolutionary and anarchistic work. Tagore always
believed in spiritual fellowship of man. Hence he refuses to abide by the dictates of the nation states. National

67
pride is the result of narrow imagination and an absence of spiritual sensitiveness. Thus he was a champion
of the people and not of the nation.
The closed walls of nations have to be demolished and the foundations laid down for racial synthesis and
cultural cooperation. All elements that create barriers between people have to be substituted by the spirit of
interdependence and brotherhood. One has to transcend suspicion, fear, distrust, lustfulness and national
egoism, and practice the virtues of amity, national friendship and a genuine mingling of peoples and cultures.
Tagore and education
Tagore despised rote classroom schooling: in “The Parrot’s Training”, a bird is caged and force-fed textbook
pages—to death. Tagore sought to “make Santiniketan the connecting thread between India and the world and
a world center for the study of humanity somewhere beyond the limits of nation and geography.” The school,
which he named Visva-Bharati, had its foundation stone laid on 24 December 1918 and was inaugurated
precisely three years later.
Conclusion
As a poet and as a prophet, Tagore reiterated India’s gospel of fellowship, friendship and humanity. He
believed, thus, in the replacement of the creeds of organisation, efficiency, exploitation and aggressiveness by
social cooperation, international reciprocity and spiritual idealism.
Tagore was an internationalist and at a time when a ceaseless struggle was going on in the world for assertion
of the right of the nation, he championed the binding of the people and unity.
Tagore was a believer in cultural synthesis and international unity and decried the aggressive cult of nation.
But he became one of the intellectual leaders of Indian nationalism. His songs and messages gave inspiration
to social and political workers. Hence, although not in the thick of political fight for independence Tagore was
venerated as seer of Indian freedom. He was regarded in the west as an outstanding national figure of India.
8. Swami Vivekananda
Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) is one of the greatest thinkers of Indian Renaissance. Ethics according to
Vivekananda is the reflection of cultural health of the society at a given time. In course of evolution of human
societies, man creates progressive cultural and moral ethos. But then a stage comes when cultural growth
slows down for want of fresh ideas. Consequently, ethics also remains a mere shadow of its own pervious
glory. Now it is in search of fresh inputs to spring to new life again. Therefore, when matter is worshiped as
supreme and privileges are sought after, ethical decline is not a surprise. The remedy lies in adding spiritual
dimension to existing culture and in course evolving a new moral and ethical code for coming generations.
In words of Swami Vivekananda:
...Ethics cannot be derived from the mere sanctions of any personage, however great and divine he may
have been. …The infinite oneness of the Soul is the eternal sanction of all morality that you and I are not
only brothers… but that you and I are really one. This is the dictate of Indian philosophy. This oneness is the
rationale of all ethics and spirituality.”
Vivekananda was moved with pity on seeing the impoverished state of the masses. He says:
“Material civilization, nay, even luxury, is necessary to create work for the poor. Bread! Bread! I do not
believe in a God who cannot give me bread here, giving me eternal bliss in heaven. Pooh! India is to be
raised, the poor are to be fed, education is to spread, and the evil of priest craft removed. No Priest craft, no
social tyranny: More bread, more opportunity for everybody.”
According to Swami Vivekananda, social, economic and political reconstruction of the country is a pre-
requisite for the spiritual uplift of the masses. When the people ask for food, to offer religion to a starving
people is to insult them. To teach religious principles to a starving man is an affront to his self-respect. He
criticizes strongly the failings and weaknesses of the people, the evil practice of untouchability, the feeling of
caste superiority, priest craft and religious tyranny. He prefers to see the people as confirmed atheists rather
than as superstitious fools, for the atheists may be of some use. But with regard to superstitions it holds away,
the brain is bread, the mind is frozen and decadence engulfs life. So it holds good if the mankind become

68
atheist by relying on reason rather than blindly believing in two hundred millions of Gods on the authority
of anybody.
Human freedom
According to him freedom is the precondition for the human growth but freedom does not mean absence
of obstacles in the way of social aggrandisement or economic exploitation. Commenting on the meaning of
freedom he says:
“Our natural right to be allowed to use your own body, intelligence and wealth according to our will, without
doing any harm to others, and all the members of a society ought to have the same opportunity for obtaining
wealth, education or knowledge.”
He has expounded progressive ideas and vehemently opposed escapist doctrines like mysticism. He maintains
that occultism and mysticism have destroyed the people. The need of the present is man making religion.
Any-thing that weakens has to be rejected as poison.
He stands for reason. He says that no genuine inspiration ever contradicts reason when such contradiction
is found, it is to inspiration. Vivekananda’s outlook is essentially idealistic although it contains elements of
materialism. Man’s objective is to identify with Brahman through self-purification and service of the people.
Man is the centre of religion conceived by him. He, who has set out in search of Go, ultimately recognizes
man as the centre of this world. He calls upon the people to find God in man.
Swami Vivekananda on ethics

Ethics always says, “Not I, but thou.” Its motto is, “Not self, but non-self.” The vain ideas of individualism to which
man clings when he is trying to find that Infinite Power, or that Infinite Pleasure through the senses, have to be
given up, say the laws of ethics. You have to put yourself last, and others before you. The senses say, “Myself first.”
Ethics says, “I must hold myself last.” Thus, all codes of ethics are based upon this renunciation; destruction, not
construction, of the individual on the material plane. That Infinite will never find expression upon the material plane,
nor is it possible or thinkable.
#. The work of the ethics has been, and will be in the future, not the destruction of variation and the establishment
of sameness in the external world, which is impossible, for it would mean death and annihilation---but to recognise
the unity in spite of all these variations, to recognise the God within, in spite of everything that frightens us, to
recognise that infinite strength as the property of everyone in spite of all apparent weakness, and to recognise the
eternal, infinite, essential purity of the soul in spite of everything to the contrary which appears on the surface.
The only hope for India he lays in the common people, for the upper classes were exhausted physically and
morally. He urges a radical transformation of the social order because all the members of a society ought
to have the same opportunity for obtaining wealth, education or knowledge and declares that these rules
governing the society which stand the way of the unfolding of the freedom are injurious and steps should be
taken to destroy them speedily. To uplift the masses spiritual and secular education is necessary.
In the whole idea of education, we find Swami Vivekananda summing up as the manifestation of divinity
in man. He realizes the caste consciousness as a barrier to India’s progress. Casteism narrows restricts and
separates the noble bond of humanity. For him the true measure of man is worth but not birth. The ultimate
end of Swami Vivekananda is the good of all. He advocates the idea that man must strive for this end even
to the point of sacrificing himself. The means to be adopted for realization of this ultimate end must also be
worthy of that end.
Emancipation of women
Emancipation of women and uplift of the masses are the two important items in Swami Vivekananda’s
programme of social regeneration of India. He could notice the downfall of Indian Society because of the
continued neglect of women and masses. That country and that nation, he says, which do not respect the
women has never become great, nor will ever be in future. The state with the assistance of society can foster
and promote the common interests of people, which can bring justice, honesty, peace etc. The state cannot
have interests than the interests of the individual who form the society. The state is composed of individuals.
Without virtuous individuals it is futile to expect the state becoming prosperous. He states:

69
“The basis of all systems social or political rests upon the goodness of man. No nation is great or good
because parliament enacts this or that, but because its men are great and good.”
Nationalism
The concept of nationalism vis-à-vis internationalism visualized by him is dynamic and encourages people
to be mingled with the life of other individuals and nations which holds good of them, their own well-
being, progress and prosperity. His love for mankind transcends the geographical limitations. His interests
are not confined to India alone but are extended to international level. He pleads for the harmony and good
relationship with the multinationals.
Thus in Indian tradition from Vedas upto the present century certain values were cherished and propagated
which are humanistic in content and spirit. Of course Indian humanism has not developed as a systematic
philosophy with a sound metaphysics and epistemology as in the case of western tradition.
9. Raja Ram Mohan Roy

In 1823, when the British imposed censorship upon the Calcutta press, Raja Ram MohanRoy, as founder and
editor of two of India’s earliest weekly newspapers, organized a protest, arguing in favour of freedom of speech
and religion as natural rights. This protest marked a turning point in Roy’s life, away from preoccupation with
religious polemic toward social and political action. In his newspapers, treatises, and books, Roy tirelessly
criticized what he saw as the idolatry and superstition of traditional Hinduism. He denounced the caste system
and attacked the custom of Suttee. Roy’s actual influence on the British East India Governing Council’s
prohibition of suttee in 1829 is not clear, but it has been widely accepted that he had the effect of emboldening
the government to act decisively on the matter.
In 1822 Roy founded the Anglo-Hindu School and four years later the Vedanta College, in order to teach his
Hindu monotheistic doctrines. When the Bengal government proposed a more traditional Sanskrit college, in
1823, Roy protested that classical Indian literature would not prepare the youth of Bengal for the demands of
modern life. He proposed, instead, a modern, Western curriculum of study. Roy also led a protest against the
outmoded British legal and revenue administration in India.
In August 1828 Roy formed the Brahmo Samaj (Society of Brahma), a Hindu reformist sect that utilized
Unitarian and other liberal Christian elements in its beliefs. The Brahma Samaj is not purely a religious reform
movement. Social and political progress is linked with religious reform. In the popularization of the ideals of
individual freedom, national unity and liberation of social institutions and social relations, the Brahma Samaj
movement has undoubtedly played a great role in quickening the forces of national regeneration.
Roy’s contribution to the Indian ethos rests partly upon the broad scope of his social vision and the striking
modernity of his thought. He was a tireless social reformer, yet he also revived interest in the ethical principles
of the Vedanta school as a counterpoise to the Western assault on Indian culture. In his textbooks and treatises
he contributed to the popularization of the Bengali language, while at the same time he was the first Indian
to apply to the Indian environment the fundamental social and political ideas of the French and American
revolutions.
Thus, Rammohan Ray was a social reformer who borrowed elements of Christianity in order to reform
Hinduism. In politics he borrowed ideas freely from the French and American revolutions. Playing a glowing
tribute to Ram Mohan Roy, Vivekananda says:
“Raja Ram Mohan Roy had put India on the march towards progress and freedom.”
10. Dayananda Saraswati

Dayananda Saraswati was one of the leaders of the Indian renaissance who has perhaps widely travelled and
a well-informed man as far as the Indian scene is concerned. He is well known as the founder of the Arya
Samaj, a Hindu reform movement of the Vedic tradition. He was a profound scholar of the Vedic lore and
Sanskrit language. He was the first to give the call for Swarajya as “India for Indians” – in 1876, later taken
up by Lokmanya Tilak. Denouncing the idolatry and ritualistic worship prevalent in Hinduism at the time, he
worked towards reviving Vedic ideologies. Subsequently the philosopher and former President of India, S.
Radhakrishnan, called him one of the “makers of Modern India,” as did Sri Aurobindo.

70
Maharshi Dayananda advocated the doctrine of Karma and Reincarnation. He emphasized the Vedic ideals of
brahmacharya (celibacy) and devotion to God. Among Maharshi Dayananda’s contributions are his promoting
of the equal rights for women, such as the right to education and reading of Indian scriptures, and his intuitive
commentary on the Vedas from Vedic Sanskrit in Sanskrit as well as Hindi so that the common man might be
able to read them. Dayanand was the first to give the word of Swadeshi and Harijan to the dalits and Pariahs
(Outcastes) long before Mahatma Gandhi.
His attack on casteism is most noteworthy. The mere accident of birth cannot determine the social position of
a man but should be rather determined in accordance with his qualification, accomplishments and character.
Even a cobbler’s son is competent to steady Vedas and similarly a man born in a Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya or a
Vaiṡya family should be treated as a Shudra if his actions resemble Ṡūdra, the low caste. Mahatma Gandhi
had made a substantial estimate of his character. He says:
“Among the many rich legacies, that Swami Dayananda has left us, his unequivocal pronouncement
against untouchability is undoubtedly one.”
Dayanand’s mission was not to start or set up any new religion but to ask humankind for Universal Brotherhood
through nobility as spelt out in Vedas. For that mission he founded Arya Samaj enunciating the Ten Universal
Principles as a code for Universalism Krinvanto Vishwaryam meaning the whole world be an abode for
Nobles (Aryas).
His next step was to take up the difficult task of reforming Hinduism with dedication despite multiple repeated
attempts on his personal life. He travelled the country challenging religious scholars and priests to discussions
and won repeatedly on the strength of his arguments based on his knowledge of Sanskrit and Vedas. He
believed that Hinduism had been corrupted by divergence from the founding principles of the Vedas and that
Hindus had been misled by the priesthood for the priests’ self-aggrandizement. Hindu priests discouraged the
laity from reading Vedic scriptures and encouraged rituals, such as bathing in the Ganges River and feeding
of priests on anniversaries, which Dayananda pronounced as superstitions or self-serving practices.
Ten Principles of Arya Samaj
1. God is the efficient cause of all true knowledge and all that is known through knowledge.
2. God is existent, intelligent and blissful. He is formless, omniscient, just, merciful, unborn, endless,
unchangeable, beginning-less, unequalled, the support of all, the master of all, omnipresent, immanent,
un-aging, immortal, fearless, eternal and holy, and the maker of all. He alone is worthy of being worshiped.
3. The Vedas are the scriptures of all true knowledge. It is the paramount duty of all Aryas to read them, teach
them, recite them and to hear them being read.
4. One should always be ready to accept truth and to renounce untruth.
5. All acts should be performed in accordance with Dharma that is, after deliberating what is right and
wrong.
6. The prime object of the Arya Samaj is to do good to the world, that is, to promote physical, spiritual and
social good of everyone.
7. Our conduct towards all should be guided by love, righteousness and justice.
8. We should dispel Avidya (ignorance) and promote Vidya (knowledge).
9. No one should be content with promoting his/her good only; on the contrary, one should look for his/her
good in promoting the good of all.
10. One should regard oneself under restriction to follow the rules of society calculated to promote the
wellbeing of all, while in following the rules of individual welfare all should be free.
By exhorting the nation to reject such superstitious notions, his aim was to educate the nation to ‘Go back to
the Vedas’. He wanted the people who followed Hinduism to go back to its roots and to follow the Vedic life,
which he pointed out. He exhorted the Hindu nation to accept social reforms, including the importance of
Cows for national prosperity as well as the adoption of Hindi as the national language for national integration.
Through his daily life and practice of yoga and asanas, teachings, preaching, sermons and writings, he inspired
the nation to aspire to Swarajya (self-governance), nationalism, and spiritualism. He advocated the equal
rights and respects to women and advocated the education of a girl child like the males.

71
Swami Dayanand did logical, scientific and critical analyses of faiths i.e. Christianity & Islam as well as of
other Indian faiths like Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. He also discouraged idolatry in Hinduism, as may
be seen in his book Satyarth Prakash. He was against what he considered to be the corruption of the true and
pure faith in his own country. Unlike many other reform movements of his times within Hinduism, the Arya
Samaj’s appeal was addressed not only to the educated few in India, but to the world as a whole as evidenced
in the sixth principle of the Arya Samaj. In fact his teachings professed universalism for the all living beings
and not for any particular sect, faith, community or nation.
Arya Samaj allows and encourages converts to Hinduism. Dayananda’s concept of dharma is stated in the
“Beliefs and Disbeliefs” section of Satyartha Prakash. He said:
“I accept as Dharma whatever is in full conformity with impartial justice, truthfulness and the like;
that which is not opposed to the teachings of God as embodied in the Vedas. Whatever is not free from
partiality and is unjust, partaking of untruth and the like, and opposed to the teachings of God as embodied
in the Vedas—that I hold as adharma.”
“He, who after careful thinking, is ever ready to accept truth and reject falsehood; who counts the
happiness of others as he does that of his own self, him I call just.”
— Satyarth Prakash
Dayananda’s Vedic message was to emphasize respect and reverence for other human beings, supported by the
Vedic notion of the divine nature of the individual–divine because the body was the temple where the human
essence (soul or “atma”) had the possibility to interface with the creator (“Paramatma”). In his own life, he
interpreted moksha to be a lower calling (due to its benefit to one individual) than the calling to emancipate
others. Dayananda’s “back to the Vedas” message influenced many thinkers and philosophers the world over.
11. Sri Aurobindo Ghose

Sri Aurobindo has been considered one of the foremost philosophers of the 20th Century, but he was far more
than just a philosopher. He was a political activist, a mystic, a spiritual leader, a poet, a yogi and a teacher. Sri
Aurobindo experienced the range of human activity and used that experience to communicate his insight in a
way that we can appreciate and understand.
Sri Aurobindo’s unique contribution to human potential and growth developed through his integration of
Western and Eastern cultures. He brought the energy and vision of the West, with its focus on the perfection of
the physical, material and mental areas of human life together with the spiritual development and philosophical
directions developed over thousands of years in the East.
“The most vital issue of the age is whether the future progress of humanity is to be governed by the modern
economic and materialistic mind of the West or by a nobler pragmatism guided, uplifted and enlightened by
spiritual culture and knowledge....” Sri Aurobindo
Sri Aurobindo’s writings help us reconcile the apparent conflicts of two diverse societies and at the same time
develop a new, wider, embracing viewpoint which vibrates with spiritual force, mental clarity and a heart of
love and compassion for the efforts of humanity.
Ethics, Desire and Karma
It is quite natural for the vital nature of man to desire success, well-being, and vital fulfilment in our lives.
This involves the achievement of pleasure and the avoidance of suffering. This actually acts as the motive
spring or impulsion behind our actions in the vast majority of cases. We have framed our ethical concepts to
incorporate the satisfaction of these impulsions, and thus have created a measure for our ethical framework
that insists on such achievement.
Sri Aurobindo points out, however, that ethics as a conceptual principle can be seen, and should be recognized,
in the absence of specific attainment of desire. In fact, an ethical framework tied to overt or subtle achievement
of pleasure or avoidance of suffering is more in the nature of a bargain than a truly ethical act. “…true ethics
is dharma, the right fulfilment and working of the higher nature, and right action should have right motive,
should be its own justification and not go limping on the crutches of greed and fear. Right done for its own

72
sake is truly ethical and ennobles the growing spirit; right done in the lust for a material reward or from fear
of the avenging stripes of the executioner or sentence of the judge, may be eminently practical and useful for
the moment, but it is not in the least degree ethical, but is rather a lowering of the soul of man; or at least the
principle is a concession to his baser animal and unspiritual nature.”
Human law is tailored to more or less conform to the expectation of desire and mete out punishment for acts
which cause pain and suffering, and reward those who act within the framework or who have been victimized
by acts deemed worthy of punishment.
The law of Karma, as popularly conceived, “…is expected…to deal with man on his own principle and do
this very thing with a much sterner and more inescapable firmness of application and automatic necessity of
consequence.” Thus, we have created the cosmic law in the image of our human law, and turned it, in our
normal view of the matter, into a system of meted out rewards and punishments.
12. Amartya Sen

In his book, The Idea of Justice, Amartya Sen presents an alternative to what he takes to be the dominant
approach toward justice. The dominant approach, which Sen calls “transcendental institutionalism,” has two
features. First, it defends certain principles of justice as an ideal conception of justice by identifying “social
characteristics that cannot be transcended in terms of justice.” Second, it focuses on the basic institutions
of society and is “not directly focused on the actual societies that would ultimately emerge” from those
institutions. The paradigmatic example of such approach is John Rawls’s ‘A Theory of Justice’.
By contrast, Sen’s approach begins with social realizations (with what actually happens or could feasible
emerge) rather than institutional structures and concentrates on evaluative comparisons over distinct social
realizations rather than a unique set of political principles. He calls this the “realization-focused comparison”
approach to justice and describes it as focusing on the “advancement or retreat of justice” rather than a perfect
social order. Indeed, one way to frame the distinction is in terms of their respective questions. The dominant
approach seeks to answer: What is a just society? Sen’s approach answers the question: How might justice
be advanced?
One might think that the two questions are closely related. Rawls thought that ideal theory guides political
action and therefore helps answer the second question. Sen thinks that the identification of a perfectly just
social arrangement is not only “infeasible” but also “redundant” for issues of non-ideal theory. It is infeasible
because impartial critical scrutiny generates plausible rivals to any one ideal conception of justice. It is
redundant because ideal theory is neither necessary nor sufficient for ranking alternative policies that might
advance justice.
Sen proposes that social justice can be advanced by focusing on people’s well-being that should be evaluated
on the basis of their ‘capability to achieve valuable functionings’. This approach is called ‘the capability
approach’ which consists of two distinct notions:
Functionings: refer to the number of ‘doings’ and ‘beings’ that a person manages to achieve in life. Sen
mentions both basic functionings like nutrition, life expectancy, health and education as well as complex
functionings like self-respect, social recognition and political participation.
Capabilities: refer to the extent of freedom that a person has in order to achieve different functionings. When
we look at a fasting monk and a starving poor child, they do fare equally in terms of achieved functioning
since both do not eat. But in terms of capabilities, they are unequal in as much as the monk has the freedom to
choose that state while the child does not have that freedom. The capability approach therefore is a freedom-
centred approach.
The capability approach differs from two other prominent approaches: utilitarianism and liberalism inspired
by the American Philosopher John Rawls.
Having defined utility in terms of pleasure, happiness or desire-fulfilment, one of the chief aims of utilitarianism
is to maximise its overall value in society. Although such thinking today does not form a distinct political
ideology, it exerts considerable influence on public policy decisions: ‘greatest happiness of the greatest (and
perhaps, the socially and politically powerful!) number.’ Many countries in the world seem to follow this

73
crude utilitarian calculus when pursuing developmental projects such as building huge dams, establishing
industries and sometimes even initiating large-scale deforestation. In contrast to utilitarianism, Rawls bases
his philosophy on a set of individual rights:
‘Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot
override’.
His first of the two principles of justice requires that civil and political rights, including freedom of speech
and freedom from torture and arbitrary arrest, be given absolute priority. Rawls, in his second principle tries
to balance the demands of efficiency and justice: while society’s offices and positions should be available to
everyone in an open competition, in order to keep social inequality within manageable proportions special
attention has to be paid to the needs of the worst off in society.
Sen acknowledges Rawls to be a great moral and political philosopher particularly for advocating a non-
utilitarian political philosophy. Yet, Sen thinks Rawls’ theory to be limited from the point of view of human
capabilities: it does not go deep enough to capture human diversity and some blatant inequalities in society.
Human beings differ from one another in a number of ways. There are, first and foremost, differences in
personal characteristics such as health, age, sex and genetic endowments. Human beings also vary from one
another in the types of external environment and social conditions they live in. These different elements of
human diversity crucially affect the ways in which resources such as income and wealth are transformed into
relevant capabilities.
A physically handicapped person, for example, might be in need of more resources to be mobile than an able-
bodied person. Or, increasing the social and political participation of traditionally oppressed groups would
demand efforts more than just providing access to resources; it might require tackling some entrenched social,
economic and political practices and structures. Since Rawls’ theory works with the assumption of a liberal
society with citizens having more or less equal capacities, Sen points out, inequalities and disadvantages
arising from human diversities are either postponed to be settled by legislative or judicial procedures or at the
most relegated as issues falling in the domain of charity.
nn

74
Chapter - 11
Notes on Some Committed Indian Civil Servants
1. Vinod Rai
Rai’s five-year tenure (2008-2013) saw reports on the 2010 Commonwealth Games and allocation of licenses
for 2G telecom spectrum and coal mining blocks have severely dented the UPA government’s image and
provided ammunition to the opposition.
Rai also saw to it that the CAG reports are prepared in a manner which can be understood by the common
man and are made available to the wider public through issue of “Noddy Books”, brief compilations of large
reports.
He said Rai had told his officials to focus on big-ticket expenditure where huge public money was involved
and also encouraged them to improve their professional skills.
Rai, who holds a masters’ degrees in economics and public administration from the Delhi School of Economics
and Harvard respectively, also saw that the CAG also works towards building a team to carry out specialised
audits and possibly enter the area of environmental auditing.
Another step taken by Rai, a 1972-batch, Kerala-cadre officer of the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), was
to improve access of media to his office. He appointed a media advisor in 2010.
Rai’s tenure as CAG has drawn parallels in public perception with that of TN Seshan as Chief Election
Commissioner in the 1990s for ensuring free and fair polls.
2. T. N. Seshan
Is a retired Indian Administrative Service officer, who held several public offices in the Government of India.
He was the 10th Chief Election Commissioner of India from December 12, 1990 to December 11, 1996. He
is widely known for his commitment to and was largely successful in ending electoral malpractices in India.
He was also a cabinet secretary and a member of planning commission.
He reviewed almost 40,000 cases of false returns and disqualified nearly 14,000 potential candidates. In
fact in order to curtail his powers, parliament amended constitution in 1993 and add two more election
commissioners. Voter awareness campaigns were started during his tenure. He enforced the authority of
election commission during the time when people were starting losing their trust in it.
3. Narendra Kumar
IPS Narendra Kumar started his career in Bihar in 2009, and since then he had shown great courage and
commitment towards his work and then he joined office in Morena, Madhya Pradesh. He was famous for his
active work in trying to stop illegally mined stones and spent a large amount of time in fighting the mining
mafia. In 2012, this brave officer was allegedly killed by the members of the same mining mafia at the young
age of 30. When he saw a tractor carrying illegally mined stones, he tried to stop it, and when the driver did
not slow down, he stood in front of it to bring it to a halt. But the driver did not stop and ran over Kumar,
crushing him to death. His wife is an IAS officer in Gwalior.
4. Ajit Doval
Doval is already a known name and is famous for his commendable work during his tenure as an IPS officer
from the batch of 1968. He played an active role in insurgencies operations in Mizoram, Punjab and Kashmir.
He managed to turn militants and persuade them to assist Indian forces against the terrorists. Along with his
exceptional work in these states, he has done a commendable job in the termination of all 15 hijackings of

75
Indian Airlines aircraft from 1971-1999. He also stayed in Pakistan as an undercover agent in a high-risk
assignment. He later joined the intelligence bureau and is currently holding the position of National Security
Advicer to PM Narendra Modi.
5. B. Chandrakala
This feisty District Magistrate of Bulandhshahar is famous for taking tough stands against illegal practices.
She has always spoken against corrupt officers and even got transferred from her earlier posting because she
refused to accept the wrong doings going on. She never hesitates in publicly exposing those people who are
not doing justice to their jobs. Thanks to her intervention, three corrupt contractors were booked, one of them
being the brother of a member of the ruling Samajwadi Party in Uttar Pradesh. Watch her teach negligent civic
officials a lesson here.
6. Rajni Sekhri Sibal

OFTEN you hear about stories of bureaucrats passively becoming a party to politicians’loot for next election. Here
is a contrarian take. This woman IAS officer from Haryana cadre first said a firm “no” to any bribery lure for
changing the results of 3,200 Junior Basic Training (JBT) teachers in 1999-2000. When her transfer order
came, she wrapped the steel almirah with the actual list of results lying inside, with four-metre-long cloth and
bandages, making it impossible for anyone to open the almirah and temper with the list. Insiders say, her small
act of wrapping the almirah was in fact a big step towards spotting a huge scandal. Now, former Haryana chief
minister Om Prakash Chautala, his son Ajay Chautala and 51 others are in Tihar jail facing serious charges of
corruption in what is now known as JBT Recruitment Scam.
According to CBI which has been probing the case, Ms Rajni Sekhri Sibal was asked to change the award list
by then political advisor to Haryana chief minister Sher Singh Badshami in presence of OSD Vidya Dhar, a
promoted IAS officer, and OP Chautala’s son Ajay Chautala. She said “no”, and then recommended compilation
of the results vide her note sheet dated June 20, 2000. She was transferred. During the investigation, Ms Sibal
acted as a witness.
7. Satyendra Dubey
Another name that stands out for commendable dedication and work ethics is Satyendra Dubey. An Indian
Engineering Services officer, he was Project Director in the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) at
Koderma in Jharkhand where he was working on the Golden Quadrilateral Project. He showed extra ordinary
courage in exposing serious financial irregularities and exposed many corrupt practices in the industry. He
also made many contractors rebuild the poor quality roads. He wrote a letter to then PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee
exposing the corruption and financial irregularities in the project. When he wrote the letter he suggested to
keep his identity hidden, as it had several big names involved, but his name was somehow revealed and he pad
to pay the price for that. After a few months, he was shot dead in Gaya, Bihar and the country lost yet another
competent and sincere bureaucrat.
8. Armstrong Pame
Not many know about this exceptional young IAS officer from Manipur. His passion and dedication towards
the betterment of the society was so strong that he built a 100 km long road in a remote hill of Manipur
without the government’s help. People came forward and supported him in large numbers and gave shape
to the “people’s road” which connects the hill to the rest of the state. He used his own savings and turned to
social networking sites to raise funds for the project and is fondly called “miracle man” by the villagers.
9. Shanmugam Manjunath
This brave officer worked as a sales manager for Indian Oil Corporation and worked actively to stop selling
of adulterated fuel. His courageous nature and honesty made him one of the most commendable officers the
country has seen. But he too paid the price for being an honest man, while he was on his way to exposing two
petrol pumps selling adulterated fuel in Lucknow. He ordered to seal them, and when they started working

76
again, he conducted a surprise raid. He was shot dead the same night and his body with six bullets was found
in his own car’s backseat. That was a day the entire country hung its head in shame and despair.
10. Harsh Mander

Many civil servants in India have shown these values of empathy, compassion and tolerance. One example is
Harsh Mander. He resigned from Indian administrative services after the Gujarat riots. Harsh Mander is an
Indian social activist and writer. He heads “Aman Biradari” which works for communal harmony.
Harsh Mander has worked formerly in the Indian Administrative Service in the predominantly tribal states
Madhya Pradesh and Chhatisgarh for almost two decades, mainly as the head of district governments of tribal
districts. He is associated with social causes and movements, such for communal harmony, tribal, dalit, and
disability rights, the right to information, custodial justice, homeless people and bonded labour. He writes
and speaks regularly on issues of social justice. He has written a collection of essays titled Unheard Voices:
Stories of Forgotten Lives published by the Penguin Books (2001) and Fear and Forgiveness: The Aftermath
of Massacre (2009).
11. Shivdeep Waman Lande

This IPS officer of 2006 batch has been constantly in the news for all the good reasons. He has arrested many
criminals, worked towards women safety and took on the pharmaceutical mafia, and under his tenure, the
crime rate of Patna dropped drastically. He took strong action against eve teasers and has been very easily
accessible to the people. It is said that he receives hundreds of messages everyday and he makes sure that
each message is attended to. He played an important role in eliminating illegal wine shops in his jurisdiction.
When he was transferred to Araria from Patna, many people turned to the streets and held candle light protests
against the government’s decision. He allegedly donates 70 percent of his salary to social causes which
include marriages of poor girls and building hostels for poor students.
12. U. Sagayam
This civil servant from Tamil Nadu has been transferred around 20 times in the 20 years of his service. He
is famous for fighting against corruption wherever he goes. He was also the first IAS officer to make his
assets public. His extensive research on illegal granite-mining in Madurai led to charges against many known
politicians and businessmen. He also confiscated over 5,000 subsidized gas cylinders intended for domestic
use which were being illegally used by restaurants. He investigated and raised his voice against vote-buying.
When he was transferred from the post of Madurai Collector to the post of MD of Co-optex, many people
came out and protested against the government decision.
13. V. V. Lakshminarayana
Lakshminarayana is the quintessential common man who often takes the bus to work. He stayed humble
but worked on some of the most talked about cases and exposed many corrupt officers. He became the Joint
Director of Central Bureau of Investigation and handled over 19 high profile cases including the Satyam
scandal, Gali Janardhana Reddy’s illegal mining case of Obulapuram Mining Company, Y. S. Jaganmohan
Reddy ‘s disproportinate assets case and Sohrabuddin Sheikh’s fake encounter case. He is also known for
arresting Jagan Mohan Reddy and giving amazing, high impact speeches.
14. S.R. Sankaran

This former IAS officer was commonly known as “an ideal people’s IAS officer”. He played a crucial role in
creating pro-poor policies and was the man behind the abolition of bonded labour, the creation of the special
component plan for SCs & STs and the assigning of resources for marginalised communities in the rural
development programmes. He remained unmarried so that he could serve the society and also contributed to
the education of over 500 poor students. He died due to illness in 2010 but he will always be remembered as
a “people’s man”.

77
15. Ashok Khemka
Ashok Khemka is another IAS officer made famous due to their proactive approach to take upon corruption.
Originally from Kolkata, Mr Khemka is an IITian who joined the Haryana cadre as an IAS officer in 1991.
He is most popularly known for exposing the irregularities in the land deal worth Rs 57 crore between the
real estate giant DLF group and Sonia Gandhi’s son in law, Robert Vadra. Prior to this, he had also unearthed
a scam in Haryana Seed Development Corporation, where the corporation was being sold seeds at inflated
prices. As a reward for his good work, Mr Khemka has been awarded 45 transfers in his 23 years of service.
Recently, two chargesheets have also been filed against him for failing his responsibilities as the Haryana
Seed Development Corporation.
16. Aruna Sundararajan

Aruna Sundararajan Kerala cadre IAS officer was described by Forbes magazine as ‘an IAS officer who thinks
like a businesswoman’. As IT secretary she played a significant role in the development of e-governance
in Kerala. She also headed the Kudumbashree project, today which is a shining example of women’s
empowerment, creating sustainable employment prospects for working class women. Aruna Sundararajan
is now head of the Universal Service Obligation Fund delegated with growing the telecom penetration in all
parts of the country.
17. Dr Samit Sharma

IAS Officer Dr Samit Sharmaan IAS officer began his pioneering work in a generic medicine project long
before when the Aamir Khan’s show Satyameva Jayate made the whole country notice him.
Before joining IAS, he was the Managing Director of the Rajasthan Medical Services Corporation as a
practising paediatrician in the state. His life’s work has been to make available affordable health care mostly
generic drugs to every Indian.
18. Pratyaya Amrit

IAS Officer Pratyaya Amrit, now the Chairman and Managing Director of the Bihar State Power Holding
Co. Ltd as well as state’s Energy Secretary also is known for his ‘get it done and now’ approach and his
thoroughgoingness when it comes to redressing complaints or continuing safety and hygiene in power
stations.He built bridges and roads and is one of the main draughtsmen of Bihar’s change story.
19. Smitha Sabharwal

A 2001 cadre IAS officer, she, as Municipal Commissioner of Warangal, launched a determined ‘Fund Your
City’ scheme to make available the town with parks, traffic intersections and pedestrian pathways that are
managed through public-private partnerships.
As a collector of Karimnagar she brought about notable developments, and it was named ‘Best District’ under
the PM’s 20-Point Programme for 2012-2013. As Medak district collector she guaranteed fair polling in last
year’s general elections.
20. Poonam Malakondaiah

This 1988 batch officer is widely known as an honest, no-nonsense officer. She may keep a low profile, but
politicians and other commanding petitioners have found that she is not one to bend to their notions. She has
worked in education, social welfare, transport and civil supplies, leaving her name of efficiency and doing the
best for the people in every department. Most oddly, she took on Monsanto, creating it to put farmer welfare
chiefly.
21. Krishna Gopal Tiwari

This IAS officer sets a model and provides motivation to thousands of the country’s differently-abled. Krishna
Gopal Tiwari is India’s first visually challenged collector and now the District Collector of Umaria in Madhya

78
Pradesh. He doesn’t believe being differently-abled is a barrier and even goes to construction sites where he
tests work in progress with the use of an iron rod.
22. Sanjiv Chaturvedi

Sanjiv Chaturvedi, an Indian Forest Service (IFS) officer, has been transferred 12 times between 2005 – 10,
in the aftermath of his campaign to expose the corruption in Haryana’s forest department. In 2009, as the
Divisional Forest Officer of Jhajjar, Haryana, he blew the lid off a multi-crore plantation scam where the funds
from the state government and international agencies were being siphoned off for imaginary plantations. After
taking charge as the Chief Vigilance Officer (CVO) at AIIMS, Delhi, he filed around 200 cases of corruption
against doctors, pharmacies etc. resulting in his removal from the post by the government in 2014.
Sanjiv is a 2002 batch IFS officer. He was given the Manjunath Shanmugam Integrity Award (2009), for his
work in Haryana and the S R Jindal Prize in 2011 for “Crusade against Corruption” for his campaigns to
expose corruption in high places.
23. Rashmi V Mahesh

1996 batch IAS officer IAS Rashmi Mahesh has been transferred 20 times in 18 years! After taking charge
as the executive director of the Karnataka Education Authority (KEA) in 2011, she stepped on the toes
of the medical and engineering college lobbies by putting a stop to seat blocking and irregularities in seat
distribution. She gave many a college management panels a run for their money as she completely stopped
the misuse of government seats. She was later shifted to the Department of Medical Education (Health &
Family Welfare, Bangalore) as Secretary, where she continued her battle against the unethical dealings of
private institutes.In October 2014 she was attacked by an angry mob after she exposed a multi-crore scam in
the Administrative Training Institute (ATI), Mysore where she was posted as the Director General.
24. Om Prakash Chaudhary, IAS (Chhattisgarh)

At 30, OP Chaudhary was posted at the Maoist hotbed, Dantewada, which had a literacy rate of 42 per
cent. Soon he started an initiative called Choo Lo Aasmaan, where the brightest students were taught by
teachers from Kota, the mecca of engineering and medical coaching. He intends to transform Dantewada
into an education hub at par with international standards. Under another initiative called Tamanna, he set up
a science museum, district library, and a state-of-the-art audio-visual theatre. Chaudhary was given the Prime
Minister’s award for excellence in public administration for the year 2011-12.
25. Sanjukta Parashar, IPS (Assam)

Imagine all the badass police officers from Bollywood, Sanjukta Parashar is tenfold better than them. Because
when she is on field, there are no retakes. Bodo militants, known throughout the region for their barbaric
torture tactics are said to fear this officer. This mother of two frequently leads CRPF jawans through terrains
of Sonitpur district of Assam that are affected by insurgency and have even handled ethnic clashes. Not only
a cop, she has also spent considerable time at relief camps.
nn

79
Unit - 2
Attitudes
H
uman life, in fact, is connected by thousands of invisible threads. The places that people live, the
situations they meet are all continuously and consistently shape them as well as get shaped by them.
The situations an individual meet creates a good number of possibilities for him to behave. Social
psychology is a specific branch in psychology (scientific study of mental functions and behaviours) that
scientifically tries to understand how people influence as well as gets influenced by one another. It is a
systematic body of knowledge focusing on the social thinking, social influence and social relations.
A fundamental theme of social psychology is to discover how a social situation leads very different people to act
very similarly. As well as how very similar people act very differently. For example, during a cricket match, people
from different backgrounds come together and cheer for the same team. On other hand, two children from the same
family may take different streams like commerce and science to pursue their higher education.
Social psychologists are primarily, interested in understanding the many factors and conditions that shape
the social behaviour and thought of individuals. Mainly, how individuals form ideas relating to the actions,
feelings, beliefs, memories and inferences concerning other persons. A huge number of different factors play
a role in this regard. The factors affecting social interaction fall into five major categories. They are,
1. The actions and characteristics of others 2. basic cognitive processes 3. ecological variables
4. cultural context 5. biological factors
Some of the major topics that social psychologists investigate in their research are given below:
1. Social Cognition : Concerned with the processing, storage and application of social information.
2. Attitudes and Attitude Change : Another major research area in social psychology involves the study
of attitudes. Social psychologists are interested in the components of attitudes, how attitudes develop and
how attitudes change.
3. Violence and Aggression: What causes violence and aggression? Social psychologists are interested in
how and why people engage in violence or act aggressively.
4. Pro-social Behaviour : Pro-social behaviours are those that involve helping and cooperating. Researchers
often look at why people help others, as well as why they sometimes refuse to help or cooperate. The
bystander effect (individuals do not offer any means of help to a victim when other people are present) is
an example of a social phenomenon in the subject area.
5. Prejudice and Discrimination: Prejudice, discrimination and stereotypes exist in any social group.
Social psychologists are interested in the origins, causes and effects of these types of attitudes and social
categorizations. How does prejudice develop? Why are stereotypes maintained in the face of contrary
evidence? These are just a few of the questions social psychologists seek to answer.
6. Group Behaviour : Most people realize that groups tend to behave differently than individuals. These
group behaviours are sometimes beneficial and positive, but they can also be detrimental and negative.
Social psychologists often look at topics such as group dynamics, leadership, group decision-making, conflicts,
cooperation and group influence. Social psychologists are also interested in the role that social influence has on
behaviour and decision-making. Topics such as the psychology of persuasion, peer pressure, conformity and
obedience are just a few of those studied in this area of social psychology. Research has helped reveal the
power of social influence and has uncovered ways to help people resist influence.
7. Social relationships: play a major role in shaping behaviour, attitudes, feelings and thoughts. Social
psychologists study how these interpersonal relationships affect people by looking at attachment, liking,
love and attraction. How do close relationships affect individuals? How important are these interpersonal
relationships? These are just a few of the questions social psychologists seek to explain.
Among the above areas of interest, attitudes have long been considered a central concept of social psychology.
In fact, early writers have defined social psychology as the scientific study of attitudes. Social psychologists
are interested in the components of attitudes, how attitudes develop change. nn

80
Chapter - 1
Concept of Attitude
H
ave you noticed that whenever we meet someone we tend to evaluate him or her? You may think
of your friend as trustworthy, caring and helpful and hence have a positive and favourable feeling
towards him/her. On the other hand you may consider your neighbour to be loud who tend to interfere
in your family’s activities. You are likely to have a negative or unfavourable feeling toward such a person.
Similarly, our family, grandparents, neighbours, friends, political leaders and others communicate their
attitudes and beliefs towards us.
We need to understand ourselves and others and evaluate the social world we live in. Also, when we come
across a new experience, we evaluate it to form long-term reactions that then govern the way we perceive that
object again. Attitudes are these lasting evaluations that people make of the world around them. Our attitudes
and beliefs help to understand ourselves and the people who live around us.
Attitude has been defined in different ways by different scholars and psychologists. Some of its definitions
showcasing different characteristics of attitude are:
●● “Attitude is a ‘readiness of the psyche to act or react in a certain way’’ (Jung, 1921)
●● ‘‘an attitude is a complex tendency of the person to respond consistently in a favourable or an unfavourable
way to social objects in the environment’’ (Proshansky and Seidenberg, 1965)
●● “An attitude is a predisposition to act in a certain way towards some aspect of one’s environment, including
other people.” (Mednick et al 1975)
●● “Attitudes are likes and dislikes” (Bem 1979)
●● An attitude is ‘‘a relatively enduring organization of beliefs, feelings, and behavioural tendencies towards
socially significant objects, groups, events or symbols’’ (Hogg & Vaughan, 2005)
From the above definitions, one can view attitude as a predisposition to act, think and feel in particular ways
toward a class of people, objects, or an idea. It is a positive or negative evaluation of people, objects, event,
ideas or just about anything in your environment. Attitudes are about things. There is an object involved
about which we feel, think and behave in certain ways. An attitude object does not have to be an object in the
concrete sense of things that can be touched. You can have an attitude about fox hunting or a piece of music
as well as about any organisation like BCCI, World Bank or United Nations.
We communicate our attitudes in the form of statements such as:
●● I like mangoes
●● I enjoy classical music or
●● I do not enjoy rock music
When we use words such as ‘like’, ‘dislike’, ‘love’, ‘hate’, ‘good’ and ‘bad’ we are describing our attitude
towards objects, people or issues. Different people can have different Political attitudes; attitudes about
smoking, jogging, and other activities.
Types of Attitudes: Attitudes are either positive, negative or neutral in nature.
1. Example of positive attitudes:
●● There is something good in every situation.
●● A problem is an opportunity to do something different.
●● Change is a sign of growth
●● A mistake is a valuable step towards success.
2. Example of negative attitudes:
●● There is always something wrong
●● Other people cause problems.
●● A mistake is a failure
●● I have little or no control over my life.
3. Example of neutral attitudes:
●● the situation or the other person is unimportant

81
●● someone else will solve the problem
●● change is unnecessary
●● The future will come and go with or without me.
Significance of a Positive Attitude in the Workplace

A positive attitude has significant benefits for an individual in many aspects. Let’s look at some of them below.
1. Career success: Employees’ success in the workplace is measured through their performance. Employees
with a positive attitude will always think of ways to accomplishing their task in a well defined manner instead
of complaining or finding excuses for non-performance. This results in success either through promotion or
increased compensation.
2. Productivity: With a positive attitude, employees tend to take more interest in what they do and deliver.
Consequently, they produce better quality work with minimum errors. This improves their overall output as well
as productivity.
3. Leadership: Working in an organization is all about managing a diverse workforce. Some employees earn respect
easily and people often follow and listen to them. This is possible through the positive attitude demonstrated by
leaders.
4. Team work: Good relationships among employees help them to build effective teams where all the members are
united and work for a common cause. A positive attitude helps employees to appreciate each other’s competencies
and work as a team for achieving common objectives instead of being overly perturbed by inadequacies of team
members.
5. Decision making: Having a positive attitude helps employees to take better decisions, in an objective manner. It
triggers a healthy thought process, enabling employees to choose wisely and logically.
6. Motivation: Having a positive attitude helps in motivating employees to overcome obstacles that they may face
during the course of their job. It also determines the way they see the world around them. The moment they are
successful in overcoming obstacles, they are motivated to move forward.
7. Interpersonal relations: Customers prefer to deal with someone who is positive in nature. A positive attitude
enables employees to share a better rapport with customers, earning valuable customer loyalty.
8. Stress management: Stress has a detrimental effect on the health of employees. So how can employees cope
with it? Stress can be reduced through positive thinking; and with reduced stress, employees will enjoy better
health and take fewer sick leaves.
Thus, a positive attitude at work is beneficial not only to the organization, but also to the employees on an individual
basis.
List of Attitudes: In the broader sense of the word there are only three attitudes, a positive attitude, a negative
attitude, and a neutral attitude. But in general sense, an attitude is what it is expressed through. Given below is
a list of attitudes that are expressed by people, and are more than personality traits which you may have heard
of, know of, or might be even carrying them:
●● Confidence l Seriousness l Optimism l Pessimism
●● Independent l Jealous l Courteous l Cooperative
●● Considerate l Gratitude l Cheerful l Inferiority
●● Frankness l Respectful l Authority l Sincerity
●● Persistent l Honest l Sincere l Sympathetic
●● Responsible l Realistic l Faithful l Flexible
●● Decisive l Trusting l Thoughtful l Determined
●● Loving l Satisfaction l Hostile l Generous
●● Modest l Reliable l Tolerant l Humble
●● Cautious l Suspicious l Sarcasm
These were some of the attitudes that you may confuse with personality traits as there is a very thin line
between the two. Personality traits are more rigid and permanent whereas attitudes may change with different
situations and experiences in life. Personality traits are what humans are endowed with whereas attitudes are
learned and acquired. In simple words, attitudes are judgments or conclusions that we draw about certain
phenomena in life including our own self.

82
Beliefs, Values and Attitudes: There is considerable overlap in
semantics of beliefs, values and attitudes; however, these are distinct
constructs as shown in the diagram. Difference between Values and
Attitudes:
●● Values are belief systems that guide our behaviour
●● Values decide what we think is desirable or undesirable; right or
wrong; good or unjust
●● Attitudes are our likes and dislikes towards things, people and
objects
●● Attitudes are responses that are a result of our values
●● The cognitive component of attitudes is similar to values as both
involve beliefs
●● Values are more or less permanent while attitudes are a result of our
experiences and do change with favourable experiences
●● Manifestation of values is seen in the shape of our attitudes
nn

83
Chapter - 2
Content of Attitude
Consider the following list:
●● Amitabh Bachchan l Arvind kejriwal
●● AIDS l Kapil Sharma
●● Sports Utility Vehicle (SUV)
Do you have any reaction to each of them? Unless you
have been living a life of total isolation, you probably do.
You may like or dislike Amitabh Bachchan, believe that
Arvind Kejriwal would or would not become a good chief
minister, be worried or unconcerned about AIDS, find Kapil
Sharma funny or not funny or like or dislike a Sports Utility
Vehicle. Such reactions called attitudes, generally involve an
emotional or affective component (like or dislike), a cognitive
component (beliefs) and a behavioural component (buying an
SUV or voting for AAP).
The most influential model of attitude has been the multi-component model which perceives attitudes as
summary evaluations of an object that has Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioural components. These three
components, thinking, feeling and behaving, come together and we form an attitude towards a person or an object
Cognitive component: The cognitive component of attitudes refers to the beliefs, ideas, thoughts, and
attributes we associate with an object. In many cases, a person’s attitude might be based primarily upon the
positive and negative attributes they associate with an object. For example,
●● A person has recently bought a car. He devoted considerable attention to different vehicles’ safety records,
gas mileage, and repair costs. In this example, attitudes toward the different cars were formed through a
methodical consideration of the positive and negative characteristics of each car.
●● Similarly, an individual’s favourable attitude toward a particular politician might be based on the belief
that the politician is charismatic, intelligent, and has economic policies that promote social equality.
When a human being is the object of an attitude, the cognitive component is frequently a
stereotype, e.g. “subsidy recipients are lazy”. A stereotype is a thought that can be adopted about
specific types of individuals or certain ways of doing things. These thoughts or beliefs may or
may not accurately reflect reality. Like a person may believe that people belonging to a particular
caste are bad since he was cheated by a man from the same caste only. But it doesn’t mean
that all people of that caste are bad. Such faulty beliefs can often lead to problems like communalism,
regionalism, casteism etc.
Affective Component: The affective component of attitudes refers to feelings or emotions linked to an
attitude object. Affective responses influence attitudes in a number of ways. A primary way in which feelings
shape attitudes is through feelings that are aroused in response to an attitude object.
For instance, many people indicate that snakes make them feel scared. This negative affective response is
likely to cause a negative attitude toward snakes.
Dominance of affective component may lead to prejudiced actions taken by individuals. Prejudice is
prejudgment, or forming an opinion before becoming aware of the relevant facts of a case. The word is often
used to refer to preconceived, usually unfavourable, judgments toward people or a person because of gender,
political opinion, social class, age, disability, religion, sexuality, race/ethnicity, language, nationality or other
personal characteristics. Violence against people from Africa, isolation of students from north-east India are
few examples of prejudice.

84
Behavioural component: The behavioural component of attitudes refers to past behaviours or experiences
regarding an attitude object. For instance, people might guess that they must have a negative attitude toward
factory farming, if they remember having signed a petition against the unethical treatment of animals.
It is the tendency or disposition to act in certain ways toward something. Like a person might want to keep
welfare recipients out of his neighbourhood. Emphasis is on the tendency to act, not the actual acting; what
we intend and what we do may be quite different. Behaviour based on stereotypes and prejudice often lead
to unfair discrimination on illogical grounds. Attacks on Indians in Australia, detention of Shahrukh Khan ot
US airport are some other examples.
Relation between CAB components
These components of CAB model have a “synergistic” relation. When an individual possesses positive beliefs
about an attitude object, they typically have positive affective and behavioural associations with the object.
But this is not true in all cases. A person may have positive emotions towards a cholate cake, but his beliefs
about it may not be positive. Like cake is not good for health.
Further, people differ in the degree to which their attitudes are based on each of the CAB components. For
example, you have been shown a series of television advertisements featuring professional athletes extolling
the virtues of a particular brand of soft drinks. While some of the athletes noted that the soft drink was less
filling than other soft drinks, others said that it tasted great. The first component of the message highlighted a
positive attribute about the beverage (i.e., its low caloric intake), whereas the second component highlighted
a positive affective response associated with the beverage (i.e., its taste). Which part of the message would
you find more persuasive?
Perhaps it depends on whether your attitudes tend to be based more upon the content of your beliefs or
more upon the content of your feelings. It has been showed through many studies that indeed some people
(let’s call them thinkers) based their attitudes much more upon the favourability of their beliefs than the
favourability of their feelings, while other people (let’s call them feelers) based their attitudes much more
upon the favourability of their feelings than the favourability of their beliefs.
Strategies and Techniques to Tackle Prejudice at Different Places

Note: This topic is important for writing practical steps in case studies section.
No one is born prejudiced! Prejudice is learned and can be unlearned. Prejudices are attitudes rooted in
ignorance and a fear of differences. Whether the seeds are planted around the dinner table, on the playing field
or in the boardroom, they can grow out of control.
Even worse, when not uprooted, prejudices get passed on from one generation to the next and can fuel
discrimination, victimization, bigotry and hate. With awareness, education and action, we can weed them out.
How to Build a Prejudice-Free environment in family environment?
1. Celebrate holidays with extended family. Use such opportunities to encourage storytelling and share
personal experiences across generations.
2. Invite friends from backgrounds different from your own to experience the joy of your traditions and
customs.
3. Be mindful of your language; avoid stereotypical remarks and challenge those made by others.
4. Speak out against jokes and slurs that target people or groups. Silence sends a message that you are in
agreement. It is not enough to refuse to laugh.
5. Plan family outings to diverse neighborhoods in and around your community and visit local museums,
galleries and exhibits that celebrate art forms of different cultures.
6. Visit important landmarks in your area associated with the struggle for human and civil rights such as
museums, public libraries and historical sites.
7. Read and encourage your children to read books that promote understanding of different cultures as well
as those that are written by authors of diverse backgrounds.

85
Building a Prejudice-Free Zone in School
1. Recite a pledge against prejudice created by your student body, at a school-wide assembly. Display a
poster-size version of the pledge in a prominent area of your school and encourage people to sign it.
2. Establish a Diversity Club that serves as an umbrella organization to promote harmony and respect for
differences.
3. Initiate classroom discussions of terms such as anti-Semitism, racism, sexism, homophobia and bias.
Then compose a list of definitions and post it in a prominent place.
4. Invite a motivational speaker who is a recognized civil or human rights leader to address an all-school
assembly.
5. Organize an essay contest whose theme is either a personal experience with prejudice or a success story
in the fight against it.
6. Create an anti-prejudice slogan for your school that could be printed as a bumper sticker and sold in the
wider community to raise funds for these efforts.
7. Form a student-faculty committee to write “Rules of Respect” for your school and display the finished set
of rules in every classroom.
8. Invite your district collector, police chief or a representative from the state government to speak to your
school about civil rights, hate crimes and other legal aspects of the fight against prejudice.
9. Designate a wall space on or near school grounds where graffiti with a harmonious and unifying message
can be written, drawn or painted.
10. Meet with food services at your school to discuss the possibility of featuring ethnic cuisines on a regular
basis.
11. Advocate for the production of school plays that are sensitive to multiculturalism and incorporate a variety
of roles and perspectives representing a diverse cast, audience and story.
12. Ensure that musical selections of school bands and choruses are culturally diverse
Building a Prejudice-Free Zone at Workplace
1. Make respect for diversity a core value in your company and articulate it as such in the company’s
handbook/employee manual
2. Create an environment conducive to the exploration of diversity
3. Learn about co-workers’ backgrounds and share your own. Ask questions that invite explanation and
answer with the same.
4. Create a display area where employees can post notices of events and activities happening in their
communities.
5. Publish and distribute to all staff a list of ethnic and/or religious holidays and the meaning of the customs
associated with celebrating them.
6. Provide opportunities to attend local cultural events and exhibits.
Building a Prejudice-Free Zone in Your Place of Worship
1. Urge your leaders to use the pulpit to condemn all forms of bigotry.
2. Encourage friends of other faiths to visit your religious services and share your religious knowledge with
them.
3. Invite clergy representing religions different from your own to participate in services and deliver the
sermon.
4. Turn one bulletin board into a display space where newspaper/magazine clippings depicting current
events related to anti-Semitism and other forms of religious persecution, or human rights violations, can
be posted for all to read.
Building a Prejudice-Free Zone In Your Community
1. Establish a Human Rights Commission and a Community Watch Group in your city/town.
2. Organize a local multicultural committee that serves as an umbrella organization for groups which raise

86
awareness about prejudice and provide support for cultural events, holiday programs or community efforts
that promote intergroup harmony
3. Petition government officials to issue a proclamation making your city/town a prejudice-free zone.
4. Plan a community-wide “Walk/Run Against Hate” in which sponsored participants would donate all
monies pledged to an anti-bias or other human rights organization.
5. Become aware of your city/town’s demographics and compare it to others around the state to better
understand the diversity in your community.
6. Hold a city-wide Human Rights Day.
7. Suggest to your local newspaper that it devote a corner of the editorial page each month to at least one
opinion piece relating to anti-prejudice and pro-diversity themes.
nn

87
Chapter - 3
Structure of Attitude
I
n addition to considering the content of attitudes, another important issue concerns how positive and
negative evaluations are organized within and among the cognitive, affective, and behavioural components
of attitudes.
As we have discussed, the three components, thinking, feeling and behaving, come together and we form an
attitude towards a person or an object. However, at times these components may be inconsistent. Thus you
may hold a positive attitude towards a neighbour – he is intelligent and hardworking (positive qualities) – but
you may not like his/her manners. Or you may not like your neighbour but you may still help him/her when
the situation demands. Both the possibilities are likely to occur. Normally if you hold a strong attitude, all the
three components of attitude remain consistent and do not contradict each other. For example, if a well-known
cricketer, like Sachin Tendulkar, is visiting your neighbourhood and you are extremely fond (feeling) of
playing and watching cricket, then you will actively plan (thinking process), and visit the venue (behaviour).
Or, you may find Sachin Tendulkar to be an excellent cricket player (thinking part), yet are not a keen player
yourself nor do you watch the game of cricket regularly (low liking emotional experience) and hence may
decide not to put in the effort to meet him (low probability of behaviour).
Another example can be taken in this regard. Suppose you have 10 evaluations about an attitude object (let’s
say civil services exam).
Positive evaluations Negative evaluations Attitude power

8 2 Strong positive
6 4 Weak positive
5 5 Ambivalence
4 6 Weak negative
2 8 Strong negative
3 3 Neutral (in this case, number of positive and negative
evaluations is equal but less, so the person will be
able to remain neutral towards the object)
Attitude power will depend on how the evaluations have been arranged and will also impact the effect of
attitude on behaviour.
Functions of Attitude
Individuals hold attitudes for a variety of reasons. For example, an individual’s affinity for the Indian
hockey team might have developed from his relatives and friends supporting the team. In contrast, his
attitude toward abortion might be based on the value he place on an individual’s freedom of choice or the
sanctity of life. In his research, Daniel Katz (1960) proposed that every attitude serves at least one of four
functions:
1. Knowledge: The knowledge function represents the ability of attitudes to organize information about
attitude objects. The attitude helps us to understand the otherwise overwhelming amount of information
in the world. They are short-cuts, helping us to simplify our perceptions of the world so that it becomes
more manageable, predictable and safer.
Attitudes provide meaning (knowledge) for life. The knowledge function refers to our need for a world
which is consistent and relatively stable. This allows us to predict what is likely to happen, and so gives

88
us a sense of control. Attitudes can help us organize and structure our experience. Knowing that a person
is religious, we can predict that he will go to Church or temple.
2. Utility: the utilitarian function exists in attitudes that maximize rewards and minimize punishments
obtained from attitude objects. If a person holds and/or expresses socially acceptable attitudes, other
people will reward them with approval and social acceptance. For example, when people flatter their
bosses or instructors (and believe it) or keep silent if they think an attitude is unpopular. Again, expression
can be nonverbal (politician kissing baby) in expression. Attitudes then are to do with being a part of a
social group and the adaptive functions helps us fit in with a social group. People seek out others who
share their attitudes, and develop similar attitudes to those they like.
3. Ego-defence: Katz’s ego-defensive function exists in attitudes that serve to protect an individual’s self-
esteem, and is similar to Smith et al.’s (1956) externalization function. The ego-defensive function refers
to holding attitudes that protect our self-esteem or that justify actions that make us feel guilty. Attitudes
help to protect us from ourselves and from others, to explain why we’ve done something that could be
seen as undesirable.
For example, one way children might defend themselves against the feelings of humiliation they have
experienced in P.E. lessons is to adopt a strongly negative attitude to all sport. People whose pride has
suffered following a defeat in sport might similarly adopt a defensive attitude: ‘‘I’m not bothered, I’m sick of
rugby anyway.... This function has psychiatric overtones. Positive attitudes towards ourselves, for example,
have a protective function (i.e. an ego-defensive role) in helping us reserve our self-image.
4. Value-expression: Katz proposed that attitudes may serve a value-expressive function, such that an
attitude may express an individual’s self-concept and central values. For example, a person might cycle
to work because she values health and wishes to preserve the environment. Attitudes help us to relate to
ourselves and to others, presenting a fairly unified image which help to establish our identity for both
ourselves and for others. The attitudes we express
●● Help communicate who we are and
●● May make us feel good because we have asserted our identity.
Self-expression of attitudes can also be non-verbal in nature. For example, bumper sticker, cap, or T-shirt
slogan can convey our attitude towards different objects. Therefore, our attitudes are part of our identity and
help us to be aware through expression of our feelings, beliefs and values. For example, some people value
equality while others may value freedom or compassion. Mahatma Gandhi’s attitude towards honesty and
Mother Teresa’s concern for the poor and needy is well known.
nn

89
Chapter - 4
Influence of Attitude and Its Relation
with Thought and Behaviour
F
rom the above discussion, one can intuitively assume that attitudes play an important role in choosing
how to behave in a given situation. We come across many examples in our daily life of how attitudes
can shape behaviours. The Three-component model (The ABC model) implies that the behavioural
component will be highly correlated with the cognitive and affective components.
However, studies as well as general observations have shown that the relationship between attitude and
behaviour is rather complex. It is often difficult to predict one’s attitude from his or her behaviour and vice
versa.
Consider each of the following statements. Do you believe these statements to be true or false?
●● College students who disapprove of cheating do not cheat on tests; it is only the students who view
“cheating as acceptable who do cheat.
●● People who state that they want to remain fit often go to gym and exercise.
●● People who are worried about global warming do not drive a big car which consumes petrol by the gallons!
●● How well people like their jobs is predictive of people’s job attendance. Those like their jobs are less,
likely to miss a day of work.
●● Regardless of whether an employer makes a snap judgment or deliberates extensively about a hiring
decision, if the employer has a negative attitude toward working women, a female candidate will not be
hired.
All of these common-sense statements assume that people’s attitudes influence their actions and decisions. In
fact, as we will see in this discussion, none of these five statements is correct. The basic finding of decades of
research is that sometimes people act in accordance with their attitudes, and other times they act in ways that
are quite inconsistent with their attitudes.
Here we address two fundamental questions influence behaviour?
1. First, is there a relation? That is, do attitudes influence behaviour?
2. Second, when is such a relation to be expected? In other words, what variables determine the degree to
which attitudes might influence behaviour? To the extent that attitudes do predict behaviour, this question
concerns the identification of other factors that play a role in this relationship.
1. Relation between Attitudes and Behaviour

There have been many studies and observations which shows multiple results regarding attitude-behaviour
link.
●● LaPiere study: Beginning in 1930 and for the next two years, LaPiere travelled around the USA with
a Chinese couple (a young student and his wife), expecting “to encounter anti-Orientals attitudes which
would make it difficult for them to find accommodation. But in the course of 10,000 miles of travel,
they were discriminated against only once and there appeared to be no prejudice. They were given
accommodation in 66 hotels, auto-camps and Tourist Homes’ and refused at only one. They were also
served in 184 restaurants and treated with’.... more than ordinary consideration ...’in 72 of them.
However, when each of the 251 establishments visited was sent a letter six months later asking: ‘Will you
accept members of the Chinese race as guests in your establishment?’ 91 per cent of the 128 which responded
gave an emphatic ‘No’. One establishment gave an unqualified ‘Yes’ and the rest said ‘undecided: depends
upon circumstances’.
The study showed that people say one thing but do not necessarily follow it up with appropriate behaviours.

90
●● Study on cheating behaviour: In another study, Corey (1937) examined the relationship between
students’ attitudes toward cheating and their actual cheating behaviour. The students took a series of true/
false examinations, which they self-scored at a later class meeting. The students did not know, however,
that the instructor had scored the exams during the interim period. Thus, the difference between the scores
the students assigned to themselves and the scores that the instructor assigned served as - the measure of
students cheating behaviour. The correlation between the students toward cheating, and actual cheating,
was essentially zero. Attitudes toward cheating in the least bit predict the actual cheating behaviour.
Instead, cheating was related performance; the more poorly students had done on the exam, the more
likely students were to cheat in scoring the exam.
●● In place like Mumbai, certain members of particular community of society are turned away from
accommodations or sale of property by another and vice versa. This shows that, prejudice exists to a real
dangerous level and a simple event may trigger problems.
●● A voter is highly against, corruption and he hates corrupt people, but during election he votes for a very
corrupt person who belongs to his community. Here, his attitude towards the corruption has been washed
away by another attitude. Here two attitudes competed and one won.
Thus, the answer to the question, “Is there a relation between attitude and behaviour?” is a resounding
``sometimes.’’ we have seen that relation between the attitude and behaviour is rather not so simple. It’
generally agreed that attitudes form only one determinant of behaviour. They represent Predispositions to
behave in particular ways but how we actually act in a particular situation will depend on the immediate
consequences of our behaviour, how we think others will evaluate our actions, and habitual ways of behaving
in those kinds of situations. In addition, there may be specific situational factors influencing behaviour.
Given the range of findings, it becomes apparent that the question of attitude-behaviour consistency has to be
approached differently. Rather than asking whether attitudes relate to behaviour, we have to ask ``Under what
conditions do what kinds of attitudes of what kinds of individuals predict what kinds of behaviour?”
2. When Do Attitudes Guide Behaviour?

This question calls for identifying factors that determine whether the relation between attitudes and behaviour
will be relatively strong or weak:
1. Qualities of the Person
Some kinds of people typically display greater attitude-behaviour consistency than do others. In general, two
classes of individuals have been considered:
●● those who are aware of and guided by their internal feelings
●● those who tend to rely heavily on cues in the situation to decide how to behave
In general, people who are aware of their feelings display greater attitude-behaviour consistency than those
people who rely on situational cues.
Obviously, this is a very rough distinction. Any given behaviour of an individual can be guided both by the
individual’s internal feelings and by external cues. Yet a number of personality scales have been developed and
used successfully to assess whether a given person tends to rely more heavily on one type of cue or the other.
Level of moral reasoning has been found to affect the relation between attitudes and behaviour. People with high
level of integrity show higher relation between their attitudes and behaviour. More advanced moral reasoning
is characterized by principled, morally responsible thought based on people’s own general principles of moral
action. Lower levels of reasoning focus on the general positive or negative consequences of a particular action
or on a feeling of being bound by social or legal rules. Individuals who depend on their own feelings and
principles to make moral judgments act much more consistently with their attitudes toward moral issues than
the people who rely on external standards to determine what is moral.
The personality dimension that has received the greatest attention in the context of the attitude-behaviour issue
is self-monitoring (Snyder, 1987). Individuals who score low on the self-monitoring scale claim to be guided
by dispositions (i.e., their inner feelings). They agree with statements such as
‘‘My behaviour is usually an expression of my true inner feelings, attitudes, and beliefs.’’

91
In contrast, individuals who score high on the self-monitoring scale view their behaviour as stemming typically
form a pragmatic concern with what is appropriate in each situation. They agree with statements such as
‘‘In different situation and with different people, I often act like very different persons.’’
Thus, these individuals are said to monitor the impression that they make on other people and adjust that
impression to fit with others’ expectations.
2. Qualities of the Situation
A number of situational variables also affect the strength of the attitude-behaviour relation. These include
normative factors and time pressure to reach a decision.
Norms: or beliefs about how one should or is expected to behave in a given situation can exert a powerful
influence on behaviour. Much evidence has been found in support of this view. People often behave as they
believe others expect them to behave. Indeed, a norm may be so strong and so universally held that virtually
everyone in that situation behaves the same regardless of his or her attitude. For example, you might wish that
someone were dead, but you would very rarely act on this attitude. Hence, attitude-behaviour consistency is
low. Consider also the relation between job satisfaction and work attendance.
At first glance, one might expect people who like their jobs to be less likely to miss a day of work. Yet the
normative pressure (in addition to the potential financial pressure) to attend work every day is strong. Thus,
with the exception of days when they are ill, people generally go to work every day, even people who do not
like their jobs. Indeed, studies of job satisfaction have found little relation between attitudes toward one’s job
and absenteeism.
Time Pressure: Individuals are more likely to base their decisions on their attitudes when they are under time
pressure because their attitudes provide a heuristic for making quick decisions. It appears that time pressure
pushes people away from a careful examination of the available information and toward a reliance on their
pre-existing attitudes. For example, in one study, participants were asked to consider job application for both
male and female job candidates. When there was no time pressure and so participants could consider all of the
details carefully, their personnel decisions were unrelated to their attitudes toward working women. That is,
participants who have earlier reported attitudes indicating some prejudice against women were just as likely
to recommend hiring a female candidate as were those who did not hold such prejudiced attitudes. In striking
contrast, when participants were under time pressure to make a hiring recommendation, an attitude-behaviour
relation was apparent. Participants who were prejudiced against women were less likely to recommend hiring
a female candidate.
3. Qualities of the Attitude

Some kinds of attitudes appear to be stronger than others. In this context, the word stronger is not used in the
sense of the attitude being more extreme. Instead, stronger refers to the apparent influence that the attitude has
on the individual’s behaviour. Attitudes in which all three CAB components are congruent, are more strong
and thus they can have more correlation with the actual behaviour.
nn

92
Chapter - 5
Attitude Formation and Change
P
eople often try to influence others. Sales-people urge customers to buy goods or services; politicians
exhort people to vote for them; dating partners try to make a good impression on each other; managers
attempt to maintain employees’ dedication to work; and advertisers try to raise interest in consumer
products. In all of these examples, people try to make others like or dislike particular objects, ideas, individuals,
groups or tasks.
The distinction between attitude formation and attitude change is a fine one. If people change their attitudes,
they can be said to be forming new attitudes. Thus much of the theorizing and research considered under
attitude change can be regarded as relevant to the issue of attitude formation.
Attitudes are formed over the years by various means. Sometimes, they are based on our experiences and
knowledge and sometimes we acquire them from other people. Sometimes they are based on what is true or
what we think is true.
Interestingly, people are not necessarily aware of the bases of their attitudes. For example, people can believe
that their attitudes are based primarily on cognition when they are in fact based on affect, and both meta- and
structural bases of attitudes influence how people respond to different objects and events in the environment.
Attitudes are the result of many different influences yet the common aspect is that it is acquired through
different types of learning.
1. Classical conditioning: A father angrily denounces the latest increase in income taxes. A mother happily
announces the election of a candidate she worked for. These parents are expressing opinions, but they are
also displaying nonverbal behaviour that expresses their emotions. For a child watching the parents, the
association between the topic and the nonverbal behaviour will become obvious if repeated often enough.
And the nonverbal behaviour will trigger emotional responses in the child: the child feels upset and disturbed
when listening to the father and happy when listening to the mother.
This is an example of classical conditioning. When two stimuli are repeatedly associated, the child learns
to respond to them with a similar emotional reaction. In this case, the stimuli are the attitude topic and
the parental emotion. Through repeated association, a formerly neutral stimulus (the attitude topic - taxes
or politicians) begins to elicit an emotional reaction (the response) that was previously solicited only by
another stimulus (the parental emotion). Whenever tax increases are mentioned, the child feels an unpleasant
emotion; when the elected official is mentioned, the child feels a pleasant emotion.
Strong smells, tastes and sensory information can bring about strong emotional responses. For example, if
a child eats sprouts and dislikes it, there are chances that this dislike will be generalized to other food items
similar in colour and taste.
●● When you were a child, parents may have cheered for Indian cricket team. You may not have even known
what cricket was, but you liked your parent’s happy attitude. Now Indian cricket team evokes that same
response in you.
●● If a child receives a lot of attention (and thus feels happy) each time a particular guest visits, but receives
none (and thus feels sad) whenever another guest visits; the child is likely to develop a positive attitude
towards the first guest and a negative attitude towards the second.
2. Direct instruction: Instructions given by parents, teachers, or leaders, lead to formation of specific attitudes.
Parents tell their children not to smoke and drink because it is unhealthy. Teachers may also reinforce this
attitude. The child may develop a negative attitude towards smoking and drinking.
3. Instrumental or Operant Conditioning: Behaviours or attitudes that are followed by positive
consequences are reinforced and are more likely to be repeated than are behaviours and attitudes that are

93
followed by negative consequences. When a particular view or attitude is reinforced with rewards of praise
and encouragement, the attitude strengthens; while an attitude that is punished with negative experiences is
less likely to persist.
For example, if your group of friends think it is ‘cool’ to wear black jeans and shirts decorated with chains,
you may think it cool to be dressed in such clothes. Also, if your friends think it ‘cool’ to smoke and drink
then you may not listen to your parents and teachers but agree with the peer group. You choose such a way
of behaving, as this behaviour is reinforced by the reward you get from your friends, that is, praise, approval
and acceptance as a group member. Further, such actions make you ‘feel good’, increase your self-esteem and
make your attitude even stronger. The use of rewards involves instrumental learning. By controlling rewards
and punishments children are taught specific attitudes.
4. Observational learning: Children watch the behaviour of people around them and imitate what they see.
For example, if a young girl hears her mother denounce all elected officials as crooks, she may repeat that
opinion in class the next day. Whether she continues to repeat that opinion depends on the responses of her
classmates, teacher, and parents. That is, observations determine the responses we learn, but reinforcement
determines the responses we express.
In addition, the educational system, media particularly television, movies, magazines and newspapers all
influence attitude formation. Belonging to an impressionable age children believe in what they watch on the
TV. Advertisers take advantage of this and try to get children to form specific attitudes towards what they want
to sell. As you have noticed almost all companies and organizations spend a lot of money on advertisement
aimed at persuading people for change in their attitude.
5. Modelling: is another important means of attitude formation. People, particularly children, try to emulate
the persons they admire; and this includes accepting the attitudes held by these people as one’s own. Even as
adults, modelling affects attitude formation. For example, when a new subject is introduced in a module, the
attitude held by a professor one looks up to can influence the extent to which students like or dislike the new
subject.
Learning is not the only means of attitude formation. Social Comparison theory suggests that an individual
may form an attitude or reinforce one by comparing one’s attitudes with those of another. When one’s attitudes
corroborate with those held by significant others, they are accepted as being accurate responses to the attitude-
object, and thus, are reinforced. On the other hand, if a discrepancy is observed, people may choose to change
their attitude to attain similarity.
Attitude Change
We have learnt about the nature of attitude and how attitudes are formed. No doubt, attitudes once formed
are difficult to change. Yet, because attitudes are learnt they can also change with new learning. In order to
accomplish effective attitude change, certain elements of the attitude itself must be addressed. As we have
discussed, an attitude has three components: a mental component, behavioural component and an emotional
component. Effective attitude change programs include methods and tools which appeal to these components
of the attitude.
Functionalist theory: as discussed earlier, Daniel Katz proposed a functionalist theory of attitudes. This
theory also offers an explanation as to why attitudes change. According to Katz, an attitude changes when it
no longer serves its function and the individual feels blocked or frustrated.
●● As your social status increases, your attitudes toward your old car may change - you need something that
better reflects your new status. (For that matter, your attitudes toward your old friends may change as
well).
●● In the earliest model of attitude change, Hovland, Janis and Kelley (1953) suggested that persuasive
messages change people’s attitudes when they highlight some incentive for this change. For example, an
advertisement might describe the utilitarian benefits of buying a particular model of car (e.g. good fuel
economy) or the social-adjustment benefits (e.g. a sporty look). The incentives must seem important if the
message recipients are to change their attitude.

94
Cognitive Component
The first element or factor of success required for an attitude change is an appeal to the individual’s reasoning
and belief. Attitudes have a cognitive function and individuals develop attitudes based on their experience,
learned values and personal thoughts and ideas. Attitude change programs need to appeal to a person’s thinking.
It could be argued that persuasive messages such as advertisements often change attitudes by changing people’s
beliefs about the object of the message. For example, anti-smoking ads attempt to change people’s beliefs about
the consequences of smoking, and those beliefs should in turn influence their attitude towards smoking.
Consider a simple experiment in which Canadian participants received a booklet describing a study of a new
immigrant group to Canada (Maio, Esses & Bell, 1994). The information in the booklet was manipulated
to create positive and/or negative beliefs about the group. For example, some participants read that the
immigrants scored above average on desirable personality traits (e.g. hardworking, honest), whereas other
participants read that the group members scored below average on these traits.
After reading the information, participants rated their attitudes towards the group. Not surprisingly, the
results indicated that those who received positive information indicated more favourable attitudes towards
the immigrant group than those who received negative information.
This simple demonstration is important from a practical perspective, because it demonstrates how even
second-hand information about others can have a powerful effect on our attitudes towards them. When
prejudice has arisen largely from indirect information, interventions encourage direct, positive interactions to
change beliefs and reduce the prejudice.
Further research has shown that attitudes are less likely to change if the information and message presented
to influence the individual’s thinking is too complex or ambiguous. If information is presented in this way,
the individual will dismiss the ideas as unworkable and inappropriate. It can be suggested then that as attitude
change programs appeal to a person’s intellect or thinking concerning a particular attitude, it is required that
the information is concise, relevant, meaningful and understandable.
For example, the Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing (2007) implemented a societal
attitude change program called the National Skin Cancer Awareness Campaign. The campaign ran successfully
from November 2006 until February 2007. The campaign used media releases including television, printed
and radio advertisements. The campaign made the information of the risk of skin cancer meaningful and
concise as the main header for the awareness was a real life story of an Australian citizen.
According to Manfredo (1992) information presented in an attitude change campaign must also be an argument
that is relevant to the individual. The National Skin Cancer Awareness Campaign achieved relevance to the
Australian public as it appealed to the summer climate and encouraged Australians in certain steps that were
already a practical part of Australian summer living. These included wearing a hat, protective clothing and
sunglasses, seeking shade and wearing water proof, SPF30+ sunscreen and reapplying every two hours.
Affective Component
Attitudes have an affective or emotional function. That is, they can be affected and changed according
to an individual’s feelings. Often attitude change programs attempt to create a message that will engage
a viewer or listener’s emotions. According to Schiffman and Kanuk (1997) an individual allows their
attitude towards a particular product or issue to be influenced by socially significant persons or towards
causes with which they have amiable feelings. For example, a person may have a passive attitude toward
recycling until it is linked with a desirable cause such as saving wildlife. Societal and attitude change
programs often use celebrities or experts to endorse their message. This attempts to induce feelings
of trust or enthusiasm of a new attitude. Some attitude change programs use an opposite method and
induce feelings of fear or insecurity to change an individual or a societal attitude through scare tactics.
An example of an attitude change program that uses scare tactics is the anti-smoking, National Tobacco
Campaign implemented by the Commonwealth of Australia (1997). The campaign uses warnings and graphic
images on the labels of cigarette packets and commercials on television to attempt to alter the dismissive and
avoidant attitudes of smokers to the potential harm they are exposing themselves to by smoking. The cigarette
packet labels and television commercials show a range of images of potential cancers and other health risks
that are caused by smoking.

95
If you look carefully at advertisements, you will find that many give very little information about the objects
they are promoting. For example, an advertisement for AXE deodorant shows hundreds of supermodels
running and undressing on their way to the man who has applied the deodorant, while upbeat music plays in
the background. Rather than focusing on concrete information (e.g. long lastingness of smell, price), ads like
this work by linking the product with positive feelings.
Research supports this technique. Many studies use a classical conditioning approach, which exposes
participants to the name of an attitude object together with an accompanying positive or negative stimulus.
Sometimes the stimulus is a direct, pleasant or unpleasant experience (e.g. presence or absence of a shock),
and sometimes it is simply a word that has positive or negative association (e.g. ‘happy’ vs.‘sad’). The stimuli
evoke positive or negative affective responses, which in turn become linked in memory with the attitude
object. So, whenever the attitude object is presented, the positive or negative affective response is recalled
and experienced by association.
As you might expect, results typically indicate that people come to like objects that are paired with positive
stimuli more than those that are paired with negative stimuli. This effect occurs even when the attitudes are
measured in a different context.
For example, one clever experiment exposed participants to a series of names, each followed by a positive
or negative word. In this list, (a) positive words were linked with the name ‘Ed’ and negative words with the
name ‘George’ or (b) positive words were linked with the name ‘George’ and negative words with the name
‘Ed’ (Berkowitz & Knurek, 1969). Participants then went to an ostensibly unrelated experiment, where they
had a brief discussion with two confederates. The confederates’ first names were George and Ed. Later, the
confederates rated each participant’s friendliness towards them as an indication of their attitudes. As expected,
the participants were friendlier (i.e. they had a more positive attitude) towards the confederate whose name
had been paired with the positive stimuli.
Behavioural Component
Finally, attitudes have a behavioural function. Attitudes affect an individual’s actions and choices. Research
has suggested that the more one outwardly expresses an attitude the more it will increase in its strength. It can
be suggested then that successful attitude change programs address the behavioural function of an attitude and
allow the individual to practise the behaviour associated with the newly learned attitude.
For example, Australian government has implemented the Healthy Active Australia campaign. This campaign
not only changes the attitude of an individual or group but gives them practical steps to implement and express
their decisive attitude towards a healthy, active lifestyle. The campaign offers practical advice on healthy eating,
overcoming obesity, physical activity and active living for children, teenagers, parents, adults and senior citizens.
The campaign has also established government supported activities such as the Around Australia in 40 Days
Walking Challenge, the Healthy Active Ambassador Program, a National Children’s Nutrition and Physical
Activity Survey, a new Healthy Weight website, the Active After-School Communities program and the
Active School Curriculum. A number of resources are also available to allow individuals and groups to put into
practise a pro-health attitude. These resources include guidelines and recommendations for various population
groups, on physical activity and healthy eating, physical activity guidelines for adults and for children aged five
to twelve and twelve to eighteen, as well as various dietary guidelines for different age groups.
According to the theory of reasoned behaviour discussed earlier, a person’s behaviour is influenced by the
person’s intentions of behaviour which are shaped by the individual’s attitude. If an attitude change program
aims to be fully successful in addressing the behaviour function of an attitude, first of all it must equip the
individual to change their thinking and attitude towards an attitude object. The second step is to equip them
to change their intentions of behaviour and then to equip them to form new habits and behaviour to suit
the changed attitude. In the example given of the Healthy Active Australian campaign the program offers
Australians a chance to not only change their view and attitude toward a healthy lifestyle, but it gives them a
variety of resources to implement the necessary behaviour to express the changed attitude.
nn

96
Chapter - 6
Attributions
W
e often look for the causes of one’s own and other people’s behaviour. This is termed as
attribution. Attributions are explanations for events and behaviour. If your friend does not invite
you for her birthday party, you are going to question why she did not do so. So we are like
naïve scientists trying to establish cause and effect relationships. If you fair poorly what reasons are you
likely to put forward and when you do well in the examination what reasons will you give? There are two
categories:
1. You will attribute your success or failure to internal causes pertaining to personal reasons, (e.g. “I faired
poorly because I did not put in effort”, or “I did well in the examination because I put in a great deal of
effort”). Personal attributions refer to factors within the person, such as their personality characteristics,
motivation, ability and effort.
2. The external causes include anything outside the person. For instance, “I faired poorly in the examination
because the question paper was tough”. Situational attributions refer to factors within the environment
that are external to the person.
It has been found that we tend to make a correspondent inference about another person when we are looking
for the cause of their behaviour. In other words, we tend to infer that the behaviour, and the intention that
produced it, correspond to some underlying stable quality. For example, a correspondent inference would be
to attribute someone’s aggressive behaviour to an internal and stable trait within the person – in this case,
aggressiveness.
Jones and Davis argued that this tendency is motivated by our need to view people’s behaviour as intentional
and predictable, reflecting their underlying personality traits. But in reality, making correspondent inferences
is not always a straightforward business. The information we need in order to make the inferences can be
ambiguous, requiring us to draw on additional cues in the environment, such as the social desirability of the
behaviour, how much choice the person had, or role requirements.
Bias and errors
While people strive to find reasons for behaviours, they fall into many traps of biases and errors. As Fritz
Heider says, “our perceptions of causality are often distorted by our needs and certain cognitive biases”. The
following are examples of Attributional biases:
1. Fundamental Attribution Error: The fundamental attribution error describes the tendency to
overvalue dispositional or personality-based explanations for behaviour while under-valuing situational
explanations. The fundamental attribution error is most Scapegoating
visible when people explain and assume the behaviour of Scapegoating is the action of blaming an
others. For example, if a person is overweight, a person’s individual or group for something when,
first assumption might be that they have a problem with in reality, there is no one person or group
overeating or are lazy and not that they might have a responsible for the problem. It means
medical reason for being heavier set. When we see another blaming another person or group for
problems in society because of that person’s
person come late for a meeting and drop her notes on the group identity. Prejudicial thinking and
floor, we are likely to reach a conclusion that the person is discriminatory acts can lead to scapegoating.
‘disorganized and clumsy’. We tend to explain the cause of Members of the disliked group are denied
‘coming late’ and ‘dropping notes’ to internal causes. When employment, housing, political rights,
we are in the same position then we are likely to attribute social privileges, or a combination of these.
Scapegoating can lead to verbal and physical
the reasons of the same happening to external causes, such
violence, including death.
as, there was a traffic jam and the floor was slippery. Thus

97
when we perceive others we perceive their behaviour to be caused by internal causes and say she is ‘that
kind of a person’. When we try to explain our own behaviour we do it in terms of situational or external
causes.
Fundamental attribution error, also known as the correspondence bias or attribution effect, is the tendency
for people to place an undue emphasis on internal characteristics (personality) to explain someone else’s
behaviour in a given situation rather than considering the situation’s external factors.
This is also called as actor-observer bias: People tend to attribute other people behaviours to their
dispositional factors while attributing own actions to situational factors. In the same situation, people’s
attribution can differ depending on their role as actor or observer.
2. Self-Serving Bias: Self-serving bias is attributing dispositional and internal factors for success and
external, uncontrollable factors for failure. For example, if a person gets promoted, it is because of his/her
ability and competence whereas if he/she does not get promoted, it is because his/her manager does not
like him/her (external, uncontrollable factor).
nn

98
Chapter - 7
Social Influence and Persuasion
Social Influence
Since Aristotle recorded his principles of persuasion in Rhetoric, humans have attempted to define and refine
the principles of successful influence. Social influence occurs when one’s emotions, opinions, or behaviours
are affected by others. Social influence takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization, peer
pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion, sales and marketing.
The comparatively young science of social influence, however, can trace its roots to the Second World War,
when a social psychologist named Carl Hovland was contracted by the U.S. Armed Forces to bolster the
morale of soldiers. President Roosevelt was concerned that Americans would lose the will to fight after
winning victory in Europe. It was Hovland’s job to motivate soldiers to continue fighting against Japan.
Since World War II, social influence has become a vastly expanding field of study devoted to discovering the
principles that determine our beliefs, create our attitudes, and move us to action.
A knowledge of it can help you when you need to move someone to adopt a new attitude, belief, or action.
It can also help you resist the influence attempts of others. Some of the examples that demonstrate social
influence are:
●● People following traffic rules and regulations can also influence the behaviour of those violating the
rules. Like keep waiting for the traffic signal to turn green even if no police officer is present to check the
compliance.
●● People can be influenced to pay their taxes in an appropriate manner by showcasing the people who pay
their taxes on time and the benefits they enjoy for doing that.
●● A state government wished to increase state wide recycling. To accomplish this, they contracted with an
influence research team to create a series of TV advertisements that played on social norms to increase
recycling behaviours.
●● Influence consultants are increasingly sought by political campaign managers to provide a range of
services, from psychological analyses of the electorate to the creation of speeches, advertisements, and
strategies. Like ‘abki bar Modi sarkar’ tagline had a great role in the victory of BJP in 2014 Lok Sabha
elections.
Social Influence is a broad term that relates to many different phenomena. Below are some major types of
social influence that are being researched in the field of social psychology.
1. Kelman’s varieties
There are three processes of attitude change as defined by Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman:
●● Compliance: Compliance is the act of responding favourably to an explicit or implicit request offered
by others. Technically, compliance is a change in behaviour but not necessarily attitude- one can comply
due to mere obedience, or by otherwise opting to withhold one’s private thoughts due to social pressures.
According to Kelman’s 1958 paper, the satisfaction derived from compliance is due to the social effect of
the accepting influence (i.e. people comply for an expected reward or punishment-aversion). For example,
an employee wearing a white colour shirt even if he hates that colour just because his boss requested him
to do so and other employees also wears white shirt only.
●● Identification: Identification is the changing of attitudes or behaviours due to the influence of someone
that is liked. Advertisements that rely upon celebrities to market their products are taking advantage of
this phenomenon. The desired relationship that the identifier relates with the behaviour or attitude change
is the “reward”, according to Kelman. Like a girl using a brand of cosmetics in order to identify with
Kareena Kapoor who is the brand ambassador of that company.

99
●● Internalization: Internalization is the process of acceptance of a set of norms established by people or
groups which are influential to the individual. The individual accepts the influence because the content of
the influence accepted is intrinsically rewarding. It is congruent with the individual’s value system, and
according to Kelman the “reward” of internalization is “the content of the new behaviour”.
2. Conformity
Conformity is a type of social influence involving a change in behaviour, belief or thinking to align with
those of others or to align with normative standards. It is the most common and pervasive form of social
influence. In the case of peer pressure, a person is convinced to do something (such as illegal drugs) which
they might not want to do, but which they perceive as “necessary” to keep a positive relationship with other
people, such as their friends. Conformity from peer pressure generally results from identification within
the group members, or from compliance of some members to appease others. Conformity is sometimes in
appearance only - publicly appearing to conform (compliance) or it may be a complete conformity that
impacts an individual both publicly and privately (conversion).
3. Self-fulfilling prophecy:
A self-fulfilling prophecy is the prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true, due to a
positive feedback between belief and behaviour. A prophecy declared as truth (when it is actually false) may
sufficiently influence people, either through fear or logical confusion, so that their reactions ultimately fulfil
the once-false prophecy. For example, women employees cannot reach upto the post of CEO in a company
is a prophecy which is false as there is no scientific proof that women employees are less efficient than
their male counterparts. However, such prophecy creates a sense of helplessness and demotivates female
employees to such an extent that they start believing that they are not capable of becoming the CEO thus
fulfilling the prophecy.
Cult
A cult is a group of people who organize around a strong authority figure. Cults, like many other groups, attempt
to expand their influence for the purposes of power or money. However, to achieve these ends, destructive cults
employ a potent mixture of influence techniques and deception to attain psychological control over members and
new recruits. This fundamental level of control is known alternatively as ‘brainwashing,’ ‘thought reform,’ or ‘mind
control.’ A successful induction by a destructive cult displaces a person’s former identity and replaces it with a new
one. That new identity may not be one that the person would have freely chosen under her own volition.
l Religious : the type we hear about most frequently;
l Commercial : including certain pyramid and multi-level marketing organizations;
l Political : which are organized around a political dogma. Nazism was originally a cult, and cults can still be found
lurking in the left and right wings of Indian politics.
4. Reactance
Reactance is the adoption or a view contrary to the view that they are being pressured to accept, perhaps
due to the perceived threat to behavioural freedoms. This behaviour has also been called anti-conformity.
While the results are the opposite of what the influencer intended, this reactive behaviour is the result of
social pressure. It is notable that anti-conformity does not necessarily mean independence. In many studies,
reactance manifests itself in a deliberate rejection of an influence, even when the influence is clearly correct.
For example, many times a child does completely opposite of what parents and teachers suggest in order to
exert his or her perceived independence.
5. Obedience
Obedience, in human behaviour, is a form of “social influence in which a person yields to explicit instructions
or orders from an authority figure”. Obedience is generally distinguished from compliance, which is behaviour
influenced by peers, and from conformity, which is behaviour intended to match that of the majority. Obedience
can be seen as immoral, amoral and moral. For example, in a situation when one orders a person to kill
another innocent person and he or she does so willingly, it is generally considered to be immoral. However,

100
when one orders a person to kill an enemy who will end many innocent lives and he or she does so willingly,
it can be deemed moral.
Humans have been shown to be obedient in the presence of perceived legitimate authority figures, as shown
by the Milgram experiment in the 1960s, which was carried out by Stanley Milgram to find out how the Nazis
managed to get ordinary people to take part in the mass murders of the Holocaust. The experiment showed
that obedience to authority was the norm, not the exception.
6. Persuasion
Persuasion is the process of guiding oneself or another toward the adoption of some attitude by some rational
or symbolic means.
Persuasion
We live in an environment dense with influence attempts. A large portion of the population makes a living
simply getting others to comply with their requests. Conservative estimates suggest that a person will receive
up to 400 persuasive appeals from marketers alone in the course of a single day.
Defining Persuasion
Persuasion attempts to win “the heart and mind” of the target. Persuasion can attempt to influence a person’s
beliefs, attitudes, intentions, motivations, or behaviours. In business, persuasion is a process aimed at changing
a person’s (or a group’s) attitude or behaviour toward some event, idea, object, or other person(s), by using
written or spoken words to convey information, feelings, or reasoning, or a combination thereof. Persuasion
is also an often used tool in the pursuit of personal gain, such as election campaigning, giving a sales pitch, or
in trial advocacy. Persuasion can also be interpreted as using one’s personal or positional resources to change
people’s behaviours or attitudes.
Systematic persuasion is the process through which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to logic and
reason. Heuristic persuasion on the other hand is the process through which attitudes or beliefs are changed
because of appeals to habit or emotion. Although persuasion is more difficult to induce, its effects last longer
because the target actually accepts and internalizes the advocacy.
Difference between Persuasion & Manipulation

The difference between persuasion and manipulation has been a subject of debate for literally thousands
of years. In ancient Greece during the 4th century BC the father of persuasion, Aristotle, opposed a group
of teachers known as the Sophists. The Sophists provided instruction in various disciplines, but became
infamous for their teaching of rhetoric. Aristotle clashed with the Sophists over the fact that they did not
care about truth, but would promote any idea for a fee. Aristotle asserted that the Sophists were engaging in
manipulation because they intentionally deceived people and caused harm.
Today, the debate between persuasion and manipulation rages on. In fact, many confess that they have a hard
time distinguishing between the two. Yet, understanding the distinction is vital because it will guide you in
influencing others ethically and equip you with the knowledge to recognize manipulative messages.
Why Persuasion Is Good
To accurately discern the difference between persuasion and manipulation it is essential to understand the
ethics that undergird persuasion. There are some communication theorists who have declared that persuasion
is “ethically neutral.” That is to say that persuasion is neither good nor bad, but merely an impartial process.
However, many scholars feel that the Aristotelian viewpoint that persuasion is not neutral, but noble, is
correct. Aristotle stressed that persuasion is inherently good because it is one of the primary means through
which truth becomes known. Through the persuasive method an idea is put forth with evidence and a person
is allowed to freely choose to either accept or reject that persuasive appeal. Jay Conger wrote about this
in the Harvard Business Review, when he affirmed, “Persuasion does indeed involve moving people to a
position they don’t currently hold, but not by begging or flattering. Instead, it involves careful preparation, the
proper framing of arguments, the presentation of vivid supporting evidence, and the effort to find the correct
emotional match with your audience.”

101
The belief that persuasion is an honorable and effective means of arriving at truth is seen by the fact that
it is the basis for modern economics, counseling practices and the legal system. In addition, persuasion is
also the foundation of democracy. As Professor Raymond Ross writes, “Democracies use thoughtful ethical
persuasion whenever they elect leaders, establish laws, or try to protect their citizens.” Even those who
become dismayed with the notion of persuasion cannot escape it. Persuasion is ingrained within human
communication. When communicating, people both intentionally and unintentionally promote certain beliefs
and behaviors. Consequently, persuasion is not a matter of choice; it is inherent in social interaction. In fact,
it is so pervasive in human communication that at times it becomes almost invisible. Dr. Herbert W. Simons,
Professor at Temple University illustrates this when he writes, “The so-called people professions – politics,
law, social work, counseling, business management, advertising, sales, public relations, the ministry – might
as well be called persuasion professions.”
At its core, persuasion is the pursuit of truth. It is through persuasion that positive change occurs. For example,
persuasive messages have been scientifically proven to prompt high school students to refrain from smoking,
increase lifesaving blood donations, and prevent youth from joining gangs. Communication scholars Gass
and Seiter echo this idea when they assert,
“Persuasion helps forge peace agreements between nations. Persuasion helps open up closed societies.
Persuasion is crucial to the fund-raising efforts of charities and philanthropic organizations. Persuasion
convinces motorists to buckle up when driving or to refrain from driving when they’ve had a few too many
drinks. Persuasion is used to convince an alcoholic or drug-dependent family member to seek professional
help. Persuasion is how the coach of an underdog team inspires the players to give it their all. Persuasion is
a tool used by parents to urge children not to accept rides from strangers or to allow anyone to touch them
in a way that feels uncomfortable. In short, persuasion is the cornerstone of a number of positive, pro-social
endeavors. Very little of the good that we see in the world could be accomplished without persuasion.”
Corruption of Persuasion- Manipulation
Though, the goodness of persuasion and the fact that it is embedded Some techniques of manipulation
within human nature is not what causes people concern. What include:
causes anxiety is the corruption of persuasion. When persuasion is l Deception
distorted, it can become manipulative, which is dangerous. Through l Hypnosis
manipulation, con artists, cult leaders and dictators have abused, l Power (social and political)
enslaved, and even massacred millions. However, as detrimental l Brainwashing
as manipulation is, it should never be confused with persuasion. l Coercive persuasion
Manipulation is the perversion of persuasion. It is not concerned with l Force
truth, but rather deceit. Aristotle commented on this in his acclaimed l Mind control
work, Rhetoric when he emphasized, “an abuse of the rhetorical l Torture
faculty can work great mischief; the same charge can be brought
against all good things save virtue itself, and especially against the most useful things such as strength, health,
wealth, and military skill. Rightly employed, they work the greatest blessing; and wrongly employed, they
work the greatest harm.”
Consequently, the pertinent question is how can you distinguish between persuasion and manipulation? The
following are the three straightforward, yet reliable ways that you can analyze if a message is manipulative.
1. Intention: Intention is a primary factor in judging whether a request is manipulative. If a person attempts
to present an idea or behavior that is not in the best interest of another, they are engaging in manipulation.
Sadly, this is all too common. People frequently fall into the trap of abusing others in the pursuit of
what they desire. One of the root causes of this Machiavellian perspective is not viewing others with
equality. The renowned philosopher Immanuel Kant wrote about this mindset when he suggested that the
foundational precept of morality is treating a person as a human being and not as a thing.
2. Withholding Truth: Manipulation involves distorting or withholding truth. Often, this is seen through
exaggerating the advantages of a behavior, idea or product. It was this form of manipulation that prompted
the phrase Caveat Emptor, which is Latin for “Buyer Beware,” to become prevalent. The phrase was

102
particularly widespread during those historical periods when there was little accountability for sellers.
The saying was a warning to potential buyers to be leery of those selling goods, and to make sure that they
verified, before making a purchase, that the quality of the product was identical to the claims made by the
seller. Even today most people have experienced being told about the features or benefits of a product or
service and then after purchasing it realized that they had been misled. This is wrong, as anything other
than honest representation is blatant manipulation.
3. Coercion: Coercion is the third and most obvious component of a manipulative appeal. It is the removal
of free choice, the ultimatum – do it or else. In contrast, persuasion involves influence, but never force. As
communication scholar Dr. Richard Perloff writes, “A defining characteristic of persuasion is free choice.
At some level the individual must be capable of accepting or rejecting the position that has been urged
of him or her.” Therefore, an invitation that one is unable to say no to is not persuasive in nature, but is
coercive and accordingly manipulative.
In summary, there is a vast difference between persuasion and manipulation. Persuasion advances the position
of all involved. It is a pro-social endeavor that guides the receiver of a message in accepting truth. In contrast,
a manipulative appeal is one that if adopted will negatively impact another. Manipulation is morally wrong
and ultimately counterproductive to the interests of all involved. As social psychologist Robert Cialdini stated,
“The systematic use of misleading influence tactics… ultimately becomes a psychologically and financially
self-damaging process.” Therefore, through an accurate and robust understanding of both the rightness of
persuasion and the three primary elements of manipulation you will be better able to persuade others ethically
and protect yourself from manipulative requests.
Persuasion Tactics
Persuasion depends upon the following factors:
1. Source: The person who delivers the message is called the communicator. The probability, that you will
change your attitude is higher if the message is conveyed by experts, who are considered to be trustworthy,
attractive and similar to the person receiving the message. Thus, if the cricketer Sachin Tendukar says that
a particular drink gives him energy, the target audience is likely to be young children who consider him as
a role model in the field of sports. They are likely to buy the drink because they assume that they would
be able to ‘play like him’.
2. Message: The nature of message is important because it provides the information for attitude change. The
message should be clear and well organized. Messages that produce anxiety and fear are more effective.
Thus an advertisement on soap may explain that perspiration from the body results in bad odour and your
friends will turn away from you. Or, if you have a bath with a particular soap then you are likely to be
flooded with friends!
3. Person: The characteristics of the person whose attitude is to be changed plays an important role in
attitude change. Attitudes that are strong, personally important, complex and interconnected are difficult
to change. Thus your attitude towards family would be difficult to change rather than preference of a soap
or drink.
Thus ‘who’ (communicator) says ‘what’ (message) to ‘whom’ (person for whom the communication is meant
for) will determine whether a successful persuasion will take place or not. What other people say and do has
an effect on us. Different persuasion methods are used according to the combination of these three factors.
Persuasion methods are also sometimes referred to as persuasion tactics or persuasion strategies. Though
there is no end of different persuasion tactics and strategies, yet some the most important have been discussed
below:
1. Reciprocation: The Old ‘Give and Take’ is the central principle of this method. All of us are taught we
should find some way to repay other for what they do for us. Most people will make effort to avoid being
considered a moocher, ingrate, or person who does not pay their debts.
This is an extremely powerful tactic and can even spur unequal exchanges. In one experiment, e.g., half
the people attending an art appreciation session were offered a soft drink. Afterwards, all were asked
if they would buy 25-cent raffle tickets. Guess what? The people who had been offered the soft drinks

103
purchased twice as many tickets, whether or not they had accepted the drinks!
You probably already use this principle, but it is much stronger than you suspect. You can build a sense of
indebtedness in someone by delivering a number uninvited first favours over time. They don’t have to be
tangible gifts. In today’s world useful information is one of the most valuable favours you can deliver.
2. Commitment and Consistency: Once people have made a choice or taken a stand, they are under both
internal and external pressure to behave consistently with that commitment. This desire for consistency
offers us all a shortcut to action as we recall a previous decision we have already made. Often politicians
use this technique in their election campaigns making people committed to their ideology.
When you can get someone to commit verbally to an action, the chances go up sharply that they’ll actually
do it. e.g., before starting your next meeting, ask each person to commit to following the posted agenda.
Then, if anyone goes off on a tangent, just ask them to explain how it fits the agenda. If they can’t, they’ll
quickly fall back in line.
3. Social Proof: We decide what is correct by noticing what other people think is correct. This principle
applies especially to the way we determine what constitutes correct behaviour. If everyone else is behaving
a certain way, most assume that is the right thing to do. e.g., one of the important and largely unconscious,
ways we decide what is acceptable behaviour on our current job is by watching the people around us,
especially the higher-ups or old timers.
This principle of influence kicks in even more strongly when the situation is uncertain or people aren’t
sure what to do. When you can show them what others like them believe or are doing, people are more
likely to take the same action. Product endorsements are the most obvious application of the social proof.
If you want someone to do something for you, be sure to let them see that many other people are already
doing it or are willing to do it. Show them others like them (and the more like them the better) believe in
your product or are using it.
4. Liking: This principle is simple and concise. People say “yes” to people that they like. Two major factors
contribute to overall liking. The first is physical attractiveness. People who are more physically attractive
seem to be more persuasive; they get what they want and they can easily change others’ attitudes. This
attractiveness is proven to send favourable messages/impressions of other traits that a person may have,
such as talent, kindness, and intelligence. The
second factor is similarity. This is the simpler aspect Milgram study
of “liking.” The idea of similarity states if people In the Milgram study, a series of experiments begun
like you, they are more likely to say “yes” to what in 1961, a "teacher" and a "learner" were placed in
you ask them. When we do this, we usually don’t two different rooms. The "learner" was attached
to an electric harness that could administer shock.
think about it, it just comes naturally. The "teacher" was told by a supervisor, dressed in
5. Authority: Most of us are raised with a respect for a white scientist's coat, to ask the learner questions
authority, both real and implied. Sometimes, people and punish him when he got a question wrong.
confuse the symbols of authority (titles, appearance, The teacher was instructed by the study supervisor
possessions) with the true substance. to deliver an electric shock from a panel under the
teacher's control. After delivery, the teacher had to
Some people are more strongly influenced by up the voltage to the next notch. The voltage went
authority than others and compliance can vary up to 450 volts. The catch to this experiment was
according to the situation. For example, it’s 11:00 PM that the teacher did not know that the learner was
and the doorbell rings. Two men in police uniforms an actor faking the pain sounds he heard and was
want to come in and ask you some questions. Most not actually being harmed. The experiment was
people respect such authority enough that they being done to see how obedient we are to authority.
would comply, even though the Constitution says “When an authority tells ordinary people it is their
job to deliver harm, how much suffering will each
they don’t have to. But if it was 3:00 AM and the subject be willing to inflict on an entirely innocent
men were in street clothes, claiming to be detectives, other person if the instructions come 'from above'?”.
most of us would hesitate. The men would have to In this study the results show that most teachers
overcome our resistance with more proofs of their were willing to give as much pain as was available to
authority like badges or a search warrant. them. The conclusion was that people are willing to
bring pain upon others when they are directed to do
6. Scarcity: Nearly everyone is vulnerable to some so by some authority figure.
form of the principle of scarcity. Opportunities seem

104
more valuable when they are less available. Hard-to-get things are perceived as better than easy-to-get
things. The possibility of losing something is a more powerful motivator than of gaining something.
When something has limited availability, people assign it more value. According to Cialdini, “people want
more of what they cannot have.” When scarcity is an issue, the context matters. This means that within
certain contexts, scarcity “works” better. To get people to believe that something is scarcer, you need to
explain what about that certain product will give them what no other product will. You have to work the
audience in the correct way. Something else, that you can do to get people to believe that something is
scarce, is to tell them what they will lose, not what they will gain. Saying things like “you will lose $5”,
rather than saying “you could save $5”. You are making something sound scarcer.
There are two major reasons why the scarcity principle works: 1) when things are difficult to get, they are
usually more valuable so that can make it seem to have better quality; and 2) when things become less
available, we could lose the chance to acquire them. When this happens, we assign the scarce item or service
more value simply because it is harder to acquire.
This principle is that we all want things that are out of our reach. If we see something is easily available, we
do not want it as much as something that is very rare.
Some other methods of persuasion

1. Socratic Effect: It states that by merely directing thoughts to attitudes and beliefs with logical implications
for one another, those attitudes and beliefs become more consistent. For example:
“If my wife wants me to start and maintain an exercise program, she might bring up other topics which have
logical, positive implications for exercise. She might tell me about a friend who recently experienced a heart
attack. That may lead to a discussion about the benefits of good health and the horrors of hospitals, and how
people who are in good health are better looking, have more energy, and are more successful. Without ever
pointing it out, my wife will have caused me to notice uncomfortable inconsistencies in my belief system. I
don’t like hospitals, and exercise will help keep me out of them--so why don’t I go jogging with her? I will
likely decide to do just that the next time I see her putting on her running shoes. At the next social gathering
we attend, she may capitalize on the situation and mention that the two of us are now exercising together. I
will agree, and in so doing will have made a public commitment--which will compel me to remain consistent
with my stated behaviour.”
2. Relationship based persuasion: In their book The Art of Woo, G. Richard Shell and Mario Moussa
present a four-step approach to strategic persuasion. They explain that persuasion means to win others
over, not to defeat them. Thus it is important to be able to see the topic from different angles in order to
anticipate the reaction others have to a proposal.
i. Survey your situation: This step includes an analysis of the persuader’s situation, goals, and challenges
that the persuader faces in his or her organization.
ii. Confront the five barriers: Five obstacles pose the greatest risks to a successful influence encounter:
relationships, credibility, communication mismatches, belief systems, and interest and needs.
iii. Make your pitch: People need a solid reason to justify a decision, yet at the same time many decisions
are made on the basis of intuition. This step also deals with presentation skills.
iv. Secure your commitments: In order to safeguard the long time success of a persuasive decision, it is vital
to deal with politics at both the individual and organizational level.
3. by appeal to reason
●● Logic l Logical argument
●● Rhetoric l Scientific evidence (proof)
●● Scientific method
4. by appeal to emotion
●● Advertising l Faith
●● Presentation and Imagination l Propaganda
●● Tradition
nn

105
Chapter - 8
Moral and Political Attitudes
Moral attitudes
There are three ways of looking at this topic.
1. Our general attitude towards morality: like in present times, youth in India have an ambiguous attitude
towards morality as they are not sure about its significance in human life.
2. Our attitude on moral issues like discrimination, casteism, abortion etc.: it has been generally observed
that such attitudes are strong, universal, motivational and extreme in nature.
3. Fundamental Moral Attitudes:Moral values are the highest among all natural values. Goodness, purity,
truthfulness, humility of man has always ranked higher than genius, brilliancy, exuberant vitality, than the
beauty of nature or of art, than the stability and power of a state. But, how can man participate in these
moral values? Are they given to him by nature like the beauty of his face, his intelligence, or a lively
temperament? No, they can only grow out of conscious and free attitudes. A man himself must essentially
cooperate for their realization. Moral attitudes basically mean a strong correlation between attitudes and
behaviour that is a person acts mostly in accordance with his attitudes rather than as per the situation and
materialistic benefits.Some of the most important and fundamental moral attitudes have been discussed
below which helps a person to behave as per his morality.
●● Reverence: Reverence is “a feeling or attitude of deep respect tinged with awe; veneration (adoration,
worship)”. The word “reverence” in the modern day is often used in relationship with religion. This
is because religion often stimulates the emotion through recognition of God, the supernatural, and the
ineffable. Reverence involves a humbling of the self in respectful recognition of something perceived to
be greater than the self. Thus religion is commonly a place where reverence is felt. However, similar to
awe, reverence is an emotion in its own right, and can be felt outside of the realm of religion
It has often been seen that groups are apt to make better decisions when they do so with a sense of reverence;
that is, when they are serious and focused, when group members feel that something special is happening,
when there is extra respect for the moment and for each other. Reverence is associated with a sense of
humility; a sense that there is more happening here than I alone can comprehend or control. Indeed that’s the
thing about group decisions. It’s about more than just me.
The fundamental attitude of reverence is the basis for all moral conduct toward our fellowmen and toward
ourselves. The basic attitude of reverence is the presupposition for every true love and is evident in justice
toward others, in consideration for the rights of another, for the liberty of another’s decisions, in limiting one’s
own lust for power, and in all understanding of another’s rights.
●● Faithfulness: is the concept of unfailingly remaining loyal to someone or something and putting that
loyalty into consistent practice, regardless of extenuating circumstances. Literally, it is the state of being
full of faith in the somewhat archaic sense of steady devotion to a person, thing or concept.
The quality of “faithfulness” is the main structural support that holds up every institution which has been
created and is an integral part of a healthy civilization. Faithfulness in our political system is a must for it to
be healthy and beneficial. when unfaithfulness manifests itself in any system all kinds of ills will show up.
Marriage cannot exist without faithfulness as part of its main structure. Even the business sector has discovered
the usefulness of having employees being faithful to their particular job area, one of the things that have made
the Japanese business system work so well.
●● Awareness of Responsibility: Reverence and true fidelity can only fully unfold themselves in a morally
conscious man. This moral awakedness is the soul of the fundamental moral attitude which we call
“awareness of responsibility.” Only the man with this consciousness of responsibility can justly appreciate
the impact of the demands of the world of values.

106
He grasps not only the splendor, the inner beauty and majesty of the world of values, but also the
sovereignty over us which is objectively due to this world. He understands the implacable earnestness of their
demands; he experiences their personal call on us. He perceives the commands and the prohibitions which
issue from values. He possesses that awakedness toward the world of values which places his life under its
sword of justice, which makes him at every moment aware of his own position and duties in the cosmos, and
makes him realize clearly that he is not his own master. He knows that he cannot act freely according to his
arbitrary pleasure, that he is not his own judge, but that he must render an account to someone who is higher
than he is.
●● Veracity: Truthfulness or honesty is another of the basic presuppositions for a person’s moral life.
An untruthful person not only embodies a great moral disvalue but he is crippled in his whole
personality; the whole of his moral life; everything in him which is morally positive is threatened by his
untruthfulness, and even becomes doubtful. His position toward the world of values as a whole is affected
at its very core.
Veracity is the basis for all true community life, for every relationship of person to person, for every true love,
for every profession, for true knowledge, for self education, and for the relationship of men to God. Veracity
also refers to honesty which is a facet of moral character and connotes positive and virtuous attributes such
as integrity, truthfulness, and straightforwardness, including straightforwardness of conduct, along with the
absence of lying, cheating, theft, etc.
●● Goodness: Goodness is the very heart of the whole reign of moral values. It is by no accident that the term
“good” means moral value as such, and also the specific moral quality of goodness. What do we mean
when we say that a man irradiates goodness? We say this of a man when he is disposed to help, when he
is kindly, just, when he is ready to make sacrifices for others, when he pardons wrongs done to him, when
he is generous, when he is full of compassion.
All these qualities are specific forms and manifestations of love. This indicates the close connection
which exists between love and goodness. Love is, as it were, flowing goodness, and goodness is the breath
of love.
Political attitudes
A political attitude is an expression of favour or disfavour toward different political ideologies, politicians
and political culture prevailing in a particular society. Democracy provides people with the opportunity to
be active citizens rather than passive subjects. However, the promise of participation comes with a number
of challenges. Citizens must evaluate a large number of political objects (such as candidates, parties, and
platforms) and then aggregate these preferences in a way which allows them to be mapped onto a simple vote
decision. This evaluation done by the citizens along with their personality traits and environmental conditions
lead to the formation of their attitudes towards the politics of the day.
The most important factor which helps to identify the political attitude of a person for himself as well as for
others is his political ideology. Political psychologists have often emphasized the role of ideology in the form
of the bipolar distinction between “left” and “right”. The successful learning and “use” of this ideological
continuum allows individuals to adopt ideologically consistent positions toward different political objects
and it contributes to the crystallization of opinions about particular political objects. Ideology is thought
to do these things by bundling a large number of potential evaluative criteria together under the rubric of a
single left-right dimension. Once an individual understands the logic of this dimension and locates himself
somewhere on it, the otherwise-overwhelming task of evaluating the multitude of objects encountered in the
political world and mapping the resulting attitudes onto simple political choices is eased.
The radical, liberal, moderate, conservative, and reactionary ideologies are the ones which are often used in
political discourse. The concepts of political change and political values must be discussed in relation to these
five ideologies in order to gain a clear understanding of what they represent.
Radicals are people who find themselves extremely discontented with the status quo. Consequently, they
wish an immediate and profound change in the existing order, advocating something new and different for
society.

107
Considerably less dissatisfied, but still wishing to change the system significantly, are the liberals. All liberals
share a belief in the equality, intelligence, and competence of people. Moderates find little wrong with the
existing society, and their reluctance to change it is exceeded only by the conservatives.
Differing from liberals in most respects, conservatives are dubious about bold efforts to improve the world
for fear that incompetent meddling might, indeed, make things worse. Only the reactionaries reject current
institutions and modern values. They would see society retrace its steps and adopt former political norms and
policies.
Being clear about the values people hold is usually more revealing about the place they occupy on the
spectrum than simply knowing what policy changes they advocate. Basically, people on the right of the
political spectrum revere authority, tradition, elitism, and property rights, whereas those on the left emphasize
political liberty, social change, human equality, and human rights.
Beyond these philosophical convictions, there are several other motivations that cause people to lean to the
left or right. Psychological factors about the need for change are important. Economic circumstances also
play a part. Age is another factor. Finally, one’s view about the condition of human nature is probably the
most important consideration in determining with which side of the spectrum one will identify. Each of these
factors predisposes people’s political attitudes about certain policy alternatives.
Difference between Communism and Socialism

Communism and socialism are economic and political structures that promote equality and seek to eliminate
social classes. Sometimes, the two are used interchangeably, though they are quite different.
In a way, communism is an extreme form of socialism. Many countries have dominant socialist political
parties but very few are truly communist. In fact, most countries - including staunch capitalist bastions like the
U.S. and U.K. - have government programs that borrow from socialist principles. “Socialism” is sometimes
used interchangeably with “communism” but the two philosophies have some stark differences. Most notably,

108
while communism is a political system, socialism is primarily an economic system that can exist in various
forms under a wide range of political systems.
S. No. Communism Socialism
1. From each according to his ability, to each From each according to his ability, to each
according to his needs. Free-access to the according to his contribution. Emphasis on profit
articles of consumption is made possible being distributed among the society or workforce to
by advances in technology that allow for complement individual wages/salaries.
super-abundance.
2. All people are the same and therefore All individuals should have access to basic articles
classes make no sense. The government of consumption and public goods to allow for self-
should own all means of production and actualization. Large-scale industries are collective
land and also everything else. People efforts and thus the returns from these industries
should work for the government and the must benefit society as a whole.
collective output should be redistributed
equally.
3. Centralized government, planned economy, Economic activity and production especially are
dictatorship of the "proletariat", common adjusted by the State to meet human needs and
ownership of the tools of production, no economic demands. "Production for use": useful
private property. Equality between genders goods and services are produced specifically for
and all people, international focus. Usually their usefulness.
anti-democratic with a 1-party system
4. A communist society is stateless, classless Can coexist with different political systems. Most
and is governed directly by the people. socialists advocate participatory democracy,
This however has never been practised. some (Social Democrats) advocate parliamentary
democracy, and Marxist-Leninists advocate
"Democratic centralism."
5. The concept of property is negated and Two kinds of property: Personal property, such
replaced with the concept of commons and as houses, clothing, etc. owned by the individual.
ownership with "usership". Public property includes factories, and means of
production owned by the State but with worker
control.
6. All religious and metaphysics are Freedom of religion, but usually promotes
rejected. secularism.
7. The means of production are held The means of production are owned by public
in common, negating the concept of enterprises or cooperatives, and individuals are
ownership in capital goods. Production compensated based on the principle of individual
is organized to provide for human needs contribution. Production may variously be
directly without any use for money. coordinated through either economic planning or
Communism is predicated upon a markets.
condition of material abundance.
8. Examples: Ideally, there is no leader; the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR):
people govern directly. This has never although the actual categorization of the USSR's
been actually practiced, and has just economic system is in dispute, it is often considered
used a one-party system. Examples 0f to be a form of centrally-planned socialism.
Communist states are the erstwhile Soviet
Union, Cuba and North Korea.
Both communism and socialism are near opposites of capitalism, with no private ownership and class equality.
In capitalism, reward comes naturally without limitation to workers who exceed the normal minimums.

109
When there is excess production, the owner can freely keep it, and he has no obligations to share his spoils
with anyone else. A capitalist environment facilitates competition, and the result is unlimited advancement
opportunity.
In modern society, many countries have adopted pieces of socialism into their economic and political
policies. For example, in the United Kingdom, markets are allowed to fluctuate rather freely, and workers
have unlimited earning potential based on their work. However, basic needs like healthcare are provided
to everyone regardless of time or effort in their work. The welfare programs like food stamps in the United
States are also forms of socialist policies that fit into an otherwise capitalist society.
Difference between Marxism, Leninism, Stalinism and Maoism

Marxism: it laid the foundations of socialism and communism. History is the history of class struggle. It is
based on mid-to-late 19th century works of German philosopher Karl Marx.
Marxist methodology originally used economic and sociopolitical inquiry to analyze and critique the
development of capitalism and the role of class struggle in systemic economic change. According to Marxist
analysis, class conflict within capitalism arises due to intensifying contradictions between highly productive
mechanized and socialized production performed by the proletariat, and private ownership and appropriation
of the surplus product in the form of surplus value (profit) by a small minority of private owners called the
bourgeoisie. As the contradiction becomes apparent to the proletariat through the alienation of labor, social
unrest between the two antagonistic classes intensifies, culminating in a social revolution. The eventual long-
term outcome of this revolution would be the establishment of socialism – a socioeconomic system based
on social ownership of the means of production, distribution based on one’s contribution, and production
organized directly for use. As the productive forces and technology continued to advance, Marx hypothesized
that socialism would eventually give way to a communist stage of social development, which would be a
classless, stateless, humane society erected on common ownership and the principle of “From each according
to his ability, to each according to his needs”.
Leninism: Lenin builds on the ideas of Marx in early 20th century. States that Imperialism is the Highest Stage
of Capitalism. Communism can only come from workers being organized through a vanguard “Communist
Party”.
Stalinism: The term came into prominence during the mid-1930s, when a Soviet politician and associate of
Stalin, reportedly declared, “Let’s replace Long Live Leninism with Long Live Stalinism!” Most Marxists
state that Stalinism is not a form of Marxism and has little to do with communism. It includes an extensive
use of propaganda to establish a personality cult around an absolute dictator, as well as extensive use of the
secret police to maintain social submission and silence political dissent. Stalin believed that socialism could
effectively be built in a single nation, without the help of other nations.
Maoism: Unlike the earlier forms of Marxism-Leninism in which the urban proletariat was seen as the
main source of revolution, and the countryside was largely ignored, Mao focused on the peasantry as the
main revolutionary force who, he said, could be led by the proletariat (working class) and its vanguard, the
Communist Party.
Maoism emphasizes “revolutionary mass mobilization” (physically mobilizing the vast majority of a
population in the struggle for socialism) and establishment of village-level industries independent of the
outside world (see Great Leap Forward). In Maoism, deliberate organizing of massive military and economic
power is necessary to defend the revolutionary area from outside threat, while centralization keeps corruption
under supervision, amid strong control, and sometimes alteration, by the revolutionaries of the area’s arts and
sciences.
Attitude Quotes
1. “We are dangerous when we are not conscious of our responsibility for how we behave, think, and feel.” -
— Marshall B. Rosenberg
2. Ability is what you’re capable of doing. Motivation determines what you do. Attitude determines how
well you do it. — LouHoltz

110
3. Attitude is a little thing that makes a big difference. — Winston Churchill
4. Weakness of attitude becomes weakness of character. — Albert Einstein
5. If you are going to achieve excellence in big things, you develop the habit in little matters. Excellence is
not an exception, it is a prevailing attitude. — Colin Powell
6. Our environment, the world in which we live and work, is a mirror of our attitudes and expectations.
— Earl Nightingale
7. The meaning of things lies not in the things themselves, but in our attitude towards them.
— Antoine de Saint-Exupery
8. The remarkable thing is, we have a choice everyday regarding the attitude we will embrace for that day.
— Charles R. Swindoll
9. Civilization is a method of living, an attitude of equal respect for all men. — Jane Addams
10. Having a positive mental attitude is asking how something can be done rather than saying it can’t be done.
— Bo Bennett
11. You cannot tailor-make the situations in life but you can tailor-make the attitudes to fit those situations.
— Zig Ziglar
12. Adopting the right attitude can convert a negative stress into a positive one. — Hans Selye
13. The greatest discovery of my generation is that man can alter his life simply by altering his attitude of
mind. — James Truslow Adams
14. The only disability in life is a bad attitude. — Scott Hamilton
15. A strong positive mental attitude will create more miracles than any wonder drug.
— Patricia Neal
16. Happiness doesn’t depend on any external conditions; it is governed by our mental attitude.
— Dale Carnegie
17. The triumph of persuasion over force is the sign of a civilized society. — Mark Skousen
nn

111
Aptitude and Foundational Values
or Civil Service
Aptitude and Related Concepts
T
he word aptitude is derived from the word Aptos which means ‘fitted for’. Aptitude is defined as:
“A natural or inherent talent to acquire a certain skill or ability in the future through appropriate
training. Aptitude can be both mental as well as physical. Having an aptitude for a particular job
increases the probability of success as it leads to fast learning with less effort of different skills required for
that job.”
Natural tendency: From the definition, aptitude is something which comes naturally. It refers to those
capabilities which are present in a person’s DNA. One can take language acquisition as an example. Human
beings are born with the capacity to learn and use language. As a child, when an individual is exposed to a
particular language, he just grabs it. Language is not something which is very easy to learn. Yet people learn it
at such an early stage of life because they have an inherent capacity to learn and use it in different situations.
This inherent capacity is called as aptitude.
However, it is also true that not all individuals have same capacity to learn one or more languages in a
proficient manner without much effort. Different people have different level of aptitude for learning languages.
Since aptitude is natural and an inherent capacity, it may never finish but can definitely diminish to such
extent that nothing extraordinary will be left. Like numeracy aptitude. One has to train his mind with numbers
on regular basis. It is important that a person realize his aptitude in different fields early in his career.
It is also important to understand that a person can learn even those things for which he doesn’t have any
aptitude. However, that learning will require comparatively more time and efforts than learning something for
which a person has an aptitude. For example, a person can become a good leader even if he doesn’t have the
aptitude to attain good leadership qualities. But intense learning with great motivation, positive attitude and
environmental support can help him to become a good team leader. However, it has been often seen that it is
the aptitude which led to the difference between a good leader and a great leader.
Skills, Abilities and Aptitudes: In order to understand the above definition clearly, it is also important to
understand the difference between skills, abilities and aptitudes. The difference is of time. Skills refer to
things an individual has learnt to do in the past, abilities refer to the things he can do now and aptitude refers
to the things that he can learn in the future.
Skills are a backward looking description. Skills describe what a person has learned to do in the past. For
example, children develop writing skills during their schooling years and then they use this skill throughout
their life. Abilities are a present description. For example a person has learned to drive (he knows technical
details of a car, functions of different parts, mode of operation, Sensory motor skills are good etc.) but has
not developed it into skill due to lack of practice. Abilities describe what a person can do now. Aptitudes are
a forward looking description. Aptitudes describe what a person can do in the future if he gets appropriate
training.
For example if an individual is regarded as a skilful civil servant, it means he is doing his job well by serving
the public. If someone says that an individual has the ability to become a civil servant, it means that the person
already has the traits like reasoning, physical fitness, morality which will help him in becoming a good civil
servant. Now if someone says, that an individual has an aptitude for becoming a civil servant, it means he has
the capacity to develop those traits which are important in becoming a good civil servant.
Appropriate Training: Aptitude is converted into a skill only when appropriate training is given to the person.

112
For example, it is through Civil Services Exam which is held every year by UPSC in India for recruitment of
IAS and other allied services, UPSC recognizes and certify the aptitude of a candidate. Then this candidate
is sent to the national academy. In the academy, training is provided leading to formation of ability. Then on
the job training is given to the individual in a district where his ability is converted in skills through practice.
These skills of a good civil servant keep on improving with more and more practice, experience and time.
UPSC National Academy Cadre District
Aptitude Ability Skill
Training Practice
Aptitude Types: Aptitude can be both mental as well as physical. For example,
●● A student’s aptitude for learning languages requires mental aptitude but any kind of physical aptitude like
height of a person, body strength is not required.
●● A man’s aptitude for becoming an IPS officer requires not only general mental capacity but a minimum
height (165 cm) criterion is also there.
Thus, aptitude implies the prediction about the individual’s potentialities for future. It is the aptness or
quickness to succeed in a specific field of activity. Aptitude is not knowledge, understanding, learned or
acquired abilities (skills) or attitude. The innate nature of aptitude is in contrast to achievement, which
represents knowledge or ability that is gained. Aptitude in simple terms can be regarded as a condition or
set of characteristics regarded as symptomatic of an individual’s ability to acquire with training some usually
specified knowledge, skill or set of responses. It is a capability of learning a task.
Recognized Aptitudes: There are certain commonly recognized aptitudes. Some of them are:
●● General Learning capacity l Verbal Aptitude
●● Numerical Aptitude l Form Perception
●● reasoning aptitude l Visual memory
●● Creativity, also called remote association l Language learning aptitude
●● Finger dexterity l Visual memory
According to Wellington College, London, every individual possesses eight aptitudes: Moral, Spiritual,
Logical, Linguistic, Physical, Cultural, Social and Personal.
Aptitude and Attitude: An attitude can be defined as a positive or negative evaluation of people, objects,
event, activities, ideas, or just about anything in your environment. Aptitude enables a person to develop skills
to perform a task while attitude determines how a person performs that task.
Although it might sound counterintuitive to some, there are indications that attitude can outweigh aptitude
in determining whether skills are attained or not. While interacting with the business community, many
educators have heard employers say something to the equivalent of, “just give me a person with the right
attitude, who will show up and stay on the job, and we’ll train them.” A study entitled Attitude versus
Aptitude, by Côté and Levine, published in the Journal of Adolescent Research, found that motivation was a
better predictor than IQ for skills acquisition.
The main argument for above proposition is that it is your attitude which determines what and how much you
can do. It is like an engine – it can either slow you down or accelerate you forward. You can train people for
weaknesses in aptitude – but you cannot train people out of an attitude weakness.
Aptitude Realisation
Aptitude realisation is an important step towards a successful and satisfying career. However, many people
are there who remain trapped in wrong professions throughout their life. They even earn money and fame
from something in which they have no talent. This also happens with bureaucracy in India. Many people
are bureaucrats by chance and not by talent. In India, occupation of a person is often decided by his family.
A doctor’s son will become a doctor; Business families are there which prefer their children to become
a part of their business only. From the birth only, a child is taught to become what his family wants him

113
to become. Work life of an individual is often decided without
taking aptitude into account.
Two things which affect the life of an individual are Inheritance
and environment. Everything a person has, he gets it either
from nature or nurture. Even if aptitude is not there i.e. natural
capacity is not there, then also a person can learn it from the
environment but he will not be at ease in doing that work. He
has to make some extra effort to gain that skill. Also a person
has a tendency to become what he naturally is rather than what
environment has made him.
If congruence is there between a person’s family background
and his aptitude, then there is greater probability that he will excel in his work life. He will get financial
support, motivation and experience from his family. However, if incongruence is there, then it will be on the
individual that what path he’ll take.
Realizing one’s aptitude requires three things:
1. Correct identification of your aptitude.
2. Your attitude and resolve to pursue your aptitude.
3. Your socio- cultural and economic surroundings.
Correct identification of aptitude is a must for aptitude realisation. If second and third conditions are favourable
to the person, then the probability is really high that he will excel in the field for which he has an aptitude.
However, even if one of the second and third conditions is satisfied, then also a person can succeed provided
a high degree of favourable condition is there.
For example, Mr. X has an artistic mind and can make really good paintings, but he belongs to a middle
class family. Then it will not be possible for X to pursue painting as a profession since it requires a lot of
time and resources to be recognised as a good painter. He may take it as a hobby because such things are not
supported by a middle class society. But then there are people like MF Husain. Husain was born into a very
poor Muslim family in Maharashtra. Primarily self-taught, Husain painted cinema posters in Mumbai early
in his career. But he had the resolve and dedication towards his talent. His hard work and perseverance gave
him the recognition as one of the best painters in the world. Every year, many candidates from lower strata
of society clear elite Civil Services Exam in India. This happens largely because of their aptitude and resolve
to become an IAS officer.
Looking from other side, Kapoor family of Bollywood cinema in India is a classic example of good socio-
cultural background. Most of the family members are into the film industry not only because they have an
aptitude but also a socio-cultural backing. They can become actors or directors even if they have little resolve
or great attitude to become one.
Aptitude Identification
The first step towards aptitude realisation is correct identification of aptitude. One good choice can do wonders
in a man’s life. Many examples are there. Sachin Tendulkar wanted to become a fast bowler in starting of his
career, but he soon realized that his physical as well as mental aptitude is in batting rather than bowling. M S
Dhoni initially was a goalkeeper for his football team. He has the talent in stopping the balls. He was sent to
play cricket for a local cricket club by his football coach only.
Aptitude identification is done in both formal and informal ways.
Informal tests: Informal aptitude testing starts with students making choices about education that will affect
the rest of their lives. Interest areas, attitude towards different things and events, performance in particular
fields at school and college level often shows your aptitude. Your family, teachers, friends recognize your
talent from your attitude towards different things. Sometimes, a person identifies it by himself only. However,
choosing a college or career simply based on what friends and family members have done or suggest can be
a haphazard way of making such an important decision.

114
What suits one person or an earlier generation may not work at all for someone else. It has been observed
that people are happier and more satisfied in their careers when they choose work that matches their aptitude
pattern. Finding a career path that allows them to develop their natural abilities will allow them to express
their fullest potential.
Formal tests: Formal ways include aptitude testing. Aptitude testing is designed to measure your natural
talents. Aptitude tests not only help the organisations to choose right people for the job but also help the
candidates to understand their strengths and weaknesses. The results help to determine your inborn capacity.
Aptitudes are generally tested in the form of an Aptitude Battery which tests a large number of aptitudes at
one time with a series of small tests for each aptitude.
For example, paper II of Civil Services Preliminary Examination in India. It is constructed (as mentioned in
the notification for recruitment) to test the candidate’s aptitude for:
●● Comprehension
●● Interpersonal skills including communication skills;
●● Logical reasoning and analytical ability
●● Decision-making and problem-solving
●● General mental ability
●● Basic numeracy (numbers and their relations, orders of magnitude, etc.)
●● Data interpretation (charts, graphs, tables, data sufficiency etc.)
Other examples of aptitude tests are
Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery for candidates entering armed forces in United States.
●● CAT: Common Admission Test
●● CLAT: Common Law Admission Test (India for entry into law courses).
●● Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT): The SAT is a standardized test for most college admissions in the
United States. It was first introduced in 1926, and its name and scoring have changed several times.
It was first called the Scholastic Aptitude Test, then the Scholastic Assessment Test. SAT consists of
three major sections: Critical Reading, Mathematics, and Writing. Each major section is divided into three
parts.
●● The Differential Aptitude Tests (DATs): were developed in the US, but have been standardised for
use in different countries. The DATs are designed for use in educational and vocational guidance and
are used by school counsellors, personnel officers, psychologists and all persons concerned with
assessing the educational or vocational aptitudes of adolescents. They are group-administered tests
of cognitive skills, divided into eight subtests. The subtests are Verbal Reasoning, Numerical Ability,
Clerical Speed and Accuracy, Abstract Reasoning, Mechanical Reasoning, Space Relations, Spelling, and
Language Usage. The tests are typically administered to students in two sessions, each lasting under two
hours.
●● Bank PO and SSC exams in India to a large extent check aptitude of candidates in different fields.
Aptitude Quotes
1. Everybody is a Genius. But If You Judge a Fish by Its Ability to Climb a Tree, It Will Live Its Whole Life
Believing that It is Stupid. Albert Einstein
2. Always play to your strengths, whether your strengths are gender-based or just natural aptitude. Lynn
Good
3. The thought of dancing scared me. A lot. Because I have absolutely no aptitude for it. Daniel Radcliffe
4. Artists, musicians, scientists - if you have any kind of visionary aptitude, it’s often something that you
don’t have a choice in. You have to do it. Patti Smith Musicians
5. For most of the early hires you make in a startup, experience doesn’t matter very much, and you should
go for aptitude. Sam Altman
6. Genius is nothing but a great aptitude for patience

115
7. “Aptitude without Attitude is Blind; Attitude without Aptitude is Lame.” Richard Marcel I.
8. “The future depends on attitude, aptitude, and gratitude--not on knowledge.” Debasish Mridha M.D.
9. It is not your aptitude, but your attitude, that determines your altitude. Zig Ziglar
10. People are so constituted that everybody would rather undertake what they see others do, whether they
have an aptitude for it or not. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
11. You’re born with certain gifts and you use them as best you can in life. You begin to learn and recognize
that you have certain skills and aptitudes that you apply and use them to carry you forward. Bernie
Ecclestone
12. Genius consists of equal parts of natural aptitude and hard work. Andre Maurois
13. University: ... a place where rich men send their sons who have no aptitude for business. Kin Hubbard
14. Each man has to seek out his own special aptitude for a higher life in the midst of the humble and
inevitable reality of daily existence. Than this, there can be no nobler aim in life. Maurice Maeterlinck
15. Each man has an aptitude born with him. Do your work. Ralph Waldo Emerson
16. Most do violence to their natural aptitude, and thus attain superiority in nothing. Baltasar Gracian
17. There is no such thing as a natural puncher. There is a natural aptitude for punching and that is different.
Nobody is born the best. You have to practice and train to become the best. Cus D’Amato
18. Courage is a moral quality; it is not a chance gift of nature like an aptitude for games. It is a cold choice
between two alternatives. Charles Wilson
nn

116
Chapter - 2
Foundational Values for Civil Services
A
s discussed in the first unit, Values are those things that are important or valued by an individual or
an organisation. Every society and its political system have a set of values which is acceptable to all
the responsible members of the society. Civil services being the integral part of political system are
expected to adhere to these values. Only then it will be accepted and valued by the society.
The 2nd ARC in its 10th report, (Refurbishing of Personnel Administration, Scaling New Heights) is of the
view that in addition to commitment to the Constitution values for civil services should include:
1. Objectivity
2. Empathy for the vulnerable and weaker sections of society
3. Adherence to the highest standards of probity, integrity and conduct
4. Commitment to the citizens’ concerns and public good
5. Impartiality and non-partisanship
The Components of Thinking

The topic of human values requires a certain level of intellect and critical thinking from the individual. Our
intellect can be judged on the basis of Intellectual Standards. Being able to think critically necessitates a
thorough command of these standards, infused in all thinking. These are also the intellectual traits of a civil
servant. The Intellectual Standards include:
●● Clarity - Understandable, the meaning can be grasped
●● Accuracy - Free from errors or distortions, true
●● Precision - Exact to the necessary level of detail
●● Relevance - Relating to the matter at hand
●● Depth - Containing complexities and multiple relationships
●● Breadth - Encompassing multiple viewpoints
●● Logic - The parts make sense together-no contradictions
●● Significance - Focusing on the important, not the trivial
●● Fairness - Justifiable, not self-serving or one-sided
Consistent application of these standards of thinking to the elements of thinking lead to the development of
Intellectual Traits of:
Intellectual integrity: is defined as recognition of the need to be true to one’s own thinking and to hold oneself
to the same standards one expects others to meet. It means to hold oneself to the same rigorous standards of
evidence and proof to which one holds one’s antagonists—to practice what one advocates for others. It also
means to honestly admit discrepancies and inconsistencies in one’s own thought and action, and to be able to
identify inconsistencies in one’s own thinking. The opposite of intellectual integrity is intellectual hypocrisy,
a state of mind unconcerned with genuine integrity.
Intellectual Humility: Having a consciousness of the limits of one’s knowledge, including sensitivity to
circumstances in which one’s native egocentrism is likely to function self-deceptively; sensitivity to bias,
prejudice and limitations of one’s viewpoint. Intellectual humility depends on recognizing that one should not
claim more than one actually knows. It does not imply spinelessness or submissiveness. It implies the lack of
intellectual pretentiousness, boastfulness, or conceit, combined with insight into the logical foundations, or
lack of such foundations, of one’s beliefs.
Intellectual Courage: Having a consciousness of the need to face and fairly address ideas, beliefs or
viewpoints toward which we have strong negative emotions and to which we have not given a serious hearing.

117
This courage is connected with the recognition that ideas considered dangerous or absurd are sometimes
rationally justified (in whole or in part) and that conclusions and beliefs inculcated in us are sometimes false
or misleading. To determine for ourselves which is which, we must not passively and uncritically “accept”
what we have “learned.” Intellectual courage comes into play here, because inevitably we will come to see
some truth in some ideas considered dangerous and absurd, and distortion or falsity in some ideas strongly
held in our social group. We need courage to be true to our own thinking in such circumstances. The penalties
for non-conformity can be severe.
Intellectual Empathy: Having a consciousness of the need to imaginatively put oneself in the place of others
in order to genuinely understand them, which requires the consciousness of our egocentric tendency to identify
truth with our immediate perceptions of long-standing thought or belief. This trait correlates with the ability
to reconstruct accurately the viewpoints and reasoning of others and to reason from premises, assumptions,
and ideas other than our own. This trait also correlates with the willingness to remember occasions when we
were wrong in the past despite an intense conviction that we were right, and with the ability to imagine our
being similarly deceived in a case-at-hand.
This capacity for intellectual empathy is essential to those who wish to live generously and with integrity in
a pluralistic society. Perhaps it is even more essential today than in times past, given the social and cultural
forces that presently foster division and encourage peremptory dismissal of opposing views -- not to mention
our enhanced capacities to destroy one another. The opposite of intellectual empathy is intellectual self-
centeredness. It is thinking centred on self.
Intellectual Perseverance: Having a consciousness of the need to use intellectual insights and truths in spite
of difficulties, obstacles, and frustrations; firm adherence to rational principles despite the irrational opposition
of others; a sense of the need to struggle with confusion and unsettled questions over an extended period of
time to achieve deeper understanding or insight. The opposite of intellectual perseverance is intellectual
laziness, demonstrated in the tendency to give up quickly when faced with an intellectually challenging task.
Faith In Reason: Confidence that, in the long run, one’s own higher interests and those of humankind at
large will be best served by giving the freest play to reason, by encouraging people to come to their own
conclusions by developing their own rational faculties; faith that, with proper encouragement and cultivation,
people can learn to think for themselves, to form rational viewpoints, draw reasonable conclusions, think
coherently and logically, persuade each other by reason and become reasonable persons, despite the deep-
seated obstacles in the native character of the human mind and in society as we know it.
Fair-mindedness: entails a consciousness of the need to treat all viewpoints alike, without reference to one’s
own feelings or selfish interests, or the feelings or selfish interests of one’s friends, company, community,
or nation. It implies adherence to intellectual standards (such as accuracy and sound logic), uninfluenced by
one’s own advantage or the advantage of one’s group.
Intellectual Autonomy: Intellectual autonomy may be defined as internal motivation based on the ideal of
thinking for oneself; having rational self-authorship of one’s beliefs, values, and way of thinking; not being
dependent on others for the direction and control of one’s thinking.
Autonomous persons are persons in charge of their lives. They are not irrationally dependent on others and not
controlled by infantile emotions. They have self-control. They are competent. They complete what they begin.
In forming beliefs, critical thinkers do not passively accept the beliefs of others. Rather, they think through
situations and issues for themselves and reject unjustified authorities while recognizing the contributions of
reasonable authority. They mindfully form principles of thought and action and do not mindlessly accept
those presented to them. They are not limited by the accepted way of doing things.
They evaluate the traditions and practices that others often accept unquestioningly. Independent thinkers
strive to incorporate knowledge and insight into their thinking, independent of the social status of the source.
They are not stubborn, or unresponsive to the reasonable suggestions of others. They are self-monitoring thinkers
who strive to amend their own mistakes. They function from values they themselves have freely chosen.
The above traits also happen to be the attributes of a man with integrity.

118
1. Integrity
One of the important characteristics of values and ethics is that they are not
absolute in nature. They can be defined in different ways in different contexts.
Everything depends upon time, place and person. Integrity can also be defined in
different ways in different contexts.
Integrity from individual’s perspective or personal integrity
Integrity means to be honest and consistent in thought, speech and action. It
refers to the quality of eliminating the gap between what we think, what we say
and what we do. It is the integration of ideals, convictions, standards, beliefs
and behaviour. A man of integrity is never influenced by temptations and pressures from outside as he or
she would only respond to one’s conscience. In simple words, it is something which cannot be broken. You
cannot disintegrate mind, speech and body of a man of integrity as they are one and congruent with each
other. Integrity is doing the right thing even if nobody is looking. It is a value of values and is about being
what you are.
For example, you are a bureaucrat; you think that your political boss is corrupt and useless. But you always
praise him in front of your colleagues as they all are loyal to him. Now one day, politician calls you and
ask for some favour. He also assures you a large sum once the work is completed. Now you are very happy;
you complete the work given to you on time and also get rewarded. Now your opinion about the politician is also
changed even when there is no relative change in the conduct of the politician. This is a case of no integrity.
Integrity is a non-negotiable and non-selective quality. Non-negotiable means that you cannot compromise
on your integrity at any cost and non- selective means you cannot compromise it in any situation. Many
situations especially in the environment of a civil servant often test his integrity. But no compromise at any
cost is a thumb rule for integrity. A district collector declining an offer of bribe at one time and accepting it
when amount is really high shows signs of no integrity. Integrity is something which you have or you don’t
have it.
Ashok Khemka for example is a senior IAS officer of Haryana cadre who has been transferred for the second
time in six months in April 2013 due to controversy over irregularities in the Haryana seed development
corporation. In his career of 22 years, he has been transferred 44 times but all the political pressure and
sufferings haven’t led him compromise with his morals. It is often said that when a man has integrity, he is
peaceful from inside as there is no fight and incongruence in his thought and behaviour. Such people can sleep
really well with no contradictions in mind which gives them enough energy to survive the adverse conditions.
A person with strong integrity creates a very strong resistance.
It is also important to understand that integrity does not mean dispassionate action but it implies indifference
to victory or loss. A person with integrity is not worried about win or loss as he’s only concerned with walking
on the path which he considers as ethically correct.
Integrity in individual’s context can be of two types, Moral and Intellectual.
Moral integrity: Moral integrity means consistency and honesty in the standards used for judging others as
well as yourself as right or wrong. Integrity is often regarded as morality in action. For example, at one point
of time, a person believes that violence and discrimination are examples of wrong behaviour. However, in
some other context, he is involved, justifying or saying nothing when the same behaviour is shown by him
or by others.
Intellectual integrity: Intellectual integrity means to be consistent and true to one’s thinking and to hold
oneself to the same standards one expects others to meet. It also means to honestly admit discrepancies and
inconsistencies in one’s thought and action, and to be able to identify inconsistencies in one’s own thinking.
In other words, it is the consistency and honesty in your perception, your thoughts, your judgements
and attitude toward others as well as yourself. But it doesn’t mean that a person will become stagnant or
conservative about his viewpoint. If he truly feels that his viewpoint is wrong in light of new information, he
must be honest enough to admit it and change accordingly.

119
Life is more about pursuit of truth rather than achievement of truth. Your views keep on changing with
changing environment. 500 years back, truth for people was that this earth is flat and is at the centre of this
solar system but today truth is something different. We don’t know what is going to be in the future. But
the pursuit of truth for a man of intellectual integrity should always prevail over his social well being. For
example, suppose you are an economist, you have a particular viewpoint about inflation. Now government
wants to induct you in planning commission but for that, it wants you to change your stand on inflation. Your
social wellbeing will increase if you become a member of planning commission. But if you have intellectual
integrity you will stick to your viewpoint.
Mahatma Gandhi always said that “be the change you want to see in the world.” If you want democracy, then
first become a democrat. If you expect others to be to be objective, then you should also expect the same from
yourself. You believe that your employees should be punctual. But then you should also be punctual in your
behaviour. Thus, the standards you are setting for others must also be followed by you.
One must also take caution of the fact that there is not much difference between moral and intellectual integrity.
In fact integrity is about working as per your morals only. Intellectual integrity is acting in accordance with
your morals related to your pursuit of truth. Your morals related to your intellect or moral principles which
you have established while pursuing for the truth should always prevail over your social well being.
For example, India attacks Nepal on the pretext that Nepal is helping China by allowing it to use its land for
weapon system deployment. Actual reason is the greed for natural resources of Nepal. Now you are a patriot
and also an intellect. You believe that attacking Nepal is wrong but you also have to support your country.
Here if you go for positive criticism persuading people about the repercussions of such act, you will be
regarded as a man of intellectual integrity.
Source of Personal Integrity: Integrity is the value which cannot be enforced through external controls.
The source of integrity is moral reasoning and not profit-loss reasoning. In moments of decision making or
weakness, one should go for moral reasoning that is judging things on the basis of right and wrong rather than
judging them on the basis of profit and loss. This will produce integrity.
External controls and regulations cannot bring integrity in a person. External control in form of rules,
regulations, laws, punishment may lead to a forced compliance to a code of conduct but this does not mean
that just because an individual is following the code of conduct, he’s a man of integrity. Willfulness is an
important characteristic of integrity and it is important that a man should do what he’s willing to do.
Thus, integrity is solely based on internal controls. And that’s why it is very important that the candidates who
are entering civil services should have integrity as an important part of their personality.
Integrity in social context
In social context, integrity describes a person who willingly and consistently acts in accordance with social
standards and values of society. Every society has certain norms and values. Democracy, brotherhood, equality
and secularism are some of the values of Indian society. When these values are internalised by an individual
and are reflected in his behaviour, one can say that he is a man of integrity in the context of society.
Since nothing is universal, different cultures may differ in giving priority and importance to different values.
Secularism in India for example is a positive concept i.e. state is not irreligious but is non-religious in nature.
It respects religious sentiments of people. However, in some countries like France and Canada, secularism
has a negative connotation. Burka or naqab was recently banned in France. Religious symbols like turban are
also banned in France schools.
It is also quite natural that many times there is a clash between the between the morals of an individual and the
ethics of the society. In such conditions, if a person follows what he think is correct, then he will be regarded
as a man of integrity but from individual’s context but not from the social context.
Professional Integrity
A profession arises when any trade or occupation transforms itself through “the development of formal
qualifications based upon education, apprenticeship, and examinations, the emergence of regulatory bodies
with powers to admit and discipline members, and some degree of monopoly rights.”

120
Every profession deals with integrity in its own context. A person in a profession shows his integrity by acting
in agreement with the relevant standards, norms and values of that profession. Professional integrity thus
defines the professional who consistently and willingly practices within the guidelines of a chosen profession
under the obligation of a Code of Ethics.
So many professions are there and each profession has a certain set of values and standards. Just like integrity
in social context, integrity in a profession means internalising the value system of that profession and
following it in your conduct. The Hippocratic Oath for example is historically taken by physicians and
other healthcare professionals swearing to practice medicine ethically and honestly. Honesty, Transparency,
Accountability, Confidentiality, Objectivity, Obedience to the law are certain other norms which are found in
almost all kind of professions.
Even criminals can have professional integrity. There is an unspoken code of conduct in criminals also. For
example:
●● One will not go in the area of others.
●● Police and criminals will not harm each other’s family.
●● No going back once the deal is final etc.
But such people are often equated to a disintegrated personality in the social context. It is not necessary
that a man having professional integrity will also have personal integrity or integrity in social context. At
most of the times, there is harmony in different contexts as an individual, an organisation and the society are
part of each other. Value system of one will affect the value system of others and vice-versa. Equilibrium is
maintained between individual, organisation and society and whenever it is disturbed, it needs to be resolved
through the processes of adaptation, change or integration. If a person finds vast differences in his values and
organisational values, then he’ll either try to change the values of organisation or will try to change himself
or will resign from the organisation.
Integrity in Civil Services
According to 2nd ARC, integrity means that Civil servants should be guided solely by public interest in their
official decision making and not by any financial or other consideration either in respect of themselves, their
families or their friends.
A civil servant must:
●● fulfil his duties and obligations responsibly;
●● always act in a way that is professional and that deserves and retains the confidence of all those with
whom he has dealings;
●● make sure public money and other resources are used properly and efficiently;
●● deal with the public and their affairs fairly, efficiently, promptly, effectively and sensitively, to the best of
his ability;
●● handle information as openly as possible within the legal framework; and
●● Comply with the law and uphold the administration of justice.
A civil servant with integrity must not:
●● misuse his official position, for example by using information acquired in the course of his official duties
to further his private interests or those of others;
●● accept gifts or hospitality or receive other benefits from anyone which might reasonably be seen to
compromise his personal judgement or integrity; or
●● Disclose official information without authority. This duty continues to apply after he retires from Civil
Service.
Integrity, Efficiency and Corruption
Integrity and Efficiency: Integrity is a must for efficiency. A person cannot become efficient unless he is
a man of integrity. However, it does not mean that an integrated person will always be efficient. It’s like a
vegetable dish. For making a good dish, you need different vegetables, spices are there. But one thing without
which, you can’t make a good dish is salt. Salt is very much necessary. You can’t imagine a life without salt.

121
Integrity is like salt only. You can’t make a good civil servant without integrity. For better understanding, it is
also important to understand the meaning of efficiency in civil services.
Efficiency has been a constant concern of administrative analysis and good governance. Efficiency implies
doing one’s best in one’s job, with a concern for maximum possible utilization of human, material and
financial resources and even time to achieve the prescribed and desired objectives. Efficiency in government
organisations also means that the public official has a regard for the higher goals of governance, including
public welfare and dedication to public service.
Efficiency and Corruption: There is one myth that a person can be corrupt as well as efficient. Sometimes
we say that, it is ok if a person is a little corrupt if he is efficient. But the fact is that a corrupt person can only
be efficient for himself. Moral impurity or corruption is there. Such man is unable to identify what is right and
what is wrong. Behaviour of such people is uncertain and depends upon the situation.
An individual who is corrupt or morally impure cannot go for moral reasoning as his morals keeps on changing
as per the benefits and situations which reward or punish him. If moral reasoning is absent, then a person will
not be able to integrate his morals and actions which may result in absence of integrity. And as we discussed
earlier, if integrity is absent then one can’t be efficient.
Corruption and Integrity: In today’s world, the aggravation of material greed has as a reaction set a blaze
the fire of corruption at all levels. Everybody has the urge to reap the maximum benefits with the minimum
of efforts. Such tendency has led people to compromise on their morality as well as the ethical conduct of the
organisation in which they operate. Everyone wants to earn without hard work. ‘Shortcut’ is the buzzword
today. And in order to take this shortcut, they are ready to compromise with their values. Such behaviour leads
to corruption.
Problem today is that all people cherish the value systems but do not integrate them with their behaviour.
Indians have this habit of deriving pride from their past even when their present conduct is highly unethical
and immoral. People who take pride in belonging to the land of Gandhi and Vivekananda hardly adhere to
their principles and values. This kind of approach must be changed. And it will change only when a person
has integrity.
Loss of integrity leads to uncertain behaviour because then there will be no criterion on which a person’s
behaviour can be predicted. This will lead to loss of trust. When trust is lost, everything is lost. No system
with human interaction will survive for long then.
Mahatma Gandhi often talked about integrity. For him integrity is integral to a healthy society. A healthy
society produces a healthy government and a healthy government in turn produces a healthy nation.
The importance of integrity is also recognised by the government. Annual confidential reports have a column
on integrity. But these reports are remained secret. Good people remain behind the curtains and not get much
publicity. Many new initiatives like Integrity recognition certificate and Integrity survey in every 5 years are
in pipeline to give civil servants of integrity a new recognition.
Note: Other dimensions of this topic will be discussed in Unit-7.
2. Impartiality and Non-Partisanship

Impartiality
Impartiality is a principle of justice holding that decisions should be based on objective criteria, rather than on
the basis of bias and prejudice. Impartiality thus means absence of prejudice and bias. Bias is a preference or
inclination towards someone at the cost of others. It is something which inhibits impartial judgements. Bias
leads to partiality and partiality is the manifestation of your bias attitude.
Prejudice or prejudgement i.e. making a decision before becoming aware of the relevant facts of a case refers
to an unreasonable attitude towards someone. It is a negative feeling towards someone which is not based on
actual experience. Partiality which is the opposite of impartiality involves providing the benefits to one person
over another for improper reasons. In civil services, impartiality works at two levels, political and public.

122
Political Impartiality
Political impartiality holds that a civil servant willserve the Government to the best of his ability, no matter
what his own political beliefs are. He will act in a way which deserves and retains the confidence of Ministers.
At the same time, he must ensure that he will be able to establish the same relationship with those whom he
may be required to serve in some future Government. Impartiality involves serving the position rather than
the person occupying it. Policy, process and result should be the concern rather than the person.
Impartiality also means that the civil servant will comply with any restrictions that have been laid down upon
him. For example
1. He cannot defend or criticize the decisions and views of the Ministers (as distinct from explaining them).
2. A civil servant cannot disclose the advice that he has given to Ministers, but on the other hand he must
explain and implement Minister’s policies with objectivity no matter what his personal views are.
But, sometimes, it can be very hard to follow the above principles. In many situations ‘explaining’ a policy
and ‘defending’ it is very close to each other. It requires a lot of intelligence and diplomacy on the part of civil
servant to maintain this difference. For example: as a civil servant you are asked to comment on a statement
made by the minister or on any policy. Then your comment should be purely based on empirical evidences
and logic. Emotions or personal considerations should not be there. Generally, a positive interpretation in
context of national interest is there. You should not get into the politics of the day.
It becomes even more difficult if you strongly support – or strongly object to – decisions that have been
made by Ministers. It is not always possible to hide your views from colleagues, and from those outside the
Government. But it is absolutely essential that a civil servant should give no signs that show he opposes or
supports the principles and underlying thrust of the Government’s policies. He should also not suggest that
he does not respect his Minister.
Public impartiality or Equality of Treatment
The public expect both Ministers and their officials to deal equally with everyone, and with every organisation,
without prejudice, favour or disfavour. In fact, one of the logic behind the All India Services India is that
bureaucrats going to other state that is other than native state will lead to impartiality. Caste, race, nepotism,
regionalism will not come in the conduct of public service. However, it is also true that the results have led
to a mix bag.
A civil servant must carry out his responsibilities in a way that is fair, just and equitable and reflects the
Civil Service commitment to equality and diversity. He must not Act in a way that unjustifiably favours or
discriminates against particular individuals or interests. Civil servants in carrying out their official work,
including functions like procurement, recruitment, delivery of services etc, should take decisions based on
merit alone.
The principle of public impartiality can be derived from the values of equality and merit which are enshrined
in the constitution.
●● Right to equality from article 14 to 18 calls for equality before law (A14),
●● prohibition of discrimination (A15), and
●● equality of opportunity in public employment (A16)
State not only follows the principle but also try to enforce it among the people (Abolition of untouchability
and Abolition of titles). One can realize the importance of this value from the fact that the constitution has
taken the pain of mentioning all the exceptions to this principle.
The constituent assembly of India was well aware of the high level of inequalities in Indian society. Article 14
also provides for equal protection of the laws which means that equal treatment should be given only in equal
circumstances. Thus, it is also important that other principles of justice should also be taken into account
while practicing this principle of impartiality. In case of conflict between justice and impartiality, justice and
fairness shall always prevail. Equal treatment only in equal circumstances and unequal treatment in unequal
circumstances is the bedrock principle of justice in any society.
This simple but vital concept has a number of useful consequences.

123
●● It brings credibility and trustworthiness in the relation between public and government organisations.
●● It enables a civil servant to ask appropriate questions, however grand the person or organisation with
which he is dealing. For instance, an enquiry into the financial standing of a multinational can often be
less rigorous than a similar enquiry of a small firm. But a civil servant can never take anything for granted.
●● It is a defence against the senior or public figure who might otherwise expect a civil servant to give them
priority or special treatment. For example, a local businessman having close association with ruling party
may ask you for the favour (giving him police protection). Then you can take help of this principle and
deny him the same by following the procedure.
●● It helps the civil servant to maintain the queue i.e. treating people on first come, first serve basis. A civil
servant must never allow queue-jumping, nor should he ever refrain from asking a pertinent question,
whoever he is dealing with. It is of course perfectly reasonable to ‘fast track’ some work for a senior
person who has a genuine need for it to be done quickly. But you must be sure that you would do the same
for anyone else with a similar need, and that they are not jumping ahead of someone whose needs are
just as great, but who is less well connected. Indian constitution also asks the state to secure the right to
work, to education and to public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement
(Article 41).
Non-Partisanship
A proper and harmonious relationship between the political executive and the civil servant is of great
importance for the smooth and efficient functioning of the governmental machinery. The principle of non-
partisanship and political impartiality governs the relations between the political executive and the civil
servant.
This principle of non-partisanship is based on politics-administration dichotomy i.e. politics and administration
are two different things and should remain apart from each other. Politicians are there to formulate the policies
and take decisions and administrators are there to implement these policies. It is important that both of them
should not interfere in each other’s work.
The political executive derives its power from the people through a mechanism of periodic elections and
exercises power by virtue of the constitutional position. Politicians in contrast to civil servants are amateur,
non-technical, partisan and temporary.
The civil servants on the other hand are selected on the basis of merit and derive power from both administrative
positions and the technical expertise. Civil services in contrast to politics are permanent, continuous,
professional and reliable in nature.
It is because of their different nature, the relation between them becomes more complex. Non-partisanship
implies that civil servant should remain non- political in nature and will distance himself from any political
activity. They should remain unaffected by the changes in the flow of politics.
This principle leads to many positive consequences like:
●● public confidence in the non-political character of civil services,
●● confidence of ministers belonging to any political party in the loyalty of their permanent civil servant,
●● High morale of civil servants as promotions, transfers and other services conditions are based on merit
and not on political considerations.
Administrative rules and regulations in order to keep away the civil servants from politics have imposed
severe restrictions on the political rights of the civil servants. According to the conduct rules, the civil servants:
●● cannot join any political party
●● cannot indulge in active politics and aid any political movement
●● use his influence in connection with or take part in an election to any legislature or local authority.
Breach of Political Impartiality and Non-Partisanship
Unfortunately, in the last few decades, India has seen the corrosion of these two values of civil services.
This has led to the emergence of personal affiliations between the minister and the civil servant leading to
politicisation of the civil services. This politicisation has further lead to corruption and absence of public

124
service which is central to any administrative system. This politicisation is often done on the basis of caste,
region, race and religion. In Uttar Pradesh and Bihar for example, caste lobbies are there in which public
officials are grouped on the basis of caste which have political masters from same caste only.
●● Two of the most shameful examples of politicised bureaucracy are the 1984 anti-Sikh riots and the Gujarat
riots of 2002. Affiliation was there between politicians and administrators. All the major scams in the last
decade in India (2G Scam, Commonwealth Scam, Coal Gate Scam etc.) shows politician-bureaucrats
nexus in its core.
●● Breach of these principles has led to frequent use of transfer, suspension and disciplinary powers by
ministers against civil servants who do not act in their favour.
●● It has also resulted in factionalism, group rivalry and casteism among the ministers and the civil servants.
Absence of mutual confidence is there leading to loss of effectiveness and frequent delays.
●● Loss of public confidence in politics and bureaucracy which may lead to chaos and anarchy in the society.
All these points show why we need an impartial and apolitical bureaucracy. A bureaucracy committed
to the constitution and to the policies and not to the politicians is what is required for the development of the
country.
3. Objectivity in Civil Services

Many times, especially when we are reprimanded or punished by law, we think that why we should abide
by the rules and regulations formulated by the bureaucracy? Why should we follow them? On what basis,
bureaucracy claims authority over us? The answer to these questions is legality and rationality.
Bureaucracy’s claim to legitimacy is based on its legal structure and rational behaviour. Bureaucracy is
rational because means are expressly designed to achieve certain specific ends. The whole system is based on
a logic which is acceptable to all within a particular society. It is legal because authority is exercised by the
means of a system of rules and procedures which are same for everyone. Equal treatment without any external
influence is given to every individual based on rules and regulations. For a civil servant to be rational and
legal, it is important that he should be objective in behaviour.
“Objectivity refers to the ability to judge fairly, without bias or external influence.”
To explain above definition let us take an example of a newspaper article. An article is there in a newspaper
about the policies of ruling party in handling the economic slowdown.
●● Article has heavily criticised the ruling party.
●● Corruption charges have been levelled against all ministers.
●● Writer whose name is not mentioned is the member of opposition party.
●● Views and defence of ruling and other political parties have not been taken into account.
●● Evidence is not given against the charges.
●● Corruption charges against opposition party have been ignored.
●● Elections are due in the next year.
Now, in light of the above information given about the article, if one analyse the nature of this article in the
context of objectivity, he will find that this article is not objective at all. Considering three conditions given
in the definition i.e. fairness, without bias and external influence:
This article is not fair because equal treatment is nor given to all the parties. It is also important to understand
that when we talk about fairness in the context of objectivity, it means giving equal treatment to every person.
That is why no bias is also there with fairness in the definition of objectivity. But if we talk about fairness in
the context of justice, it means treating people according to what they deserve with disclosures. Fairness as
an independent entity may also lead to unequal treatment in unequal circumstances.
Disclosure of information which can affect the perception of the reader is not there as name of writer from
opposition party is not written. In January 2013, The Hindu newspaper wrote an article on Jaipur Literature
Festival. In the end of the article, it was clearly mentioned that The Hindu is the Co-sponsor of Jaipur Literature
Festival that year. Thus, the editor guarded himself against any kind of unfairness.

125
Absence of empirical evidence which forms the basis of objectivity is also not there against the charges.
Empirical evidence refers to things that we actually see. It is a body of organised Data which we collect
through observation and experimentation. Science is an objective discipline since it is based on empirical
evidence i.e. observation and experiments. Inductive reasoning is there in case of Empiricism which regards
sensory experience as the chief source and test of knowledge. Rationalism on other hand is based on deductive
reasoning and reason is the chief source and test of knowledge. Rationality is based on certain principles that
are so fundamentally true that denying them causes one to fall in contradiction. Certain truths are there and
intellect can directly grasp them.
Bias: it is a preference or inclination towards someone at the cost of others. It is something which inhibits
impartial judgements. Information given against the article clearly shows that corruption charges against the
opposition party have been ignored and defence of ruling party has not been taken into account.
External influence: even if the writer is in agreement with the policies of government, he cannot write that
as party pressure is there. Elections are due in next year which forces him to fall in line with the views of his
party.
Thus, from the above discussion, one can say that the principle of objectivity implies that the decisions and
actions should be based on observable phenomenon and should not be influenced by emotions, biases or
personal prejudices.
Objectivity from philosophical context: is related to reality and truth. Generally, objectivity means the state
or quality of being true even outside of a subject’s individual biases, interpretations, feelings, and imaginings.
A proposition is generally considered objectively true when its truth conditions are met and is bias-free i.e
existing without biases caused by, feelings, ideas, etc. of a sentient subject. Objectivity is mind independent
and object specific. For example, a square has four sides each corner forming a right angle is a fact which can
be measured and is accepted universally.
Subjectivity: which is the opposite of objectivity is mind dependent and subject specific. For example, “this
ice-cream tastes good” is a subjective statement as different people may have different taste and experiences
with that particular ice-cream. There is no evidence for such inferences. They are drawn on the basis of your
thinking about that event or object. Our thinking is not always objective as things like stereotypes, prejudice
etc. dominate us in many situations.
An objective public servant is expected to provide information and advice to all the concerned people on the
basis of the evidence, and accurately present the options and facts. He should not ignore facts or relevant
considerations when providing advice or making decisions even if they go against the personal beliefs of
that official. He takes the decisions on the merits of the case and take due account of expert and professional
advice.
Objectivity in complex situations
The value of objectivity is very high for a civil servant. It helps them in taking the decisions and defending
them in front of others. However, objectivity is not always desirable in all the situations.
●● Objectivity sometimes is a very simple but not ethical answer to some of the most complex problems in
most societies. A judge imposing same fine on a rich and a poor man when both have done the same crime
may be objective but this will not be fair. Judiciary need to be fair rather than objective. Or one can say
that enlightened objectivity should be there in judiciary.
Our constitution for example is not a completely objective document. It has provided special status to certain
sections of society; socialism is preferred over capitalism. Infact it is becoming more subjective. Right to
property was taken away by 44th amendment act; providing subsidies to the weaker sections may not be an
objective decision but yet it is desirable. Banning tobacco products may not be an objective decision as it will
decrease the revenue of government. It may also harm the farmers who cultivate tobacco leaves.
●● Many social sciences have given away the concept of objectivity. They consider humans as essentially
subjective in nature. They believe that if a person is intelligent, smart and sensitive, then he cannot be
objective. He will definitely apply his judgements and sense of justice and with that, subjectivity will
creep into the behaviour and decisions.
126
●● Objectivity sometimes even contradicts the value system of a person. For example, a person rates the
value of patriotism very high in his value system. But the tragedy of being patriotic is that it makes you
the enemy of rest of the human kind. If one looks in the context of internationalism and humanism, he’ll
find that being patriotic is not objective in nature.
●● Objectivity is often regarded as a clerical expectation. You can only expect it from the clerks who are there
to do the auxiliary work but have no responsibility to make the decisions. They can objectively calculate
but are not authorized to take the decisions. Decision making always have some subjectivity in it. The
highest decision making authority, the political executive, political head of civil services, PM of India also
can’t take completely objective decisions. Even his decisions are influenced by his party’s manifesto and
political situations prevailing in the country.
What can be done?
Then what should be done, should we discard objectivity as a value? The answer to this question is no as
objectivity is a fundamental value which should always be strived for even if it can’t be achieved. A bureaucrat
must be at least fair if not objective. Let’s take an example to understand it:
A district magistrate has been given a job to implement a rural development scheme. In order to identify the
beneficiaries, he toured all possible areas and collected data in a scientific and transparent manner. No bias
was shown as equal treatment was given to every area and false reporting was prohibited.
Now he has to take a decision on how to distribute the funds between the people as the funds are limited
and cannot cover all the beneficiaries. In such situation, he has to apply his judgement and observations on
the basis of which he will provide assistance to those who require it more than others. Here subjectivity will
come but there is nothing wrong in it until he is fair in his approach which is in line with the constitutional
values. Discretionary power is used by the DM and his decision will get more acceptances if he discloses all
the procedures and logic behind his choice.
Thus fairness was there even if objectivity was not there. Both objectivity and fairness have the same goal to
achieve equality but in unequal circumstances fairness will always prevail over objectivity.
4. Dedication to Public Service

Dedication is the quality of being able to give or apply one’s time, attention, or self entirely to a particular
activity, cause or person. Some important features and consequences of dedication are:
●● Dedication is a highest form of commitment i.e. commitment with passion and love. It is a personal urge
to achieve certain objective or devote oneself to a particular cause or action.
●● Dedication and commitment are synonymous to each other. Very little difference is there. Commitment
sometimes suggests that one is bound or obligated because he has made a pledge or a promise through a
Formal agreement. However, dedication always suggests that one is devoted, even if there is no formal
commitment.
●● Dedication is a quality which is gained through both commitment and perseverance i.e. steady persistence
shown in achieving a particular goal in spite of difficulties and discouragement.
●● Dedication makes a difference in an individual’s motivation in achieving his goals and the length of
measure he will take just to achieve it. Dedication is when you give yourself to something, and you vow
to see it through completely to the end. You won’t give up, you make sure whatever task you are seeing,
gets finished. Dedication gives the impression of more zealous and heroic commitment.
●● If a person is not dedicated to what he is doing, he may either lose sight of his goal or may never achieve
it. Dedication gives strength to move on and on without any distraction.
●● Dedication is something which is required more than commitment in civil services because sometimes a
person can be committed even if he doesn’t have passion and inspiration. Commitment can be just code
driven in many cases. Like many people are engaged in certain works not because they love to do that job
but because there is some code which legally oblige them to do so.
v For example, a man has signed a contract while joining a job which requires that man to serve whenever
he is required. Now if he is called to serve at some inappropriate time, then he has to go and perform his
127
duty even if he is not motivated and interested. He has to do it because he is obliged to fulfil the written
commitment which he has made through the contract.
v In case of married couple for example, many times husband and wife are committed to each other just
because they are bound by the code of marriage. They are together even when there is no love and
intimacy between them. They do it just because it is their duty to maintain this relation.
However, in the case of dedication, a person is inspired by the sense of duty and his ideals or the ideals of
the state or society. His real objective is not just performing his duty but to achieve the ideal state to which
he has dedicated himself. Like in India, many times it has been seen that police do not register a case if the
crime has not taken place in their area. A police officer doesn’t want to take extra responsibility even when
some urgency is there or immediate action is required. This happens because they are not dedicated towards
the goal of crime free society but may only committed to maintain law and order in their area of jurisdiction.
●● Motivation of the dedicated person is not solely dependent upon the benefits he is getting by doing a
particular job but he is also motivated by doing the job only.
Why Dedication is important
1. In India we often find that bureaucrats are doing their duty just because they are obliged to do so. They
are under a formal commitment to perform their duty. But such attitude is not going to help much as in
developing countries like India, a civil servant needs not only to perform maintenance work but he also
plays an important role in the socio-economic development of the country. The process of overcoming the
destruction caused by imperial exploitation and embarking upon a complex process of social reconstruction
requires some extra effort which can only be possible through dedication.
2. Dedication to public service involves integrating yourself with the idea of public good or public interest.
Single minded relentless pursuit of public good is there. If a civil servant is dedicated, his sense of duty is
integrated with the responsibility which is given to him. A dedicated person will remain motivated even if
the task given to him is non-exciting and unwanted.
3. In civil services, dedication to public service leads to perseverance which helps a public servant to work in
hostile and difficult conditions for long period of time without any distraction. A dedicated public officer
is satisfied and happy by just doing the task only. He enjoys the journey and Work itself motivates him.
For example, government comes up with a certain project (Family Planning Project). You as the District
Collector do not agree with the plan. Financial allocation is also very less. Your employees and superiors are
involved in corruption. The politician heading the organisation doesn’t like you either. Members of society are
also not encouraged by the program. They consider use of contraceptives as unethical and tabood. But since
you are dedicated, you will go with the project. You will try to take the best out of the limited resources. You’ll
not deviate from the goal of healthy developed society. You will do every bit to motivate your employees and
bring them together to persuade local people of various benefits of family planning.
4. Dedication to public service is very important especially in countries like India. Working in India as an
honest public servant is a very tough task. There will be many external and internal factors which will
force you deviate from your goal of public service. Under such condition, it is your dedication towards the
constitution as well as to the policies of government which will help you in finishing the task.
5. Empathy and Compassion towards the Weaker Sections

In order to understand why we need public officials to be empathetic and compassionate towards weaker
sections and towards society in general, it is important to know the difference between apathy, sympathy,
empathy and compassion. Let us take a case to understand the difference.
A young dalit man has recently migrated to a city from his village in search of better employment opportunities.
The man is very poor and he doesn’t have any identity proof because of which he is not getting any place on
rent and employers are also finding it difficult to give a job to a person without identity. Problem is there in
getting low price food. In his village, he used to get the food grains under Public Distribution System (PDS)
but now, this facility is also not present. He went to a nearby municipal committee office and shared his
problem with four officials which were present there.
128
The first official heard his problems but not with much concentration. He was very much indifferent to the
problems and just wanted to get rid of that man. No concern was shown. He just asked the man to visit him
again after few days. This is a case where the civil servant was apathetic about the situation of the poor
chap. Thus, apathy is a state of indifference, or a state in which no emotions such as concern, excitement,
motivation and passion are shown.
The second official carefully listens to the problem of that man. Instinctive reaction of kindness was there.
He attended the poor person with kindness. Care and concern was shown towards that person. It typically
sounds like this, ‘I’m sorry for your pain’ or ‘I hope you will cope well with the situation.’ In the interaction,
Sympathy was shown by the official. He acknowledged the person’s emotional hardships and provided him
comfort and assurance that he will do something for him. Soon, the man left and the official went back to
his regular work. Now this is the problem with sympathy. It is momentary in nature. It comes from instincts
and is spontaneous in nature. Understanding of problems is not there. Like you see a handicapped beggar on
road and sympathise with him. May be you give him a rupee or two but this do not solve the problem. Thus,
sympathy is an Instinctive reaction of kindness which is momentary in nature. It comes from instincts and is
spontaneous in nature.
The third official while listening to the problems vicariously experience the poor man’s situation and
emotional state. This is the state of empathy. Most people refer to this as ‘being in another person’s shoes’.
Empathy involves putting yourself in another man’s place to understand his pain and sorrow. Understanding
of the nature and intensity of problems is there. Empathy is more sustainable then sympathy. Being empathetic
involves a deeper relation then being sympathetic. An empathetic person understands the nature of the
problem, its causes and consequences.
Some people start crying while watching an emotional movie is another example of empathy. The probability
of getting empathetic is more if a person has experienced a same state in the past in his life only which he’s
observing now. However, it is not a necessary condition. For example a rich man who has never seen poverty
can also get empathetic after seeing a poor man.
Now how the fourth official reacted? He listens to the problem with care and showed his concern. He not only
understood the problems of the person in distress but also decide to take immediate action. He gave that man
a BPL certificate thus establishing his identity or helped him enrolling the name in the list of Employment
Exchange Board. Later on he also talked about the problems that people face when they migrate to a city with
his superiors. This official showed the value of compassion towards that man. Compassion brings about some
relatively stable changes in the personality of a person.
Compassion involves not only understanding but also a desire to help alleviate the suffering of the other
person. The emphasis here is on action i.e. wanting to help. Having compassion for others requires one to put
the other person first, imagine what the person is going through, and then consider ways which can help the
person feel better.
Why empathy and compassion is an important aptitude for civil servants in India?
Understanding of problems and sufferings become more enduring if we have empathy towards the people
in distress. In developing countries, there is always a greater chance of disconnect between bureaucracy and
people as bureaucrats are vulnerable to getting trapped in the distancing confines of the power elite. The
persisting disconnect exists between the bureaucrat, who is the policymaker, and people who bear the brunt
(sometimes fruits too) of policies. This disconnect can be removed only through the values of empathy and
compassion.
It is an important quality for every civil servant in all the systems and especially in developing countries like
India because the probability is really high that a young bureaucrat can get in the illusions of the elite system.
Rudyard Kipling once said: ‘to walk among the kings and yet not lose the common touch’ is a kind of
attitude required from the civil servants.
The first official in the above example was indifferent to the plight of the poor man. Indifference is the
most dangerous state. There is no chance of any positive or even negative development in such a relation.
Hundreds of people visit government offices on daily basis with their problems which make civil servants
129
a bit conditioned towards them. Many times a civil servant even starts doubting that whether there is any
solution or not. Such kind of pessimism can make them highly indifferent towards the citizens. Such state can
only be countered by the values of empathy and compassion.
In the late 80s, while referring to the clout of India’s civil servants (particularly IAS officers), a political
commentator, C P Bhambari had described IAS as the “New Brahminical System” in the governance of India.
The young entrants to this Brahminical fold with their ‘all knowing attitude’ are not showing significant signs
of shedding their high-born aura in public hierarchy.
One might be reminded of these lines from a poem by Dhumil (a renowned Hindi poet from Varanasi) who
commenting on the same disconnect wrote:
Lohe ka Swad Lohar Se Na Puchho, Us Ghore Se Puchho Jiske Muh Me Laggam Hai (Do not ask the
blacksmith about the taste of iron, ask the horse who has the bit in his mouth).
The idea behind this line is that an arm chair bureaucrat cannot understand the real pain and suffering of a
common man unless he puts himself in common man’s place. This can only be done, if he has the value of
empathy.
These lines also undermine the argument that affinity with the soil of the land gives you bigger ears to the
ground. In past few years, Children of rickshaw-pullers, farmers, clerks are cracking the IAS. But, will they
lead to a better, kinder bureaucracy? Not necessarily. Except few highly motivated and dedicated bureaucrats
who have become a minority in civil services, more entrants with humble background have not changed
the narrative of disconnect between young bureaucrats and the people. In fact, any such expectation about
transformation would be too naïve an assumption. The old story of becoming the part of the powerful elite
after making it to the final list of the Civil Services examination keeps recycling itself.
We not only need to breach this divide but also action is required from the part of civil servants. This thing
comes from the value of compassion. Compassion is in the roots of a society based on ethics. In Indian
philosophy of Dharma, if an ethical framework of the society is a tree, then compassion is the root of that tree.
A society where people only think about their own gains and joy before thinking about the society at large
shows lack of compassion leading to the weakening of a tree called dharma.
Thus, Formulating the policies based on ground realities and then implementing them with diligence is the
feature of an empathetic and compassionate civil servant.
6. Tolerance towards the Weaker Sections

Tolerance refers to a fair, objective, and permissive attitude toward those whose opinions, practices, race,
religion, nationality, etc., differ from one’s own. In simple words, it is the act or capacity of enduring the
diversity of views and practices in your environment. Tolerance is a basic value. It is based on the idea of how
to live together in peace and harmony with one another, despite dissenting viewpoints.
The values of harmony and peace are inherent in the behaviour of tolerance. Tolerance leads to harmony and
peace in a pluralistic society in which diversity is there in many contexts like caste, race, religion, nationality
etc. Tolerance upholds the human rights of dignified life and rule of law. The other values of impartiality and
objectivity also require tolerance towards the society as a pre-condition.
Why the aptitude of tolerance is important in civil services?
The value of tolerance is enshrined in the ideal of secularism only which is mentioned in our constitution.
According to Indian constitution, secularism means neutrality and impartiality towards all religion. State
is only concerned with the relation between man and man and not with the relation between man and god.
Public officials being the guardians of the state thus have the responsibility of giving equal status as well as
maintaining equal distance from all the religions. To do this, value of tolerance is necessary.
In the past we have seen that civil servants have obliged the wrong decisions of the political regime due to
their intolerance towards a particular religious group. Whether it is Gujarat riots of 2002 or Sikh riots of
1984, all happened only because of the lack of tolerance.
Tolerance not only means to be tolerant towards diverse cultures but also tolerant to diverse views and
130
opinions. Article 19 provides for freedom of speech and expression. In India everybody has the right to speak
and express his own view points. This may lead to disagreement and dissent in the society as every individual
is different and has a different perspective towards objects and events. However, a civil servant is expected to
respect and take into account every viewpoint even if he does not agree with it.
Voltaire once said:
“Sir, I disagree with what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say so.”
Such kind of attitude is required from the part of civil servants. But this can only come when they are tolerant
towards a diverse society.
In Indian system of bureaucracy, All India services are there which calls upon civil servants to serve culturally
different people. A Punjabi IAS officer serving in a south Indian state may find it difficult to adapt the
environment if tolerance is not there. In fact it has been seen that most of the candidates preparing for Civil
Services Exam in India have the desire to be posted in similar if not same socio- cultural environment. Such
a trend may be argued as a sign of intolerance among the youth of India.
Thus, if we take a larger view, then any form of injusticeinflicted upon others is a reflection of intolerance.
Intolerance is antagonistic to free thinking and promotes violence and injustice. It is a reflection of narrow
mindedness and is against civilized living. It is detrimental to social progress and welfare. Therefore, a tolerant
civil servant is highly recommended especially in present Indian scenario.
nn
131
Chapter - 3
Other Important Values for Civil Services
A part from those mentioned in the syllabus (discussed above), following are some more values which are
important in civil services:
1. Fortitude: Fortitude is a display of courage in a difficult situation. It is a state of mind whichis important
in public service owing to the nature of job where the foremost priority is to work for the welfare of people.
Sometimes the public services involve challenging situations which would require a test of character for
the incumbent.
Fortitude is the virtue that moderates the emotions of fear and daring in accordance with right reason.
Fortitude is not synonymous to extraordinary daring. Sitting in a bathtub full of deadly snakes, or jumping
from one speedboat to another, are acts of daring, not acts of fortitude. Had the person been attempting to
rescue a little girl trapped in a pit of snakes, or a man unable to steer the speedboat as a result of a heart
attack or stroke, we could speak of fortitude, but not without a pursuit of the good.
Suppose an IPS officer has been appointed as the SP of a district and a person has committed rape of a poor
girl. Now that girl’s family has come to the police station to lodge FIR but they were turned away as the
accused was politically influential. When they come to the SP, he is under pressure from the accused and
high level politicians. In this case, it would require fortitude to do the right thing even if it means transfer
or some insignificant posting. Thus virtue of fortitude is desirable here.
More current examples of fortitude might include a lawyer’s refusal to provide legal services to an
unrepentant mafia boss, despite death threats from him. Certainly the threat to court judges is still a very
real possibility. Politicians who choose to take a firm stand on certain issues, in favour of justice, might
very well risk assassination, especially in parts of the developing world. A fireman rushing into a burning
building in order to save lives, knowing that there is a very good chance he will not come out alive, is
indeed an instance of fortitude.
Sometimes a person will act through the impulse of a passion, such as excessive anger, or sorrow, of
which he wishes to, rid himself. These are not acts of fortitude precisely because no moderation of fear
is involved. The truly brave man does not suppress his fear. He really experiences it, but holds fast to
the good, moderating the fear of which he is fully cognizant. The principal act of fortitude is to endure,
whereas aggression or attack is its secondary act. For enduring fear is more difficult than attacking evil
through daring.
2. Altruism: is when we act to promote someone else’s welfare, even at a risk or cost to ourselves. The basic
principle of altruism is that man has no right to exist for his own sake that service to others is the only
justification of his existence, and that self-sacrifice is his highest moral duty, virtue and value. The value
of altruism serves as an intrinsic motivator for civil servants and keeps them moving even when external
incentives are not present. Only an altruistic civil servant and really work for public interest. Such person
will not get deviated towards self interest by the power and discretion that civil servants usually enjoy in
developing countries like India.
3. Patience: Life brings with it all sorts of hardships, many of which are inflicted by others. We are often the
cause of great sorrow to others, and others to us. Hardships lead to sorrow, and sorrow in turn can beget
anger. Anger can result in hatred, which in turn can lead to unjust injury, either verbal or physical. That is
why the emotion of sorrow needs to be moderated according to reason. In this way, we allow sorrow to
move us towards a more complete realization of the good, just as moderated anger helps in the execution
of reason’s response to injustice. A patient teacher, for example, will allow her sorrow to move her to find
new and improved ways of teaching a lesson so as to be more easily understood by those students that are
not learning.
132
The virtue of patience is that habit by which we endure hardship so that we maintain the course of action
set out by reason. The patient man is not inordinately saddened by the things which cause him hurt. The
defect of patience is, of course, impatience, which is an inability to bear hardship, and which involves a
loss of self-possession.
Many people regard Robert Latimer as a courageous man because he had “the nerve” to murder his
handicapped daughter and face the justice system in order to have the law against euthanasia changed.
He was a daring man, but not a man of fortitude. Latimer’s actions could never have been a matter of
fortitude, because murdering a handicapped child is intrinsically unjust, and his decision to murder her
bespeaks a lack of patience, an inability to deal with the sorrow caused by the hardships of raising a
handicapped child.
It is not inconsistent with patience to rise up against one who inflicts injustice. Patience is not spinelessness,
the excess of meekness. The excess of patience is impassivity. The impassive do not allow themselves
to be moved by sorrow. They endure it when they should not, thereby allowing the situation that is
causing the hardship to perpetuate a situation that isn’t necessarily unjust, but one that requires effective
remedy. Moreover, there is nothing praiseworthy about “patiently” enduring harm against others, against
the common good, or against the divine honor. Such “patience” is merely a front that disguises a cowardly
and unjust spirit.
4. Courage and Fearlessness: One of the charges against bureaucracy is that they play safe and are afraid of
taking bold decisions. In the complex and technocratic world of today public servants are required to take
speedy and innovative decisions which need courage. Courage means mustering the strength and will to
do what you know you should do, even though you are afraid. Aristotle had said, “We become brave by
doing brave acts”.
The Shah Commission which investigated the ‘excesses’ committed during Emergency (1975-77), found
that public servants committed irregular and illegal acts, which caused immense suffering to the masses
out of fear of their political masters. The Commission observed, ‘they crawled while they were asked to
bend’. It is often seen that many public officials though honest themselves, succumb to unjust demand out
of fear that they will be transferred to an inconvenient place, or their promotion will be jeopardized. This
happens largely due to weak character and lack of conviction that they are doing an honest job.
P S Appu Director of National Academy of Administration, showed great courage of conviction and stood
by his principles and quit his job, when he found that political masters interfered with his demand to
terminate the services of an IAS probationer who was indisciplined and indulged in criminal behaviour.
5. Spirit of Service and Sacrifice: Whateverwork you are engaged in, whatever duties you have to perform
as an official or an employee, to do your duties efficiently and with diligence and devotion is regarded
as Spirit of Service. Spirit of service and sacrifice is an essential ingredient of public services and public
officials should feel inspired that that they are working for a national cause.
Today it is a common complaint that salary level in top civil services are very low as compared to private
sector. There is an increase in selfishness, and general lack of concern for other individuals in today’s
society. What we have in India today is not a giving and sharing society, but a grabbing society, not a
sacrificing society but a consumer society. Self-seeking and exploitation of the weak has become common
place. These maladies result in general unhappiness and a retreat from goal of general welfare. We need
to change the societal attitudes particularly those who are in public services so that they develop sympathy
for the masses and work in the true spirit of service to the society.
6. Sense of Mission: Work should not be done simply for the sake of doing work. There should be clear focus
and direction in what one is doing, otherwise it will not be productive and yield results. Ramakrishna
Paramhansa once said-“if you are digging a well, dig deep till you strike water, if you give up after a
while and go to a new place and then to another, you will never get water.” The trouble with present
governments is that it spreads its resources too wide and thin, without each department of the government
having clarity about its objectives. It was a clear sense of mission that was responsible for the success of
our space programme, or operation flood which revolutionized milk production in the country.
133
7. Trustworthiness: Trustworthiness is a moral value considered to be a virtue. A trustworthy person is
someone in whom you can place your trust and rest assured that the trust will not be betrayed. A person
can prove their trustworthiness by fulfilling an assigned responsibility – and as an extension of that, not to
let down expectations.
The responsibility can be either material, such as delivering a mail package on time, or it can be non-
material such as keeping an important secret to themselves. A trustworthy person is someone that you can
tell your worries and secrets to and know they won’t repeat them without your permission. In general, in
order for trust to be earned, worth and integrity must be proven over time. Again, it’s a very important
virtue for a civil servant as government services is all about trust. No public organisation can sustain for
long if trust deficit is there.
For example, a fund for rehabilitation of neglected old-aged people is setup. In such a situation, if a person
of dubious character is put in charge of that fund, then it may cause great tragedy for the concerned people,
furthering their pain. Here a trustworthy person is needed to be made in charge of it.
8 Temperance: is defined as moderation or voluntary self-restraint. It refers to the tendency to control
oneself from indulging into various desires that lure human beings. This includes restraint from violence
and retaliation in the form of non-violence and forgiveness, restraint from arrogance in the form of
humility and modesty, restraint from excesses such as splurging now in the form of prudence, and restraint
from excessive anger or craving for something in the form of calmness and self-control. It is generally
characterized as the control over excess, and expressed through characteristics such as chastity, modesty,
humility, prudence, self-regulation, forgiveness and mercy; each of these involves restraining an excess
of some impulse, such as sexual desire, arrogance, or anger.
When we practice the virtue of temperance, we call it by different names, depending upon the physical
desire that we are restraining. The desire for food is natural and good; but when we develop an inordinate
desire for food, we call that the vice of gluttony. Likewise, the inordinate indulgence in wine or other
alcoholic beverages is called drunkenness, and both gluttony and drunkenness are combated by abstinence,
which is temperance applied to our desire for food and drink.
Similarly, we receive pleasure from sexual intercourse, but the desire for that pleasure outside of its proper
bounds—that is, outside of marriage, or even inside marriage, when we are not open to the possibility of
procreation—is called lust. The practice of temperance regarding sexual pleasure is called chastity.
Temperance is very important for a civil servant as there will be many opportunities in form of money,
fame, power and lust that will lure him towards unethical behaviour. For example, it will be very difficult
for a civil servant to remain neutral towards a beautiful lady who is ready to do anything in exchange
of favour. Similarly it will be difficult for him to refuse a big amount of money as bribe or offer from a
politician for a lucrative post in exchange of a favour.
9. Honesty: Honesty is being truthful and sincere. It is important because it builds trust. When people are
honest, they can be relied on not to lie, cheat or steal. Being honest means that you accept yourself as you
are. When you are open and trustworthy, others can believe in you.
Honesty “is the refusal to fake reality—i.e., to pretend that facts are other than they are.” It can be described
as the flip side of rationality: Whereas rationality is the commitment to think, judge, and act with respect
to the relevant facts, honesty is the commitment not to do otherwise.
Since reality remains what it is regardless of any efforts to ignore or deny it—since facts are facts and cannot
be wished away—the consequences of recognizing reality can only be positive, and the consequences of
evading it can only be negative. The following examples will bear this out.
Generally speaking, a job applicant who presents his actual qualifications, and does not pretend to possess
qualities he does not have, will be able to perform his responsibilities successfully if he is hired. Thus, he
will likely be retained and might even be promoted. But an applicant who misrepresents his qualifications,
by pretending to possess qualities he does not have, will be unable to perform his responsibilities
successfully if he is hired. Consequently, he might be demoted but more likely will be fired.
Similarly, if a married man maintains fidelity to his wife, and lives his life rationally in all other regards as
well, he will know that he is a faithful husband and a good person. Consequently, he will be able to respect
134
himself and enjoy his marriage—which, due to his honesty, will be intact. By contrast, if a married man
cheats on his wife, regardless of whatever else he does, he will know that he is a lying adulterer. Thus, he
will be unable to respect himself or enjoy his marriage—which, due to his dishonesty, will be in tatters.
10. Truthfulness: Truthfulness is most often used to mean being in accord with fact or reality. There are two
aspects of truthfulness: being true to yourself, and being true to others.The two are not quite the same
thing, although they are closely linked. Shakespeare, for example, suggested that someone who was true
to themselves was unlikely to be false to others. Truthful people:
●● Understand themselves and know their own strengths and weaknesses. They will not delude themselves
about their successes or failures;
●● Present themselves in a way that shows who they really are. Their reputation will be founded on what they
are and, whether in public or private, they will be the same;
●● Meet any commitments or promises that they make;
●● Be accurate in their descriptions of themselves or others, so that they do not mislead others.
As individuals, being truthful means that we can grow and mature, learning from our mistakes.For society,
truthfulness makes social bonds, and lying and hypocrisy break them.If you doubt this, consider what
happens when you find out that someone has lied to you. You feel less inclined to trust them next time,
and also less inclined to trust other people more generally.
Is it Ever Right not to Tell the Truth? There are two possible ways not to tell the truth: not to provide
any information, and to provide false information.First, you do not need to tell everyone everything.
Excessive sharing of personal information is not welcome, even if it is the truth. Context is all-important,
and you have to consider whether people need and/or want to know.Sometimes it is better not to say
something.
You also need to be able to remain silent if someone has confided in you and asked you not to share the
information further.Under these circumstances, it is therefore appropriate not to tell all the truth.
However, is it right to provide false information or lie? Truthfulness is important, but so is not hurting
others. Truthfulness and tact must go hand in hand, because otherwise the truth may be unacceptable to
those who hear it. For example, calling a person handicap even if it is true is considered unethical.
And consider a government agent. They may need to lie, or pretend to be something that they are not, for
the sake of the greater good. But they may still be true to themselves if they believe in the importance of
the greater good.
At what point does the truth become more important?That is a matter of personal conscience.There are
some circumstances in which lying may be acceptable or necessary. It is, however, never acceptable to lie
in order to make yourself look better, or to avoid trouble that you have brought on yourself. Even lying
can be ethical if it is done for the betterment of the society.
As with many other qualities, you need to find the balance in truthfulness: neither overplaying nor
underplaying either your virtues or your weaknesses.It is as bad to pretend that you are less good at
something than you are, as to exaggerate about your abilities.
For a civil servant it is very important to remain truthful as it is directly related to his moral character. The
value of truthfulness is mentioned below in points.
●● The moral character of a person improves if he remains truthful.
●● Truthful people have high self-esteem and are more confident than a liar person.
●● A Truthful person is gets respect, regards and love by other people everywhere.
●● Truthfulness makes a people more humble and responsible towards the society.
●● Truthful person wins the hearts of any person by his quality of truthfulness.
●● A truthful person can becomes the source of inspiration for others. They become true guide and Guru for
their students.
●● Truthfulness is a kind of personal traits which can’t be measured by the money and it also can’t be bought
by money.
135
11. Prudence: Prudence is the ability to govern and discipline oneself by the use of reason. Reason is the
capacity for consciously making sense of things, applying logic, establishing and verifying facts, and
changing or justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or existing information.
Prudence is the ability to judge between virtuous and vicious actions. Although prudence itself does
not perform any actions, and is concerned solely with knowledge, all virtues had to be regulated by it.
Distinguishing when acts are courageous, as opposed to reckless or cowardly, for instance, is an act of
prudence.In modern English, the word has become increasingly synonymous with cautiousness. In this
sense, prudence names a reluctance to take risks, which remain a virtue with respect to unnecessary risks,
but, when unreasonably extended into over-cautiousness, can become the vice of cowardice.
12. Forgiveness: Forgiveness is the intentional and voluntary process by which a victim undergoes a change
in feelings and attitude regarding an offense, let’s go of negative emotions such as vengefulness, with
an increased ability to wish the offender well. Forgiveness is different from condoning (failing to see
the action as wrong and in need of forgiveness), excusing (not holding the offender as responsible for
the action), pardoning (granted by a representative of society, such as a judge), forgetting (removing
awareness of the offense from consciousness), and reconciliation (restoration of a relationship).
This virtue is important for a civil servant as many times he has to look for a greater good of even that
person who has done wrong with him. For example a minister is there who has done really wrong with
an IPS officer by not promoting him or giving him credit even when he deserved it. But now this IPS has
been given the task of the security of this minister. If the officer will continue to have enmity with minister,
then he’ll never be able to do his job with complete efficiency. In this case virtue of forgiveness will help
him to come out from the negative emotions that officer has for the minister.
13. Courage of convictions: conviction refers to the strength of showing that one is firmly convinced of what
one believes or says even when no one is watching.Courage of conviction implies the adherence to the
beliefs of what is right and what is wrong even in adverse situations and threats. A civil servant changing
his stance on a particular policy because his political boss has different views shows absence of self-
beliefs and courage of conviction.\
14. Excellence: Excellence is doing ordinary things extraordinarily well. It is also used as a standard of
performance measurement. It comes from the confluence of economy, efficiency and effectiveness. Striving
for excellence does not mean that you must be perfect. It means that you use your talents, abilities, and
skills in the best way possible and excel in life. Excellence is not something achieved through accident,
but through consistent effort and practice. We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, therefore, is not an
act but a habit.
Different from perfection: Excellence is an attempt to perform a task in the best way possible, whereas
perfection is the definitive one hundred percent right way of doing anything. This means that excellence
is something which all humans can aspire to whereas perfection is seldom achievable by mankind. For
instance, take the case of life. Life in the way that it exists is a perfect creation of God. No matter how
hard scientists try they have not been able to build a robot that can replicate what a human being or even
an animal can do. They make excellent robots but they will never be able to match the perfect functioning
of a human or animal body.
If one were to view it more philosophically, excellence is what mankind gets in its endeavor to be perfect.
Continuing with the philosophical note perfection entails one’s being better than everyone else, whereas
excellence is an attempt to be better than what one already is. Of the two the latter is a morally superior
position.
One might say that perfection for most humans is really a fantasy as it is unattainable. Excellence on
the other hand is more up the street of humans as it is attainable and worth striving for. You may say
excellence allows you to be wrong once in a while perfection precludes that possibility. Excellence can
be at worst considered something of a risk while perfection because of its very nature is something to be
afraid of.
For developing the virtue of excellence, following things can be done:
136
●● Having an aim of life: One cannot achieve excellence in any field, until he/she has an objective to be
achieved. Also, one should always aim higher in life.
●● Identification of values: List your five most important values, and live accordingly. When you can align
yourself with what matters most to your heart, you are empowered to make the right choices.
●● Practice Meditation: Meditation is the single most important tool for self-development. It helps in
increasing concentration level. Hence, one is better focused towards goal.
●● Develop new skills: Learning new skills, adds multi dimensions to one’s personality. It helps one to excel
in various fields.
●● Challenging oneself: The person you become in the pursuit of your dream is worth far more than the
achievement of that dream. Aim high and push to be your absolute best, and then go even beyond that –
you are capable of far more than you think.
For a civil servant, pursuit of Excellence means:
●● Taking pride in everything they do in the public interest.
●● Investment in people, at all levels in and outside the government, to create a high performance culture that
relentlessly pursues excellence in every task performed.
●● Never backing away from a challenge, and never settling for outcomes that are deemed to be less than
excellent.
●● Implementing strong systems and processes that produce consistently excellent outcomes for safety,
environmental, people and government goals
●● Providing superior value and satisfaction to the citizens
15. Gratitude: Most of us associate gratitude with saying “thank you” to someone who has helped us or given
us a gift. From a scientific perspective, gratitude is not just an action. Gratitude is a positive emotion,
which is really important because it serves a purpose
Gratitude is a thankful appreciation for
what an individual receives, whether
tangible or intangible. With gratitude,
people acknowledge the goodness in their
lives. As a result, gratitude also helps
people connect to something larger than
themselves as individuals – whether to
other people, nature, or a higher power.
However, if we acquire a good through
exchange, effort or achievement, or
by right, then we don’t typically feel
gratitude. Gratitude is an emotion we feel
in response to receiving something good
which is undeserved. Some synonyms of
gratitude include:
●● acknowledgment
●● appreciativeness
●● gracefulness
●● gratefulness
●● praise
●● recognition
●● thankfulness
The obvious antonym of gratitude is ingratitude, but other antonyms include:
●● censure l condemnation l thanklessness l ungratefulness
137
Importance in civil services
●● Gratitude plays a key role in regulating the initiation and maintenance of social relationships, which is
important for a civil servant.
●● It helps in developing social capital.
●● It leads to better communication between civil servant and his employees as well as between civil servant
and citizens.
●● Showing of gratitude create a sense of equality and calmness among people which may lead to change in
attitude towards civil services.
●● People who show gratitude are also revered by gratitude. Such relations improve productivity of the
system.
●● It encourages citizens to be more helpful and altruistic towards the administration.
Thus it is aptly said:
“Cultivate the habit of being grateful for every good thing that comes to you, and to give thanks continuously.
And because all things have contributed to your advancement, you should include all things in your gratitude.”
― Ralph Waldo Emerson
16. Magnanimity: derived from the Latin roots magna, great, and animus, mind, magnanimity is the virtue
of being great of mind and heart. It encompasses, usually, a refusal to be petty, a willingness to face
danger, and actions for noble purposes. It represents the greatness of soul and was identified by Aristotle
as “the crowning virtue”. A person with magnanimity encounters danger and trouble with tranquility and
firmness. It raises the possessor above revenge, and makes him delight in acts of benevolence. It makes
the person disdain injustice and meanness, and prompts him to sacrifice personal ease, interest and safety
for the accomplishment of useful and noble objects.
In his Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle considered it the suitable virtue for a great man, arising from his
other virtues.Democritus states that “magnanimity consists in enduring tactlessness with mildness”.
One form of magnanimity is the generosity of the victor to the defeated. For example, magnanimity has
been codified between societies by the Geneva Conventions. Thus, magnanimous relief efforts can serve
to offset the collateral damage of war.
Examples:
●● The magnanimity of Alexander towards the captive Porus
●● Magnanimity of army personnel to help the people who throw stones at them.
Importance in civil services:
●● Helps the bureaucrat to set good example among employees
●● Makes him free from the past as there is no feeling of guilt as well as revenge
●● Helps him to establish new relations
●● Helps in diplomatic relations among countries
●● Helps him to convert DPSPs into reality
17. Forbearance: Forbearance can be explained as showing patience or restraining oneself from doing
something. It also means showing tolerance in a difficult circumstance with gentleness or calmness and to
demonstrate self-control while making decisions.
As in the words of Gandhi ji “We should meet abuse by forbearance. Human nature is so constituted that if
we take absolutely no notice of anger or abuse, the person indulging in it will soon weary of it and stop.”
●● Forbearance is important for decision making in critical situations which require considerable deliberation.
Rational Decision Making by not favoring the interests of particular stakeholder is required in civil
services, as it works for larger public interest.
●● It helps civil serpent to maintain good relations with citizens as well as employees.
●● Helps in enhancing social capital in society
●● It helps civil servants to work in difficult and hostile conditions.
138
●● A civil servant may have to take some tough decisions that are unpopular among the masses for the sake
of greater good. It is here that forbearance plays a major part. A civil servant may be wrongly accused of
misappropriation, communal tensions could be on the rise and added to this the media might be trying
to sensationalize the issue. All this require considerable patience and self control from making impulsive
decisions.
●● In democracy, democratic reasoning must be respected. It means for wider participation and inclusion
of diverse thoughts and views, being patient is the key. Development can be bit slow but should be
inclusionary not exclusionary.
●● As an Individual, self restraint on one’s urges of accumulation, over material possession should be
inculcated. Without virtue of Forbearance civil servant can resort to abuse of power or malpractices
against Code of conduct for Civil Service.
●● Civil Service is not a smooth road but a quite bumpy one. Many miscreants and their personal motives
will create lot of hurdles in the path of honest civil servants. Civil servant in such condition through
forbearance can show endurance and tolerance.
●● Due to various constraints, sometimes policy implementation is not effective or is without outcome.
Disasters like Earthquake, flood or manmade like communal riots, Naxalism etc can disrupt one’s efforts.
Thus, tolerance and patience to all odds is prerequisite for a civil servant
●● Increase in assertion of rights by the public, demand for accountability, transparency, pressure groups
and several new challenges in new domains calls for more public contact. This raises the importance of
forbearance as quality in civil servants.
Examples:
●● Suppose, a newly posted Civil servant join his office of regulating educational Institutions in the state.
During His surprise visits, one found that all subordinate, teachers and even seniors are indulged in
supporting cheating and facilitating copying to students during Exams and making huge money from
parents of the students. Here one cannot go immediately against the practices. Proper reasoning, patience
is required to persuade the subordinates and parents to stop such practices. Help of media, CCTV, written
information to seniors and meeting with them to elaborate scenario in detail will only help in long term.
●● Ajit Doval commendable work as an IPS officer where he played an active role in insurgencies operations
in Mizoram, Punjab and Kashmir and managed to turn militants and persuade them to assist Indian forces
against terrorists.
●● For example, an incident of communal violence will lead to heightened tensions and emotions. A civil
servant in whose jurisdiction it may have occurred must be careful not to get emotionally charged.
Members of both communities may be pressuring the civil servant to take action against the other.
Politicians too may get involved. The civil servants own prejudices may get flared up. The media may be
trying to sensationalize it and attempt to get the civil servant to make a controversial statement. In such
a situation of persuasion and provocation from different quarters, the civil servant on one hand has to be
compassionate and understanding, while on the other hand show restraint in what he says or does.
18. Benevolence: Benevolence means good will or disposition to do good with others.Benevolence is a
commitment to achieving the values derivable from life with other people in society, by treating them as
potential friends, partners, recognizing their humanity, independence, and individuality, and the harmony
between their interests and ours. It often leads to good interpersonal relations which include friendship,
love, exchange of knowledge and mutual protection.
Benevolence can be seen as optimism applied to other people and relationships. For example, if you are
optimistic about other people and relationships, then perhaps you will treat a stranger like you would
normally treat an acquaintance and an acquaintance like a friend. This broadcasts a friendly, non-hostile,
attitude and willingness to engage which is a prerequisite for peaceful interaction.
Benevolence is not the same as altruism. Altruism dictates that you sacrifice yourself for the benefit for
others -- that their need is a claim on your actions. Benevolence enables you to achieve your values from
relationships with other people. Benevolence is very much like productiveness in its use as a tool for
achieving value.
139
By giving a person the benefit of the doubt when interacting with them, you create opportunities that
would not be available if you always assume the worst about people and act like it. This mainly manifests
itself in the form of civility. Politeness takes little effort and can often achieve a lot. Politeness and the
assumption that another person is not out to cheat you pave the way for beneficial interaction.
Trust between people can be built up over time and founded on the past actions of the other person; but it
has to start somewhere. Initial trust is based on a positive outlook on humanity and the likelihood that the
other person is a good example. Benevolence is this optimism applied to the other person.
●● It enhances social capital
●● Good inter as well as intra-governmental relations
●● Greater trust among people and civil servants
●● People cooperation in development and maintenance functions.
●● Can help in fostering international relations
●● Control internal security problems by bridging trust deficit.
19. Remorse: Remorse is an emotional expression of personal regret felt by a person after they have committed
an act which they deem to be shameful, hurtful, or violent. Remorse is closely allied to guilt and self-
directed resentment.Remorse captures feelings of guilt, regret, and sorrow. Remorse is closely linked with
the willingness to humble oneself and to repent for one’s misdeeds. Remorse is not as such when defined
through the view of self-condemnation. Self-condemnation, more so than remorse, is said to be associated
with poor psychological well-being. In a legal context, the perceived remorse of an offender is assessed
by Western justice systems during trials, sentencing, parole hearings, and in restorative justice.
The perception of remorse is essential to an apology, as such the greater the perception of remorse the more
effective the apology. An effective apology reduces negative consequences and facilitating cognitive and
behavioral changes associated with forgiveness. Remorse may signal that one is suffering psychologically
because of their negative behavior, which leads to empathy from the second party who then will express
forgiveness. Forgiveness does not eliminate all negative feelings, but it may entail the reduction of bitter
and angry feelings, not feelings of disappointment, regret, or sorrow.
20. Beneficence: The generic definition of beneficence is an act of charity, mercy, and kindness. It connotes
doing good to others and invokes a wide array of moral obligation. Beneficent acts can be performed from
a position of obligation in what is owed and from a higher perspective, meaning more than what is owed.
An example of this is what has become known as a random act of kindness.
There is much written over the centuries by philosophers on this ethic because of its great power and
potential for distributive justice and the greater good. Most ethical theory has embraced various aspects of
beneficence, and utilitarian theorists see beneficence as the foundation for causing the greatest benefit for
all.
All professionals have the foundational moral imperative of doing right. In the context of the professional-
client relationship, the professional is obligated to, always and without exception, favor the well-being
and interest of the client.
Importance in civil services
●● It is one of the founding principles of all professions including civil services.
●● Beneficent actions can be taken to help prevent or remove harms or to simply improve the situation of
others. Thus it helps a civil servant to perform both maintenance as well as developmental functions.
●● It leads to good intra and intergovernmental relations.
●● Enhance social capital
●● Leads to internal motivation and dedication to public interest
●● Leads to distributive justice
●● Leads to positive demonstration effect
nn
140
Emotional Intelligence
Basic concepts
E
motions play an important role in attitude formation as well as attitude change. Manipulating the
emotional part is an important technique of persuasion. Our ethical behaviour also sees a vast decline
especially in the negative mood states like anger, rage, irritation etc. Thus it is important to understand
the basic concept of emotion in the first place.
Emotions
Emotions seem to rule our daily lives. We make decisions based on whether we are happy, angry, sad, bored,
or frustrated. We choose activities and hobbies based on the emotions they incite. So, what exactly is an
emotion?
“An emotion is a complex psychological state that involves three distinct components: a subjective
experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral or expressive response.”
Let’s focus on their three key elements mentioned in above definition:
1. The Subjective Experience: While experts believe that there are a number of basic universal emotions
that are experienced by people all over the world regardless of background or culture, researchers also
believe that the experience of emotion can be highly subjective. While we might have broad labels for
certain emotions such as ‘angry,’ ‘sad,’ or ‘happy,’ your own unique experience of these emotions is
probably much more multi-dimensional. Consider anger. Is all anger the same? Your own experience
might range from mild annoyance to blinding rage.
Plus, we don’t always experience ‘pure’ forms of each emotion. Mixed emotions over different events or
situations in our lives are common. When faced with starting a new job, you might feel both excited and
nervous. Getting married or having a child might be marked by a wide variety of emotions ranging from
joy to anxiety. These emotions might occur simultaneously, or you might feel them one after another.
2. The Physiological Response: If you’ve ever felt your stomach lurch from anxiety or your heart palpate
with fear, then you realize that emotions also cause strong physiological reactions. Many of the physical
reactions you experience during an emotion such as sweating palms, racing heartbeat, or rapid breathing
are controlled by the sympathetic nervous system, a branch of the autonomic nervous system. The
autonomic nervous system controls involuntary body responses such as blood flow and digestion. The
sympathetic nervous system is charged with controlling the body’s fight-or-flight reactions. When facing
a threat, these responses automatically prepare your body to flee from danger or face the threat head-on.
3. The Behavioral Response: The final component is perhaps one that you are most familiar with –
the actual expression of emotion. We spend a significant amount of time interpreting the emotional
expressions of the people around us. Our ability to accurately understand these expressions is tied to
what psychologists call emotional intelligence and these expressions play a major part in our overall body
language. Researchers believe that many expressions are universal, such as a smile indicating happiness
or pleasure or a frown indicating sadness or displeasure. Cultural rules also play an important role in how
we express and interpret emotions. In Japan, for example, people tend to mask displays of fear or disgust
when in the presence of authority figure.
Similar Constructs: Emotion can be differentiated from a number of similar constructs such as:
●● Feelings: are best understood as a subjective representation of emotions, private to the individual
experiencing them.
●● Moods: An emotion is normally quite short-lived, but intense. For example, after disagreeing with a
friend over politics, you might feel angry for a short period of time. A mood on the other hand is usually
141
much milder than an emotion, but longer-lasting. In many cases, it can be difficult to identify the specific
cause of a mood. For example, you might find yourself feeling gloomy for several days without any
clearly identifiable reason.
●● Affect: is an encompassing term, used to describe the topics of emotion, feelings, and moods together,
even though it is commonly used interchangeably with emotion.
Types of Emotions: In addition to understanding exactly what emotions are, researchers have also tried to
identify and classify the different types of emotions. In 1972, psychologist Paul Eckman suggested that there
are six basic emotions that are universal throughout human cultures:
1. Fear 2. Disgust 3. Anger
4. Surprise 5. Happiness 6. Sadness
In 1999, he expanded this list to include a number of other basic emotions including embarrassment,
excitement, contempt, shame, pride, satisfaction, and amusement.These emotions can then be combined in a
variety of ways. For example, happiness and anticipation might combine to create excitement.
The Purpose of Emotions

Emotions can play an important role in how we think and behave. Our emotions can be short-lived, such as
a flash of annoyance at a co-worker, or long-lasting, such as enduring sadness over the loss of a relationship.
But why exactly do we experience emotions? What role do they serve? The answer to these questions is:
●● Emotions can motivate us to take action: When faced with a nerve-wracking exam, you might feel a lot
of anxiety about whether you will perform well and how the test will impact your final grade. Because of
these emotional responses, you might be more likely to study. Since you experienced a particular emotion,
you had the motivation to take action and do something positive to improve your chances of getting a
good grade.
We also tend to take certain actions in order to experience positive emotions and minimize the probability of
feeling negative emotions. For example, you might seek out social activities or hobbies that provide you with
a sense of happiness, contentment, and excitement. On the other hand, you would probably avoid situations
that might potentially lead to boredom, sadness, or anxiety.
●● Emotions help us survive, thrive, and avoid danger: Naturalist Charles Darwin believed that emotions
are adaptations that allow both humans and animals to survive and reproduce. When we are angry, we
are likely to confront the source of our irritation. When we experience fear, we are more likely to flee
the situation or threat. When we feel love, we might seek out a mate and reproduce. Emotions serve an
adaptive role in our lives by motivating us to act quickly and take actions that will maximize our chances
for success.
●● Emotions can help us make decisions: Our emotions have a major influence on the decisions we make,
from what we decide to have for breakfast to which candidates we choose to vote for in political elections.
Researchers have also found that people with certain types of brain damage that impairs their ability to
experience emotions also have a decreased ability to make good decisions. Even in situations where we
believe our decisions are guided purely by logic and rationality, emotions play a key role. Emotional
intelligence, or our ability to understand and manage emotions, has been shown to play an important role
in decision-making.
●● Emotions allow other people to understand us: When we interact with other people, it is important to
give cues to help them understand how we are feeling. These cues might involve emotional expression
through body language, such as various facial expressions connected with the particular emotions we are
experiencing. In other cases, it might involve directly stating how we are feeling. When we tell friends
or family members that we are feeling happy, sad, excited, or frightened, we are giving them important
information that they can then use to take action.
●● Emotions allow us to understand others: Just as our own emotions provide valuable information to
others, the emotional expressions of those around us gives us a wealth of social information. Social
communication is an important part of our daily lives and relationships, and being able to interpret and
142
react to the emotions of others is essential. It allows us to respond appropriately and build deeper, more
meaningful relationships with our friends, family, and loved ones. It also allows us to communicate
effectively in a variety of social situations, from dealing with an irate customer to managing a hot-headed
employee.
Charles Darwin was one of the earliest researchers to scientifically study emotions. He suggested that
emotional displays could also play an important role in safety and survival. If you encountered a hissing or
spitting animal, it would clearly indicate that the creature was angry and defensive, leading to you back off
and avoid possible danger. In much the same way, understanding the emotional displays of others gives us
clear information about how we might need to respond in a particular situation.
Thus, our emotions serve a wide variety of purposes. Emotions can be fleeting, persistent, powerful, complex,
and even life-changing. They can motivate us to act in particular ways and give us the tools and resources we
need to interact meaningfully in our social worlds.
nn
143
Chapter - 2
Emotional Intelligence (EI or EQ)
T
he ability to express and control our own emotions is important, but so is our ability to understand,
interpret, and respond to the emotions of others. Imagine a world where you couldn’t understand when
a friend was feeling sad or when a co-worker was angry. Psychologists refer to this ability as emotional
intelligence, and some experts even suggest that it can be more important than IQ.
Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to monitor one’s own and other people’s emotions, to discriminate
between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking
and behavior. It refers to the array of personal-management and social skills that allows one to succeed in the
work place and life in general.
Since 1990, Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer have been the leading researchers on emotional intelligence. In
their influential article “Emotional Intelligence,” they defined emotional intelligence as, “the subset of social
intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate
among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (1990).
Thus, EI encompasses intuition, character, integrity and motivation. It also includes good communication and
relationship skills. Studies have shown that people with high EI have greater mental health, exemplary job
performance, and more potent leadership skills.
A Brief History of Emotional Intelligence

●● 1930s – Edward Thorndike describes the concept of “social intelligence” as the ability to get along with
other people.
●● 1940s – David Wechsler suggests that affective components of intelligence may be essential to success
in life.
●● 1950s – Humanistic psychologists such as Abraham Maslow describe how people can build emotional
strength.
●● 1975 - Howard Gardner publishes The Shattered Mind, which introduces the concept of multiple
intelligences.
●● 1985 - Wayne Payne introduces the term emotional intelligence in his doctoral dissertation entitled “A
study of emotion: developing emotional intelligence; self-integration; relating to fear, pain and desire
(theory, structure of reality, problem-solving, contraction/expansion, tuning in/coming out/letting go).”
●● 1987 – In an article published in Mensa Magazine, Keith Beasley uses the term “emotional quotient.” It
has been suggested that this is the first published use of the term, although Reuven Bar-On claims to have
used the term in an unpublished version of his graduate thesis.
●● 1990 – Psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer publish their landmark article, “Emotional
Intelligence,” in the journal Imagination, Cognition, and Personality.
●● 1995 - The concept of emotional intelligence is popularized after publication of psychologist and New
York Times science writer Daniel Goleman’s book Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ.
Framework of EI
Daniel Goleman developed a framework of five elements that define emotional intelligence. Often known as
‘Mixed Model’, it focuses on EI as a wide array of competencies and skills that drive leadership performance.
These are:
1. Self-awareness: The ability to recognize an emotion as it “happens” is the key to your EQ. Developing
self-awareness requires tuning in to your true feelings. If you evaluate your emotions, you can manage
them. The major elements of self-awareness are:
144
●● Emotional awareness: Your ability to
recognize your own emotions and their
effects.
●● Self-confidence: Sureness about your self-
worth and capabilities.
People with high emotional intelligence are
usually very self-aware. They understand their
emotions, and because of this, they don’t let their
feelings rule them. They’re confident – because
they trust their intuition and don’t let their
emotions get out of control. They’re also willing
to take an honest look at themselves. They know
their strengths and weaknesses, and they work
on these areas so they can perform better. Many
people believe that this self-awareness is the
most important part of emotional intelligence.
2. Self-regulation: You often have little control over when you experience emotions. You can, however,
have some say in how long an emotion will last by using a number of techniques to alleviate negative
emotions such as anger, anxiety or depression. A few of these techniques include recasting a situation in
a more positive light, taking a long walk and meditation or prayer. Self-regulation involves:
●● Self-control: Managing disruptive impulses.
●● Trustworthiness: Maintaining standards of honesty and integrity.
●● Conscientiousness: Taking responsibility for your own performance.
●● Adaptability: Handling change with flexibility.
●● Innovation: Being open to new ideas.
3. Motivation: To motivate yourself for any achievement requires clear goals and a positive attitude.
Although you may have a predisposition to either a positive or a negative attitude, you can with effort and
practice learn to think more positively. If you catch negative thoughts as they occur, you can reframe them
in more positive terms — which will help you achieve your goals. Motivation is made up of:
●● Achievement drive: Your constant striving to improve or to meet a standard of excellence.
●● Commitment: Aligning with the goals of the group or organization.
●● Initiative: Readying yourself to act on opportunities.
●● Optimism: Pursuing goals persistently despite obstacles and setbacks.
4. Empathy: The ability to recognize how people feel is important to success in your life and career. The
more skillful you are at discerning the feelings behind others’ signal the better you can control the signals
you send them. An empathetic person excels at:
●● Service orientation: Anticipating, recognizing and meeting clients’ needs.
●● Developing others: Sensing what others need to progress and bolstering their abilities.
●● Leveraging diversity: Cultivating opportunities through diverse people
●● Political awareness: Reading a group’s emotional currents and power relationships.
●● Understanding others: Discerning the feelings behind the needs and wants of others.
5. Social skills: The development of good interpersonal skills is tantamount to success in your life and
career. In today’s always-connected world, everyone has immediate access to technical knowledge. Thus,
“people skills” are even more important now because you must possess a high EQ to better understand,
empathize and negotiate with others in a global economy. Among the most useful skills are:
●● Influence: Wielding effective persuasion tactics.
●● Communication: Sending clear messages.
●● Leadership: Inspiring and guiding groups and people.
●● Change catalyst: Initiating or managing change.
145
●● Conflict management: Understanding, negotiating and resolving disagreements.
●● Building bonds: Nurturing instrumental relationships.
●● Collaboration and cooperation: Working with others toward shared goals.
●● Team capabilities: Creating group synergy in pursuing collective goals.
Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQ)

Emotional Intelligence Quotient is defined as a
set of competencies, demonstrating the ability
one has, to recognize his or her behaviors,
moods, and impulses, and to manage them best
according to the situation. Typically, “emotional
intelligence” is considered to involve emotional
empathy; attention to, and discrimination of
one’s emotions; accurate recognition of one’s
own and others’ moods; mood management
or control over emotions; response with
appropriate (adaptive) emotions and behaviors
in various life situations (especially to stress
and difficult situations); and balancing of
honest expression of emotions against courtesy,
consideration, and respect (i.e., possession of
good social skills and communication skills).
Additional, though less often mentioned qualities include selection of work that is emotionally rewarding to
avoid procrastination, self-doubt, and low achievement (i.e., good self-motivation and goal management) and
a balance between work, home, and recreational life. In essence, EQ is the pattern of how people’s biases
in their thinking leads them to think one thing or choice is better than another, as well as their clarity in
differentiating within those biases to exercise clear and sound judgment.
Emotional Intelligence (EQ) vs. Intellectual Intelligence (IQ): Most of us have learned not to trust our
emotions. We’ve been told emotions distort the more “accurate” information our intellect supplies.
On the other hand, our abilities to memorize and problem solving, to spell words and do mathematical
calculations, are easily measured on written tests and slapped as grades on report cards. Ultimately, these
intellectual abilities dictate which college will accept us and which career paths we‘re advised to follow.
It is very important to understand that emotional intelligence is not the opposite of intelligence, it is not the
triumph of heart overhead -- it is the unique intersection of both.
However, intellectual intelligence (IQ) is usually less important in determining how successful we are than
emotional intelligence (EQ). It has been seen often that it’s not the smartest people that are the most successful
or the most fulfilled in life. You probably know people who are academically brilliant and yet are socially
inept and unsuccessful at work or in their personal relationships. Intellectual intelligence (IQ) isn’t enough on
its own to be successful in life. Yes, your IQ can help you get into college, but it’s your EQ that will help you
manage the stress and emotions when facing your final exams.
Utility of Emotional Intelligence

1. Performance at work: It has been found that emotional intelligence is the strongest predictor of
performance, explaining a full 58% of success in all types of jobs. Emotional intelligence is the foundation
for a host of critical skills. It is the single biggest predictor of performance in the workplace and the
strongest driver of leadership and personal excellence. It has been found that 90% of top performers are
also high in emotional intelligence. On the flip side, just 20% of bottom performers are high in emotional
intelligence. These findings hold true for people in all industries, at all levels, in every region of the world.
Emotional intelligence can help you navigate the social complexities of the workplace, lead and motivate
others, and excel in your career. In fact, when it comes to gauging job candidates, many companies now
146
view emotional intelligence as being as important as technical ability and require EQ testing before hiring.
2. Physical health: If you’re unable to manage your stress levels, it can lead to serious health problems.
Uncontrolled stress can raise blood pressure, suppress the immune system, increase the risk of heart attack
and stroke, contribute to infertility, and speed up the aging process. The first step to improving emotional
intelligence is to learn how to relieve stress.
3. Mental health: Uncontrolled stress can also impact your mental health, making you vulnerable to anxiety
and depression. If you are unable to understand and manage your emotions, you’ll also be open to mood
swings, while an inability to form strong relationships can leave you feeling lonely and isolated.
4. Relationships: By understanding your emotions and how to control them, you’re better able to express
how you feel and understand how others are feeling. This allows you to communicate more effectively
and forge stronger relationships, both at work and in your personal life.
nn
147
Chapter - 3
Emotional Intelligence in the Indian Context
E
motional Intelligence is not new in Indian philosophical discourse. The Indian philosophic tradition
stresses on the powerful nature of emotions, which have to be harnessed for a harmonious life.
References to the description and functions of the human mind can be found in the Rig Veda, Yajur
Veda, and the texts of Ayurveda.
Major goal of Indian philosophy is self-realization of an individual. A self-realized person has complete
control over his thoughts, actions and most importantly emotions. The Vedas and the Upanishads also focus
on this need for emotional stability which helps an individual tide over the many battles of life (internal and
external). Similarly, Emotional intelligence also stresses on the need for emotional regulation for success in life.
Emotional Intelligence and the Bhagavad-Gita: The Kurukshetra war is synonymous with the complex
circumstances a person faces in his/her life. The fear, anxiety, misgiving, and desperation of the person
is symbolized in Arjuna’s emotional turmoil before the start of war.Krishna’s guidance to Arjuna gives a
practical solution to emerge out of this struggle unscathed. One can see striking similarities between Krishna’s
emotionally stable person and western idea of an emotionally intelligent person.
Krishna in Bhagwat Gita does not merely stress on effective emotional management but first spells out the
reasons that lead to emotional disturbances and then moves on to the ways of dealing with them. Tracing the
root cause of all emotional turmoil, Krishna identifies desire and anger as the two vices that lead an individual
to his downfall.
It is the strong desire for and attachment to the worldly objects that drives an individual to his downfall.
Desire when not satisfied leads to anger, which in turn leads to delusion. This further destroys the ability to
discriminate which leads to complete ruin.
For example, Ravana, the demon king was a great scholar and a great devotee of Lord Shiva. How could such
an erudite, scholarly, wise emperor fail to defeat a motley army of monkeys? It was his lust and desire for Sita,
Rama’s wife that lead him to his ruin. His desire blinded his wisdom. He lost his power of discrimination.His
power of reasoning vanishes as he is gripped with desire and lust. Thus, it becomes evident that desire leads
a man to his ruin however great he might be.
The Bhagavad-Gita refers to the emotionally intelligent person as a ‘Sthithapragnya’ (the emotionally stable
person). As Arjuna asks Krishna who a sthithapragnya is, Krishna describes the nature and qualities of a
sthithapragnya in detail.
Asthithapragnya according to Krishna is one who remains unperturbed in the face of calamity, and takes good
or evil with equanimity. He is neither happy when something good happens, nor is he affected when things
go against him. This does not mean that he lacks sensitivity. He has the ability to keep his emotions in check
and the skill of withdrawing his feelings away from the object of pleasure or pain.
Even as a tortoise withdraws its head and legs inside the protective cover of its shell whenever it faces danger,
so does an emotionally stable person withdraw all his emotions and feelings within himself and remains
unperturbed. He has the power to emotionally attach or detach from any situation, at his will.
Having identified the cause of all emotional distress, he identifies the qualities of an emotionally stable person
and completes the circle by advocating the medicine for the ailment.
To achieve emotional stability, Krishna shows the path of ‘Nishkama Karma’ – action with detachment to the
outcome or result of the action. As it was seen earlier, emotional instability stems from attachment to and a
longing for the desired object. So Krishna’s advice is to detach oneself from the fruits of one’s action.
Krishna points out that action without desire; action that does not bind the doer with the outcome is the right
kind of action. When an individual acts for the sake of action, because it is the right thing to do, and does not
fear the result, then his mind remains unfettered.
148
Taking the example of Arjuna himself, Arjuna was worried about fighting his cousins because he was worried
about the outcome. He was upset because he found no gain or happiness in winning the war. He did not want
to fight because there was no positive result for him at the end of the war. Winning he loses, losing he gains
nothing.
If on the other hand, Arjuna does not think or worry about what is to happen after the war, but proceeds with
the fight because it is his duty as a kshatriya to fight when called upon, then there is no confusion or emotional
turmoil. He does what has been expected of him, not what is convenient or productive.
This ‘Nishkama Karma’ has a dual effect. It frees the doer from the emotional imbroglio of worrying about
the outcome and also frees him from the responsibility of the outcome as well. It is a liberating feeling which
annihilates any negative thoughts or emotions. When the mind is free from negative emotions, it calms down
and a calm, tranquil mind is the fountain head of all things positive.
nn
149
Chapter - 4
Applications of EI in Administration and Governance
F
rom ethical perspective, one can say that all governance is people governance and all public service is
people service. Relationships are the DNA of governance. Without people who can develop trusting
relationships with other people, there is no governance. Governance is more than the machinery of public
administration and more than impartial cost-benefit analysis. At the 1996 OECD Ministerial Symposium
on the Future of Public Services, governance was defined entirely in terms of relationships. Governance,
concluded the OECD ministers,
“Encompasses the set of relationships between governments and citizens, acting as both individuals and as
part of or through institutions, e.g., political parties, productive enterprises, interest groups and the media.”
Relationships are at the heart of governance. To the extent that public administration mirrors the hearts and
minds of people, it is governance. To the extent that public administration is disconnected from people, it is
not governance. Like the rest of us, public administrators are people, too. Infact, most of the foundational
values for civil services i.e. tolerance, empathy, compassion, dedication and trust requires strong level of
emotional intelligence, so that these values can guide the behaviour of a public servant.
Social capital
It has been shown through many studies that building social capital may be even more valuable than
investing merely in physical, financial and human capital. Physical capital comprises the machinery, tools and
technology of production. Financial capital refers to money. The people who produce goods and services are
human capital. Social capital refers to the bonds of mutual respect and care among members of a collective.
Social capital allows for reducing the transaction costs of economic exchange.
Human capital is invested in people. Social capital is invested in relationships among people. When public
administrators invest in social capital, government earns a big return on investment. Public administrators
earn currency in the form of increased trust in governance. One can think of it as money in the “relationship
bank.” As we work with people over time, deposits are made. We learn when someone gives us their word that
we can count on it or that when they make commitment, these commitments are kept.
When public administrators fail to invest in social capital, they lose legitimacy, add to cynicism, and reduce
the willingness of citizens, businesses and interest groups to bear the costs of painful reforms. Economists
have compiled 30 years of multivariate statistical analysis to demonstrate that earnings from social capital
help lift trust in governance (Putnam, 1999). Likewise, psychologists have compiled 30 years of multivariate
statistical analysis to demonstrate that the level of social capital in any human system is dependent on its
collective level of emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1997).
The higher the level of group emotional intelligence, higher is the level of social capital. Social capital can
be generated only if it has a strong backing of emotionally intelligent public servant. Thus, one can conclude
that “social capital” is nothing more than an abstract name that the discipline of economics gives to what
neuroscientists call “emotional intelligence”.
EQ vs. IQ
In meetings and other group settings where people come together to collaborate, there is a strong sense of
group IQ, the sum total of intellectual knowledge and skills in the room. However, it often turns out that
the single most important element in group intelligence is not the average or highest, IQ, but emotional
intelligence. A single participant who is low in emotional intelligence can lower the collective IQ of the entire
group. According to Chris Argyris (American business theorist):
150
“How can a group where everyone has an individual IQ of 130 together and collectively end up with an IQ
of 60?” IQ alone cannot build group intelligence. IQ has no heartbeat. Emotional intelligence, on the other
hand, focuses like a laser beam what is important to us. Without the signals communicated by emotions, life
would be drab, colorless and meaningless. I would care no more what happens to me or to you than does
a machine. I would be interested in nothing. Without emotions we could not attach meaning to the word
“interest” in the term “public interest.” Organized society could not function without emotional intelligence.”
Organized Society
Without emotions we could not attach meaning to the word “organized” in the term “organized society.”
Emotions can certainly be harmful to governance, especially the emotions of hatred, greed, vengeance and
lust. There has never been any doubt that, under certain circumstances, emotion can disrupt reason, yet
research shows that reduction in emotion may constitute an equally important source of irrational behavior.
Without the intelligent guidance of emotions,
●● Human beings cannot respond to situations very flexibly
●● Take advantage of the right time and right place
●● Make sense of ambiguous or contradictory messages
●● Synthesize new concepts by taking old concepts and combining in new ways, or develop ideas that are novel.
●● Without the guidance of emotions, we cannot be intelligent and rational.
●● Emotional intelligence is registered through deep listening -- listening to oneself and listening to others.
People who are high in emotional intelligence know how to listen to their emotions and regulate their
intensity so they are not hijacked by them.
●● Emotionally intelligent people know how to keep disruptive emotions in check.
●● Emotionally intelligent people can laugh at themselves.
●● Emotionally intelligence people know how to deploy their strengths and compensate for their weaknesses.
●● Emotionally intelligence people listen to other people’s emotions and can empathize with them.
●● Emotionally intelligent people act ethically and build trust through integrity and reliability.
●● Emotionally intelligent people admit their own mistakes and learn from them.
●● Emotionally intelligent people are comfortable with new ideas and new information.
●● Emotionally intelligent people are skilled at listening to a group’s emotional currents and discerning the
power relationships.
●● Emotionally intelligent people can negotiate and resolve disagreements.
Thus, emotionally intelligent behavior is a prerequisite for building bridges of mutual understanding and trust
in the space between people -- in “administrative space.” To promote effective and efficient governance, large
stocks of social capital are needed to fill the gaps of mistrust in every ministry, in every department, in every
office, and in every nook and cranny in administrative space.
EI vs. Traditional Bureaucracy

Currently, the vast majority of public administrators in developing states lack the understanding and behavioral
skills necessary to build social capital. Even those public administrators who are excellent administrators
of laws and regulations lack the leadership skills to bring their citizens into a more mutually beneficial
partnership with government officials.
Neither the responsibilities of administration nor those of leadership can be ignored, yet most public
administrators focus narrowly only on their administrative roles.
A major reason may be the continuing acceptance, by scholars and public administrators alike, of certain
unexamined assumptions of Max Weber’s model of bureaucracy. The unexamined assumptions of the
Weberian model of “man as machine” contribute to a large extent, to the absence of a leadership mindset in
career civil servants.
According to Weber (1922), bureaucracy compares with other organizations exactly as does a machine:
151
“The more perfectly the bureaucracy is dehumanized, the more completely it succeeds in eliminating
from official business love, hatred, and purely personal, irrational and emotional elements which escape
calculation.”
Weber’s model of human nature assumes that efficiency and effectiveness are harmed if human emotions
influence the rational actions of public administrators. Emotions are not intelligent. Emotions are opposed
to reason. Emotions are irrational. Emotions are unproductive. Emotions are subjective. Emotions should
never guide administrative actions. The purpose of bureaucratic hierarchies, division of labor, classification
of positions, standard operating procedures and pay grades is to legislate against intrusive and irrational
emotions. To end nepotism, prevent capricious or subjective administration, and promote equal justice under
law, emotions must be eradicated.
In the classic formulation of Max Weber (1922), public administrators must be without affection or enthusiasm
– ohne Zorn und Eingenommenheit:
“Bureaucratic administration means fundamentally the exercise of control on the basis of knowledge. This is
the feature of it which makes it specifically rational … The dominance of a spirit of formalistic impersonality,
“Sine ira et studio,” without hatred or passion, and hence without affection or enthusiasm. This is the spirit
in which an official conducts his office ... Otherwise the door would be open to arbitrariness.”
Weber’s lifelong project was to conquer the world of administration for rationality. Excellent administration
is “control on the basis of knowledge.” Administration, therefore, is about control. Excellent administration
is about limiting discretion. Excellent administration is about preventing arbitrariness and tyranny. For this
reason, public officials do not establish relationships to persons. Governance is impersonal. Relationships are
positively harmful for excellent administration.
Once the boxes on the organizational chart are drawn, once the responsibilities of positions are delineated,
once the irrationality of human emotion is eliminated, the organization will be a smooth running, lean and
efficient machine, easily able to follow orders and implement public policy. Public organizations must be cool
arenas for dispassionate reason, clearheaded analysis. Administration without people is the most efficient and
effective governance. Administration without people, by definition, is excellent administration.
Unless public administrators eradicate emotions that interfere with decision-making:
1. They cannot respond to situations very flexibly.
2. They cannot take advantage of the right time and right place.
3. They cannot make sense of ambiguous or contradictory messages.
4. They cannot recognize the importance of different elements of a situation.
5. They cannot find similarities between situations despite differences that may separate them.
6. They cannot draw distinctions between situations despite similarities that may link them.
7. They cannot synthesize new concepts by taking old concepts and combining them in new ways.
8. They cannot develop ideas that are novel.
Under the guidance of emotions public administrators cannot be intelligent and rational.
This is a prescription, of course, for transforming people into machines. But machines cannot build the
trusting relationships needed to govern. Only people can govern. Yet, for those immersed in the culture
of bureaucracy, the prescription against relationship virtually mandates that the daily actions of public
administrators -- namely, encounters with political superiors, staff, peers, interest groups, media, members
of parliaments, NGOs, or ordinary citizens -- all relationships with all stakeholders be conducted without
sympathy or enthusiasm.
At the time impersonal public administration was proposed, it was a necessary and essential corrective for
nepotism. Standardized rules and procedures were revolutionary breakthroughs in administrative thinking
and retain value as a safeguard against corruption even today. We must never let down our guard against
administrative or political tyranny. The separation of executive, legislative and judicial powers, with each
power being able to check and balance the others, is the best antidote to tyranny.
152
Weber in 21st century
However, the assumption of “man as machine” is often seen to be non-compatible with late 20th century
discoveries in evolutionary biology and neuroscience. The assumption of “man as machine” has induced in
public administrators a state of unconscious incompetence and trained incapacity for leadership.
In his famous 1937 Brownlow Commission Report, Luther Gulick argued that efficiency must be built into the
structure of government just as it is built into a “piece of machinery.” Following Weber’s assumption about
the harmful effect of emotion, public administrators, asserted Gulick, are supposed to be smooth running
machines – transmission belts -- for carrying out the will of the people as expressed by elected officials. In
1976 Gulick, one of the most influential framers of orthodox American public administration, examined
and, for the first time, regretted his assumptions four decades earlier about the merits of a mechanistic, de-
humanized and emotionless model of administration:
“There is good reason for dropping the idea that government is a machine. We should never have abandoned
the notion that any team of people working together for a purpose is an “organism” not a machine … If we
think of government as an organism, a living organism, we have a totally different and more accurate and
constructive understanding of a government organization. [Public administrators] are no longer cogs, they
are suborgans … They do not merely transmit the energy imparted to them from above, they each make an
added contribution to the total effort, influenced by what they see, feel and are doing.”
Leading by Listening
To build stocks of social capital, one of the most important skills a public administrator needs is the ability to
listen -- to self and others. According to Chinese philosophy,
“A king listens with the heart. The ear is worth ten eyes. In order to be a good king, one must listen with ears,
eyes, and heart, giving undivided attention to the people.”
In the philosophy of Taoism, a king is defined as a servant-leader who is a mindful listener:
“Leadership is a metaphor for being integrated, focused, and centered, a metaphor for emotional and
intellectual balance in all aspects of life. Leadership is connecting mindfully and feelingly to what moves
in one’s soul -- and makes one come alive -- and to what moves in the souls of others and makes them come
alive. Public service leadership is soul work.”
Traditionally, leadership has been seen as a mysterious, lofty quality granted only to a few privileged people,
and if one is not born with that quality, one cannot acquire it. Not so. Leadership is a composite of listening
and speaking skills that can be learned, developed, and exercised by anyone in working with others to carry
out a task. An outstanding public servant is a leader who:
●● Listens to the whole message - not only the words, but the music: the tone of voice, the facial expressions,
the gestures, the emotions and the silences between the words
●● Allows the speaker to feel fully valued and deeply respected
●● Is able to sustain concentration, focus intently and recall the speaker’s message -- the words, emotions and
the “music” - many days later.
●● Listens to one’s own thoughts and emotions as he or she speaks – carefully choosing words and non-
verbal ways of expression (the “music”) that match one’s intended meaning.
As the last point suggests, leading is about speaking persuasively just as much as it is about listening deeply.
By tapping emotional energies, leaders move themselves and others to committed action. Leaders know how
to draw out enthusiasm in others not merely compliance. Authenticity -- listening to oneself -- is the most
important prerequisite for public service.
Public service leaders know their deepest convictions, are true to them, and act with empathic understanding
and positive regard for others’ differences, without demanding that everyone else feel, think or act the same
way that they do. Public service leaders listen deeply as a way to find common ground for action and results.
Public service leaders hold their ground and stay connected. Public service leaders are ethical. Public service
leaders who have the capacity to listen deeply to themselves and others know five things. They:
153
1. Know, deep down, what their values are and what other peoples’ values are;
2. Know how to communicate what they need in order to get cooperation from peers, political superiors and
others;
3. Know how to build coalitions to support the needs of peers, political superiors and others;
4. Know how to say no to illegal or unethical acts of government;
5. Know how to build social capital.
Excellent Management is Not Leadership

While related, management and leadership are not the same -- even in the private sector -- and must be sharply
distinguished. Excellent managerial skills are necessary but not sufficient for public administrators especially
in developing countries like India. For good governance, leadership skills are also required.
Is excellent management necessary for public administration? – Absolutely yes. Is excellent management
sufficient for building social capital? – Absolutely not.
Like administration, management is essentially about control. Management is about restraining energies.
Management is about limiting discretion. In public administration, control and restraint -- especially in the
expenditure of taxes collected from citizens and businesses -- is a prerequisite to demonstrate accountability
to elected officials, Parliaments and citizens. In a democracy, law-based public administration is essential.
Therefore, control of financial resources is absolutely necessary for public managers. All public administrators
must also be good managers.
Leadership, however, is not about control. Leaders move themselves and others to committed action. The
word “lead” derives from Old English, leden, which means “to go before as a guide; to take a journey.” The
word “motivate” derives from the Latin, motere, which means “to move.” The word “emotion” also derives
from motere, to move. By drawing on emotional energies, leaders take us on a journey. Leadership = emotion.
●● Leaders begin initiatives.
●● Leaders challenge the process.
●● Leaders inspire a shared vision.
●● Leaders enable others to act.
●● Leaders model the way.
●● Leaders encourage the heart.
●● Leadership is not about control.
●● Leadership is about releasing human energies.
●● Leaders lead by tapping their emotional intelligence and the emotional intelligence of others.
●● Leadership is about influencing stakeholders in society to work together to achieve higher, more ethical
goals.
According the Pulitzer-prize winning political scientist James McGregor Burns, who founded the field of
leadership studies, the leader’s fundamental act is to lead “people to be aware or conscious of what they feel to
be their true needs so strongly, to define their values so meaningfully, that they can move to purposeful action”.
In other words, leaders listen so deeply to the emotional messages of their constituents that, sometimes, they
have the capacity to register needs not even fully conscious to their constituents.
Leadership is the major contributor to social capital. Leadership, says Burns, “raises the level of human
conduct and ethical aspiration of both leader and led, and thus has a transforming effect on both”. Building
social capital, therefore, depends on leaders not managers.
To be an excellent manager or administrator, one does not need to tap the emotional energies and creative will
of subordinates, citizens, business firms, interest groups and other stakeholders in society. Moving others to
committed action is not a necessary skill for managers. Building social capital is not in the position description
of any manager.
Listening to others is not what they do best. Highly motivated or inspired behavior may even be counter-
productive. According to Harvard professor John Kotter:
154
“For some of the same reasons that control is so central to management, highly motivated or inspired behavior
is almost irrelevant. Managerial processes must be as close as possible to feel-safe and risk-free. That means
they cannot be dependent on the unusual or hard to obtain. The whole purpose of systems and structures is to
help normal people who behave in normal ways complete routine jobs successfully, day after day.
Completing routine jobs successfully – delivering social security payments on time; implementing computer
systems for E-government, filling potholes; keeping nuclear power plants safe -- is a worthy task. Excellent
management is the exercise of control.
The focus is to strengthen or correct what already exists in the organization. Excellent managers look for
exceptions and fix them. Building social capital, or raising people to higher ethical standards of behavior, plays
no role in excellent management. Managing budgets means “controlling public monies to prevent financial
waste.” Managing information technology means “controlling what kinds of information computers release.”
Managing nuclear power plants means “controlling accidents.” People, however, cannot be managed. They
can only be led.”
• Managers have employees. Leaders win followers.
• Managers react to change. Leaders create change.
• Managers have good ideas. Leaders implement them.
• Managers communicate. Leaders persuade.
• Managers direct groups. Leaders create teams.
• Managers try to be heroes. Leaders make heroes of everyone around them.
• Managers take credit. Leaders take responsibility.
• Managers are focused. Leaders create shared focus.
• Managers exercise power over people. Leaders develop power with people.
Emotions are Rational

While we still appreciate Weber’s genius as the premier sociologist of his generation, his model of “man as
a machine” has had unintentionally perverse effects on modern, postindustrial public administration and in
navigating the permanent white water of change.
“Man as machine” continues to serve as a major barrier to building trust in 21st century government. The
fall of communism, if nothing else, demonstrates that rigid, inhumane bureaucracy is not superior to other
forms of organization. Moreover, it is not even true that “impersonality” is the best guide to rational decision-
making.
Charles Darwin showed as early as the 19th century that emotions were adaptive in the evolution of human
beings, but there is no evidence in Weber’s writings that he understood the implications of Darwin’s revolution
in biological science.
Neuro-scientific discoveries in the last decade show that rationality and emotions are not separate compartments
in the brain. Rather they are inextricably woven into all cognition.
Recent work in psychology by scholars shows conclusively that emotions are a form of intelligent awareness.
Emotions are intelligent. Emotions are what make us human. Emotions tell us what is valuable and important
to us and to others. They signal the meaning of events. Emotions are just as “cognitive” as other perceptions.
They serve as essential guides for humans to make rational choices.
Emotions are a form of thinking as well as a form of feeling. All thinking is infused with the intelligence of
emotions. Without the guidance of emotions, one becomes irrational, detached from reality.
We now have conclusive biological evidence that decision-making is neurologically impossible without being
informed by emotions. Contrary to the classical model, decision-making is arbitrary when it is not infused
with the intelligence of emotions.
Neuro-scientific research shows some stunning differences between the classical bureaucratic assessment of
emotions and current scientific understanding:
155
Bureaucracy on emotions Modern neuroscience on emotions
1. Make us inefficient Make us effective
2. Sign of weakness Sign of strength
3. Interfere with good judgment Essential to good judgment
4. Distract us Motivate us
5. Obstruct, or slow down, reasoning Enhance, or speed up, reasoning
6. Arbitrary and tyrannical Build trust and connection
7. Weaken neutrality Activate ethical values
8. Inhibit the flow of objective data Provide vital information and feedback
9. Complicate planning Spark creativity and innovation
10. Undermine management Enhance leadership
For public administrators, management and leadership skills are not mutually exclusive. We should not make
the mistake of stigmatizing management and glorifying leadership. They are complementary. Managers lead
and leaders manage; however, the two functions reflect different -- at times overlapping -- sets of skills. Both
are essential. Public administrators need to expand their repertoire of skills to include both functions, without
minimizing one at the expense of the other.
With the need for leaders growing immensely as predictability and order give way to change and ambiguity,
what is needed are both managers and leaders (ideally, both in the same body).
A genuinely democratic and ethical civil society in developing countries demands the development of a cadre
of public administrators skilled in leadership not just administration and management. Civil servants at times
administer laws, at times manage budgets, and at other times lead people and change. Civil servants are not
just administrators and they are not just managers. They are also leaders who have a responsibility to share
democratic values, represent a broad range of social groups, and view themselves as accountable to much
broader constituencies as before.
“We need a government,” writes Peter Drucker, the father of modern management, “which knows how to
govern and does so. Not a government which ‘administers,’ but a government which truly governs”.
nn
156
Chapter - 5
Quotations on Emotional Intelligence
1. “There is no separation of mind and emotions; emotions, thinking, and learning are all linked.”
— Eric Jensen
2. “What really matters for success, character, happiness and lifelong achievements is a definite set of
emotional skills – your EQ — not just purely cognitive abilities that are measured by conventional
IQ tests.” — Daniel Goleman
3. “We plant seeds that will flower as results in our lives, so best to remove the weeds of anger, avarice, envy
and doubt…” — Dorothy Day
4. “Whatever is begun in anger ends in shame.” — Benjamin Franklin
5. “When awareness is brought to an emotion, power is brought to your life.” — Tara Meyer Robson
6. “It is very important to understand that emotional intelligence is not the opposite of intelligence, it is not
the triumph of heart over head — it is the unique intersection of both.” — David Caruso
7. “All learning has an emotional base.” — Plato
8. “As much as 80% of adult “success” comes from EQ.” — Daniel Goleman
9. “Emotions are the glue that holds the cells of the organism together.” — Candace Pert
10. “People high in emotional intelligence are expected to progress more quickly through the abilities
designated and to master more of them.” — Mayer and Salovey
11. “People in good moods are better at inductive reasoning and creative problem solving.”
— Salovey, Mayer
12. “Cherish your own emotions and never undervalue them.” — Robert Henri
13. “Holding on to anger is like grasping a hot coal with the intent of throwing it at someone else: you are the
one who gets burned.” — Buddha
14. “Let’s not forget that the little emotions are the great captains of our lives and we obey them without
realizing it.” — Vincent Van Gogh
15. “Revenge has no more quenching effect on emotions than salt water has on thirst.” — Walter Weckler
16. “The degree of one’s emotions varies inversely with one’s knowledge of the facts.” — Bertrand Russell
17. “The essential difference between emotion and reason is that emotion leads to action while reason leads
to conclusions.” — Donald Calne
18. “There is no thinking without feeling and no feeling without thinking.” — Karen McCown
19. “Any person capable of angering you becomes your master.” — Epictetus
20. “Anyone can be angry – that is easy. But to be angry with the right person, to the right degree, at the right
time, for the right purpose, and in the right way – that is not easy.” — Aristotle
21. “Education is the ability to listen to almost anything without losing your temper or your self-
confidence.” — Robert Frost
22. “Education is the fire-proofer of emotions.” — Dr. Frank Crane
23. “He who smiles rather than rages is always the stronger.” — Japanese proverb
24. “Maturity is achieved when a person postpones immediate pleasures for long-term values.”
— Joshua L. Liebman
25. “Tenderness and kindness are not signs of weakness and despair, but manifestations of strength and
resolution.” — Kahlil Gibran
nn
157
Contributions of Moral Thinkers and
Philosophers from India and World
Moral Philosophy
T
he history of moral philosophy and thought is the history of discovering a compass of core values for
giving a direction to human journey and our endless quest of discovering the most enlightening ways
of co-existence and realization of our essential humanity. This history is basically a history of ideas,
moral reasoning and exploring the human potential for goodness, improvement, compassion, progress and
just and fair social systems.
Many towering figures have contributed to moral philosophy in shaping our ideas about what’s a good life,
what’s a good society and how human beings can individually and socially move towards holistic moral
development. In responding to the essential question which is often framed in Hegelian terms as ‘why man
should ask what man is?’, there has been a constant application of moral reasoning for making human beings
realize their highest ‘selves’ as an individual entity as well as a social whole.
From great Greek intellectual traditions which produced exponents like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle to
ancient oriental thinkers like Confucius, moral philosophy in medieval times found towering figures like St
Acquinas and was given a new scientific urgency during renaissance.
Immanuel Kant later provided a systematic moral foundation to human rationality, and liberal thinkers like
John Locke, Smith and later JS Mill defined morality in the exalted spirit of liberty. The moralist outrage
against exploitation and the humanistic call for equality through radical means got developed in philosophy
of Karl Marx who challenged the Hegelian way of looking at history only as conflict of ideas. Later, the great
leaders of strong movements for human freedom and equality in twentieth century like Mahatma Gandhi,
Martin Luther King Jr , Nelson Mandela and other leading lights had profound moral content in their
leadership and gave a moral dimension to public struggle for sublime values and justice.
There have been many influential moral thinkers who have left seminal impact on how we discover our moral
compass in our individual as well as public life, and their contribution to our ideas of moral life can be seen
as what Longfellow once said ‘footprints on sands of time’.
What is moral philosophy?

Man is a rational animal. He cannot live in the chaos of unexplained, isolated events. The whole world then
becomes alien to him. Man has instinctively intense desire to reflect upon ultimate truth. The search into the
nature of reality has two aspects – understanding and practicing.
Philosophy arises from the speculative and critical search of ultimate reality. It gives rational account of
the facts, events in this world. Philosophy seeks the explanation of the forces operative in this universe. So
theoretically philosophy is a methodical work of thought.
The search into the nature of reality has practical aspect. Human intelligence has practical application. The
very existence of man depends upon his ability to apprehend and to respond the world around him. Here arises
the need of practical utility of his reasoning. Wisdom, the maturity to judge the external factors is essential in
the maintenance of man’s existence. This gives rise to Ethics.
Ethics is concerned with the practical problems of man, initially in the survival and then those in the moral,
organized, harmonious life. Man is a rational animal-the animal that lives on a higher plane. He apprehends
Truth, realizes Good and creates Beauty. The practical aspect of reason shows the progress in morality.
In the longing for higher levels, man has developed from instinctive morality to reflective morality. Man
158
was governed by nature and then by laws. Now he is governed by his own autonomous moral will. The self-
conscious rational being, feels the urge of the unity of Truth, Beauty and Good. The rational animal, human
being is preparing himself to realize the Supreme End. And in this preparation, it is important that he must
understand the basic theories of ethics as it is the past which lays the foundation of the future.
Moral philosophy is the area of philosophy concerned with theories of ethics, with how we ought to live
our lives. For most people morals are sets of rules that we ought to obey, they tell us what is right or wrong.
Moral philosophers want to discover how these rules are justified, and at the logical consequences of moral
or ethical beliefs.
All cultures — be they prehistoric, medieval, or modern; Eastern, Western, religious or secular — have
had their own unique schools of philosophy, arrived at through both inheritance and through independent
discovery. Such theories have grown from different premises and approaches, examples of which include
(but are not limited to) rationalism (theories arrived at through logic), empiricism (theories arrived at through
observation), and even through leaps of faith, hope and inheritance (such as the supernaturalist philosophies
and religions).
nn
159
Chapter - 2
Milestones in the Development of Moral Philosophy
Period Philosophic Basic doctrines
school/
philosophers
1750–800 Vedic period Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed. Each
BCE Veda consists of four parts; Samhitas (hymns), Brahmanas (rituals),
Aranyakas (theologies) and Upanishads (philosophies).Veda means
wisdom, knowledge or vision, and it manifests the language of the
gods in human speech. The laws of the Vedas regulate the social, legal,
domestic and religious customs of the Hindus to the present day. All
the obligatory duties of the Hindus at birth, marriage, death etc. owe
their allegiance to the Vedic ritual.
800–600 Upanishads Collection of texts in the Vedic Sanskrit language, which contain
BCE the earliest emergence of some of the central religious concepts of
Hinduism, some of which are shared with Buddhism and Jainism.
Upanishads as considered by Hindus contain revealed truths (Sruti)
concerning the nature of ultimate reality (brahman) and describing the
character and form of human salvation (moksha).
599–527 Jainism One of the oldest religions in the world; prescribes a path of ahimsa—
BCE nonviolence—towards all living beings, and emphasises spiritual
interdependence and equality between all forms of life. The three main
principles of Jainism are Ahimsa (Nonviolence), Anekantavada (Non-
Absolutism) and Aparigraha (Non-Possessiveness).
563–483 Buddhism Buddhism is a world religion, which arose in and around the ancient
BCE Kingdom of Magadha and is based on the teachings of Siddhārtha
Gautama who was deemed a “Buddha” (“Awakened One”). Both
Jainism and Buddhism started in opposition to Hinduism.
500–400 Period of Ramayana Ramayana presents the teachings of ancient Hindu sages in narrative
BCE allegory, interspersing philosophical and devotional elements. It
depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal characters like the
ideal father, the ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal wife, and the
ideal king; had an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry and
Hindu life and culture.
550–300 Period of Ascribed to the sage Vyasa; Besides its epic narrative of the
BCE Mahabharata Kurukshetra War and the fates of the Kaurava and the Pandava
princes, the Mahabharata contains philosophical and devotional
material, such as a discussion of the four “goals of life” or purusharthas.
Among the principal works and stories in the Mahabharata are the
Bhagavad Gita, the story of Damayanti, an abbreviated version of the
Ramayana, and the Rishyasringa, often considered as works in their
own right.
624 - 546 Thales One of the Seven Sages of Greece, Aristotle regarded him as the first
BCE philosopher in the Greek tradition. Believed that everything is made
of water
160
570-495 Pythagoras The universe is underpinned by mathematics

BCE
551–479 Confucius A Chinese teacher, editor, politician, and philosopher of the Spring
BCE and Autumn period of Chinese history; Founder of Confucianism; the
highest moral ideal is jen (humanity or goodness) which is achievable
by all; the rites and traditions of society are to be followed but not
without question; He championed strong family loyalty, ancestor
worship, respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their
wives. He also recommended family as a basis for ideal government.
He espoused the well-known principle “Do not do to others what you
do not want done to yourself”, an early version of the Golden Rule.
Confucian ethics are described as humanistic. The five ethical
commandments of Confucius are:
1. jen, service of or doing good to others
2. yi, truthfulness
3. li, propriety, proper conduct, correct behaviour
4. chih, knowledge, wisdom
5. hsian, trustworthiness
535-475 Heraclitus Everything changes, fire is the basic matter of the universe
BCE
Started Sophism Sophism is a method of teaching. In ancient Greece, sophists were
around 480 a category of teachers who specialized in using the techniques of
BCE philosophy and rhetoric for the purpose of teaching excellence or
virtue — predominantly to young statesmen and nobility after getting
paid for their services. Sophists are the first to deny the existence
of universal moral standards and subscribe to the view called moral
relativism.
Gorgias, founding Sophist believed that there is no truth, only
argument.
469-399 Socrates Said “All I know is that I know nothing” and yet was prepared to die
BCE for his beliefs. Saw philosophy as the pursuit of moral good. Was one
of the first virtue ethicists.
428 - 348 Plato Disciple of Socrates - recorded discourses of Socrates in works called
BCE dialogues. His best known work is called The Republic - where he
presents a perfect state led by enlightened rulers. Best known for
his doctrine of ideas - that ideas have a higher degree of reality than
material things.
384-322 Aristotle Disciple of Plato. He broke with Plato when he rejected the doctrines
BCE of innate knowledge and ideas. He taught that all knowledge begins
in sense experience, while not denying the ability of the intellect to
move beyond this level. Author of many works in almost all areas of
knowledge; author of The Nicomachean Ethics and The Politics.
345- 300 Kautilya’s An ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military
BCE Arthashastra strategy, written in Sanskrit. Kauṭilya was a scholar at Takshashila and
the teacher and guardian of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya, founder
of the Mauryan Empire.
161
Early 3rd Stoicism A school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of

century BCE Citium. The Stoics taught that destructive emotions resulted from
errors in judgment, and that a sage, or person of “moral and intellectual
perfection”, would not suffer such emotions.
Founded Epicureanism System of philosophy based upon the teachings of the ancient Greek
around 307 philosopher Epicurus who believed that what he called “pleasure” is
BCE the greatest good, but the way to attain such pleasure is to live modestly
and to gain knowledge of the workings of the world and the limits of
one’s desires.
354-430 AD St. Augustine of Roman Philosopher; His most famous works are Confessions and City
Hippo of God. He began as a Neo-Platonist. He converted to Christianity, but
often applied the insights of Greek philosophy to theological questions.
Medieval The Bhakti It was a Hindu religious movement that promoted the belief that
Period Of Movement moksha was attainable by everyone; closely related to Islamic Sufism,
India which appeared around the same time: both advocated that a personal
expression of devotion to God is the way to become at one with him.
1225-1274 Thomas Aquinas Italian philosopher and theologian. Convinced that faith and reason
AD must converge, even if their premises were different. Combated the
philosophy of Averroes (that there were two contradictory truths, one
for theology, one for philosophy). Used philosophy of Aristotle in his
theological reasoning.
15th century Sikhism A monotheistic religion founded in the Punjab region by Guru Nanak;
AD belief in the concept of the oneness of God and considers spiritual life
and secular life to be intertwined.
1469-1527 Niccolo Political philosopher and father of Realpolitik; believed morality is
AD Machiavelli subordinate to power. Set down his ideas in The Prince
1596-1650 Descartes A French philosopher, mathematician and writer who spent most of his
AD life in the Dutch Republic. He has been dubbed the father of modern
philosophy, and much subsequent Western philosophy is a response
to his writings, which are studied closely to this day; his chief interest
was in metaphysics; followed stoicism.
1588-1679 Thomas Hobbes English philosopher and political theorist; He taught that ethics and
AD political science could be developed by the same methods applied in
mathematics and physics; proposed a theory of social atomism - that
individuals always act for their own selfish interest, and in the pristine
state of man, there are no rights. This was a denial of Aristotle’s view
that man is by nature a social animal. He proposed a theory of social
contract - that society arose as a contract to end the war of all against
all.
17th and Moral sense theory It is a theory in moral epistemology and meta-ethics concerning the
18th century or sentimentalism discovery of moral truths. It typically holds that distinctions between
AD morality and immorality are discovered by emotional responses to
experience.David Hume (1711–1776) and Adam Smith (1723–1790)
were related to this school of thought.
17th and Moral Rationalism Rationalists like Immanuel Kant and Samuel Clarke have argued that
18th century we gain knowledge of morality from rational thought. In this view,
AD the way we understand morality would be similar to the way we
understand mathematics.
162
1632-1704 John Locke English philosopher, an initiator of the Enlightenment in England

AD and France. His works inspired the authors of the U.S. Constitution.
He defended the institution of property as beneficial to the whole
community. He also taught that men had God-given rights.
1694-1778 Voltaire He was a French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher
AD famous for his attacks on the established Catholic Church, and his
advocacy of freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and separation
of church and state.
1724-1804 Immanuel Kant Prussian philosopher. He taught that the order we see in the universe
AD really comes from categories that our mind imposes on experience.
This idea heavily influenced later German psychology and psychiatry.
In ethics, he taught that we should not be motivated by happiness,
but should act purely out of a motive of duty. This approach to ethics
is called deontological. The search for happiness, he taught, made us
dependent on the events of the world outside of ourselves and reduced
our inner freedom. His ethics is extremely formal. He taught that in
all our actions we should act in such a way that our actions could be a
universal model or rule.
1748-1832 Jeremy Bentham English philosopher who wrote extensively in economics, and the
AD theory of law. The earliest and chief expounder of Utilitarianism.
He rejected the theory of natural rights, and taught that all actions
are motivated by pleasure. He taught that pleasure can be treated
mathematically in order to reach the proper decisions, and invented a
system called The Calculus of Pleasures.
1806-1873 John Stuart Mill British philosopher who wrote as well about economics and social
AD issues. He was raised according to the system of Jeremy Bentham’s
Calculus of Pleasures, but suffered a nervous breakdown. He modified
Bentham’s system, saying that lower sensual pleasures and higher
intellectual pleasures are not merely different in quantity, but in quality.
He was an advocate of political liberty, but also called for universal
compulsory education - to force people to be happy, even against their
will. Both Mill and Bentham could be called social engineers.
1818-83 AD Karl Marx “From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs”.
1844-1900 Frederick German philosopher and writer, proposed that the prevailing traditional
AD Nietzsche morality was the product of history, where the weak imposed its will
upon the strong. He celebrated an ancient morality that exalted strength
and will, embodied in the superman. His writings were admired by
the Fascists and Nazis, and continue to be adored by those who call
themselves post-modern philosophers.
19th century Period of Hindu Social and religious reform that arose in response to the contact with
AD religious reformism Western culture and education and as a reaction to evil social practises.
20th century Gandhi Gandhian school of thought
1910-89 AD A.J. Ayer Meaningful statements must be empirically verifiable; otherwise they
are simply expressions of like and dislike.
20th and Applied ethics New fields like Bioethics, Military ethics, Machine ethics have
21stcentury emerged
AD
163
Chapter - 3
Western Moral Thinkers
1. Socrates
The Pre-Socratic philosophers were the earliest of the philosophers. However, their concern was not so much
with the topics of ethics and knowledge that modern people associate with philosophy, but concepts we might
associate with physics. For example, the Materialists school believed that the world is created from matter
-- even if imperceptibly small, plus the void. Pluralists were there who believed that there is more than one
basic element from which everything is composed.
Socrates (470 BC – 399 BC) now recognized as the father of western philosophy can be credited for making
a humble beginning to the way we look moral philosophy today. Socrates often disrupted the status quo by
questioning the prevalent ideas and rationally dissecting the thoughts and norms which were getting accepted
without being subjected to moral reasoning and critical scrutiny. His views on knowledge and truth have
influenced the way many people view learning. However, little is known of his life as Socrates was not a
formal writer.He left no writings of his own, thus our awareness of his teachings comes primarily from a few
ancient authors including his student, Plato who referred to him in their own works.
Socrates believed that philosophy should achieve practical results for the greater well-being of society. He
attempted to establish an ethical system based on human reason rather than religious doctrine. He pointed out
that human choice was motivated by the desire for happiness.
Moral concerns: Socrates is somewhat a virtue ethicist. He believes morally right actions are those that
exemplify the virtues. However, Socrates thought the greatest virtue was knowledge and therefore you were
virtuous as far as you had knowledge. He defined knowledge as knowing what to do in a certain situation.
Socrates equated knowledge with virtue, which ultimately leads to ethical conduct. He believed that the
only life worth living was one that was rigorously examined. He looked for principles and actions that were
worth living by, creating an ethical base upon which decisions should be made. Socrates firmly believed
that knowledge and understanding of virtue, or “the good,” was sufficient for someone to be happy. To him,
knowledge of the good was almost akin to an enlightened state. He believed that no person could willingly
choose to do something harmful or negative if they were fully aware of the value of life.
As per Socrates, “If you constantly examine who you are as a moral agent, in relations to others, and your
life in the community, you are on the right path.” This implies that we must build up personal values and
social values in an ethical manner. Socrates himself was the best example of this; he lived an ethical life
himself, until the end. He even died in ethical manner. He taught discipline, because this is how we learn and
understand our social responsibilities. He also taught virtues, justice, courage, piety and temperance.
Execution: While many Athenians admired Socrates’s challenges to Greek conventional wisdom and the
humorous way he went about it, an equal number grew angry and felt he threatened their way of life and
uncertain future. Eventually, Socrates was accused of failing to recognize the gods of the city and corrupting
the youth through his teachings. According to Plato’s (Socrates’ prized student) Apology, Socrates took a
strong stand at the trial despite his awareness of the potential consequences. He was ultimately sentenced to
death. His uncompromising stand is a great example of upholding intellectual integrity and the courage of
‘speaking truth to power’.
Before Socrates’s execution, friends offered to bribe the guards and rescue him so he could flee into exile.
He declined, stating he wasn’t afraid of death, felt he would be no better off if in exile and said he was
still a loyal citizen of Athens, willing to abide by its laws, even the ones that condemned him to death.
Plato described Socrates’s execution in his Phaedo dialogue: Socrates drank the hemlock mixture without
hesitation. Numbness slowly crept into his body until it reached his heart. Shortly before his final breath,
Socrates described his death as a release of the soul from the body.
164
In the modern world, many learners rely on Socrates’ philosophies. His style of questioning, recognition
of ignorance, and belief in the value of self-examination / knowledge still resonate with many independent
thinkers.
Founder of tech giant and inspirational business leader Steve Jobs once said that he’d trade all his technology
for an afternoon with Socrates. Many learners would do the same.
QUOTES
HERACLITUS (pre-Socratic philosopher)
1. No man ever steps in the same river twice, for it’s not the same river and he’s not the same man.
2. There is nothing permanent except change.
SOCRATES
1. True knowledge exists in knowing that you know nothing.
2. An unexamined life is not worth living.
3. I cannot teach anybody anything, I can only make them think.
4. There is only one good, knowledge, and one evil, ignorance.
5. Wonder is the beginning of wisdom.
6. Be kind, for everyone you meet is fighting a hard battle.
7. Strong minds discuss ideas, average minds discuss events, weak minds discuss people.
8. He who is not contented with what he has, would not be contented with what he would like to have.
9. The secret of happiness, you see, is not found in seeking more, but in developing the capacity to enjoy
less.
10. To find yourself, think for yourself.
11. The way to gain a good reputation is to endeavor to be what you desire to appear.
12. True wisdom comes to each of us when we realize how little we understand about life, ourselves, and the
world around us.
13. I know that I am intelligent, because I know that I know nothing.
14. It is not living that matters, but living rightly.
2. Plato
Plato was a great Greek philosopher. He is known as a true disciple of Socrates. Plato’s doctrine of cardinal
virtues is based on his concept of virtue. According to Plato, goodness consists of the natural and proper
functioning of human nature. Besides, man is social by nature; therefore, society is a normal background of
moral life of human beings. Socrates had said that virtue is knowledge. It means that insight into the nature
of moral virtues is essential for becoming virtuous. Of course mere knowledge of virtue is not enough. Man
has to cultivate virtues through the habit of doing obligatory and morally good actions. For Plato, good life
is the life of virtues.
Four cardinal virtues
Plato has described four important virtues in his theory of morality. According to him the cultivation of these
four virtues - wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice - constitutes a morally good life. Later on, these four
virtues came to be called ‘Cardinal virtues’. The term ‘cardinal’ is derived from the word ‘Cardo’ ‘Cardo’
means a hinge or a hook which supports the door, and on which the door turns. The four virtues are cardinal
because they support moral life of man in society. They are fundamental virtues. Other virtues depend upon
them and are therefore subordinate to them. Thus, cardinal virtues, according to Frankena, are a set of virtues
which cannot be derived from one another; and all other moral virtues can be derived from them or shown to
be forms of them.
These four virtues are said to be the basic and important constituents of moral life or goodness of man.
Morality consists in knowing and maintaining the harmony between the rational and non-rational elements
of the self. It is called ‘Justice’ by Plato. Malfunctioning of any part of the self will have adverse effects upon
165
the other parts. Thus, the key to moral life is the proper integration of the three parts of the self. According to
Plato, the human self or soul is tripartite. The three elements or parts of human beings are:
(1) Passionate or Appetitive Element (Passions)
(2) Spirited or Dynamic & Executive Element (Will)
(3) Philosophical or Rational Element (Reason or Intellect)
This integration can be achieved when the spirited element helps the reason to keep the passions in check.
Wisdom is the virtue of reason. It consists in knowing and mastering the non-rational elements viz. spirited
element and passions. It includes knowledge, insight and foresight based on that knowledge. It is not bookish
knowledge/data/information only. It implies the active choice of values as against disvalues, or virtues as
against vices. A man is wise in whom reason rules over the other impulses.
Courage is the virtue of the spirited element. It must perform its heroic function within the limits set by
reason. It is of two types viz. physical courage of a soldier and moral courage of a thinker or a reformer. Thus,
one can be courageous in war as well as in intellectual convictions. Courage, therefore, is the excellence in
the activity of the will. A man is brave when the spirited element holds fast to the instructions of intellect.
Temperance or self-control consists in keeping bodily satisfactions within limits. Passions are not to be
condemned. Even they are to be satisfied. The passionate element is both non-moral and non-rational. It needs
to be regulated and subjected to the rules of reason. Temperance is not complete abstinence. It is the principle
of self-restraint and moderation. It is the controlling and ordering of natural instincts, desires and sensuous
pleasures. A man is temperate when the spirited element or passionate element yields to intellect and obey its
commands.
Justice is the virtue of the whole self or the complete person. It is the proper integration of different parts
of the self. Thus, justice also consists of the harmonious functioning of the three parts of personality. Each
part must do its function for which it is fit. When these three parts of the personality or the self with their
three virtues of wisdom, courage and temperance function harmoniously together and are ordered and ruled
by reason, then justice emerges as the resultant virtue. Each man is fit for a particular job in accordance with
his nature. Justice consists in doing one’s own job. Being morally perfect, therefore, is tantamount to being
wise, valiant, temperate and just. Justice, then, is the supreme virtue. Just man will not indulge in the pursuit
of material pleasures only. According to Plato, the four cardinal virtues have both individual and social
significance. They are found both in the individual and in the society. Human beings are rational and social
animals. They have the natural tendency to live in communities. Morality of the society is the same as it is for
the individual. According to Plato, society is the individual ‘writ large’. For society is made up of individuals.
Each individual self consists of three parts. All the three elements are not equally dominant in all individuals. In
some persons, the rational element is predominant,
while in others the spirited element is powerful.
Majority of the people give more importance to
the passionate element. Thus, as we have three
elements of the self so we have three classes in
a society. They are: Guardians, Auxiliaries and
Civilians.
1. Guardians constitute the class of rulers. They
are drawn from that type of men in whom
the rational or the philosophical elements
is dominant. Such persons live only for
truth. They are truth-seekers. They can be
philosopher-kings. They are men of knowledge
and wisdom. Wisdom is their chief virtue.
2. The auxiliary class consists of those in whom
the spirited element is dominant. They live
for honour and success. They are good for the
166
execution of laws and to protect the society from internal disorder and external attack. Courage is their
principal virtue. They support the guardians and execute the laws made by the enlightened rulers or
philosopher kings
3. The class of civilians consists of producers, such as farmers, blacksmiths, fishermen, traders, carpenters,
etc. In them the element of passion is dominant. They live for material gains. Temperance is their main
virtue.
The guardians are enlightened or wise rulers. They direct and control the majority of the people with the help
of the members of the auxiliary class. When each class does its appropriate function, justice emerges. In a just
society, the latter two classes willingly accept the rule of the wise (guardians). Wisdom is an important virtue.
It helps a person to control his passions and perform his duties efficiently. The virtue of justice takes note of
different aspects of a human person and integrates them. It thus stands for the harmony in the individual as
well as harmony between the individual and community.
Hence, Plato’s ethical theory is this: proper balance in the tripartate soul and proper balance in the tripartate
state, ruled by philosopher kings, brings justice and happiness.
PLATO QUOTES
1. We can easily forgive a child who is afraid of the dark; the real tragedy of life is when men are afraid of
the light.
2. The beginning is the most important part of the work.
3. Only the dead have seen the end of war.
4. Courage is knowing what not to fear.
5. Music is a moral law. It gives soul to the universe, wings to the mind, flight to the imagination, and charm
and gaiety to life and to everything.
6. You can discover more about a person in an hour of play than in a year of conversation.
7. Good people do not need laws to tell them to act responsibly, while bad people will find a way around the laws.
8. He was a wise man who invented God.“Wise men speak because they have something to say; fools
because they have to say something.
9. The price good men pay for indifference to public affairs is to be ruled by evil men.
10. Good people do not need laws to tell them to act responsibly, while bad people will find a way around the
laws.
11. The measure of a man is what he does with power.
12. Human behavior flows from three main sources: desire, emotion, and knowledge.
13. Courage is knowing what not to fear. ”Education is teaching our children to desire the right things.
14. Wise men speak because they have something to say; fools because they have to say something.
15. Be kind, for everyone you meet is fighting a harder battle.
16. The heaviest penalty for declining to rule is to be ruled by someone inferior to yourself.
17. Ignorance, the root and stem of every evil.
18. Education is teaching our children to desire the right things.
19. Necessity is the mother of invention.
20. Character is simply habit long continued.
21. An empty vessel makes the loudest sound, so they that have the least wit are the greatest babblers.
22. The first and best victory is to conquer self
23. All is flux, nothing stays still
24. Knowledge becomes evil if the aim be not virtuous.
3. Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Aristotle’s writings
were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality and aesthetics,
167
logic and science, politics and metaphysics. He was the first to classify areas of human knowledge into
distinct disciplines such as mathematics, biology, and ethics. Some of these classifications are still used today.
The Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle’s most important study of personal morality and the ends of human life,
has for many centuries been a widely-read and influential book. Among its most outstanding features are
Aristotle’s insistences that there are no known absolute moral standards and that any ethical theory must be
based in part on an understanding of psychology and firmly grounded in the realities of human nature and
daily life.
The purpose of ethics for Aristotle is simply to find the ultimate purpose of human life. Ethics falls under the
category of practical sciences, since its concern is not knowledge for its own sake but rather for the purpose
of application.
Teleology of Nature: According to Aristotle, nature works toward a telos, or end goal. His biological work
aims constantly at the question of what purpose different aspects of plants and animals serve. He classifies
humans as “rational animals,” meaning that our telos is rational. In other words, our function in life is to
realize our full potential as rational beings. If we are not fully rational, we are falling short of our true nature.
Every human activity aims at a certain telos. For instance, one might go to the gym with the telos of becoming
fitter. When Aristotle identifies happiness as the highest goal, he is claiming that happiness is the ultimate
telos of any action. We might understand this idea of an ultimate telos by imagining the child who constantly
asks, “Why?”
“Why are you going to the gym?”
“To become fitter.”
“Why do you want to become fitter?”
“So that I’ll be healthier.”
“Why do you want to be healthy?”
“So that I’ll live longer and have more energy.”
“Why do you want a long and energetic life?”
“Because that makes for a happy life.”
“Why do you want a happy life?”
“I just do.”
Every activity thus has a telos, which is an answer to the question, Why are you doing this? Happiness is the
ultimate telos because there is no further telos beyond happiness and because the ultimate goal of all our other
activities is happiness.
This teleological view gives Aristotle’s Ethics a clear sense of direction. Our goal in life is to achieve our true
nature, and this true nature consists essentially of rationality. The purpose of a moral education, then, is to
teach us how we may become perfectly rational and immune to the temptations of our lower animalistic parts.
Virtue and Happiness: The word happiness carries connotations of success and fulfilment. For Aristotle, this
happiness is our highest goal. All human activities aim at some end that we consider good. Most activities are
a means to a higher end. The highest human good, then, is that activity that is an end in itself. That good is
happiness. When we aim at happiness, we do so for its own sake, not because happiness helps us realize some
other end. The goal of the Ethics is to determine how best to achieve happiness.
Thus, Aristotle does not say that we should aim at happiness, but rather that we do aim at happiness. His goal
in the Ethics is not to tell us that we ought to live happy, successful lives, but to tell us what this life consists
of. Most people think of happiness as physical pleasure or honour, but this is because they have an imperfect
view of the good life.
The understanding of happiness that people usually have does not match up with true happiness because
people are generally lacking in virtue. Virtue is a disposition to behave in the right manner, which is inculcated
from childhood. For example, a person with the virtue of courage will not only show confidence in the face of
fear, but will consider courage as a good thing. Behaving courageously will make the virtuous person happy
168
and will be one part of living a generally good life. By contrast, a person who has been poorly brought up and
exhibits the vice of cowardice will find happiness in the avoidance of danger and thus will have a distorted
view of the good life.
Thus, happiness depends on living in accordance with appropriate virtues. Virtue is a disposition rather than
an activity. That is, a virtuous person is naturally disposed to behave in the right ways and for the right
reasons, and to feel pleasure in behaving rightly.
Moral Education: Teaching people to be good is a question of high importance in any discussion of ethics.
Aristotle always believed that virtue cannot be taught in a classroom or by means of argument. His Ethics,
then, is not intended to make people good, but rather to explain what is good, why it is good, and how we
might set about building societies and institutions that might inculcate this goodness.
Justice
Aristotle devotes Book V of the Nicomachean Ethics to justice. In this discussion, Aristotle defines justice
as having two different but related senses—general (universal) justice and particular justice. General justice
is virtue expressed in relation to other people. Thus the just man in this sense deals properly and fairly with
others, and expresses his virtue in his dealings with them—not lying or cheating or taking from others what
is owed to them.
There are two forms of particular justice: distributive and rectificatory. Distributive justice deals with the
distribution of wealth among the members of a community. It employs geometric proportion: what each
person receives is directly proportional to his or her merit, so a good person will receive more than a bad
person. This justice is a virtuous mean between the vices of giving more than a person deserves and giving
less.
Rectificatory justice remedies unequal distributions of gain and loss between two people. Rectification may be
called for in cases of injustice involving voluntary transactions like trade or involuntary transactions like theft
or assault. Justice is restored in a court case, where the judge ensures that the gains and losses of both parties
are equaled out, thus restoring a mean.Aristotle says an educated judge is needed to apply just decisions
regarding any particular case. This is where we get the image of the scales of justice, the blindfolded judge
symbolizing blind justice, balancing the scales, weighing all the evidence and deliberating each particular
case individually.
Justice must be distributed proportionately. For instance, a shoemaker and a farmer cannot exchange one shoe
for one harvest, since shoes and harvests are not of equal value. Rather, the shoemaker would have to give a
number of shoes proportional in value to the crops the farmer provides. Money reflects the demand placed on
various goods and allows for just exchanges.
The Doctrine of the Mean: Aristotle’s principle that ‘virtue exists as a mean state between the vicious
extremes of excess and deficiency.’ is an important aspect of his conceptualization of Ethics. For example, the
virtuous mean of courage stands between the vices
of rashness and cowardice, which represent excess
and deficiency respectively.
However, Aristotle always maintained that this
principle is not a precise formulation. Saying
that courage is a mean between rashness and
cowardice does not mean that courage stands
exactly in between these two extremes, nor does
it mean that courage is the same for all people.
Aristotle frequently reminds us that there are no
general laws or exact formulations in the practical
sciences. Rather, we need to approach matters case
by case, informed by inculcated virtue and a fair
dose of practical wisdom.
169
Aristotle’s claim that virtue can be learned only through constant practice implies that there are no set rules
we can learn and then obey. Instead, virtue consists of learning through experience.
The Unity of the Virtues: Virtue for Aristotle is an all-or-nothing affair. We cannot choose our virtues: we
cannot decide that we will be magnificent and temperate but choose not to be courageous. Nor can we call
people virtuous if they fail to exhibit all of the virtues.
Though Aristotle provides a list of virtues, he sees them all as coming from the same source. A virtuous
person is someone who is naturally disposed to exhibit all the virtues, and a naturally virtuous disposition
exhibits all the virtues equally.
The Importance of Friendship: Happiness for Aristotle is a public affair and not a private one, so with
whom we share this happiness is of great significance. The bonds that tie citizens together are so important
that it would be unthinkable to suggest that true happiness can be found in the life of a hermit.
There are three kinds of friendship:
●● friendship based on utility,
●● friendship based on pleasure, and
●● Friendship based on goodness of character
The first two kinds of friendship are based on superficial qualities, so these sorts of friendship are not
generally long lasting. Friendship based on goodness of character is the best kind of friendship, because these
friends love one another for who they are and not for what they stand to gain from one another. Friendship
generally exists between equals, though there are cases, like the father-son relationship, which rely on unequal
exchanges.
Ideally, our feelings for our friends should reflect our feelings for ourselves. Self-love is more important
than friendship, since only people who treat themselves with appropriate care and respect can achieve proper
virtue and happiness. Though a happy person is theoretically self-sufficient, friendship is an important and
essential aspect of the good life.
Political institutions rely on friendly feelings between citizens, so friendship and justice are closely connected.
Between friends there is no need for justice, but people who are just still need the quality of friendship; and
indeed friendliness is considered to be justice in the fullest sense. It is not only a necessary thing but a
splendid one.
The Life of Contemplation: Aristotle maintains that contemplation is the highest human activity. In
discussing the various intellectual virtues, Aristotle extols wisdom as the highest, since it deals only with
unchanging, universal truths and rests on a synthesis of scientific investigation and the intuitive understanding
of the first principles of nature. The activity of wisdom is contemplation, so contemplation must be the highest
activity of human life.
Pleasure accompanies and perfects our activities. A good person will feel pleasure in doing good things.
The highest good thus of all is rational contemplation. A life that consists exclusively of contemplation is
obviously impossible, but we should aim to approximate this ideal as closely as possible.
ARISTOTLEQUOTES
1. Anybody can become angry - that is easy, but to be angry with the right person and to the right degree and
at the right time and for the right purpose, and in the right way - that is not within everybody’s power and
is not easy.
2. We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit.
3. Excellence is never an accident. It is always the result of high intention, sincere effort, and intelligent
execution; it represents the wise choice of many alternatives - choice, not chance, determines your destiny.
4. It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it.
5. Happiness depends upon ourselves. Happiness is the meaning and the purpose of life, the whole aim and
end of human existence.
6. He who has overcome his fears will truly be free.
7. The roots of education are bitter, but the fruit is sweet.
170
8. You will never do anything in this world without courage. It is the greatest quality of the mind next to
honor.
9. It is not enough to win a war; it is more important to organize the peace.
10. I count him braver who overcomes his desires than him who conquers his enemies; for the hardest victory
is over self.
11. You will never do anything in this world without courage. It is the greatest quality of the mind next to
honor.
12. At his best, man is the noblest of all animals; separated from law and justice he is the worst.
13. The worst form of inequality is to try to make unequal things equal.
14. I count him braver who overcomes his desires than him who conquers his enemies; for the hardest victory
is over self.
15. Moral excellence comes about as a result of habit. We become just by doing just acts, temperate by doing
temperate acts, brave by doing brave acts.
4. Moral Philosophy after Aristotle

After Aristotle ancient Greek philosophy entered a phase of decline. It was a period in which philosophy
was concerned with helping the individual in escaping from the travails of the life. It revolves around man in
his personal capacity- around his destiny and spiritual welfare. And, because of this exclusive interest in the
individual, ethical questions came in the limelight.
Philosophers who followed Aristotle showed little interest in cosmogony (science that deals with the origin
of the universe). This approach narrowed their thought. For no individual who worries too much about
himself and who is unable to lose himself in reflections about universe or in larger causes can produce
original ideas. Thus the later Greek thinkers could not
produce anything comparable to the all-embracing great
metaphysical systems of Plato and Aristotle. The two most
important schools of moral philosophy of this time were
Epicureanism and stoicism. They were founded almost at
the same time.
Epicureanism: Epicureanism derives its name from its
founder Epicurus (342-271 B.C) although the school of
Epicurus survived for six centuries his followers made no
significant changes in his doctrines.
For Epicurus, the objective of philosophy was to attain the
happy, tranquil life, characterized by peace and freedom
from fear and the absence of pain and by living a self-
sufficient life surrounded by friends. He taught that pleasure
and pain are the measures of what is good and evil; death is the end of both body and soul and should therefore
not be feared; the gods neither reward nor punish humans; the universe is infinite and eternal; and events in
the world are ultimately based on the motions and interactions of atoms moving in empty space.
Stoicism: Zeno (342-270 B.C) was the founder of the stoic school. Stoicism was one of the four principal
schools of philosophy in ancient Athens, alongside Plato, Aristotle and Epicurus, where it flourished for some
250 years. It proved especially popular among the Romans, attracting admirers as diverse as the statesman
Seneca, the ex-slave Epictetus, and the Emperor Marcus Aurelius.
5. Medieval philosophy (5th – 16th century)

It is the period following the fall of the Roman Empire and was dominated by the rise of Christianity. Some
key medieval thinkers include St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Boethius, Anselm and Roger Bacon.
Modern historians consider the medieval era to be one of philosophical development, heavily influenced by
Christian theology. One of the most notable thinkers of the era, Thomas Aquinas, never considered himself a
171
philosopher, and criticized philosophers for always “falling short of the true and proper wisdom to be found
in Christian revelation”.
The problems discussed throughout this period are the relation of faith to reason, the existence and simplicity
of God, the purpose of theology and metaphysics, and the problems of knowledge, of universals, and of
individuation.
A. St. Augustine
Medieval western philosophy was mainly religious in nature and there was a debate between atheist and theist
regarding existence of god. The biggest argument presented by atheist was “problem of evil”
St. Augustine answer to this was based on the concept of free will. According to him, god created human
beings as rational creatures. It means, they can distinguish between good and bad and god has given them
complete freedom to choose and perform actions. So if the person does something wrong, the responsibility
lies with the men and not god.
Augustine asserted that Christians should be pacifists as a personal, philosophical stance. However,
peacefulness in the face of a grave wrong that could only be stopped by violence would be a sin. Defense
of one’s self or others could be a necessity, especially when authorized by a legitimate authority. While not
breaking down the conditions necessary for war to be just, Augustine coined the phrase in his work The City
of God. In essence, the pursuit of peace must include the option of fighting for its long-term preservation.
Such a war could not be pre-emptive, but defensive, to restore peace. Thomas Aquinas, centuries later, used
the authority of Augustine’s arguments in an attempt to define the conditions under which a war could be just.
Another important theory of Saint Augustine is to love God is to love truth because God is the truth itself.
People may come to know truth through inner experience and conviction; however, they must first believe in
order to understand. Therefore, faith is the essential cornerstone for understanding God. “Faith, knowledge,
and mystical vision may be conceived as progressive steps on the way to the transcendental understanding of
God, who is the essence of all truth” (Great Traditions, 64).
B. Thomas Aquinas
Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1274), was an ItalianCatholic priest and Doctor of the Church.Thomas’s ethics
are based on the concept of “first principles of action.”
Thomas defined the four cardinal virtues as prudence, temperance, justice, and fortitude. The cardinal virtues
are natural and revealed in nature, and they are binding on everyone. There are, however, three theological
virtues: faith, hope, and charity. Aquinas also describes the virtues as imperfect (incomplete) and perfect
(complete) virtues. A perfect virtue is any virtue with charity, as charity completes a cardinal virtue. A non-
Christian can display courage, but it would be courage with temperance. A Christian would display courage
with charity.
Thomas Aquinas wrote “Greed is a sin against God, just as all mortal sins, in as much as man condemns things
eternal for the sake of temporal things.” To clarify for Christian believers, Thomas defined love as “to will
the good of another.”
Furthermore, Thomas distinguished four kinds of law: eternal, natural, human, and divine. Eternal law is the
decree of God that governs all creation. It is, “That Law which is the Supreme Reason cannot be understood
to be otherwise than unchangeable and eternal.” Natural law is the human “participation” in the eternal law
and is discovered by reason. Natural law is based on “first principles”:
. . . This is the first precept of the law that good is to be done and promoted, and evil is to be avoided. All other
precepts of the natural law are based on this . . .
Concerning the Human Law, Aquinas concludes, “...that just as, in the speculative reason, from naturally
known indemonstrable principles, we draw the conclusions of the various sciences, the knowledge of which
is not imparted to us by nature, but acquired by the efforts of reason, so to it is from the precepts of the natural
law, as from general and indemonstrable principles, that human reason needs to proceed to the more particular
determination of certain matters. These particular determinations, devised by human reason, are called human
172
laws, provided the other essential conditions
of law be observed....” Human law is positive
law: the natural law applied by governments to
societies.
Natural and human law is not adequate alone.
The need for human behavior to be directed made
it necessary to have Divine law. Divine law is the
specially revealed law in the scriptures.
Thomas Aquinas, refers to animals as dumb and
that the natural order has declared animals for
man’s use. Thomas denied that human beings
have any duty of charity to animals because they
are not persons. Otherwise, it would be unlawful
to kill them for food. But humans should still be
charitable to them, for “cruel habits might carry
over into our treatment of human beings.”
Thomas contributed to economic thought as an aspect of ethics and justice. He dealt with the concept of a just
price, normally its market price or a regulated price sufficient to cover seller costs of production. He argued it
was immoral for sellers to raise their prices simply because buyers were in pressing need for a product.
In sum, Saint Aquinas provides people with moral guidance, which help people to reason, comprehend, and
thus obey eternal law. Saint Augustine, on the other hand, emphasizes the importance of love for God, and
that this love is the motive for obeying eternal law. Both Saint Aquinas and Saint Augustine respect God very
much; however, they differ in the way they show as well as wanting people to show this respect.
C. Machiavelli
Machiavelli was an Italian Renaissance historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist, and writer. He
wrote his most renowned work The Prince in 1513.For Machiavelli, the highest purpose of social political
life is to attain and hold power. Moral rules, then, are practical rules about how to gain and hold power over
others. Thus, you should break a contract whenever it benefits you, because otherwise the other person (who
by human nature is wicked), will break his contract with you. You should keep your contracts only when they
help you gain and hold power over others.
Machiavelli is the first major thinker to judge actions solely in terms of their consequences. An action is
good not because God commands it, nor because it comes from virtue, but because its consequences are
the attainment and keeping of power. Most of The Prince is dedicated to explaining how we can measure
consequences, and what princes can do to attain and hold their power.
In The Prince, Machiavelli openly discussed the
advantages of skillful immorality. He was not
immoral; instead, he advised princes to embrace
political amorality, which encouraged virtuous
behavior among subjects but accepted a rulership
that transcended morality. This double standard for
rulers and subjects is a hallmark of Machiavellian
ethics. Machiavelli never advised cruelty for its
own sake, but attempted political objectivity. This
unabashed objectivity did not make him a devil,
but he did exaggerate the quest for power and
confuse the objectives of politics with the game
itself.
Machiavelli’s ideas were precursors to many
modern political attitudes. He addressed human
173
nature, rulership, the character of the state, and the role of popular government. His observations about skillful
policy were based on the assumption that the primary human motivations are selfish and egoistic. Machiavelli
assumed that government derives from human weakness and the need to control the conflict that grows out of
human self-interest. People are naturally aggressive, and the role of the state is to provide security.
This perspective on human nature led Machiavelli to emphasize the role of lawgiver and ruler. He argued
that moral and civic virtues grow out of law and government; they are not inherent in human nature. The
ruler represents the law and implements morals but is above morality. For this reason, the ruler must be both
a “lion and a fox.” When necessary, a ruler must disguise the real intent of policy by controlling outward
appearances. At other times, a ruler will have no recourse but to use brute force. Force must be used discreetly
and effectively, but the ruler cannot flinch when the preservation of the state is at stake. Machiavelli argued
that a ruler should be both loved and feared but stated that it is difficult to have it both ways. Thus, if one
cannot be both loved and feared, it is better to be feared that to be loved.
Quotes:
a) It is better to be feared than loved, if you cannot be both.
b) Men judge generally more by the eye than by the hand, for everyone can see and few can feel. Everyone
sees what you appear to be, few really know what you are.
c) Where the willingness is great, the difficulties cannot be great.
d) If an injury has to be done to a man it should be so severe that his vengeance need not be feared.
e) The first method for estimating the intelligence of a ruler is to look at the men he has around him.
f) Never was anything great achieved without danger.
g) Whosoever desires constant success must change his conduct with the times.
h) Politics have no relation to morals.
i) One who deceives will always find those who allow themselves to be deceived.
j) There is no avoiding war; it can only be postponed to the advantage of others.
Modern Western Philosophy

6. René Descartes
René Descartes (1596 –1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. Dubbed the father of
modern western philosophy, much of subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which
are studied closely to this day.Initially, Descartes arrives at only a single principle: “I think, therefore I am”
Thinking is thus every activity of a person of which the person is immediately conscious.
To further demonstrate the limitations of these senses, Descartes proceeds with what is known as the Wax
Argument. He considers a piece of wax; his senses inform him that it has certain characteristics, such as shape,
texture, size, color, smell, and so forth. When he brings the wax towards a flame, these characteristics change
completely. However, it seems that it is still the same thing: it is still the same piece of wax, even though the
data of the senses inform him that all of its characteristics are different. Therefore, in order to properly grasp
the nature of the wax, he should put aside the senses. He must use his mind. Descartes concludes: “And so
something that I thought I was seeing with my eyes is in fact grasped solely by the faculty of judgment which
is in my mind.”
In this manner, Descartes construct a system of knowledge, discarding perception as unreliable and instead
admitting only deduction as a method.
Descartes’ moral philosophy: For Descartes, ethics was a science, the highest and most perfect of them.
Like the rest of the sciences, ethics had its roots in metaphysics. In this way he argues for the existence of
God, investigates the place of man in nature, formulates the theory of mind-body dualism, and defends free
will. However, as he was a convinced rationalist, Descartes clearly states that reason is sufficient in the search
for the goods that we should seek, and virtue consists in the correct reasoning that should guide our actions.
Nevertheless, the quality of this reasoning depends on knowledge, because a well-informed mind will be
more capable of making good choices, and it also depends on mental condition.
174
DESCARTES QUOTES
1. Conquer yourself rather than the world.
2. It is not enough to have a good mind; the main thing is to use it well.
3. The reading of all good books is like a conversation with the finest minds of past centuries.
4. If you would be a real seeker after truth, it is necessary that at least once in your life you doubt, as far as
possible, all things.
5. Each problem that I solved became a rule, which served afterwards to solve other problems.
6. Except our own thoughts, there is nothing absolutely in our power.
7. The greatest minds are capable of the greatest vices as well as of the greatest virtues.
8. Perfect numbers like perfect men are very rare.
9. It is only prudent never to place complete confidence in that by which we have even once been deceived.
10. Divide each difficulty into as many parts as is feasible and necessary to resolve it
7. Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679)

Hobbes’s life span of 90 some years brought him into contact with many of the great people and historical
events of the 17th Century. Educated at Oxford, he became known in the political circles of both England and
the Continent.
His main grounding in philosophy was on the basis of
materialism, believing that everything that happens
is a result of the physical world and that the soul, as
previous philosophers discussed it, does not exist.
One must then consider what Hobbes’ outlook was on
the topic of values. Hobbes’ contention was that the
concept of good and evil are related to human desire
and aversion. In other words, what an individual
desires, is perceived by him as good and whatan
individual is aversive to is bad. This philosophy of
values, Hobbes explained, is due to an attitude of
self-preservation and protection.
In 1651 Thomas Hobbes published Leviathan, his famous work that detailed his concept of the value of a
social contract for a peaceful society. Hobbes explained that if individuals within a society continually lived
by their own self-interests, they would continue to hurt each other and be stuck in a “state of war.” If the
members of a society were made to live within certain bounds which made it impossible for them to harm
each other, the members of that society would be in a “state of peace.”
The only way to achieve this peaceful society, Hobbes explained, was for all members of a society to
unconditionally transfer all of their ability and will to defend themselves to a sovereign power under a form
of social contract. With this social contract established, the sovereign power would accept the responsibility for
mediating all disputes concerning the society, both internal and external. Should any member of the society violate
an agreement with another member of that society, that individual would be guilty of violating their unconditional
agreement to support the social contract, which would then render them unjust and subject to punishment.
Conversely, if the Leviathan, or sovereign power, violated its own responsibility to protect the members of the
society in its charge, that society could then find itself another sovereign to rule it.
Thomas Hobbes QUOTES
1. Leisure is the mother of Philosophy.
2. The first and fundamental law of Nature, which is, to seek peace and follow it.
3. The source of every crime, is some defect of the understanding; or some error in reasoning; or some
sudden force of the passions. Defect in the understanding is ignorance; in reasoning, erroneous opinion.
4. Words are the counters of wise men, and the money of fools.
175
8. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born in Geneva, Switzerland in 1712.The Social Contract (1762) by Jean-Jacques
Rousseau, is a book in which Rousseau theorized about the best way to establish a political community in the
face of the problems of commercial society.
Human beings are free in state of nature and they are happy even when they are isolated. Thereafter, they
develop the power of reasoning. Society and concept of private property gets develop. We people feel insecure
about our property and hence we form government to take care of this property. Otherwise, man was happy.
Evil takes birth as we start sliding from virtues towards vices.
With the famous phrase, “man is born free, but he is everywhere in chains,” Rousseau asserts that modern
states repress the physical freedom that is our birthright, and do nothing to secure the civil freedom for the sake
of which we enter into civil society.The happiest state for humanity is a middle ground between wildness and
civility. He notes the lives of the Indians and cites them as being happier than his average fellow countrymen.
The stated aim of The Social Contract is to determine whether there can be a legitimate political authority,
since people’s interactions he saw at his time seemed to put them in a state far worse than the good one they
were at in the state of nature, even though living in isolation. He concludes book one, chapter three with, “Let
us then admit that force does not create right, and that we are obliged to obey only legitimate powers”, which
is to say, the ability to coerce is not a legitimate power, and there is no rightful duty to submit to it. A state has
no right to enslave a conquered people.
Rousseau, who was a Christian, based his morality on his belief in a personal God. The natural law in
the universe and the natural rights of people were divinely given. In Emile, he placed an emphasis on
‘conscience,’ which he saw as a divine interior voice, therefore implying the goodness of man.
Rousseau was concerned with the community as a whole, and not as much with the individual, like most other
philosophers. Government was to act on the General Will of society and therefore through the inherent virtue
of its constituents secure everyone’s natural rights.
Later on Rousseau came to believe that Enlightenment ideals of rationalism and empiricism were not the
dominant facets of humanity, but emotion stood above all else. This is noted in Emile, in which he instructs
parents on how preserve their child’s innocence. This is ironic because Rousseau treated his children badly.
He died in 1778.
9. John Locke (1632-1704)

As discussed earlier, Hobbes proposed the idea of the social contract as the basis of morality. In a “state of
nature” we kill and steal from each other, so we implicitly “sign” a social contract to let a government keep
things in order. The government might abuse its power, but at least we needn’t fear death at every moment.
Locke expanded this idea to include the notion of “natural rights.” We cede our authority to a government so
long as it protects our natural rights. Locke’s ideas are the precise philosophy behind the American Declaration
of Independence:
Locke maintained that we are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by
experience derived from sense perception. This is now known as empiricism. Challenging the work of others,
Locke is said to have established the method of introspection, or observing the emotions and behaviours of
one’s self.
Locke’s Rights Ethics: Based on the principles and beliefs of John Locke, Locke’s Rights Ethics is one
of the major ethical theories that has shaped today’s society. According to Locke, every person has a set of
fundamental rights that they are entitled to simply by existing. It is Locke’s thought that these fundamental
rights are not to be infringed upon in any way by any other person, action, or choice.
Locke was also influential in the development of social contract theory, which states that all legitimate political
authority requires the consent of the governed. Human beings live in political societies not due to the divine
right of some to rule, but because they have voluntarily agreed to set of laws in order to secure the benefits
of political cooperation.
176
Locke’s views on natural rights and the social contract can be seen as the inspiration behind the US Declaration
of Independence, which states: “That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving
their just powers from the consent of the governed, that whenever any form of government becomes destructive
of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its
foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to
affect their safety and happiness.”
Locke’s philosophy is also credited with forming the ideology behind other important documents, such as the
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms that provide citizens with essential rights and freedoms.
Although Locke states that there are essential rights for every human being—such as the rights to life, liberty,
and property—it is open to interpretation on what exactly “essential” rights consist of. There is somewhat of a
grey area in which an essential right and a want/desire overlap. For example, one could argue that are entitled
not to work in the rain due to the danger presented. Whether this is an essential right that protects the safety
and well-being of that person, or just a desire of that person to not work in an uncomfortable position is up for
debate. It is often up to the law to decide which rights are essential or not.
Locke speaks of a state of nature where men are free, equal, and independent. He champions the social
contract and government by consent. He goes even farther than Hobbes in arguing that government must
respect the rights of individuals.
But now, which rights are our natural rights? Locke thought that life, property, safety, and happiness were
among the most obvious natural rights.
And how does he derive this list? He thinks that moral values are demonstrable by reason, just as math is.
For Locke, good is that which increases pleasure or decreases pain, and evil is that which increases pain or
decreases pleasure (simply by definition). From that, Locke thinks it follows that people have natural rights
to life, property, safety, happiness, and many other things.
10. Voltaire (1694 - 1778)

Voltaire (1694-1778) was a French philosopher, poet, historian, and playwright. He opposed authority and
tradition, specifically the authority and tradition of the French government and the Catholic Church.
He was a large supporter of civil rights, especially freedom of speech and freedom of religion. Many of his
famous works openly criticized the French government and the Catholic Church, which resulted in his exile
to England in 1726 and again in 1734.
Voltaire largely distrusted democracy because he viewed it as an “idiocy of the masses.” Voltaire distrusted
democracy as too unpredictable and believed that only an enlightened monarch could bring about change. He
hoped that such a person would improve both the health and education of his subject.He also believed that an
enlightened monarch needed to keep in mind the best interests (power and wealth) of his subjects in order to
make meaningful governmental changes.
Religious Beliefs: Voltaire was very outspoken when it came to organized religion. In terms of religion,
Voltaire believed the bible was outdated and metaphorical, rather than a divine gift from God. He lived in a
historical period called the Enlightenment, when church and state began to separate. While he never openly
declared himself to be a non-believer, he advocated religious perspective known as deism. Deism proposes
that there is some kind of supernatural creator, but it is not associated with any mainstream religion. Open
opposition to religion was a serious offense that landed Voltaire in jail and ultimately, exile.
Political Beliefs: Voltaire was a strong advocate of political reform. He declared his own independent stance,
saying he belonged to the “party of humanity.” Aside from religion, his other main target was extremism
in any form, be it political or religious. Voltaire directed much of his social and political criticism at the
monarchy and aristocracy, also challenging the judicial system as “irrational and brutal.”
Scientific Beliefs: Although Voltaire was a deist, he still had a very naturalistic worldview. He had a deep
regard for science and its importance in promoting rational thought over superstition. Since he still believed
in a supernatural creator, he did not subscribe to the emerging idea that living organisms could spontaneously
177
generate from non-living matter. Still, Voltaire felt that basing your beliefs on “empirical evidence” was the
antidote to religiosity and the dangerous authority it can create.
Personal Freedom: Voltaire was a proponent of personal liberty and freedom of speech, making the famous
statement, “I disagree with what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.” For Voltaire,
rational human beings -- for the most part -- were capable of thinking for themselves and therefore did not
need institutions thinking for them. At the same time, he pointed out that many people are incapable of such
rational thought and must therefore turn to religion for personal guidance. Despite his apparent disdain for
religion, Voltaire was a strong advocate for religious tolerance, stating that diverse, open religious beliefs are
fine, “as long as they are not murderous.”
Cultural believes: Voltaire believed that all that is common to human nature is the same in every culture.
The reason for any changes in humans is from climate, government and religion. He believed that “Morality
is everywhere the same for all men, therefore it comes from God; sects differ, therefore they are the work of
men.”
Voltaire quotes
1. It is dangerous to be right when the government is wrong.
2. One day everything will be well, that is our hope. Everything’s fine today, that is our illusion
3. Prejudices are what fools use for reason.
4. Democracy is just filler for textbooks! Do you actually believe that public opinion influences the government?
5. It is better to risk sparing a guilty person than to condemn an innocent one.
6. If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him.
7. Judge of a man by his questions rather than by his answers
8. Those who can make you believe absurdities can make you commit atrocities.
9. Every man is guilty of all the good he did not do.
10. It is forbidden to kill; therefore all murderers are punished unless they kill in large numbers and to the
sound of trumpets.
Moral Sentimentalism and Moral Rationalism
Moral Sentimentalism and Moral Rationalism are two epistemological theories of morality—how we know
what is right and wrong. Sentimentalists like Francis Hutcheson, David Hume, and Adam Smith have argued that
knowledge of morality arises from our senses. This has been described as an emotional basis and similar to the way
we understand beauty. Rationalists like Immanuel Kant and Samuel Clarke have argued that we gain knowledge
of morality from rational thought. In this view, the way we understand morality would be similar to the way we
understand mathematics.
The standard rationalist view holds that moral truths are necessary truths. They must be true in all possible worlds
(alternate realities) in which they exist like “2+2=4.” If so, then judgments of morality are nothing like aesthetic
judgments because we can imagine possible worlds in which one thing is beautiful and other possible worlds in
which it is not.
Conversely, sentimentalists hold that believing something to be beautiful and having a favourable feeling towards it
are identical (or at least necessarily connected). In the same way, holding a moral belief toward a given action would
be identical to having some feeling regarding that action. If this is the case, then there can be no analogy between
morality and mathematics because math doesn’t address how we feel.
11. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)

Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher whose comprehensive and systematic work made him a central
figure of modern philosophy. His contributions to metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics have had
a profound impact on almost every philosophical movement that followed him.
Philosophy as Critique
Kant’s entire philosophy focuses on applying his critical method to philosophical problems. According to
Kant, the correct method in philosophy is not to speculate on the nature of the world around us but to perform
178
a critique of our mental faculties, investigating what we can know, defining the limits of knowledge, and
determining how the mental processes by which we make sense of the world affect what we know. This change
in method represents what Kant calls a Copernican revolution in philosophy. Just as Copernicus revolutionized
astronomy in the sixteenth century by arguing that the sun and not the earth is the center of the solar system,
Kant turns philosophy on its head by arguing that we will find the answers to our philosophical problems in
an examination of our mental faculties rather than in metaphysical speculation about the universe around us.
Deontological Ethics
Ethical theorists can be roughly divided into two camps: those who consider an action moral or immoral
depending on the motive behind it and those who consider an action moral or immoral depending on the
consequences it produces. Kant is firmly in the former camp, making him a deontologist rather than a
Consequentialist when it comes to ethics. Kant argues that we are subject to moral judgment because we are
able to deliberate and give reasons for our actions, so moral judgment should be directed at our reasons for
acting. While we can and should take some care to ensure that our actions produce good consequences, the
consequences of our actions are not themselves subject to our reason, so our reason is not fully responsible
for the consequences of the actions it endorses. Reason can only be held responsible for endorsing certain
actions, and so it is only the actions, and the motives behind them, that are open to moral judgment.
The Ethics of Autonomy
Every theory of ethics must give an answer to the question “Or else what?” That is, we must be able to explain
why good is good and bad is bad. As per utilitarians’, since happiness is the greatest good, bad actions produce
unhappiness and unhappiness is bad in and of itself. Kant, by contrast, argues that since reason is the source
of morality, goodness and badness should be dictated by reason. To act badly, according to Kant, is to violate
the maxims laid out by one’s reason, or to formulate maxims that one could not consistently will as universal
laws. In other words, immorality is a form of irrationality: badness results from violating the laws of reason.
According to Kant, our rationality is what makes us human, so by acting irrationally and hence immorally,
we also compromise our humanity. We diminish ourselves as rational human beings by acting immorally.
Only by behaving rationally do we show ourselves to be autonomous beings, in control of the passions and
appetites that might lead us to act against our better judgment.
Maxims of Morality
Kant lays down following rules of conduct to make the moral law more definite:
1. Act only on that principle which can be a Universal law: This principle shows that what is right is
universal. Kant says, Act in such a way as you could wish that everyone else should act in same way.
Kant gives the example of breaking promises. This act is wrong because it cannot be universalized. If
everyone breaks promise, no one can make any promise. So no promises would be made even to break it.
If everyone commits suicide in despair no one would be left to commit suicide. According to Kant, this
maxim states unity of the form. This is the Formula of Universal Law.
2. Do not use any person including yourself as only means: This maxim holds a person as an end in itself
and not as a means. Man is essentially a rational being. The rational nature is an end and has absolute
value. Thus rationality of human beings ought to be respected. We should respect our own personality
and that of others. Personality has an absolute worth. To make a false promise to a creditor is to use him
as a means to one’s profit and not to respect him as a person. Similarly we should not allow ourselves to
be used as means to others. According to Kant, this is the principle of inherent dignity of man. This is the
Formula of End in-itself.
3. Act as a member of Kingdom of ends. (Autonomy of morality): A Kingdom of Ends is an ideal society
of rational beings following Moral law. Rationality is universal. So, all persons following the Moral Law
should live in perfect harmony with one another. Third maxim holds that, every human being including
oneself has intrinsic value. Everyone in this kingdom is sovereign i.e. imposes moral law upon himself
and subject at the same time i.e. he obeys the moral law imposed by himself. All rational and self-ruled
beings stand on equal grounds. According to Kant, this is synthesis of form and matter.
179
KANT QUOTES
1. All our knowledge begins with the senses, proceeds then to the understanding, and ends with reason.
There is nothing higher than reason.
2. In law a man is guilty when he violates the rights of others. In ethics he is guilty if he only thinks of
doing so.
3. Experience without theory is blind, but theory without experience is mere intellectual play.
4. Science is organized knowledge. Wisdom is organized life.
5. He who is cruel to animals becomes hard also in his dealings with men. We can judge the heart of a man
by his treatment of animals.
6. Experience without theory is blind, but theory without experience is mere intellectual play.
7. Thoughts without content are empty, intuitions without concepts are blind.
8. Morality is not properly the doctrine of how we may make ourselves happy, but how we may make
ourselves worthy of happiness.
9. Live your life as though your every act were to become a universal law.
10. I had to deny knowledge in order to make room for faith.
12. Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill

Jeremy Bentham (1747– 1832) was an English philosopher, jurist, and social reformer. He is regarded as the
founder of modern utilitarianism.
Hedonism
Hedonism is a theory which believes that ‘hedone’ or pleasure is the highest Good, the supreme ideal of life.
Hedonism assumes that human beings are sensuous in nature. Reason or intellect has secondary position in human
nature. Reason points out the best means for the satisfaction of desires, passions and appetite. So sometimes
hedonism is called as ethics of sensibility. Hedonism assumes that human beings by nature seek pleasure and avoid
pain. Men desire various objects which ultimately aim at pleasure. Hedonism evaluates human actions on the basis
of the consequences of actions i.e. pleasure and pain. Human conduct has a value in proportion to the amount of
pleasure in it. A right action is that which produces pleasure. A wrong action is that which produces pain.
Utilitarian approach
Imagine that India’s Intelligence Bureau gets a tip of a plot to set off a bomb in a major Indian city. Police
capture a suspect who, they believe, has information about where the bomb is planted. Is it permissible for
them to torture the suspect into revealing the bomb’s whereabouts? Can the dignity of one individual be
violated in order to save many others?
Greatest Balance of Goods over Harms
If you answered yes, you were probably using a form of moral reasoning called “utilitarianism.” Stripped
down to its essentials, utilitarianism is a moral principle that holds that the morally right course of action in
any situation is the one that produces the greatest balance of benefits over harms for everyone affected. So
long as a course of action produces maximum benefits for everyone, utilitarianism does not care whether the
benefits are produced by lies, manipulation, or coercion.
Consequentialist moral theories are teleological: they aim at some goal state and evaluate the morality of
actions in terms of progress toward that state. The best known version of consequentialism is utilitarianism.
This theory defines morality in terms of the maximization of net expectable utility for all parties affected by
a decision or action. Although forms of utilitarianism have been put forward and debated since ancient times,
the modern theory is most often associated with the British philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806- 1873) who
developed the theory from a plain hedonistic version put forward by his mentor Jeremy Bentham (1748-
1832). As most clearly stated by Mill, the basic principle of utilitarianism is:
Actions are right to the degree that they tend to promote the greatest good for the greatest number.
180
Of course, we are still unclear about what constitutes “the greatest good.” For Bentham, it was simply “the
tendency to augment or diminish happiness or pleasure,” with no distinctions to be made between pleasures
or persons–all measures are strictly quantitative. For Mill, however, not all pleasures were equally worthy.
He defined “the good” in terms of well-being, and distinguished not just quantitatively but also qualitatively
between various forms of pleasure. In either case, the principle defines the moral right in terms of an objective,
material good. The point is to make the theory “scientific,” and the utility principle is an attempt to bridge the
gap between empirical facts and a normative conclusion–a simple cost/benefit analysis is proposed.
Both men insisted that “the greatest number” included all who were affected by the action in question with
“each to count as one, and no one as more than one.” Any theory that seeks to extend benefits not only to the
self but also to others is a form of altruism.
Many of us use this type of moral reasoning frequently in our daily decisions. When asked to explain why we
feel we have a moral duty to perform some action, we often point to the good that will come from the action
or the harm it will prevent. Business analysts, legislators, and scientists weigh daily the resulting benefits and
harms of policies when deciding, for example, whether to invest resources in a certain public project, whether
to approve a new drug, or whether to ban a certain pesticide.
Utilitarianism offers a relatively straightforward method for deciding the morally right course of action for
any particular situation we may find ourselves in. To discover what we ought to do in any situation, we first
identify the various courses of action that we could perform. Second, we determine all of the foreseeable
benefits and harms that would result from each course of action for everyone affected by the action. And third,
we choose the course of action that provides the greatest benefits after the costs have been taken into account.
Problems with Utilitarianism
While utilitarianism is currently a very popular ethical theory, there are some difficulties in relying on it as
a sole method for moral decision-making. First, the utilitarian calculation requires that we assign values to
the benefits and harms resulting from our actions and compare them with the benefits and harms that might
result from other actions. But it’s often difficult, if not impossible, to measure and compare the values of
certain benefits and costs. How do we go about assigning a value to life or to art? And how do we go about
comparing the value of money with, for example, the value of life, the value of time, or the value of human
dignity? Moreover, can we ever be really certain about all of the consequences of our actions? Our ability to
measure and to predict the benefits and harms resulting from a course of action or a moral rule is dubious, to
say the least.
Perhaps the greatest difficulty with utilitarianism is that it fails to take into account considerations of justice.
We can imagine instances where a certain course of action would produce great benefits for society, but they
would be clearly unjust. During the apartheid regime in South Africa in the last century, South African whites,
for example, sometimes claimed that all South Africans—including blacks—were better off under white rule.
These whites claimed that in those African nations that have traded a whites-only government for a black or
mixed one, social conditions have rapidly deteriorated. Civil wars, economic decline, famine, and unrest,
they predicted, will be the result of allowing the black majority of South Africa to run the government. If
such predictions were true—and the end of apartheid has shown that the prediction was false—then the white
government of South Africa would have been morally justified by utilitarianism, in spite of its injustice.
If our moral decisions are to take into account considerations of justice, then apparently utilitarianism cannot
be the sole principle guiding our decisions. It can, however, play a role in these decisions. The principle of
utilitarianism invites us to consider the immediate and the less immediate consequences of our actions. Given
its insistence on summing the benefits and harms of all people, utilitarianism asks us to look beyond
self-interest to consider impartially the interests of all persons affected by our actions. As John Stuart
Mill once wrote:
The happiness which forms the utilitarian standard of what is right in conduct, is not...(one’s) own happiness,
but that of all concerned. As between his own happiness and that of others, utilitarianism requires him to be
as strictly impartial as a disinterested and benevolent spectator.
181
In an era today that some have characterized as “the age of self-interest,” utilitarianism is a powerful reminder
that morality calls us to look beyond the self to the good of all.
Jeremy Bentham quotes
1. Stretching his hand up to reach the stars, too often man forgets the flowers at his feet.
2. The said truth is that - it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number that is the measure of right and
wrong.
3. Every law is an infraction of liberty.
4. It is vain to talk of the interest of the community, without understanding what is the interest of the
individual.
5. Tyranny and anarchy are never far apart.
6. No power of government ought to be employed in the endeavour to establish any system or article of
belief on the subject of religion.
7. The age we live in is a busy age; in which knowledge is rapidly advancing towards perfection.
John Stuart Mill quotes
1. One person with a belief is equal to a force of ninety-nine who have only interests.
2. A person may cause evil to others not only by his actions but by his inaction, and in either case he is justly
accountable to them for the injury.
3. I have learned to seek my happiness by limiting my desires, rather than in attempting to satisfy them.
4. That so few now dare to be eccentric, marks the chief danger of the time.
5. There are many truths of which the full meaning cannot be realized until personal experience has brought
it home.
6. It is questionable if all the mechanical inventions yet made have lightened the day’s toil of any human
being.
7. A party of order or stability, and a party of progress or reform, are both necessary elements of a healthy
state of political life.
8. Bad men need nothing more to compass their ends, than that good men should look on and do nothing .
9. The liberty of the individual must be thus far limited; he must not make himself a nuisance to other people.
13. Mary Wollstonecraft

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759 –1797) was an English writer, philosopher, and advocate of women’s rights. She
was the one who bought feminism in philosophy. Her approach was concerned about individual rights of
women.
Feminist ethics is an approach to ethics that builds on the belief that traditionally ethical theorizing has under-
valued and/or under-appreciated women’s moral experience and it therefore chooses to re-imagine ethics
through a holistic feminist approach to transform it.
Feminist ethics developed from Mary Wollstonecraft’s ‘Vindication of the Rights of Women’ published in
1792. With the new ideas from the Enlightenment, individual feminists being able to travel more than ever
before, generating more opportunities for the exchange of ideas and advancement of women’s rights.
The theory is titled as ethic of care as against typical conventional male oriented ethic of justice.
According to Gilligan under the ethic of justice, men judge themselves guilty if they do something wrong.
Whereas under the ethic of care, women are reluctant even to judge the action. This reluctance to judge itself
may be the indicative of the care and concern for others. Thus women not only define themselves in a context
of human relationship but also judge themselves in terms of ‘care and concern’. As a result of this a woman’s
judgments, her moral deliberations become very different.
Mary Wollstonecraft quotes
1. No man chooses evil because it is evil; he only mistakes it for happiness, the good he seeks.
2. I do not wish them [women] to have power over men; but over themselves.
182
3. Make women rational creatures, and free citizens, and they will quickly become good wives; - that is, if
men do not neglect the duties of husbands and fathers.
4. Friendship is a serious affection; the most sublime of all affections, because it is founded on principle, and
cemented by time.
Contemporary Western Philosophy

14. Jean-Paul Sarte
Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (1905 –1980) was a French philosopher, playwright, novelist, political
activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the key figures in the philosophy of existentialism and
phenomenology, and one of the leading figures in 20th-century French philosophy and Marxism.
Existentialism: Existentialism is widely considered to be the philosophical and cultural movement which
holds that the starting point of philosophical thinking must be the individual and the experiences of the indi-
vidual. Existentialists generally believe that traditional philosophies are too abstract and away from concrete
human experience. Jean Paul Sartre is one of the best known philosophers and a great existentialist of the 20th
century. He is often regarded as the father of Existentialist philosophy
Existence precedes essence: Man first of all just exists. Man encounters or sees himself in this world, and
defines himself afterwards. Man simply is. After realizing his existence man starts willing and then becomes
what he wills. Thus man is nothing but what he makes of himself.
Subjectivity of Man: According to Sartre ‘man’ is a project which possesses a subjective life. This sub-
jective life precisely makes man different from other objects of the world. Man alone is capable of willing
and becoming. In other words man is alone capable of choosing a mode of action over the other. Man alone
is capable of making a conscious decision. Subjectivity of man is nothing but this human condition by which
he constantly becomes new, through his choices.
Man in complete possession of himself: What follows directly from the principle of subjectivity is man’s
possession of himself / herself. In other words, man is totally responsible for what he is and what he becomes.
Man keeps willing & keeps on making choices his existence is renewed every time through these decisions,
made by him. Needless to say he alone is responsible for his decisions and his life.
The notion of ‘despair’: The word ‘despair’, is generally defined as – ‘loss of hope’. In existentialist ethic
the word ‘despair’, is more specifically related to the reaction when an individual starts weighing the possibil-
ities involved in a particular decision, which is going to affect his ‘self or identity’. e.g. An army chief orders
to attack. An individual is likely to feel despair because there is no God or any divine voice to guide the right
path of action and hence the whole responsibility of an action lies on that person.
The notion of Abandonment: God doesn’t exist, and whatever logical consequences are likely to be
drawn from this are necessary to be drawn. To quote Dostoevsky, - “If God didn’t exist, everything would
be permitted.It follows from this, that man is left alone without any excuse to behave in this or that fashion.
Hence Sartre declared – “Man is condemned to be free.” Precisely from the realization of Abandonment the
feeling of despair arises.
15. John Rawls (1921-2002)

Harvard philosopher John Rawls developed a conception of justice as fairness in his now classic work A
Theory of Justice. Using elements of both Kantian and utilitarian philosophy, he has described a method for
the moral evaluation of social and political institutions.
Imagine that you have set for yourself the task of developing a totally new social contract for today’s society.
How could you do so fairly? Although you could never actually eliminate all of your personal biases and
prejudices, you would need to take steps at least to minimize them. Rawls suggests that you imagine yourself
in an original position behind a veil of ignorance. Behind this veil, you know nothing of yourself and your
natural abilities, or your position in society. You know nothing of your sex, race, nationality, or individual
183
tastes. Behind such a veil of ignorance all individuals are simply specified as rational, free, and morally equal
beings. You do know that in the “real world”, however, there will be a wide variety in the natural distribution
of natural assets and abilities, and that there will be differences of sex, race, and culture that will distinguish
groups of people from each other.
In this original position, behind the veil of ignorance, what will the rational choice be for fundamental
principles of society? The only safe principles will be fair principles, for you do not know whether you would
suffer or benefit from the structure of any biased institutions. Indeed the safest principles will provide for the
highest minimum standards of justice in the projected society.
“Justice is the first virtue of social institutions, as truth is of systems of thought. A theory however elegant
and economical must be rejected or revised if it is untrue; likewise laws and institutions no matter how
efficient and well-arranged must be reformed or abolished if they are unjust. Each person possesses an
inviolability founded on justice that even the welfare of society as a whole cannot override. For this reason
justice denies that the loss of freedom for some is made right by a greater good shared by others. It does
not allow that the sacrifices imposed on a few are outweighed by the larger sum of advantages enjoyed by
many. Therefore in a just society the liberties of equal citizenship are taken as settled; the rights secured
by justice are not subject to political bargaining or to the calculus of social interests.”
To use a more everyday illustration, imagine that you had the task of determining how to divide a cake fairly
among a group of individuals. What rule or method should govern the cutting? A simple one would be to let
the person who does the cutting receive the last piece. This would lead that person to cut all pieces as equally
as possible in order to receive the best remaining share. (Of course if the pieces were cut unequally, someone
would get the largest share, but if you are the cutter, you can hardly rely on that piece being left over at the
end.)
Rawls argues that in a similar manner, the rational individual would only choose to establish a society that
would at least conform to the following two rules:
1. Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with similar liberty
for others.
2. Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both:
a) Reasonably expected to be to everyone’s advantage and
b) Attached to positions and offices open to all.
The first principle–often called the Liberty Principle – is very Kantian in that it provides for basic and
universal respect for persons as a minimum standard for all just institutions. But while all persons may be
morally equal, we also know that in the “real world” there are significant differences between individuals that
under conditions of liberty will lead to social and economic inequalities.
The second principle–called the Difference Principle –permits such inequalities and even suggests that it will
be to the advantage of all (similar to the utility principle), but only if they meet two specific conditions. Thus
the principles are not strictly egalitarian, but they are not laissez faire either. Rawls is locating his vision of
justice in between these two extremes.
Theories of Punishment
Need of Punishment
In our society, we reward a man who does good deeds. We give prizes and awards to a student who does all
good actions, right behaviour by following discipline. Thus if an action of a man is right we praise, if it is
wrong, we censure it or punish the man. Just as a man is rewarded for his good deeds, similarly one should be
punished for one’s evil deeds and actions. Human being is rational and therefore he is more free and capable
of choosing his acts. He is responsible for the fruits that are to follow from the selection of his acts. Because
man chooses voluntarily evil act or because he chooses to violate the moral law for ulterior motive, he should
be punished. We punish a criminal not to give him pain but to improve him, prevent him and reform him.
Thus, the aim of punishment is better and hence punishment is justifiable.
184
Punishment is often known as a kind of negative reward paid to the criminal. Because if we do not punish the
criminal, then there will be no harmony, equity and uniformity in society. There will remain no respect for
moral laws and moral persons. Moral laws will look like a type of advice possessing no value. Therefore, in
order to preserve the majesty, supremacy, authority and dignity of moral laws – a criminal should be punished
because an offender deliberately violates the moral law and disregards the authority and supremacy of moral
laws. The offender is ought to be punished from ethical view point. Punishment will make him aware of
the dignity and majesty of moral laws. Hence from the ethical point of view, our desire is to improve him
by vindicating the majesty and supremacy of moral laws. Therefore, we can say that punishment is ethical
justifiable. It stands to the reason that if a good act deserves to be praised or rewarded, then a bad act should
be punished.
Theories of punishment: There are three main theories of punishment:
1. The Retributive Theory of punishment
The Retributive theory believes that punishment must be inflicted because it is deserved and no other reason.
The first principle is justice and the assumption is that if a right act has to be rewarded, a wrong act must be
punished, for punishment is simply the reward of the wrong act. By punishing the wrong doer, we are treating
him as equal. A retributive theory sees the primary justification in the fact that an offence has been committed
which deserves the punishment for the offender.
That is why, Kant a deontologist, (deontologist is one who believes that an action is right or wrong in
itself, irrespective of the results it produces) also argues that retribution is not just a necessary condition
for punishment but also a sufficient one. Punishment is an end in itself. Retribution could also be said to be
the ‘natural’ justification, in the sense that man thinks it quite natural and just that a bad person ought to be
punished and a good person rewarded.
Aristotle and Hegel are of the opinion that punishment is kind of negative reward paid to a criminal. Hegel
says that violation of moral law is the demand for punishment and hence we should punish a criminal.
Punishment follows as a fruit of his evil deeds. Just as virtue is rewarded, a crime should be rewarded in a
negative manner. Thus, punishment is a negative reward.
Bradley says, “We pay the penalty because it is merited by wrong. It is a gross immorality, a crying injustice.
Punishment is inflicted for the sake of punishment.
Some people do object by arguing that punishment is the hidden passion of taking revenge. But punishment
is not revenge as revenge is due to personal prejudices, grudges and malevolence. A court awards punishment
to a criminal with strict impartiality and according to the law. We punish a criminal for justice and not out of
any personal malevolence.
2. The Deterrent or Preventive Theory of Punishment
The Deterrent theory of punishment is utilitarian in nature, for it believes that man is punished, not because he
has done a wrong act or committed a crime but in order that crime may not be committed. It is best expressed
in the word of a judge, who famously said, “You are punished not for stealing sheep, but in order that sheep
may not be stolen”.
By making the potential criminals realize that it does not pay to commit a crime, the Deterrent theory, hopes
to control the crime rate in the society, so that people may have a feeling of security. The first order principle
is maximum happiness of the maximum number of people in the society. Jeremy Bentham is the promoter of
this theory.
This theory will be effective if the central conditions are fulfilled: a. Every crime must be followed by a
punishment, i.e. no criminal should escape punishment, only than the potential criminal will think twice
before committing a crime. b. Though the punishment should be in proportion to the crime, but sometimes
a slightly severe punishment be given to serve as deterrent. c. There must be a minimum of the time gap
between the crime committed and punishment followed. This is the only way to ensure that the impact of
punishment is felt by members of the society, for justice delayed is justice denied. d. Wide publicity should
be given to punishment that follows the crime. This can be done through various mass media, such as talk
185
shows, newspapers, films, TV, etc. It is only then that the prospective criminals will realize that it does not
pay to commit a crime.
3. The Reformative or the Educative Theory of Punishment
As the name suggests, punishment is given for the purpose of reforming the criminal. This is the first order
principal, so the theories like the Deterrent theory are out. The supporters of this theory believe that a man
commits a crime because, either he is ignorant, or because he has done a wrong, he may be in position to
improve. In western countries therefore the prison chaplain visits the criminal in prison, explains to him the
difference between right and wrong, with a hope that once he understands this, he will refrain from doing the
wrong. But perhaps this appears to be too optimistic, but the supporters are convinced that it is possible to
reform a criminal, and that punishment is one of the ways of doing it.
Traditionally, Plato has been regarded as the father of the Reformative theory and his position can be
summarized in the following three positions:
1. The state is related to the delinquent as parent to a child.
2. Wickedness is a mental disease.
3. Punishment is a moral medicine for wicked acts, and however unpalatable it may be, it is absolutely
necessary.
The magistrate thus acts as the physician of the soul and tries to solve its morally sick wrong doer. This may
sound very edifying, but how close is the analogy between the working of the medicine and surgery on the
body and working of the punishment on the mind and character. Can moral improvement be brought about
this way? When we punish, we mean to hurt and cause pain, mental if not physical. How will this pain
and suffering, transform the mental disposition of the man and make him a better individual? On the
contrary it may lead him to lose his self respect and stifle his moral aspiration, which would make him a
hardened criminal.
This theory also holds that most of the crimes are due to pathological phenomenon i.e. one commits crime due
to some mental deficiency or insanity or physiological defect. Therefore criminal ought to be cured and ought
to be reformed. Mental diseases and physiological defects compel the human beings to an offence for eg. A
man suffering of homicide impulse has an uncontrollable urge to kill somebody in his mind and this strong
desire compels him to stab somebody.
Similarly, a boy who is not given proper education may indulge in pick-pocketing due to evil company. In all
these cases, we see that the cause of committing crime is something other than inner volitional desire. Thus
punishment should be to cure a criminal from his mental and physiological defects, or it should be to prevent
a criminal from repeating the same crime by giving him proper education and for that prisons should be
replaced by mental hospitals and reformatory schools to cure and reform a criminal proper treatment. Perhaps
it is necessary to make a distinction at this stage.
Miscellaneous Quotes
1. “If you don’t stand for something you will fall for anything.” — Gordon A. Eadie
2. “In the end you should always do the right thing even if it’s hard.” ― Nicholas Sparks
3. “Waste no more time arguing about what a good man should be. Be one.” ― Marcus Aurelius
4. “Whoever is careless with the truth in small matters cannot be trusted with important matters”
― Albert Einstein
5. “When you are content to be simply yourself and don’t compare or compete, everyone will respect
you.” ― Confucius
6. “You can fool some of the people all of the time, and all of the people some of the time, but you can not
fool all of the people all of the time.” ― Abraham Lincoln
7. “One of the greatest regrets in life is being what others would want you to be, rather than being
yourself.” ― Shannon L. Alder
8. “Compassion is the basis of morality.” ― Arthur Schopenhauer
186
9. “If we have no peace, it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other.” ― Mother Teresa
10. “Love and compassion are necessities, not luxuries. Without them, humanity cannot survive.”
― Dalai Lama
11. “No act of kindness, no matter how small, is ever wasted.” ― Aesop
12. Do not wait to strike till the iron is hot; but make it hot by striking. — William B. Sprague
13. Great spirits have always encountered violent opposition from mediocre minds. — Albert Einstein.
14. Whether you think you can or think you can’t, you’re right. — Henry Ford
15. I know for sure that what we dwell on is who we become. — Oprah Winfrey
16. I’ve missed more than 9000 shots in my career. I’ve lost almost 300 games. 26 times, I’ve been trusted to
take the game winning shot and missed. I’ve failed over and over and over again in my life. And that is
why I succeed. — Michael Jordan
17. You must be the change you want to see in the world. - Mahatma Gandhi8. What you get by achieving
your goals is not as important as what you become by achieving your goals. — Goethe
18. Whatever you do will be insignificant, but it is very important that you do it. — Mahatma Gandhi
19. Failure is the condiment that gives success its flavor. — Truman Capote
20. Vision without action is daydream. Action without vision is nightmare. — Japanese Proverb
21. Success consists of doing the common things of life uncommonly well. — Unknown
22. Losers visualize the penalties of failure. Winners visualize the rewards of success. — unknown
23. Some succeed because they are destined. Some succeed because they are determined. — Unknown
24. A happy person is not a person in a certain set of circumstances, but rather a person with a certain set of
attitudes. — Hugh Downs
25. Motivation is a fire from within. If someone else tries to light that fire under you, chances are it will burn
very briefly. — Stephen R. Covey
26. Whenever you find whole world against you just turn around and lead the world. — Anonymous
27. Being defeated is only a temporary condition; giving up is what makes it permanent.
— Marilyn vos Savant, Author and Advice Columnist
28. The difference between ordinary and extraordinary is that little extra. — Unknown
29. The best way to predict the future is to create it. — Unknown
30. Strength does not come from physical capacity. It comes from an indomitable will. — Mahatma Gandhi
31. To avoid criticism do nothing, say nothing, be nothing. — Elbert Hubbard
32. If you want to make your dreams come true, the first thing you have to do is wake up. — J.M. Power
33. The art of being wise is the art of knowing what to overlook. — William James
34. People seem not to see that their opinion of the world is also a confession of character.
— Ralph Waldo Emerson
35. There is no education like adversity. — Disraeli
36. Adversity introduces a man to himself. — Author Unknown
nn
187
Chapter - 4
Indian Moral Philosophy and Thinkers
E
thics is a branch of philosophy in western philosophy. In Indian Perspective Ethics is coeval with
philosophy. Philosophy is not just an intellectual inquiry but a way of life. Indian thinkers aim at
realization of the Ultimate Reality. Indian thinkers take a synthetic view of life. For them there are no
watertight compartments among the philosophical problems. The Indians have a strong faith in moral order
that prevails in this universe. Everyone has to contribute to universal moral order. Every individual has a role
to play in this universe. Every role brings with it specified duties and responsibilities. In Indian view, the
obligation of individual is not confined to human society only. It is extended to the whole of sentient creation.
Features of Indian ethics

Indian Schools of Philosophy are broadly classified into Orthodox (Astika) and Heterodox (Nastika).
●● Six chief philosophical systems viz. Mimansa, Vedanta, Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya and Vaisheshika are
Orthodox schools of Indian Philosophy. These schools accept the authority of the Vedas. So they are
called as Orthodox or Astika schools.
●● Three Chief Philosophical Systems viz. the Charvakas, the Bauddha and the Jaina’s are Heterodox
Schools of Indian Philosophy. These schools do not accept the authority of the Vedas. So they are called
as Heterodox or Nastika schools.
All Indian systems of thought whether Orthodox or Heterodox share some common features. The features of
Indian Ethics can be stated as below:-
1. Indian ethics is the oldest moral philosophy in the history of civilization. It is difficult to ascertain the
chronology of the Orthodox and the Heterodox schools (except Lord Buddha i.e 487 BC). The remoteness
of Indian ethics is responsible for making it well established in the practical life of the followers. Every
school of Indian Philosophy confirms the endurance of ethical ideals which are unshaken even today.
2. Indian thinkers suggest some practical means of attaining a life of perfection here in this world. The rules
of conduct have been practically followed by the Yoga, the Jain and the Buddhist disciples for thousand
years. The aim of Indian moral philosophy is not only to discuss moral ideals but also to follow the path
leading to the moral Ideals.
3. Indian ethics has its strong and deep metaphysical foundation. Each school of philosophy, points to
metaphysical ideals which are to be actually experienced. There is a synthesis of theory and practice,
of intellectual understanding and direct experience of ultimate reality (Kaivalya, Nirvana etc.) In Indian
Ethics, intellectualism and moralism are two wings that help the soul in spiritual flight.
4. Indian ethics is absolutistic and spiritualistic. It aims at realization of supreme reality by transcending
pleasure and pain; even right and wrong and good and evil. The ideals are attainable by spiritual discipline.
5. Indian Ethics is humanistic. It seeks a balance between individual’s inner and outer life; individual and
social life. Moral laws or code of conduct is prescribed in such a way that individual progress and social
welfare will lead to harmonious living. The goal a morality is the wellbeing of humanity.
6. Indian ethical thinkers preach non-violence, love, compassion and good will for all living beings. It is
not limited to human beings. It includes every living being, plants, birds, and animals, every visible and
invisible form of life.
7. Indian thinkers believe in the Law of Karma. Law of Karma means that all our actions good or bad
produce their proper consequences into the life of an individual, who acts with a desire for fruits thereof.
It is the general moral law which governs the life of all individuals. Law of Karma is the force generated
by an action that has the potency of bearing fruit. It is the law of the conservation of moral values. Except
Charvakas, all Indian schools accept the Law of Karma.
188
Religion – The Ancient Foundation of Values and ethics
From the time civilization took birth on this planet, the man has been debating the right way of living and how
they should conduct themselves in society and deal with other human beings, be they are children, relatives,
friends or business associates. Various religions have attempted to provide moral code for the human beings.
Basically the problem facing man is the conflict between divine and un-divine in him. The stream of mind
flows in two different directions, the one leading to virtue the other to vice. To overcome the conflict and
integrate the personality is the aim of all religions.
For all practical purposes all the religions carry the same message, emphasizing the basic harmony of all
religions. All religions propound moral codes not only to carry general obligation and admonition, they also
capture a vision of excellence, of what individual and societies should be striving for. Bharat Ratna Bhagwan
Das says,
“Commandments of all great religions, on the subject of Ethics, injunctions and prohibitions, do’s and don’ts,
…are identical for all practical purposes. For common man’s understandings basic religious teachings in all
the religions have been reduced to a set of few principal virtues and teachings.”
Moses five Commandments are: 1) Thou shall not kill, 2) Not bear false witness, 3) Not steal, 4) Not
commit adultery, 5) Not covet anything that is thy neighbour’s. The crux of Jesus Christ’s teaching is , ‘ to
love your neighbour as thyself’, which means selfless service.
The duty of man according to Manu, the lawgiver for Hinduism is Ahimsa, Satyam, Asteyam, Shaucham,
Indriya- nigrahah, Ekam Samiskam Dharmam, Chatur-varne abravit Manuh. Harmlessness, truth, honesty,
cleanliness, restrain of the senses from all erring ways, - this is the duty of man in brief.
Mohammad commands: 1) Slay none, God has forbidden it, except Justice require it, 2) Avoid false words, 3)
Woman and man who steals shall loose their hand, 4) Intoxicant’s are Satan’s own device, 5) They who avoid
unlawfulness in sex, they only win success.
Similar virtues are preached by other religions such as Buddhism, Confucianism and Jainism.
Religion should normally be a binding force, which should deepen the solidarity of human beings. Tragically
religions have often split rather than unified humanity. Those who hold religious power are in a position to
dominate and control their followers. In the past, some of the bloodiest wars have been fought in the name of
religion. Those who have a mission to bring the rest of humanity to their own way of life have been aggressive
towards others way of life. This illusion brings intolerance and fanaticism. For this reason, some of the great
thinkers have denounced religion. Sigmund Freud described religion as ‘universal obsessional neurosis’ and
Karl Marx as ‘an opium of people’.
Despite misgivings about religion, it occupies a central place in the life of human beings. Bhagwan Dasobserves,
“Some persons disgusted with religious conflict, speak hastily of abolishing religion to allay that conflict.
As well kill the body to cure the disease. To uproot religion successfully they must first exterminate Pain and
Disease. So long as human beings experience and fear these, they will not cease to crave the consolation of
religion.”
Therefore, solution lies in giving right kind of religion to people and use of well–planned religious instructions
as the most potent instrument for regeneration of mankind. The International Religious Foundationobserves,
“Despite both the common moral values and the traditional spiritual wisdom found in all religions, persistent
squabbles among religions have served to discredit them, making universal values appear to be relative
sectarian. The foundations of a pluralistic society – its cultural expressions, legal systems, and public
schools, require values that are grounded in universal experience of human kind, not in the doctrines of one
particular faith”.
The Secular and Democratic values and ethics
As society progressed great thinkers like Hobbes, John Locke, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu
propounded secular values and liberal ideas of human dignity, and his inalienable rights as a citizen. They also
professed that governments should secure their legitimacy only if it received the consent of the governed and
189
protected their life, liberty and property in what is known as theory of social contract. These ideas developed
in powerful movements towards democratic form of government and got translated in the constitutional
framework of France, USA and Great Britain, which were forerunners in establishing democracies.
The American Declaration of Independence (1776) states, “All men are equal, that they are endowed by their
creator with certain inalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness”. The
Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen, the fundamental document of French Revolution (1789) states
that; Men are free and equal in Rights; All citizens being free are equally admissible to all public dignities,
places, employment; Citizens be guaranteed rights of liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression
and freedom of speech.
The aforesaid ideals influenced the framers of the Indian Constitution. The preamble to the Constitution says
that we will secure to all citizens: Justice, social, economic and political; Liberty of thought, expression and
belief, faith and worship; Equality of status and opportunity and promote Fraternity assuring dignity of the
individual. The preamble sets the fundamental values and the philosophy on which the Constitution is based
and an ideal that the State should strive for.
The ideals of justice, liberty, equality and fraternity set in the Constitution can be secured only if we are able
to provide Good Governance in the country. High standard of conduct on the part of holders of public office
both the elected representatives as well as public servants is essential for providing citizen friendly, efficient
government. Public servants hold their positions as a public trust and the people have a right to expect that all
employees will place loyalty to the Constitution, laws, regulations, and ethical principles above private gain.
Employees fulfill that trust by adhering to general principles of ethical conduct, as well as specific ethical
standards.
1. Hinduism
Hinduism is the religion of the majority of people in India and Nepal. It also exists among significant
populations outside of the sub-continent and has over 900 million adherents worldwide.
In some ways Hinduism is the oldest living religion in the world, or at least elements within it stretch back
many thousands of years. Yet Hinduism resists easy definition partly because of the vast array of practices
and beliefs found within it. It is also closely associated conceptually and historically with the other Indian
Religions Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism.
Unlike most other religions, Hinduism has no single founder, no single scripture, and no commonly
agreed set of teachings. Throughout its extensive history, there have been many key figures teaching different
philosophies and writing numerous holy books. For these reasons, writers often refer to Hinduism as ‘a way
of life’ or ‘a family of religions’ rather than a single religion.
Defining Hinduism
The term ‘Hindu’ was derived from the river or river complex of the northwest, the Sindhu. Sindhu is a
Sanskrit word used by the inhabitants of the region, the Aryans in the second millennium BCE. Later migrants
and invaders, the Persians in the sixth century BCE, the Greeks from the 4th century BCE, and the Muslims
from the 8th century CE, used the name of this river in their own languages for the land and its people.
The term ‘Hindu’ itself probably does not go back before the 15th and 16th centuries when it was used by
people to differentiate themselves from followers of other traditions, especially the Muslims (Yavannas),
in Kashmir and Bengal. At that time the term may have simply indicated groups united by certain cultural
practices such as cremation of the dead and styles of cuisine. The ‘ism’ was added to ‘Hindu’ only in the 19th
century in the context of British colonialism and missionary activity.
The origins of the term ‘Hindu’ are thus cultural, political and geographical. Now the term is widely accepted
although any definition is subject to much debate. In some ways it is true to say that Hinduism is a religion
of recent origin yet its roots and formation go back thousands of years.
Some claim that one is ‘born a Hindu’, but there are now many Hindus of non-Indian descent. Others claim
that its core feature is belief in an impersonal Supreme, but important strands have long described and
190
worshipped a personal God. Outsiders often criticize Hindus as being polytheistic, but many adherents claim
to be monotheists.
Some Hindus define orthodoxy as compliance with the teachings of the Vedic texts (the four Vedas and
their supplements). However, still others identify their tradition with ‘Sanatana Dharma’, the eternal order
of conduct that transcends any specific body of sacred literature. Scholars sometimes draw attention to the
caste system as a defining feature, but many Hindus view such practices as merely a social phenomenon or an
aberration of their original teachings.
Thus, the term “Hinduism” encompasses an incredibly diverse array of beliefs and practices, to the point
that Hindus in one part of India might hold particular beliefs and engage in particular practices that would
be virtually unrecognizable in another part of India. That said there are two underlying principles in the
Hindu world that are and have been shared by virtually all Hindus: dharma and karma. These principles
fundamentally inform Hindu conceptions of moral thought and action.
1. Vedic Period
The Vedas are the most ancient religious texts which define truth for Hindus. Hindus believe that the texts
were received by scholars direct from God and passed on to the next generations by word of mouth. Vedic
texts are sometimes called shruti, which means hearing. For hundreds, maybe even thousands of years, the
texts were passed on orally.
Contents of the Vedas: The Vedas are made up of four compositions, and each Veda in turn has four parts
which are arranged chronologically.
1. Samhitas: Is the most ancient part of the Vedas, consisting of hymns of praise to God. Rig-Veda Samhita
(c. 1200 BCE) is the oldest of the four vedas and consists of 1028 hymns praising the ancient gods.
Yajur-Veda Samhita is used as a handbook by priests performing the vedic sacrifices.Sama-Veda Samhita
consists of chants and tunes for singing at the sacrifices.Atharva-Veda Samhita preserves many traditions
which pre-date the Aryan influence and consists of spells, charms and magical formulae.
2. Brahmanas: are rituals and prayers to guide the priests in their duties.
3. Aranyakas: concern worship and meditation.
4. Upanishads: consist of the mystical and philosophical teachings of Hinduism. The Upanishads were
so called because they were taught to those who sat down beside their teachers. (upa=near, ni=down,
shad=sit). These texts developed from the Vedic tradition, but largely reshaped Hinduism by providing
believers with philosophical knowledge.The very important concepts of dharma, karma, reincarnation and
moksha originate from them. And it is in the post-Upanishadic texts such as various Sutras and Sastras
that we get to see some codification of subjective ethics and objective ethics. Subjective ethics relate to
the individual himself and objective ethics relate to society.
Nature gods: Vedas recognize the power of nature in terms of Gods (Indra, Varuna, Surya etc) and
exhorts man to live in harmony with that nature. Gods were aplenty but there were no temples in the
Vedic age. Good deeds and bad deeds were rewarded with heaven and hell respectively. Yamaraja was the
adjudicator there. Tapas (austerity) and vairagya (non-attachment) were greatly recommended. The Vedas
are said to have enjoined 5 primary duties on every householder:
1. worship of gods
2. honour to ancestors
3. kindness to domestic animals
4. hospitality to guests and
5. Alms to impoverished
It is said that gaining wealth was alright, and debtors were heavily punished. Non-harming and non-killing
was advocated as implied in the phrase “Do not harm anything” except for the ritual sacrifices.
2. Twelve laws of Karma
1. The Great Law: “As you sow, so shall you reap.” Also known as the “Law of Cause and Effect.” To
receive happiness, peace, love, and friendship, one must be happy, peaceful, loving, and a true friend.
191
Whatever one puts out into the Universe will come back to them.
2. The Law of Creation: Life requires our participation to happen. It does not happen by itself. We are one
with the Universe, both inside and out. Whatever surrounds us gives us clues to our inner state.
3. The Law of Humility: One must accept something in order to change it. If all one sees is an enemy or a
negative character trait, then they are not and cannot be focused on a higher level of existence.
4. The Law of Growth: “Wherever you go, there you are.” It is we who must change and not the people,
places or things around us if we want to grow spiritually. All we are given is ourselves. That is the only
thing we have control over. When we change who and what we are within our hearts, our lives follow suit
and change too.
5. The Law of Responsibility: If there is something wrong in one’s life, there is something wrong in them.
We mirror what surrounds us, and what surrounds us mirrors us; this is a Universal Truth. One must take
responsibility for what is in one’s life.
6. The Law of Connection: The smallest or seemingly least important of things must be done because
everything in the Universe is connected. Each step leads to the next step, and so forth and so on. Someone
must do the initial work to get a job done. Neither the first step nor the last are of greater significance.
They are both needed to accomplish the task. Past, Present, and Future are all connected.
7. The Law of Focus: One cannot think of two things at the same time. If our focus is on Spiritual Values,
it is not possible for us to have lower thoughts like greed or anger.
8. The Law of Giving and Hospitality: If one believes something to be true, then sometime in their life
they will be called upon to demonstrate that truth. Here is where one puts what they CLAIM to have
learned into PRACTICE.
9. The Law of Here and Now: One cannot be in the here and now if they are looking backward to examine
what was or forward to worry about the future. Old thoughts, old patterns of behavior, and old dreams
prevent us from having new ones.
10. The Law of Change: History repeats itself until we learn the lessons that we need to change our path.
11. The Law of Patience and Reward: All Rewards require initial toil. Rewards of lasting value require
patient and persistent toil. True joy comes from doing what one is supposed to be doing, and knowing that
the reward will come in its own time.
12. The Law of Significance and Inspiration: One gets back from something whatever they put into it.
The true value of something is a direct result of the energy and intent that is put into it. Every personal
contribution is also a contribution to the Whole. Loving contributions bring life to and inspire the Whole.
Karma is a lifestyle that promotes positive thinking and actions. It also employs self-reflection to fix the
problems in one’s life.
3. Concept of dharma with reference to RTA, RNA & Purushartha
The concept of Dharma is the unique and comprehensive concept in Indian philosophy. The Sanskrit word
‘Dharma’ cannot be exactly translated in English language. The word ‘Dharma’ is derived from the Sanskrit
root,’dhr’ which means to sustain, to support or to preserve. In Indian philosophy the word ‘Dharma’ is used
in various ways.
●● In Rigveda, the word ‘Dharma’ stands for natural or cosmic law. The cosmic law ‘Rta’ reflects in the
society as ‘Dharma’. It also stands for moral laws and moral conduct.
●● In Chhandogya Upnishad, ‘Dharma’ stands for the performance of duties related to the stages of life that
is Aashram Dharma.
●● In ‘Eitereya Brahman’ the word ‘Dharma’ stands for right conduct. The king is the preserver of ‘Dharma’
that prescribes code of conduct.
●● In Mahabharat, the word ‘Dharma’ is defined as ‘dharanat dharayate ityahu’. ‘Dharma’ is that which holds
together the society.
●● In Vaisheshika philosophy, ‘Dharma’ is that which leads to prosperity and the highest good or spiritual
wellbeing.
192
●● In Mimansa philosophy, the word ‘Dharma’ is a Vedic command which ought to be followed.
●● Manu Smruti and Yadnyavalkya Smruti, hold ‘Dharma’ as performance of duties prescribed by individual’s
Varna (the class) as well as Aashrama (the stages of life).
Dr Radhakrishnan wrote, “We may define ‘Dharma’ as the whole duty of man in relation to the fourfold
purposes of life [Dharma, Artha, Kama & Moksha] by members of four groups [Chaturvarna] and and the
four stages [Chaturashrama].”
The concepts of Rta (the eternal cosmic order), Rna (the debts) and Purushartha (the Supreme Ends) provide
the metaphysical foundation to the moral life of an individual.
The Concept of RTA
The concept of Rta is the fundamental concept in Vedic philosophy. Rta is the eternal, cosmic and moral order.
Rta represents the basic truth, harmony or system of the universe which no one can violate. Rta is Truth or
truths (Satyasya satyam), centre of centres (Kendrasya Kendram). It is the Divine order which is designated
as “Vrata” in Vedic literature.
In the physical sphere Rta represents the eternal and inviolable law of nature. Rotation of Heavenly stars,
alteration of day and nights, flow of rivers, oceans, etc. are regulated by Rta. Rta is the unity-in-difference in
the cosmic order. It maintains everything in its correct place. The principal of Rta is eternal and omnipresent
principal. It is immanent in all the creations of Cosmos. Rta is the binding principal of this cosmos, whether
physical or moral. In the moral sphere, Rta is righteousness. It is the measure of morality.
Those who follow the path of Rta, follow the path of Good. They are called Vratani. The path of Rta (Vrata)
is consistent with natural cosmic order. The path of Rta leads a man to harmonious, prosperous and contented
life. Anrta is opposite of Rta. Anrta represents complete disorder and confusion. The path of Anrta goes
against the natural laws. It leads a man towards disease and death. Vedic Gods are Guardians of Rta. [Rtasya
Gopa]. However, Gods are not superior to the cosmic and moral order. Gods themselves are subject to Rta.
Those who follow the path of Rta, Gods are benevolent and helpful to them. Gods are angry when path of
Rta is not followed. Thus Rta is responsible for the apportionment of reward and punishment. For Gods, Rta
has metaphysical relevance and for human beings Rta has ethical relevance. Life of reason leads to righteous
behavior that confirms the solidarity and sovereignty of cosmic and moral order consequently human beings
are rewarded by Gods. Life of passions (Anrta) leads to chaotic behavior that harms the solidarity and
sovereignty of cosmic and moral order. Consequently human beings are punished by Gods. The concept of
the eternal, inviolable cosmic and moral order gradually shapes itself in to the Law of Karma, the peculiar
characteristic of Indian philosophy.
Concept of RNA
Indian ethics has a special characteristic of Ashram system. Every individual by nature passes through various
stages of life. Indian thinkers correlate the stages of individual to the society. Indian thinkers prescribed
duties to every stages of life. The prescribed duties contribute to the social welfare and social stability.
Ashram system has four stages. Every individual passes through the stages of a Brahmacharin (a student),
a Grihastha (a house holder), a Vanaprastha (retired) and a Sanyasin (a wandering monk.) The stage of a
householder is very important for the stability of the society. The individual enters in to the first unit of society
I.e family, by entering Grihasth ashrama. A householder enjoys the pleasures of life. At the same time, he has
many responsibilities. He has to take care of his family, the guests and other society members. The concept of
Rna implies obligation and responsibility. Man is a social animal. His development is possible, because many
other fellow beings have, in some or other way, contributed to his progress. The individual is under obligation
of many members of his society.
1. Rishi Rna: Rishi Rna is also called as Guru Rna. The first stage in the life of an individual i.e Brahmacharya
ashrama (a student) is spent with teacher. In ancient time, the sages, wise people were guide posts of
society. The wisdom of the sages was passed from one generation to another generation. The sages played
important role in the development of the individual as well as in the social progress. By learning Vedas
193
by giving fees, by showing respect by being grateful, Rishi Rna can be discharged. In Brahmacharya
ashrama, an individual becomes free from Rishi Rna.
2. Pitri Rna: An individual owes many things including his own existence to his ancestors. It becomes
responsibility of the individual to sustain the family by giving birth to next generation. By begetting
children the individual becomes free from the debt of his ancestors. Thus in Grihasthashrama, an individual
becomes free from Pitru Rna.
3. Deva Rna: God has created this universe. God is sustainer of this universe. Whatever we receive from
nature, is due to the blessings of God. The forces of nature are beyond the control of human beings. To
please these forces, men used to perform sacrifices. Performance of sacrifices was a way to show respect
to deities. Forces of nature are like supernatural, mighty, powerful agents. A man in such a world is at the
mercy of God. By performing sacrifices, man becomes free from the Divine debt.
By repaying three Rnas the individual reaches the stage of ‘Annrunya’ which means freedom from all Rnas.
Only after reaching the stage of Annrunya, an individual can prepare himself for the highest purushartha-
Moksha The concept of Rna-traya [3 debts] is a commonly known concept. However, “Shataphath Brahman”
refers to fourth debt Viz. Manushya Rna. It is obligation towards humanity. By helping other human beings
an individual becomes free from debt towards humanity.
Purusharthas
The Indian thinkers were not only interested in knowing the Ultimate Reality but in realizing the Ultimate
Reality. Philosophy is an art living good life. They prescribed Four Supreme Ends that is Purusharthas. The
term ‘Purushartha’ means the goal or the End that every human being (man or woman) ought to seek. The
Purusharthavada is a comprehensive Indian theory of human values. Man is a rational, social, moral and
spiritual being. His needs are to be satisfied. Good life consists in the pursuit of four Supreme Ends, namely
Dharma (Virtue), Artha (Wealth), Kama (Desire) and Moksha (Liberation). Artha satisfies material needs of
individual, Kama satisfies psychological needs and Moksha aims at spiritual satisfaction. Dharma accompanies
throughout the life. Initially only three Purusharthas i.e. Dharma, Artha and Kama were recognized as the
supreme ends. These three supreme ends were named as ‘Trivarga’. Later on Moksha (Liberation) as the
supreme end was introduced. These four Purusharthas are classified into two groups. Artha and Kama are
considered as lower and material values. Dharma and Moksha are considered as higher and spiritual values.
1. DHARMA: Dharma is the basis of social and moral order. [“Dharanat Dharma Ityahuh”] Dharma as the
Supreme End stands for the principles that lead to the harmony in social relationships and integrity of an
individual’s personality.
Among the four Purusharthas, Dharma is always mentioned first. It is given priority over others because all
human pursuits have to be compatible with moral values and principles. Dharma is said to be the special
characteristic of human beings. All living organism are indulged in eating, sleeping, tear, and sex. Dharma is
the distinguishing characteristic of Human beings. Dharma indicates moral and reflective awareness. Man is
essentially a rational and spiritual being. He is not satisfied with the mere satisfaction of biological needs of
hunger, sex and safety. He has higher needs – psychological, moral and spiritual.
Dharma is as ‘duty’ is classified into Sadharana Dharma that is General virtues and duties and Vishesha
Dharma that is Special virtues and duties.
Sadharana Dharma includes the actions which are indicative of the general virtues like non-violence in thought,
word and deed, truthfulness, non-stealing, purity, knowledge, veracity, patience, gentleness, forbearance,
honesty, self-control, charity, moderation, compassion, respect for others’ property and contentment. Such
virtues and duties are obligatory on all human beings irrespective of their class or creed. These virtues and
duties are useful for self-development. They are self-regarding as well as other-regarding virtues
Vishesha Dharma is related to one’s class in society and to the particular stage of life. Vishesha Dharma is
classified into two Varna Dharma and Ashrama Dharma.
Varna Dharma prescribes the duties related to the aptitude of person. These are professional duties, each
performed to develop certain professional skills. Their main aim is social solidarity or social stability. The
194
Bhagawad Gita speaks of three dispositions of human beings. These dispositions are three Gunas namely,
Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. Sattva Guna represents Wisdom, Rajas Guna represents Activity and Tmas Guna
represents Inertia (Ignorance and Inactivity). Every individual is composed of three gunas. The predominance
of any of gunas leads to the classification of Four Varnas i.e. a class in the society.
1) Brahmins: It is the class of preachers, teachers, intellectuals, and priests.They were expected to pursue
knowledge and wisdom. Brahmins were supposed to be the guides and custodians of moral and spiritual
values in society.
2) Kshtriyas: It is the class of rulers, warriors and administrators. They were expected to protect the society
from external invasions and internal disorder.
3) Vaishyas: It is the class of farmers and traders. The farmers and traders were expected to cultivate the
land, to protect the cows and to trade, so the requirements of the society should be fulfilled.
4) Shudras: It is the class of all other supportive workers, e.g. producers, workers, carpenters, blacksmiths,
barbers, goldsmiths, etc. Shudras was the class of skilled laborers and producers, such as artisans and
craftsmen as well as toilers and workers.
The qualities of knowledge, power, wealth and service are found respectively in the four Varnas namely
Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. Today, Varna system has degenerated into Caste system which not
at all concerned with the disposition of an individual.
Devotion to one’s own duty and renunciation of the fruits of one’s actions to the Highest Spiritual Authority
(God) was expected from all the members of the society. The regular dedicated performance of one’s own
duty leads to the Highest Goal of life namely Moksha (Liberation).
Ashrama Dharma prescribes duties related to the stages of life. Life was considered as a spiritual journey
towards the final goal of Moksha. It was divided into four stages. They are---
1. Brahmacharya ashrama: Student life. The student has to acquire knowledge, develop certain skills and
get educated in human values. It is the period of self-discipline and preparation
2. Grhastha ashrama: Householder’s stage. The householder has to enter into the social institution of
marriage and family to fulfill social responsibilities.
3. Vanaprastha ashrama: Life of retirement. In this stage, the family bonds and relations are to be loosened.
The individual should strive for the good of the whole society and his spiritual self-development.
4. Sanyasi ashrama: Ascetic stage. It is the stage of renunciation. The individual has to live the life of a
wondering monk. The ascetic is wholly devoted to seek the spiritual good of him and that of others.
2. ARTHA – Purushartha:‘Artha’ as Purushartha stands for attainment of wealth. Wealth includes all the
means that are essential to satisfy natural needs and desires: cattle, farming, food, money, property and profit
constitute wealth. It includes all the resources that generate wealth. Artha stands for that which satisfies
biological, material and economic needs of individual. Artha has a social significance. Every society generates
wealth and every member contributes to the creation of wealth.
Wealth has to fulfill social functions. It must serve human purposes. The Supreme End ‘Artha’, ought to be
earned and utilized in accordance with the moral principles that is Dharma. Artha also stands for power and
authority. It must be linked with morality and welfare of the people. Artha in the form of wealth or power
should not be acquired by unethical means. It should be achieved by righteous way and should be used with
generosity, compassion and good faith. Artha is a means to fulfill our desires. The satisfaction of desires
leads to Kama Purushartha. Fulfillment of Kama leads to Moksha. In this way, Artha as well as Kama are
instrumental to attainment of Moksha.
3. KAMA – Purushartha: Kama is associated with the satisfaction of natural instincts, desires and emotional
aspects of human beings. Kama means a pleasure one gets from the satisfaction of desires. It also means
affection and love. Kama as a Supreme End includes sensual enjoyment as well as aesthetic joy. It covers
all the aspects of the gratification of biological motives and emotional satisfaction. Kama refers to both self-
preservation and race preservation. Kama also indicates joyful aesthetic experiences. The ‘feeling’ aspect of
human nature seeks the ideal of ‘Beauty’. Beauty reveals itself in aesthetic experiences. Aesthetic experience
is the experience of disinterested interest. It is impersonal and non-utilitarian. The ideal of Beauty is expressed
through harmony, order and Art.
195
Art helps the elevation and sublimation of natural desires. Indian thinkers hold that the person who has
satisfied his physical and psychological needs by moral principles can experience the eternal Bliss. An
emotionally discontented man cannot rise to the spiritual level. The satisfaction of desires leads to the state of
calmness and peace in mind. Ancient thinkers did not advocate blind pursuit of pleasure. To satisfy emotional
needs one should not break moral or social laws. The Supreme End Kama should be strived in accordance
with Dharma – the moral principles.
4. MOKSHA – Purushartha: Moksha is an end-in-itself. It is the Supreme End that has intrinsic value. It
is the Ultimate End of human life. It is the Summum Bonum (the Highest Good). Liberation is associated
with the spiritual level of human beings. It is characterized by the feeling of complete satisfaction of desires
and bliss. Moksha or Liberation is interpreted in terms of Eternal Bliss. The intense awareness of one’s
imperfection in the form of ignorance, weakness, dependence, etc. makes man reflect upon the nature of his
true self and happiness.
The pleasure we get from objects through sensuous experience or enjoyment is temporary, short-lived,
uncertain, and usually mixed up with pain. Therefore, one seeks freedom from the bondage of desires that is
‘eternal happiness’ or ‘Bliss’.
Moksha is also interpreted as freedom from the cycle of birth and death; freedom from the bondage of merit
& demerit, vice & virtue. Moksha is the actual realization of one’s true self. This is spiritual self-realization.
When the seeker loses his distinct identity and realizes his True Self or the Eternal Reality, he gets liberated.
Moksha or Liberation is the pursuit of ideals. When the gap between ‘What is’ and ‘What ought to be’
disappears, the individual achieves Liberation.
Moksha as the highest Purushartha is interpreted in two ways.
1) Videha Mukti: Some Indian thinkers hold that human being is bound by psycho-physical conditions.
He is finite and imperfect. So Moksha can be attained only after death of physical body. Moksha is not
possible within this material body.
2) Jeevan Mukti: Some Indian thinkers hold that Moksha is attainable here in this world while one is alive.
Moksha can be attained in the finite physical body through proper and purified conduct. The ardent desire
for Moksha after the physical, mental and moral purification leads to the highest level of consciousness.
It leads to attainment of Moksha in this physical body.
Integrity of four supreme ends: Prof Shah and Dr. Sunder Rajan believe that the theory of Purusharthavada
is the perfect moral theory. All human problems can be solved by Purushartavada. The four Supreme Ends
form one complete whole. One Purushartha is meaningless without another. These Supreme Ends can
coordinate individual and social ideals at any time. They define the very human nature in terms of goals.
Four Purushartha are intimately connected with one another. Dharma leads to Artha, Artha leads to Kama,
Kama leads to Moksha. There is integrity among Four Purusharthas. Every Supreme End (Purushartha) forms
foundation for next Supreme End. Dharma accompanies Artha. Artha is means to Kama and Kama leads to
Moksha. Dharma without Moksha leads to mere rituals. Artha without Dharma is greediness. Kama without
Artha will be lust. Moksha without other Purusharthas will be hollow and abstract.
Bhagwad Gita
The Bhagwad Gita is the most popular and the most influential religious book of the Hindus. It summarizes
the important elements in Hindu philosophy. Great Indian thinkers like Shankeracharya, Ramanuja, Madhva,
Dnyaneshwar etc. have written illuminating commentaries on the Gita. Great national leaders like Lokmanya
Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi have drawn inspiration from the Gita. The Gita derives its philosophical content
chiefly from the Upnishads. It also synthesizes the philosophical elements from Sankhya, Yoga etc. schools
of philosophy.
On the battle field of Kurukshetra, Arjun becomes unnerved when he saw his own relatives in the ranks of
the enemy. He did not know what to do? Whether to fight and kill them all or to leave the battle field? Lord
Krishna persuaded Arjuna to perform his duty i.e. to fight. Even today, Lord Krishna’s advice is a source of
inspiration. Many times human beings face the question “What to do?” Like Arjuna, we can get inspiration
from the Bhagwad Gita.
196
The Gita holds that liberation is the end of life. Liberation is the liberation of the soul from the cycle of births
and deaths. It is the merging of the individual soul into the Universal spirit. Realization of God is possible
only through self-realization. The self is revealed through disinterested performance of duties and selfless
service to the mankind. The Gita prescribes three paths for the liberation. 1. Path of Knowledge (Jnyan marg)
2. Path of Devotion (Bhakti marg) 3. Path of Action (Karma marg).
1. The Path of Knowledge: The Gita preaches the path of Knowledge. There is nothing as pure and purifying
as knowledge. Jnyan-yajna is supreme sacrifice. In the fire of self-control, bondage of our actions should be
sacrificed. Our senses, our mind and our intellect are influenced by attachment and emotions. Such attachment
causes the bondage. We have to enjoy the consequences of our actions. So there remains the vicious circle of
karmas. A wise man knows to control the senses to attain liberation. Duties performed without attachment for
the consequences, lead to liberation.
A wise man experiences the unity of the individual soul and the Universal soul. The Gita preaches that
even wise man; the liberated soul must perform his duties. Comman people follow the wise man. To set an
example, the liberated man must continue to perform the duties. He must render selfless service to mankind.
The Gita holds that the path of Knowledge is very difficult for common people. Only a few intelligent can
follow the path of Knowledge. It is very difficult to experience the unity of all individual souls. Very few can
realize the Universal soul through intellectual enquiry.
2. The Path of Devotion: The Gita preaches the path of Devotion too. Through love and worship of Divine,
man can achieve union with the Divine. It is very difficult for common people to know the abstract eternal
Divine. The worship of God in a concrete form is possible for comman man.
The Gita declares that “He who worship God, never perish”. In the twelfth chapter, the Gita describes the
qualities of a good worshipper. A good devotee is kind, self-controlled impartial person. The pleasures or pain
does not affect the balance of his mind. A true devotee does not have ego or any attachment towards worldly
objects. Devotion must not be blind. A true Bhakti must be accompanied by Knowledge and selfless action.
A true devotee performs all his duties disinterestedly. Total surrender to God is a necessary characteristic of
the worshipper. However, the path of Devotion is not very easy. It is very difficult to surrender oneself to the
God. It is not easy to give up ones ego and desires. A true worshipper offers the fruits of one’s actions to God.
God is worshipped through social service.
3. The Path of Action: The Bhagawad Gita preaches the path of Action for all, without exception. According
to the Gita, action keeps up the cycle of the universe and it is the duty of every individual to be part of it. Life
itself depends upon action. No one can remain inactive for a single moment. Inertia i.e. inaction is death. The
Gita preaches Nishkama Karmayog i.e. performing one’s duties without any expectation for the rewards. The
path of Action is twofold—
1) Performance of prescribed duties: The Gita prescribes Swadharma. Swadharma includes the duties
according to one’s own nature (i.e. Varnadharma) and the duties according to one’s life stages (i.e. Ashrama
dharma). The Gita declares that it is always better to follow one’s own duties. To follow the duties of others
is bad and clearly dangerous. The Gita seeks self-realization as well as social unity (Loksangraha). The
performance of duties as per one’s disposition, leads to social welfare. Every individual is endowed with
specific psychical tendencies viz purity (sattva), energy (rajas) and ignorance (tamas). The predominance
and combination of these tendencies result in four classes (Varnas) of people. These four classes are-
Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. Every individual has to follow Ashrama dharma. Every one passes
through various stages of life, namely a student (Brahmaharim) a house holder (Grihastha) a retired person
(Vanaprastha) and a wondering monk (Sanyasin). Each class (Varna) and each stage of life (Ashrama) has its
own prescribed duties. The performance of one’s duties leads to individual as well as social welfare. A good
man acts for the good of others, for the benefit of humanity in perfect detachment, disinterest and selflessness
with no desire to reap fruit.
2) Performance of duties without any desire for reward: A common man always hopes for the reward of
his actions. Desires bind a man. The performance of duties has dual attachment.
197
1. Feelings of an agent
2. Interest in the fruits of the action.
Every action results in reaction and thus the chain of actions continue. This chain i.e. the bondage can be
stopped by detachment. The detachment is twofold. Firstly, one has to realize that true agent of all activities is
prakriti and not the individual. Secondly the interest and desire regarding the fruits of action should be given
up. The Gita preaches the path of Nishkam Karma. Our duties must be performed without selfish motive. We
have to offer the fruits of our actions to the Divine. We have a right to the performance of our duties but we
do not have any right to the rewards of our actions. Actions are our sphere; fruits are not our concern.
The ideal of the Gita is performance of duties in a detached spirit. The Gita teaching stands, not for renunciation
of action but for renunciation in action. The Gita does not preach to renounce everything but to renounce the
selfish desires and the fruits of one’s actions. The individual should give up any expectation for the rewards.
His actions should be the performance of his prescribed duties. The Gita ethics is neither hedonistic nor
ascetic. It condemns the wild pursuit of pleasures, as well as suppression of desires. The Gita prescribes
controlled satisfaction of humanly desires.
Arishadvargas
In Hindu theology, Arishadvarga are the six passions of mind or desire: kama (lust), krodha (anger), lobh (greed),
moha (attachment), mada(pride), and matsarya (jealousy); the negative characteristics of which prevent man from
attaining moksha or salvation.These are the fundamental tenets of Kali Yuga. The more each individual fights them,
the longer will be the life of dying Dharma in this yuga.
According to the Hindu scriptures, Kama and krodha or lust and anger are responsible for all kinds of difficult
experiences which we have in our lives.
Bhagavān Kṛṣṇa explains one of the possible relationships between some of these six enemies in the following
verses. He shows how these shadripus overpower the critical and discriminating ability of our intellect (Buddhi) due
to which we forget the purpose of our life, and then they destroy us completely.
“Dwelling or thinking on the objects of the senses a man develops attachment for them. From attachment, desire is
born. Desire gives rise to anger. From anger arises delusion. From delusion arises a failure of memory. From failure
of memory results destruction of the intellect; and through the destruction of intellect, total destruction ensues.”
With mada or ahankar, the false ego up and active, all our acting in the world becomes selfish. Hence there is no other
factor causing the illusory duality of differentiating between ‘us’ and ‘them’ and the repeated pain and delusion it
entails than the psychological ego-sense. When the materially identified ego has sided with the materialistic forces
of creation (Maya), it is said to have the following faults: kama, krodha, lobha, moha, mada and matsarya. Also
called evil passions, man’s Spiritual heritage constantly gets looted by these internal thieves (and their numerous
variations), causing him to lose knowledge of his True Being.
If a person is virtually a prisoner of arishadvargas (the six internal enemies of kama, krodha, lobha, moha, mada and
matsarya), then his life is totally governed by the destiny. As a person moves ahead on the path of Self-Realization,
the grip of the destiny over him loosens and he gets more and more leverage to change his destiny. When a person
identifies himself with the Self, then, he becomes part of the destiny power. His power of mere sankalpa is good
enough to materialize and change any situation either for good or bad according to his sankalpa.
Through bhakti and renunciation, these 6 vices can be overcome. The great Vaishnava Saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
exhorted, “Krishna Nama Sankirtan” i.e. the constant chanting of the Lord’s name is the supreme healer in Kali Yuga.
It destroys sins and purifies the hearts through Bhakti ensures universal peace.
BHAGWAD GITA QUOTES

1. It is better to live your own destiny imperfectly than to live an imitation of somebody else’s life with perfection.
2. A gift is pure when it is given from the heart to the right person at the right time and at the right place, and
when we expect nothing in return
3. No one who does good work will ever come to a bad end, either here or in the world to come.
4. Anyone who is steady in his determination for the advanced stage of spiritual realization and can equally
tolerate the onslaughts of distress and happiness is certainly a person eligible for liberation.
5. Perform all the actions with mind concentrated on the Divine, renouncing attachment and looking upon
success and failure with an equal eye. Spirituality implies equanimity.
198
6. “The happiness which comes from long practice, which leads to the end of suffering, which at first is like
poison, but at last like nectar - this kind of happiness arises from the serenity of one’s own mind.”
7. The peace of God is with them whose mind and soul are in harmony, who are free from desire and wrath,
who know their own soul.
8. Hell has three gates: lust, anger and greed.
9. He who has let go of hatred who treats all beings with kindness and compassion, who is always serene,
unmoved by pain or pleasure, free of the “I” and “mine,” self-controlled, firm and patient, his whole mind
focused on me --- that is the man I love best.
10. Driven by insatiable lusts, drunk on the arrogance of power, hypocritical, deluded, their actions foul with
self-seeking, tormented by a vast anxiety that continues until their death, convinced that the gratification
of desire is life’s sole aim, bound by a hundred shackles of hope, enslaved by their greed, they squander
their time dishonestly piling up mountains of wealth.
11. Today I got this desie, and tomorrow I will get that one; all these riches are mine, and soon I will have
even more. Already I have killed these enemies, and soon I will kill the rest. I am the lord, the enjoyer,
successful, happy, and strong, noble, and rich, and famous. Who on earth is my equal?
12. The man who sees me in everything and everything within me will not be lost to me, nor will I ever be
lost to him. He who is rooted in oneness realizes that I am in every being; wherever he goes, he remains
in me.
13. When he sees all being as equal in suffering or in joy because they are like himself, that man has grown
perfect in yoga.
14. You have the right to work, but never to the fruit of work. You should never engage in action for the sake
of reward, nor should you long for inaction. Perform work in this world, Arjuna, as a man established
within himself - without selfish attachments, and alike in success and defeat.
15. The embodied soul is eternal in existence, indestructible, and infinite, only the material body is factually
perishable, therefore fight O Arjuna.
16. For the senses wander, and when one lets the mind follow them, it carries wisdom away like a windblown
ship on the waters.”
17. The wise grieve neither for the living nor for the dead. There was never a time when you and I and all the
kings gathered here have not existed and nor will there be a time when we will cease to exist.
18. Asceticism is giving up selfish activities, as poets know, and the wise declare renunciation is giving up
fruits of action.
19. Perform all work carefully, guided by compassion.
20. Feelings of heat and cold, pleasure and pain, are caused by the contact of the senses with their objects.
They come and they go, never lasting long. You must accept them.
3. Buddhism
Buddhism is a spiritual tradition that focuses on personal spiritual development and the attainment of a deep
insight into the true nature of life.Buddhists seek to reach a state of nirvana, following the path of the Buddha,
Siddhartha Gautama, who went on a quest for Enlightenment around the sixth century BC.
There is no belief in a personal god. Buddhists believe that nothing is fixed or permanent and that change is
always possible. The path to Enlightenment is through the practice and development of morality, meditation
and wisdom.
Buddhists believe that life is both endless and subject to impermanence, suffering and uncertainty. These
states are called the tilakhana, or the three signs of existence. Existence is endless because individuals are
reincarnated over and over again, experiencing suffering throughout many lives.It is impermanent because no
state, good or bad, lasts forever. Our mistaken belief that things can last is a chief cause of suffering.
The history of Buddhism is the story of one man’s spiritual journey to enlightenment, and of the teachings and
ways of living that developed from it.
199
The Buddha: Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, was born into a royal family in present-day Nepal over 2500
years ago. He lived a life of privilege and luxury until one day he left the royal enclosure and encountered for
the first time, an old man, a sick man, and a corpse. Disturbed by this he became a monk before adopting the
harsh poverty of Indian asceticism. Neither path satisfied him and he decided to pursue the ‘Middle Way’ - a
life without luxury but also without poverty.
Buddhists believe that one day, seated beneath the Bodhi tree (the tree of awakening), Siddhartha became
deeply absorbed in meditation and reflected on his experience of life until he became enlightened.By finding
the path to enlightenment, Siddhartha was led from the pain of suffering and rebirth towards the path of
enlightenment and became known as the Buddha or ‘awakened one’.
Schools of Buddhism: There are numerous different schools or sects of Buddhism. The two largest are
Theravada Buddhism, which is most popular in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Myanmar, and
Mahayana Buddhism, which is strongest in Tibet, China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, and Mongolia.
The Four Noble Truths:
Lord Buddha’s teaching to lead the path beyond evil is known as Four Noble truths (Chatvari Aryasatyani)
The contents of Four Noble Truths clearly indicate the metaphysical views of Buddha.
1. The truth of suffering (Dukkha): The first noble truth is about presence of sufferings or pain. Birth,
old age, sickness, sorrow, dejection, death are painful. The contact with unpleasant things is painful. The
worldly pleasures are transitory and their loss is painful. Buddha drew the attention of all towards pain,
misery and sufferings in this world. For him, misery is the essential condition of life whether human life
or subhuman life. First Noble Truth indicates the imperfection and transitoriness of human existence.
First noble truth reveals the pessimistic characteristic of Buddhist philosophy. However, pessimism in
Buddhist views is only initial a starting point. It goes beyond the existence of pain to remedy it.
2. The truth of the origin of suffering (Samudāya): The second noble truth is about the origin of
suffering. Everything in this world is conditional and dependent upon its origin. Existence of miseries is
also dependent upon its causes. This view is developed in the theory of Dependent origination [Pratitya
samutpada]
Miseries in human life are due to the chain of twelve causes. This chain covers the past the present and
the future life. The twelve causes are 12 links in the chain of sufferings, in the serial order. The first link
of ignorance gives rise impressions and so on. The twelve links are so intimately connected that the last
link i.e pain is said to be the direct result of ignorance.
The twelve links i.e Dvadash Nidan or Bhavchakra are as follows: - Ignorance (Avidya), Impressions
(Samskara), the initial consciousness of the embryo (Vijnyana), Mind and Body of the embryonic
organism, (Nam-rupa) Six organs of knowledge (Shadayatan), Sense contact (Sparsha), sense experience
(Vedana) Thirst, (Trishna), Clinging to existence (Upadana), Tendency to be born (Bhava), Rebirth (Jati),
Old age, death (Jara maran).
It is important to note that according to Buddha, life is not the product of a mechanical combination of
material conditions. Life is the expression of internal forces-conscious or unconscious. The living body is
the out word manifestation of an internal urge.
3. The truth of the cessation of suffering (Nirodha): The Third noble truth is about the cessation of
suffering. Everything depends upon its causes and conditions. If the causes and conditions are removed,
the effect must cease to exist. Miseries also depend upon the chain of 12 links. If the chain broken, miseries
cease to exist. Ignorance is the root cause of all pain. Knowledge by removing ignorance breaks the chain
suffering. The cessation of pain is Nirvana, is attainable here, in this life. Nirvana is the extinction of
misery and not the extinction of activity. Buddha pointed out two kinds of actions – one that is under
attachment and another without attachment. The work done without attachment does not create bondage.
Duhkha Nirodha is Nirvana for Buddha Nirvana has following implications: -
●● Blowing off or to extinguish
●● Complete cessation of sorrows
●● Eternal unshakable peace beyond worldly pleasures and pains.
200
●● A state of quiescence.
●● A permanent release from the wheel of births and sorrows.
●● Intellectual Enlightment.
4. The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (Magga):The Fourth noble truth is about the path
to reach a state free from misery i.e Nirvana. This noble path is eightfold. The Arya Ashtanga Marg of
Buddha is as follows -
1. Right Views [Samyak Drishti] Right view is defined as the correct knowledge about the Four Noble
Truths. Such knowledge helps moral reformation and leads us to Nirvana. Ignorance is the main link of
the chain of 12 causes. So when ignorance, the root course is removed by Right Views, the whole chain
can be broken.
2. Right Resolve [Samyak Sankalpa] Right resolve is the firm determination to reform life, in the light of
truth. The aspirant has to renounce the worldliness, to give up ill feelings towards others and to desist from
doing any harm to them.
3. Right Speech [Samyak Vacha] Right speech is the control of speech. Speech is the reflection of
individual’s character. So speech of the individual indicates that right resolve has become part of the self.
Right speech consists in abstention from lying, slander, harsh words and frivolous talk.
4. Right conduct [Samyak Karmanta] Right conduct is unselfish action. It is the outcome of right knowledge,
right resolve and right speech. Right conduct includes five vows viz. “Panchashila’. `Panchshila’ is similar
to Vrata’s of Jainism. These are the rules of conduct to be followed by the aspirant. These vows consist in
restraining oneself from killing, stealing, sensuality, lying and intoxication.
5. Right Livelihood [Samyak Ajivika] Right livelihood is maintaining one’s life by honest means. In every
action, at every moment, the aspirant’s righteous character must be reflected. No forbidden means to be
adopted to maintain one’s life. Right livelihood is the indication of the transmutation or sublimation of
the character of the aspirant. It is the conversion of the whole personality from the gross, ignoble life of
indulgence to the pure, noble life.
6. Right Effort [Samyak Vyayama] Right Effort is constant Endeavour to maintain moral progress. There
is always a risk of deviation from righteous path. The moral progress can be maintained by ruling out old
evil thoughts and preventing evil thoughts from arising a new. The empty mind should be filled up with
good ideas and retaining these good ideas.
7. Right Mindfulness [ Samyak Smruti] Right Mindfulness is the constant contemplation over the
perishable nature of things. The constant remembrance of the true nature of worldly objects including
one’s body, helps the aspirant to remain free from attachment and consequently from the misery.
8. Right Concentration [Samyak Samadhi] Right Concentration is deeper and deeper stage of meditation
to attain Nirvana. Right Concentration has four stages of meditation
a. First stage of concentration involves reasoning and investigation regarding Truths. The First stage brings
joy and delight.
b. Second stage of concentration involves rising above the reasoning of Truths. The second stage brings
internal joy and calmness.
c. In the Third stage of concentration all passions and views disappear. The Third stage brings indifference
to joy but the feeling of a physical relaxation persists.
d. Fourth stage of concentration involves detachment from physical relaxation too. It is state of Nirvana, a
state of perfect peace and self-possession.
The stage of Right concentration is a gradual march towards universality. Such march can be facilitated
by constantly cherishing Four Sublime moods (Brahmavihara) viz. Love (Maitri), Compassion (Karuna),
Cheerfulness (Mudita) and Impartiality (Upeksha)
The aspirant who attains Nirvana is called Arhat i.e a venerable person. In the old books of Buddhism,
the Noble Eightfold path is summarized into Three-fold path namely Right Knowledge, Right Conduct and
Right Concentration. Right Knowledge includes right views and right resolve, Right Conduct includes right
speech, right conduct, right livelihood and right effort. Right concentration includes right mindfulness and
right concentration.
201
Wheel of life (Bhavachakra)

The bhavachakra is painted on the outside walls of nearly every Tibetan Buddhist temple in Tibet and India, to
instruct non-monastic audience about the Buddhist teachings.
Elements of the bhavacakra: The bhavacakra consits of the following
elements:
• The pig, rooster and snake in the hub of the wheel represent the three
poisons of ignorance, attachment and aversion.
• The second layer represents karma.
• The third layer represents the six realms of samsara.
• The fourth layer represents the twelve links of dependent origination.
• The fierce figure holding the wheel represents impermanence.
• The moon above the wheel represents liberation from samsara or cyclic
existence.
• The Buddha pointing to the white circle indicates that liberation is possible.
Symbolically, the three inner circles, moving from the center outward, show
that the three poisons of ignorance, attachment, and aversion give rise to
positive and negative actions; these actions and their results are called karma.
Karma in turn gives rise to the six realms, which represent the different types
of suffering within samsara.
The fourth and outer layer of the wheel symbolizes the twelve links of dependent origination; these links indicate
how the sources of suffering—the three poisons and karma—produce lives within cyclic existence.
The fierce being holding the wheel represents impermanence; this symbolizes that the entire process of samsara or
cyclic existence is impermanent, transient, constantly changing. The moon above the wheel indicates liberation. The
Buddha is pointing to the moon, indicating that liberation from samsara is possible.
BUDDHISM QUOTES
1. You will not be punished for your anger; you will be punished by your anger.
2. Thousands of candles can be lighted from a single candle, and the life of the candle will not be shortened.
Happiness never decreases by being shared.
3. No one saves us but ourselves. No one can and no one may. We ourselves must walk the path.
4. Do not dwell in the past, do not dream of the future, concentrate the mind on the present moment.
5. Peace comes from within. Do not seek it without.
6. The mind is everything. What you think you become.
7. We are shaped by our thoughts; we become what we think. When the mind is pure, joy follows like a
shadow that never leaves.
8. Better than a thousand hollow words, is one word that brings peace.
9. Believe nothing, no matter where you read it, or who said it, no matter if I have said it, unless it agrees
with your own reason and your own common sense.
10. How many holy words you read, how many you speak, what good will they do you if you do not act on
upon them?
11. All that we are is the result of what we have thought: it is founded on our thoughts and made up of our
thoughts. If a man speaks or act with an evil thought, suffering follows him as the wheel follows the hoof
of the beast that draws the wagon.... If a man speaks or act with a good thought, happiness follows him
like a shadow that never leaves him.
12. Peace comes from within. Do not seek it without.
13. You only lose what you cling to.
14. Holding on to anger is like grasping a hot coal with the intent of throwing it at someone else; you are the
one who gets burned.
15. Doubt everything. Find your own light.
16. Every morning we are born again. What we do today is what matters most.
202
17. There is no path to happiness: happiness is the path.
18. Your purpose in life is to find your purpose and give your whole heart and soul to it.
19. If your compassion does not include yourself, it is incomplete.
20. Holding on to anger is like grasping a hot coal with the intent of throwing it at someone else; you are the
one who gets burned.
21. There are only two mistakes one can make along the road to truth; not going all the way, and not starting.
4. Jainism
Jainism is an ancient religion from India that teaches that the way to liberation and bliss is to live lives
of harmlessness and renunciation.The essence of Jainism is concern for the welfare of every being in the
universe and for the health of the universe itself.
●● Jains believe that animals and plants, as well as human beings, contain living souls. Each of these souls is
considered of equal value and should be treated with respect and compassion.
●● Jains are strict vegetarians and live in a way that minimises their use of the world’s resources.
●● Jains believe in reincarnation and seek to attain ultimate liberation - which means escaping the continuous
cycle of birth, death and rebirth so that the immortal soul lives forever in a state of bliss.
●● Liberation is achieved by eliminating all karma from the soul.
●● Jainism is a religion of self-help.
●● There are no gods or spiritual beings that will help human beings.
●● The three guiding principles of Jainism, the ‘three jewels’, are right belief, right knowledge and right
conduct.
●● The supreme principle of Jain living is non violence (ahimsa).
●● This is one of the 5 mahavratas (the 5 great vows). The other mahavratas are non-attachment to possessions,
not lying, not stealing, and sexual restraint (with celibacy as the ideal).
●● Mahavira is regarded as the man who gave Jainism its present-day form.
●● The texts containing the teachings of Mahavira are called the Agamas.
●● Jains are divided into two major sects; the Digambara (meaning “sky clad”) sect and the Svetambara
(meaning “white clad”) sect.
●● Jainism has no priests. Its professional religious people are monks and nuns, who lead strict and ascetic
lives.
Tri-ratna- The threefold path of Liberation
Jains believe that non-injury is the highest religion.Jains aim to live in such a way that their jiva (soul) doesn’t
get any more karma, and so that the karma it already has is either eliminated or helped to decay. They do this
by following a disciplined life path.The Jainas believe that ignorance is the root cause of bondage. Ignorance
of truth give rise to the passions of anger, greed, pride and delusion. These passions cause the influx of
Pudgala, the karmic matter into the soul. Bondage of the soul is like mingling of water with milk. The only
moral ideal of the soul is liberation. Liberation is attained by removal of ignorance. The Jainas prescribe the
threefold path of right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. The three-fold path is called as Tri-ratna or
three jewels. These are three precious principles of life.
1. Right Faith (Samyak Darshan): Right faith is the respect for truth. This faith may in born and spontaneous
in some aspirants while some other may acquire it by learning or by culture. In the initial stages, faith is attitude
of reason, to get acquainted with essentials of the teachings of Tirthankars. Further studies consequently lead
to strong faith in the competence of these prophets. Such a faith is not blind faith as it is outcome of studies.
Right Faith is unshaken belief in Jain Scriptures and their teachings. It is intended particularly to dispel
skepticism or doubt which thwarts spiritual growth. The deep understanding of teachings leads to perfect faith
i.e. Samyak Darshan.
2. Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnyan): Right Knowledge is knowledge of the principles of Jain religion and
philosophy. Right knowledge is acquired only by carefully studying the teachings of Omniscient Tirthankaras.
203
Tirthankaras are the liberated souls, so they are the authority to lead others. Right knowledge consists in-
[1] the detailed cognition of the real nature of Jiva and Ajiva
[2] the freedom from doubt, error and uncertainty.
Right knowledge is perfect and indubitable, certain knowledge. It is possible when Pudgala i.e Karmic matter
is totally removed. The utmost stage in right knowledge is absolute Omniscience, i.e Kevaljnyana.
3. Right Conduct (Samyak Charitra): Right conduct is translating into action, what one has learnt (Right
knowledge) and what one believes to be true (Right Faith). It is the most important part of discipline. Theory
without practice is empty and practice without theory is blind. Through right activity one can get rid of karma
and can reach the goal of life i.e realization of intrinsic nature. Right conduct consists in avoiding what
is harmful i.e evil and doing what is beneficial i.e good. Right conduct stops the influx of new karma and
eradicates old Karma. Right conduct involves adoption of those principles of life which free the soul from
bondage of karma.
Emerging from these three jewels and relating to right conduct are the five abstinences, which are the vows of:
1. Ahimsa (non-violence)
2. Satya (truthfulness)
3. Asteya (not stealing)
4. Aparigraha (non-acquisition)
5. Brahmacarya (chaste living)
There are two forms of the five vows:
1. Mahavrata: the 5 great vows followed by Jain monks and nuns
2. Anuvrata: the lesser vows followed by Jain lay people. These are less strict version of the great vows
JAINISM QUOTES
1. Live and let live. Love all - Serve all.
2. Where there is Love there is Life. Violence is Suicide.
3. All living beings long to live. No one wants to die.
4. Have compassion towards all living beings. Hatred leads destruction.
5. Silence and Self-control is non-violence.
6. Just I dislike pain, so all other beings dislike pain.
7. A wise person does not kill, nor cause others to kill, nor consent to the killings by others.
8. Respect for all living beings is non-violence.
9. Non-violence is the highest religion.
10. All human beings are miserable because of their own ignorance, and they themselves can be happy by
acquiring proper knowledge.
11. The greatest mistake of a soul is non-recognition of its real self and can only be corrected by recognizing itself.
12. Every soul is in itself absolutely omniscient and blissful. The bliss does not come from outside.
13. All Souls are alike and potentially divine. None is Superior or Inferior.
14. There is no separate existence of God. Everybody can attain God-hood by making supreme efforts in the
right direction.
15. God is neither the creator nor the destroyer of the universe. He is merely a silent observer and omniscient.
16. One who, even after knowing the whole universe, can remain unaffected and unattached is God.
17. Every soul is independent. None depends on another.
18. Fight with yourself, why fight with external foes? He, who conquers himself through himself, will obtain
happiness.
5. Sikh Ethics
Sikhism was founded in the 16th century in the Punjab district of what is now India and Pakistan. It was
founded by Guru Nanak and is based on his teachings, and those of the 9 Sikh gurus who followed him.
204
Sikhism, the most recent faith in Indian tradition, lays great stress on ethics in human life. Guru Nanak,
founder of the Sikh religion denounced caste distinctions and rituals like bathing in holy rivers. His conception
of religion was highly practical and sternly ethical. He exhorted people to give up selfishness, falsehood and
hypocrisy and to lead a life of truth, honesty and kindness. ‘Abide pure amidst the impurities of the world’
was one of his famous sayings. His life was dedicated to establishing harmony between Hindus and Muslims.
During the battle of Anandpur Sahib in 1704, Bhai Kanhaiya, a follower of Guru Gobind Singh, was often
seen carrying a pouch of water to quench the thirst of the wounded, whether they were Sikhs or soldiers of
the Mughal army. This exemplifies the values of non-enmity, service and compassion.
Code of conduct for Sikhs
The code of conduct set for the Sikhs in the Rahit Maryada (life-rules) set by Shromani Gurdwara Prabandhak
committee has profound impact on the Sikh living. These life-rules are found in the Adi Granth, the holy
scripture of the Sikhs. The ethics can be divided into the following categories:
1. Moral Standards: The major problem with morality is houmai (ego or I-am-ness). Guru Nanak, in his
composition Japji identifies houmai as a feeling of individualism. Guru Nanak uses sat (truth) as the principle
of spiritual progress. The morally good person, according to this approach, would be one who rises higher and
higher away from houmai towards the larger self. The journey to sachiara (self-realization) becomes easier
if we accept God’s hukam (will).
2. Human Motives, Propensities and Praxis: Kaam (Lust), Karodh (Wrath), Lobh (Greed), Moh (Attachment),
and Ahankar (Ego or Pride) are known as 5 thieves or vices. The Gurus stress the need to control them or
overpower them. These propensities keep a person in a state of restlessness. These propensities should be
controlled voluntarily through poise and balance and not through penance. Guru Nanak pointing to desirable
conduct says, “This township (of the body) is maintained by truthfulness, contentment, chastity, charity and
self-control all-too-naturally, one is then met with the life of life”.
3. Virtues: Virtues are qualities essential to endear the self to the Divine. The Sikh Scriptures emphasize the
following virtues – wisdom, truthfulness, justice, temperance, courage, humility, contentment, and love for
humanity. The Scriptures are embedded with these virtues; however, we do not find any hierarchy. Virtues
have been treated in general way. However, some isolated references are found to certain virtues.
4. Duties: Duties of the Sikhs are outlined in Rahitnamas (code of conduct). A Sikh should perform all his
duties to his/her best ability depending upon the station of life he/she is in. The Moral duties are (1) Right
belief, (2) Right livelihood, (3)Chastity and fidelity. Organizational duties pertain to observing 5 K’s.
Personal aspect of duties:
a) Right Belief: This duty requires of a Sikh to have belief in One God.
b) Prohibition of the use of narcotics and intoxicants.
c) Respect for life and women.
d) Right livelihood and helping the needy.
e) Duty of serving others.
5. Social Ethics: It is always helpful to evaluate someone’s social ethics considering history of the place
a person is coming from. Sikh religion started in India by Guru Nanak (1469-1539 AD) who was born in
Punjab. This was an era of great awakening when old dogmas and faith of established religions were being
reviewed and challenged. Some of the religions, specially in South Asia, had lost their original direction at
the hands of an established priestly class.
These religions had degenerated into a bundle of elaborate rituals, the purpose of which was not clear to
its followers. Besides per existing codes religious activity could only be performed by a particular class of
people called Brahmins or their progeny without regards to their educational background or spiritual status.
These rituals spanned the whole spectrum of human activity from birth to death and covered all major events
in one’s life like marriage, house warming ceremonies, establishing a new business, and day-to-day activities
like eating, charity, and pilgrimages etc.
All these activities were controlled by the priestly class of Brahmins who would do so in consideration of cash
205
and/or other material benefits. Besides society was divided into various castes/sects who believed in a large
number of deities and gods each requiring a separate set of rituals.
Social Inequality can be examined in the context of
a. Equality among Classes in Sikhism: Wealth is also a determinant of social classes besides the caste
system. Sikh religion rejects distinction based on ownership of economic resources. According to Guru
Nanak, “One lives not ever in the world: Neither king not beggars would remain, they all come and go”. Guru
Arjan Dev says, “The wise of God looks upon all alike, such as the wind that blows alike for the commoner
and the king”. In the same paragraph, the Guru alludes to fire and asserts that just as nature treats all alike,
in the similar way, the wise in God treats all alike. As a practical step to implement the equality among men,
Guru Nanak started The Institution of Langer (the community kitchen) which is open to all irrespective of
their economic station in life.
b. Relation among Men of Different Religions and Nationalities: Discoursing about the merits of men
professing different religions Guru Gobind Singh held, “One may be a Hindu or a Muslim, all human beings
belong to one brotherhood of mankind”. Guru Gobind Singh proclaimed, “God is in the Hindu temple as
well as in the mosque. God is addressed in both the Hindu and the Muslim prayer; all men are one though
they appear different. The Hindus and the Muslims are all one though they may have different habits under
the influence of different environments: They are also compounded of the same elements, earth, air, fire
and water. The Qur’an and the Puranas praise the same God. They are all of one form and one God has made
them all”.
c. Status of Women in Society: The status of women in India was systematically degraded for centuries.
The caste system, economic oppression, denial of property rights and inheritance, a false sense of impurity
attached to menstruation and child birth, deliberate deprivation of education led to the deterioration of women’s
position in society. Woman was referred to as a seducer, unclean, and a temptress. She was denied the right to
preach or to participate in other religious rites. Another system whereby some young women in their late teens
(called Dev Dasi’s - God’s slave) were supposed to be married to stone idols and were to remain celibates, was
adopted in temples in parts of Eastern and Southern India. Such women were occasionally sexually abused
by the priests of these temples. Unethical practices such as female infanticide, immolation of the widow with
the deceased husband, and wearing of veils by women were common during the fifteenth century in India.
Sikh Gurus took a firm stand against derogatory practices in regards to the Status of Women by promoting
equality between sexes. The Gurus have suggested remedial measures for rectification of the situation and
have ordered their followers to adopt respect for women in their day to day conduct. Guru Arjan Dev reinforces
the high status given to women by Guru Nanak by calling the God as our mother as well as our father. Sikh
religion also stresses family values and faithfulness to one’s spouse. Sikh gurus declared that marriage is an
equal partnership of love and sharing between husband and wife.
Sikh religion condemns the practice of women burning themselves on their husband’s funeral pyre (sati);
prevalence of female infanticide and the ritual of dowry in Indian society; wearing of veils by women; and
the rape and brutalities committed against women. To raise status of women, Sikh Gurus have used feminine
symbols extensively in their writings. Among the other measures taken to enhance the status of women, Guru
Amar Das trained and appointed a large number of women as missionaries’ in charge of Manjis who had
complete religious jurisdiction. Women were also cast into the role of saints and soldiers by baptizing them.
Great emphasis is placed on the education of women. Since they are considered to be the equal partners, they
can lead prayers and perform all religious ceremonies and their education is considered an asset for them.
Widow re-marriage is allowed in Sikh religion. Earlier it was considered only as a right of men.
6. Islam
The word Islam means ‘submission to the will of God’.Islam is the second largest religion in the world with
over 1 billion followers.Islam was revealed over 1400 years ago in Mecca, Arabia. According to Muslims,
God sent a number of prophets, including Adam, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, to mankind to teach them how
to live according to His law.They believe that the final Prophet was Muhammad.
206
Muslims believe that Islam has always existed, but for practical purposes, date their religion from the time
of the migration of Muhammad.Muslims base their laws on their holy book the Qur’an, the Sunnah (verbally
transmitted record of the teachings, deeds and sayings, silent permissions of the prophet Muhammad) and
Hadiths (report on the life of Prophet Muhammad)
Muslims believe that God appointed human beings to be His agents on earth, and gave them the earth with
all its resources. Because God created them and because God gave them the earth to live in, human beings
are the servants of God. A human being can have no higher dignity than to be ‘a servant of God’, ’abdu Ilah.
Therefore, Islam emphasizes the sovereign power of God. At the same time, Islam also teaches that every
person is responsible for his own behaviour and his own punishment.
Ethics and morality
Ethics and morality in Arabic are called Adab. It signifies disciplines of mind, or every praiseworthy discipline
by which a man is excellently trained. Good morals and good manners represent the real test of man’s
excellence. Islamic ethics and morality embrace all those moral virtues known to any advanced civilization
such as goodness, sincerity, honesty, humility, justice, politeness, patience, straightforwardness, veracity,
sympathy and other ethical instructions and rules of conduct.
One of the most widely known, in Islam ethical teaching is The Shari’a (The Law of Islam). All Muslims
should follow this Shari’a, which is taught by the Koran and by the sunnah of the Prophets. The Shari’a
includes the whole conduct of a person’s life: what he does at home and at business; his marriage and his
rights of inheritance; his duties to the state, to his neighbours, to his relations and his family. It also includes
the religious duties, which are popularly known as the Five Pillars of Islam. These pillars are the declaration
of faith, praying five times a day, giving money to charity, fasting and a pilgrimage to Mecca (atleast once).
Islamic ethics and morality as stated in the Holy Quran and the Hadiths are recommended, praised and
enjoined upon Muslims by Islam. They cover the smallest details of domestic life as well as the broad
aspects of national and international behaviour. They guide the Muslims at every stage in life. God said in the
Holy Quran:
“The noblest of you in the sight of Allah is the best of you in conduct”.
Prophet Muhammad said:
1. “The best of you are those who have the most excellent morals”.
2. “The most perfect of the believers in faith is the best of them in moral excellence”.
3. “The believers whose faith is most perfect are those who have the character”. (Character is the sum total
of all that is good and noble).
Islamic Ethics and morality can be divided into two categories:
1. Those which enable man to do good to others. This first class comprises all rules calculated to guide the
intentions and actions of man in doing good to others by means of the faculties which God has granted him
or in declaring the glory or honour of others or in forbearing from punishing an offender, or in punishing him
in such a manner that the punishment turns to be a blessing for him.
2. Those which enable man to abstain from inflicting injury upon his fellowmen. To this second class
belong the rules of conduct which direct the intentions and actions of man so that he may not injure the life
property or honour of his fellow beings by means of his tongue, or hand, eye, or any other parts of his body.
Islamic Ethics and Morality cover the smallest details of domestic life as well as the broad aspects of national
and international behaviour. Some of these are:
I. A Muslim and a Believer: To be a Muslim and a Muslim’s beliefs are very much related each other with
their ethical and moral life.
II. Regarding Goodness: Goodness to: Parents, Wives and Children, Neighbours, Guests, Slaves and
Servants, Fellow Muslims, All Mankind and All Creatures.
III. Regarding Manners: Manners of: Doing Something, Offering Salam (salutation), Eating and Drinking,
Entertainment, Entering and Coming out of the Closet, Bathing, Dressing, Sleeping, Praying, Reciting
207
and Reading the Holy Quran, Teachers toward Students, Students
toward Teachers, Earning Livelihood, Buying and Selling, Going to
Mosque, Dealing with nonMuslim.
With regard to a Muslim and his/her belief a few lines may be taken
here. A Muslim is a person who honestly believes in and professes faith
in the oneness of Allah and the prophethood of Muhammad—a Muslim,
therefore, is a believer. A Muslim is a person who lives in perfect peace
with others. A Muslim is one who makes his peace with God and man.
The chief characteristics of a Muslim are love and sympathy.
For example, In Hadiths of Prophet Muhammad:
1) “The truly religious man is he who will smile in the face of every one”.
2) “A Muslim who mixed with others and shares their burdens is better
than one who lives a life of seclusion and contemplation”.
3) “The best Muslim house is that in which an orphan is well cared for;
And the worst Muslim house is that in which an orphan is ill-treated”.
4) “He is the best of Muslims whose disposition is best; and the best of
you are they who behave best to their wives”.
5) “Two qualities are not combined in any Muslim, avarice and bad disposition”.
6) “Do unto all men as you would wish to have been done unto you and reject for others what you would
reject for yourself”.
7) “He is the best man whose life is long and his actions good. He is the worst man whose life is long and his
actions bad”.
8) “The best of men is he who is (socially) the most useful”.
9) “The worst of men is a bad learned man and a good learned man is the best”.
10) “All Muslims are like one wall, some parts strengthening others in such a way that they support each other”.
11) “Muslims do not enter Paradise and do not reach the virtuous abode until they shall have discharged
their debts”.
13) “A believer must speak only good words or remain silent.”
14) “It is not allowable for a man to come in between two people without their permission”.
15) “A Muslim owes to a Muslim six (duties) to be bestowed liberally:
a) he should offer him salutation (salam) when he meets him,
b) he should pray for him when he sneezes,
c) he should accept when he invites him,
d) he should visit him when he is sick,
e) he should follow his bier when he dies, and
f) he should love for him what he loves for himself.
With regard to Goodness, there are three stages in doing good:
1. The lowest stage is that in which man does good to his benefactors only. One does good in return for good.
2. The second stage is, that man does good because he expects thanks or prayers in return for the good he
does. This infirmity of doing good is considered as without sincerity in the deed.
3. The third stage has been taught by Islam which is free from every imperfection. This is the highest state
and the best way of doing good. To attain this perfection, men should not think of the good he has done,
nor expect even an expression of thanks from the person upon whom the benefit is conferred.
Sufism
Sufism was a liberal reform movement within Islam. It had its origin in Persia and spread into India in the
eleventh century. The first Sufi saint Shaikh Ismail of Lahore started preaching his ideas. The most famous
of the Sufi saints of India was Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, who settled in Ajmer which became the centre of
his activities. These Sufi saints are revered even today by not only Muslims but by a large number of Hindus.
208
Sufism stressed the elements of love and devotion as effective means of the realisation of God. Love of
God meant love of humanity and so the Sufis believed service to humanity was tantamount to service to
God. In Sufism, self-discipline was considered an essential condition to gain knowledge of God by sense
of perception. While orthodox Muslims emphasize external conduct, the Sufis lay stress on inner purity.
While the orthodox believe in blind observance of rituals, the Sufis consider love and devotion as the only
means of attaining salvation. According to them one must have the guidance of a pir or guru, without which
spiritual development is impossible. Sufism also inculcated a spirit of tolerance among its followers. Other
ideas emphasised by Sufism are meditation, good actions, repentance for sins, performance of prayers and
pilgrimages, fasting, charity and suppression of passions by ascetic practices.
7. The Bhakti Movement

During the middle ages, the Bhakti movement arose in India. It was an all-India movement of social reform
and spiritual awakening. It played a very important part in reawakening moral consciousness in India. Dr.
S. Radhakrishnan says that the Bhakti is the means to attain salvation. What is important is not the specific
manner in which God is worshiped but the degree to which the devotee is filled with love.
●● The Bhakti Movement is remarkable of its kind for the religious unity and for the emancipation of poverty.
●● They have advocated equality between men and women.
●● They have condemned idol worship.
●● They condemned the social evils like casteism and Sati. They have preached the oneness of God.
The doctrine that all men both high and low are equal before God has become the central idea that has rallied
large sections of the masses to fight against the priesthood and caste tyranny. This great movement of the
middle Ages has not only helped the development of a composite Indian culture embracing different linguistic
and religious communities but also paved the way for united struggle against feudal oppression.
The Bhakti movement has attained varying degrees of intensity sweeping in different parts of the country. It
appeared in a variety of forms also. Yet, some basic principles underlie the movement as a whole.
7.1 Ramananda (1400-1470 AD)
The movement which Ramanuja started in South India was spread to the other parts of Northern India by his
great disciple Ramananda.
His concept of God is that he is a person who cares for all men and rewards their devotion.
Ramananda brought a radical reform. He made no distinction between Brahmanas and members of the
degraded castes. He wanted to promote the ideal of inter-dining.
Another reform of Ramananda was the use of the vernaculars for the propagation of the new creed. He took
people as disciples from all the castes including the degraded castes.
God is conceived as a being with many human attributes. The relation of man with God is similar to that of a
master to his servant or a lover to the beloved.
The prominent feature of these mystic saints was stated to be the spirit of religious tolerance. Religion is a
question of individual approach to God without the necessity of any outside interference.
Both the Muslims and Hindus are equal and they are the children of the only true God. Nevertheless, the
mystics were fearless in pointing out the defects in the belief of both Hindus and Muslims. They fought
against casteism and idolatry of the Hindus.
The ideal of Islamic brotherhood exerted profound influence on Hindu social thinking. Islam treats all men
equal which was in disregard to caste in the new development of Bhakti philosophy. The mystics held that in
the sight of God there was no difference between a high caste Brahmin and an outcaste.
The love of God is universal. The whole universe is tied up in brotherhood. This practical ideology owes its
existence due to the synthesis of Hindu and Islamic teachings. Ramananda started a religious renaissance: “He
ably guided the spiritual life of the Indian people and introduced social and religious reforms. He recognized
no difference of caste and creed. According to him all men and women are equal.”
209
7.2 Kabir (1440-1518 AD)
Kabir is a constructive reformer. He has founded a Panth or a sect. The followers of Kabir sect are to be found
principally among lower castes. Freedom from egotism and self-seeking is of fundamental importance.
Unity and integrity: Kabir has refused to acknowledge any caste distinctions. In the writings of Kabir, he
says: “It is needless to ask of a saint the caste to which he belongs; for the priest, the warrior, the tradesman,
and all the thirty-six castes, alike are seeking for God.”
His desire was to establish peace in social and religious spheres among the people and unite them for they
were separated one from the other on the grounds of religion.
“Love does not grown on trees or brought in the market, but if one wants to be “LOVED” one must first know
how to give (unconditional) LOVE...”
Non-violence: Kabir preaches for the harmony, love, and understanding of Hindus and Muslims. He declares
the equality of all men recognizing no banners of caste or creed and peaceful co-existence. His concept of
non-violent (ahimsa) society is indicative of a peaceful community living in virtue and goodness. He has set
before the world an idea of love and universal brotherhood. As the love of God prevails in the world, the love
of one’s neighbour should prevail amongst men. An often quoted saying of Kabir is:
“That body in which love does not dwell is a crematorium; the heart which is without love is like a blacksmith’s
bellows, breathing but lifeless.”
Kabir demands the moral purity and does not restrict it to one particular kind of life. Obedience to the master
to his commands must not be blind. The believer has to rely on his reason and follow according to the details
of his conscience.
7.3 Ravidasa (1450-1540 AD)
Ravidasa was a great Hindu saint and Philosopher during the medieval times. Although he hailed from a
low community, he did not suffer from inferiority complex. He did not cherish ill-will or malice against any
people. He returned good to the evil.
View on religion: The poems of Ravidasa reflect his view on religion. He considers religion as the basic need
of man. Man has religious instinct distinct from hunger and thirst. He says that if self-realization is the dawn
of the soul, self-negation is the dark night of the soul. He can guide those grouping in darkness to their destiny.
Ravidasa criticizes these teachings of religion which did not appeal to the human reason. He stands against
the fallacy of the vain religious action. Those religious actions that are contrary to human nature are mistakes.
Continence, yogic control, and fasting are contrary to the human tendencies. He opposed them and termed
them as unhumanistic tendencies.
Some religious books prescribe some extreme paths of God realization but these paths are not accessible to
everybody. As God is in all, the path way to him should also be accessible to all. If the path way is simple,
everyone would be able to follow it. Devotionalism leads to such democratic path. The Vedas teach the
observance of indifferences to the world or control over the sense organs. Both of these are very difficult to
everyone to follow. Ravidasa condemns the superstitious practices associated with devotion. For his devotion
was chiefly in the form of service.
“Service within the sphere of devotion means service to God and his creature by service to mankind is
service to God. His hospitality and service to the poor and needy is worthy to be noted. Lord resides in
everybody’s hearts is not knowable through rites or performances. Highest expression of religion in life
is the service of man.”
Ravidasa considers the human existence as rare, and obtained due to the result of meritorious deeds. So man
should not waste his life in ignorance. He should utilize his life in achieving the highest human aspiration
which becomes possible only by following a moral code of discipline.
Man according to Ravidasa is of double nature. His nature is attached at first to this world. He is unbound
to any form of existence in the physical world. Ravidasa compares goodness with knowledge. With the
acquisition of knowledge, senses are not killed but live their prosperous life with the difference.
210
Man’s essence lies in his self determination in the realization of his freedom:
“Man is found to be in bondage due to his sheer ignorance. Total removal of it involves a virtuous life.
Wisdom is the greatest value and the true perspective of things. Selfless service has been given an utmost
importance both before and after the realization of God.”
Ravidasa exhorts the people to raise above evils of pride, anger, greed, attachment, jealousy and lust. True
freedom can be realized only in the absence of determinism. Reason, faith, contemplation have been attached
much importance. Reason is dependable and indispensable. The philosophy of Ravidasa is marked by the
values of self transcending existence of absolute freedom.
7.4 Tulasidas (1532-1623 AD)
Tulasidas has composed the great work Rāmacarita mānasā usually known as Rāmāyaṇa. According to him,
the supreme fruit of devotion is deliverance from sin and purification of heart. Knowledge and devotion are
the two paths for attaining God. Those who follow these methods wield power in this world. In the whole
creation, there is nothing in comparison to such abiding value as saintliness of character. A saint has the
characteristics of deep wisdom and boundless love. A wise man sees unity in diversity and identifies himself
with the whole of creation. The devotee radiates peace which is active and exalted which silently and gently
communicates itself to others. It transforms many lives and lightens the hearts that are heavy laden with
sorrows and gives them rest.
Tulasidas writing, Ramacarita mānasā relating to the life story of Rama stood as a great force in preventing
disintegration of the Sanatana Dharma. His writing helped the people in reposing faith in themselves and in
their own culture which had been shaken by the Muslim rule. This work is proved to be immediate success
and has been enshrined in the heart of the common man. As Haridas Bhattacharya observes:
“Tulasidasa captured the imagination of the people further by making that God-head live and move on earth..
. . the very idea that God lived as one of us and shared our joys and sorrows: brings peace and solace to the
human heart.”
Tulasidas says that man is responsible for his sorrows and joys in life. He attaches great importance to the man
associating with the good and holy. This is said to be a recognized way prescribed for the ordinary mortals to
help themselves to progress on Godward path.
Miscellaneous quotes
SWAMI VIVEKANANDA
1. You have to grow from the inside out. None can teach you, none can make you spiritual. There is no other
teacher but your own soul.
2. You cannot believe in God until you believe in yourself.
3. The world is the great gymnasium where we come to make ourselves strong.
4. We are what our thoughts have made us; so take care about what you think. Words are secondary. Thoughts
live; they travel far.
5. Dare to be free, dare to go as far as your thought leads, and dare to carry that out in your life.
6. Condemn none: if you can stretch out a helping hand, do so. If you cannot, fold your hands, bless your
brothers, and let them go their own way.
7. Truth can be stated in a thousand different ways, yet each one can be true.
8. Arise, awake, stop not until your goal is achieved.
9. The more we come out and do good to others, the more our hearts will be purified, and God will be in
them.
10. If money help a man to do good to others, it is of some value; but if not, it is simply a mass of evil, and
the sooner it is got rid of, the better.
11. The will is not free - it is a phenomenon bound by cause and effect - but there is something behind the will
which is free.
211
12. Take up one idea. Make that one idea your life; dream of it; think of it; live on that idea. Let the brain, the
body, muscles, nerves, every part of your body be full of that idea, and just leave every other idea alone.
This is the way to success, and this is the way great spiritual giants are produced.
13. All power is within you; you can do anything and everything. Believe in that, do not believe that you are
weak; do not believe that you are half-crazy lunatics, as most of us do nowadays. You can do anything and
everything, without even the guidance of any one. Stand up and express the divinity within you.
14. The greatest religion is to be true to your own nature. Have faith in yourselves.
15. The greatest sin is to think yourself weak Anything that makes weak - physically, intellectually and
spiritually, reject it as poison.
16. You cannot believe in God until you believe in yourself.
17. Strength is Life, Weakness is Death. Expansion is Life, Contraction is Death. Love is Life, Hatred is Death.
18. Neither seek nor avoid, take what comes.
19. Learn everything that is Good from Others, but bring it in, and in your own way absorb it; do not become
others.
20. We are responsible for what we are, and whatever we wish ourselves to be, we have the power to make
ourselves. If what we are now has been the result of our own past actions, it certainly follows that whatever
we wish to be in the future can be produced by our present actions; so we have to know how to act.
RABINDRA NATH TAGORE
1. I slept and dreamt that life was joy. I awoke and saw that life was service. I acted and behold, service was joy.
2. Clouds come floating into my life, no longer to carry rain or usher storm, but to add color to my sunset sky.
3. Faith is the bird that feels the light when the dawn is still dark.
4. The butterfly counts not months but moments, and has time enough.
5. Death is not extinguishing the light; it is only putting out the lamp because the dawn has come.
6. Music fills the infinite between two souls.
7. A mind all logic is like a knife all blade. It makes the hand bleed that uses it.
8. Let your life lightly dance on the edges of Time like dew on the tip of a leaf.
9. Don’t limit a child to your own learning, for he was born in another time.
10. Everything comes to us that belongs to us if we create the capacity to receive it.
Dr. A. P. J. ABDUL KALAM
1. You have to dream before your dreams can come true.
2. Man needs his difficulties because they are necessary to enjoy success.
3. Great dreams of great dreamers are always transcended.
4. Dreams are not those which comes while we are sleeping, but dreams are those when u don’t sleep before
fulfilling them.
5. Don’t take rest after your first victory because if you fail in second, more lips are waiting to say that your
first victory was just luck.
6. All Birds find shelter during a rain. But Eagle avoids rain by flying above the Clouds. Problems are
common, but attitude makes the difference!!!
7. To succeed in your mission, you must have single-minded devotion to your goal.
8. We should not give up and we should not allow the problem to defeat us.
9. Those who cannot work with their hearts achieve but a hollow, half-hearted success that breeds bitterness
all around.
10. It Is Very Easy To Defeat Someone, But It Is Very Hard To Win Someone.
11. Learning gives creativity, Creativity leads to thinking, Thinking provides knowledge, knowledge makes
you great.
12. Why be afraid of difficulties, sufferings and problems? When troubles come, try to understand the
relevance of your sufferings. Adversity always presents opportunities for introspection.
nn
212
Public/Civil Service Values and
Ethics in Public Administration
Status of values and Ethics in
Public administration
A
s per fourth report of second ARC (Ethics in Governance), no organization can go through a long
distance without embracing ethical behaviour. In just about every area of society, there’s nothing
more important than ethics. And when it comes to public organizations, ethics becomes the prime
factor of their success and sustainability. Only through ethics, an organization can work for people and
without it, it will only lead to chaos and tyranny.
The above assertion indicates the high status of ethics in public administration. As discussed in unit one,
consequences of unethical behaviour are harsh which again makes it necessary for civil servants to behave
ethically. Ethics are as important for the public servant as blood for the body.
Public servants also have special obligations towards the community, largely because of three reasons. First,
they are responsible for managing resources entrusted to them by the community. Second, they provide
and deliver services to the community. Third, they take important decisions that affect all aspects of the
community life. The community has a right to expect that their Public servants function honestly, efficiently
and open-mindedly.
Thus, the decisions and actions of Public servants should reflect the policies of the government of the day
and the standards such as professionalism, openness, and fairness, that the community expects from them as
government servants. All this is not possible if high status is not accorded to ethical conduct.
Factors Determining Status of Ethics in Public Administration

Environmental factors play an important role in nurturance and growth of ethics in the society. Administrative
ethics is the product of several contextual structures and it never ends to grow and change. Some of these
contextual factors that influence ethics in the public administrative systems are enlisted below:
The Historical Context: Ethical character of the governance system is greatly influenced by the history of
the society or nation. In the USA, there was a concept of Spoils system in 19th century. The motto of the
spoils system was “To victor belongs the spoils”. Recruitments in public services was a discretionary power
of ruling party. Things however changed when a disgruntled job seeker assassinated President Garfield in
1881. Garfield’s assassination spurred the process of civil service reforms in the USA, and the setting up of
the Civil Service Commission in 1883 was the first major step in this direction. India has also witnessed a long
history of unethical practices in the governance system.
In Kautilya’s Arthashastra, there is mention of a variety of corrupt practices in which the administrators of
those times indulged themselves. Corrupt practices like ‘bakshish’ were rampant in the Mughal Empire and the
Indian princely rule through which favours were sold and bought. Similarly, during the East India Company
too, there were number of corrupt employees who were criticized even by the British parliamentarians for being
corrupt. Regulating act of 1773 had a clear mention of the ongoing corrupt practices in the East India Company.
It has been noticed that a long legacy of unethical practices in governance is likely to enhance the tolerance
level for administrative immorality. In many developing nations who were earlier colonies, there is wide gap
between the people and the government, and which continues till date. In the colonial era, the legitimacy of
the governance was not accepted willingly by a majority of population and therefore, true loyalty to the rulers
213
was a rare phenomenon. Although the distance between the governing elite and the citizens has been reduced
substantially in the transformed democratic regimes, yet the affinity and trust between the two has not been
total even in the new dispensation.
Though the time has changed, but the ruling elite do not seem to have imbibed the spirit of emotional unity
with the citizens. The legacy of competitive collaboration between the people and the administrators continues
to exist. This type of nature has an adverse impact on ‘administrative ethics’, thus lowering down their status.
Legal-Judicial Context: The legal system of a country determines considerably the efficacy of the ethical
concerns in governance system. A neatly formulated law, with a clear stress on the norms of fair conduct
and honesty, is likely to distinguish chaff from grain in the ethical universe. Conversely, nebulous laws, with
confusing definition of corruption and its explanations, will only promote corruption for it would not be able
to instill the fear of God or fear of law among those violating the laws of the land and mores of the society.
Besides, an efficient and effective judiciary with fast-track justice system will prove a roadblock to immorality
in public affairs. Conversely, a slow-moving judiciary, with a concern for letter rather than the spirit of the
law, will dither and delay and even help the perpetrators of crimes by giving them leeway through prolonged
trials and benefits of doubt.
The Socio-cultural Context: It is generally argued that the administrative class – comprising civil servants
at higher, middle as well as lower levels – emerges from the society itself. Naturally, therefore, the values and
behavioural patterns prevalent in the society are likely to be reflected in the conduct of administrators.
In the present Indian society, unfortunately, ends have gained supremacy and the means do not command an
equal respect. Less emphasis on means employed to become rich is a worrisome phenomenon in the Indian
society.
Concept of ethics varies in different societies and different religions. For example, while Judaism has valued
performance of physical labour by its followers, the Hindu and Islamic societies, on the other hand, have
generally considered physical labour to be of lower rank than the mental work. This has led to caste system
which is also seen in administrative hierarchies.
The cultural system of a country, including its religious orientation, appears to have played a significant role
in influencing the work ethics of its people. For instance, the stress on hard work, so characteristic of the
Protestant ethics, has helped several Christian societies to enhance their per capita productivity.
The family system and the educational system are influential instruments of socialization and training of the
mind in its impressionable years. If the values inculcated through the family and the schools have underscored
honesty and ethics, the impact on the mind-set of citizens is likely to be highly positive and powerful.
The Political Context: In a democracy, all political parties, pressure groups and the media also influence the
orientation and attitudes on moral questions. If politicians act as authentic examples of integrity, as happens in
the Scandinavian countries, or as examples of gross self-interest, as found in most South Asian countries, the
administrative system cannot remain immune to the levels of political morality. The election system in India
is considered to be the biggest propeller to political corruption. Spending millions on the elections `compels’
a candidate to reimburse his expenses through fair or foul means – more foul than fair. While fair has limits,
foul has none.
The behaviour of politicians also has a demonstration effect on civil servants. If the media is objective and
fearless, its role in preventing corruption can be effective. It can even act as a catalyst to the promotion of
ethical behaviour among administrators. Hence, those who own and manage the media should understand
their wider social and moral responsibilities. The trend in this direction is visible now with many television
channels regularly airing their ‘expose’ on malpractices in the system. This role of the media is important if
performed with intent of social responsibility rather than sensationalism.
The Economic Context: A lower level of economic development, when accompanied with inequalities in
the economic order, is likely to create a chasm among social classes and groups. The less privileged or more
deprived sections of society may get tempted to forsake principles of honest conduct while fulfilling their
basic needs of existence and security. Not that the rich will necessarily be more honest (though they can afford
214
to be so), yet what is apprehended is that the poor, while making a living, may find it a compelling necessity
to compromise with the principles of integrity.
It is interesting to note that with the advent of liberalizing economic regime in developing nations, there is a
growing concern about following the norms of integrity in industry, trade, management and the governance
system on account of the international pressures for higher level of integrity in the WTO regime. This is what
Fred Riggs would call `exogenous’ inducements to administrative change.
Rising Status in Present Times

While the practice, study and understanding of public administration has evolved considerably over recent
decades, the concept of ‘public service values’ remains fundamental to all aspects of government and
administration. There is no more important topic in public administration and policy than public values.
Infact the status has been increased in recent times. We can underline following factors that justify the
magnitude of the ethics in contemporary public organisations, more concretely:
1. Material and resource difficulties
2. needs of a growing and multifaceted society
3. Critical and attentive perspective implied in citizenship
4. Globalization and internationalism
5. Advances in technology including information technology revolution
6. Constant demand that decision processes become more thoroughly participated.
7. Spreading of intellect and sensitivity towards rights among the masses
nn
215
Chapter - 2
Problems of Values and Ethics

in Public Administration
E
ncouraging ethical behaviour is not just a list of rules or statutes to be achieved. For any government
agency, ethics means a continuous management process that supports business and government and
is becoming a key factor for the functioning and development of the government. Problems comes
in integrating necessary values with the administrative system, as every step may have some unintentional
consequences. These problems can be discussed under two heads:
1. Ethical management 2. Management of ethics
1. Ethical Management :
Ethical Management refers to the recognition and acknowledgement of values as an important dimension
of administration and including values as a core component of different organizations. Ethical management
includes understanding the importance of social and constitutional values in organizational functioning and
charting out what is valued and what is not by society and organizations.
For example, German sociologist Max Weber (1968) held that bureaucracy is the structure by which
government can best execute laws at the functional level. Bureaucracy would give structure and rationality to
the execution of public policy in the same way that Scientific Management uses science to bring structure and
efficiency to the operation of large manufacturing plants.
One of the most important features of bureaucracy is that it removes the autonomy of government officials
by separating the law-making role of government from the public administration role. Elected officials pass
laws, but an organization of specialists administers those laws by following established routines. They record
each step to ensure that laws have been properly executed.
This system of bureaucracy was effective in ending much of the political corruption of the late 19th century,
and it made government operations more efficient, but it created other ethical challenges. Central to these
ethical challenges is the idea that bureaucracy must be impersonal and oriented around sterile rules and
procedures. In bureaucracy, there is no ethical framework other than what the bureaucracy defines as ethical.
This lack of ethical standards set the stage for the bureaucracy to play an important role in the efficient
administration of such evils as the Holocaust, Stalin’s Purges, and Chinas Cultural Revolution. To be fair, the
United States committed similar crimes, though on a smaller scale. For example, the Tuskegee Experiments,
in which the effects of venereal disease in black men were studied rather than treated (Brunner 2010), and
experiments sponsored by the Department of Energy in which Americans were exposed to radioactive
elements without their consent or knowledge (U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Health, Safety, and
Security July 1995).
As discussed in unit 3, India adopted British system of bureaucracy after independence. However, Weber’s this
machine model of bureaucracy has not been much successful, due to different needs and socio-cultural environment.
The flaws of the administrative system led to cumbersome processes and weak control over administrative
action. Individual senior officials seem to wield too much power and discretion without effective accountability.
Administrative procedures are such that routine decisions by front line staff often have to be cleared through
the hierarchy.
The consequences of these procedures results in delay and frustrations in obtaining decisions and services on
time, which partially encourages bribery and petty corruption at the point of service delivery.
Thus what ethics needs to be taken into account in itself is a big issue to resolve. Now there is a demand in
India that earlier traditional bureaucracy values like neutrality, anonymity, impartiality must be replaced by
values of modern democratic bureaucracy like:
216
●● Justice and fairness l Commitment
●● Accountability l Transparency
●● Responsiveness l Equality
●● Participation of employees and citizens l Tolerance and altruism
●● Empathy and compassion l People’s welfare and development
●● Excellence
2. Management of Ethics
Management of Ethics is the process of creating and using tools and techniques which can help in integrating
values with the conduct of administration, employees and citizens. It assures compliance towards ethical
behaviour, accountability, public interest and resolving value conflicts
Management of ethics include creating a code, norms or policy for members of society or institutions, to assure
their compliance towards ethical behaviour. For example, formulating Code of Conduct for organization or
profession like civil services, law etc.
Recognising the status of values is only the first step towards value laden governance. It is easy to talk about
values than to integrate them with the systems. In effect, the present reality requires innovative approaches
and combined measures. This in itself poses a big challenge for present day governments. Following tools and
mechanisms can be formulated to manage ethics in an organization:
●● Accountability Tools
●● Conduct Codes
●● Monitoring Mechanisms (e.g. internal and external questionnaires)
●● Development of Supportive Structures (to encourage ethical conduct and to reward those who act morally)
●● Implementation of Audit Methods at Inter-governmental level
●● Professional Socialization (e.g. formation, awareness and training)
●● Introduction of whistle-blowing systems (in a careful way)
●● A stronger appeal to the active participation of citizens (for instance in the denunciation of bad practices)
●● Definition of Leadership Responsibilities
●● Assertive Communication
Through the creation of particular structures of ethics management, good governance can be achieved. They
will also help in resolving situations like dilemmas, conflicts of interest, etc.
The E-Government Example: The Internet can bring positive and negative factors to public administration.
Consequently, this new reality represents a serious challenge for managers. There is need to promote Internet
use for employees and clients, having in mind the simplification of procedures, decision times, quality,
effectiveness and efficacy of the public service. It is also imperative to establish policies for discouraging
Internet abuse and corruption by the employees and public. The traditional strategies and organizational
hierarchy may not be successful (and surely are not) in cyber working places. For this reason, one has to
develop a more meticulous statement of acceptable and unacceptable behaviors on the World Wide Web. The
big ethical questions in e-governance can be defined as:
●● What can be the ethical or unethical implications of Internet?
●● What will be the impact of e-government on public administration ethics?
●● Who must have full access to websites?
●● What kind of restrictions must be established?
●● Can employees access Internet for their personal use?
●● Can the public access the government data bases harmlessly?
●● Can privacy be at risk? Who can be responsible for ICT errors?
In brief, individualism and depersonalization, usually related to Internet, can involve problems in the
workplace, quickly transparent to the public. On the other hand, Internet can provide a more open, participative
and democratic workplace. nn
217
Chapter - 3
Ethical Concerns in Government
and Private Institutions
A. Ethical Concerns in Public Organizations
The essence of ethics in public organizations is that the public administrators are the guardians of the state.
Their purpose is to serve the public and to promote public welfare. Functions performed by them are more
comprehensive, urgent and vital for the very existence of the society. Administrative systems are not only
confined to act ethically in their conduct but they also have the responsibility of protecting and promoting an
ethical order in the larger society. For example, RBI gives the guidelines not only to government Banks but
also to the private or foreign banks.
The government and its agencies impinge upon and are affected by practically everything that exists in the
society. It involves policies and actions of immense complexity. The breadth of scope, impact and consideration
of government organizations is far more when compared to private institutions. Such complexity requires
ethical dimension for complete understanding and appropriate behaviour. Discretion, power, resources are
there. Also in developing countries like India, demand is more than supply. Therefore, lots of open areas are
there.
The crux of administrative ethics is ethical decision making. Ethics are seen in action when a public servant
selects one option over another. Questions of facts and questions of values get integrated in ethical decision
making. There can be a long list of ethics which are considered desirable in an administrative action. However,
in being selective, one has to focus on the most crucial ethics.
Some of the ethical concerns in public organizations are:
1. Legality and rationality: Government organizations have to function within the limits set by the laws,
rules and regulations. Decisions should be based on rationality and logic rather than personal beliefs.
2. Responsibility and accountability: Responsibility refers to the public servant’s adherence to public
will, whereas accountability denotes the specific methods and procedures to enforce the public servants
responsibility. Responsibility is subjective and works from within, while accountability is objective
and works from outside. The basis of enforcing responsibility from outside is known as accountability.
Public accountability and responsibility is the hallmark of government institutions in a democracy. They
have to function in its environment which consists of press, civil society, political parties and public.
An administrator should not hesitate to accept responsibility for his decisions and actions. Moreover, he
is also accountable to higher authorities and people who are the ultimate beneficiaries of decision and
actions.
3. Work commitment: an administrator should be committed
to his duties and should perform his work with involvement,
intelligence and dexterity. This also entails respect for time and
fulfillment of promises made. Work is considered not as a burden
but as an opportunity to serve and constructively contribute to
society.
4. Excellence: an excellent administrator ensures the highest
standards of quality in administrative decisions and actions
and do not compromise because of convenience or ease.
Excellence comes from the integration of efficiency, economy
and effectiveness.
218
5. Fusion: A public official is expected to bring about fusion of individual organizational and social goals
and should be committed to such fusion. For example, A district collector involved in rural development
project not because for public service but for promotion will not be able to put his complete energy. In
situation of conflicting goals, a concern for ethics should govern the choices made.
6. Responsiveness: A public official should respond effectively to the demands and challenges from outside
as well as from within the organization. He should be adaptable to environmental transformation and
yet sustained the ethical norms of conduct. People expect government to respond and that to in a timely
manner to their problems. Government organizations are subject to political direction and control. In fact
it is the machinery through which politician responds to the public interest (like registration of FIR in
police stations).
7. Utilitarianism: while making and implementing policies and decisions, a civil servant should ensure that
they lead to the greatest good (happiness, benefits) of the greatest number.
8. Compassion: A civil servant without violating the prescribed laws and rules should demonstrate
compassion towards weaker sections of society.
9. National Interest: though universalistic in orientation and liberal in outlook, a civil servant, while
performing his duties should keep in view the impact of his action on his nation’s strength and prestige.
This automatically raises the level of service rendered and the products delivered.
10 Justice: Justice means giving each person what he or she deserves or, in more traditional terms, giving
each person his or her due. Ethics originate from the sense of justice prevailing in a particular society for
ex. A child slaps another child. Third child watching finds it unethical because he believes in social justice
that every human is equal and has the right to live with dignity under article 21 which calls for protection
of life and personal liberty.
11. Transparency: implies openness, communication, and accountability. Transparency is operating in such
a way that it is easy for others to see what actions are performed. A common man is the most important
stakeholder in the government organization as he is the one who is most influenced by policies and
programs of the government. Therefore, he has the right to know.
Transparency is used as a means of holding public officials accountable and fighting corruption. When a
government’s meetings are open to the press and the public, its budgets may be reviewed by anyone, and
its laws and decisions are open to discussion, it is seen as transparent, and there is less opportunity for the
authorities to abuse the system for their own interests. For example, right to information includes openness
through voluntary disclosure, procedure for communication and accountability through established
mechanism.
A public official shall make decisions and implement them in a transparent manner so that those affected
by the decisions and those who wish to evaluate their rationale, will be able to understand the reasons
behind such decisions and the sources of information on which these decisions are made.
12. Integrity: Administrative action should be based on honesty and power, positions and discretion should
not be used for personal interest or any other ill legitimate interest.
13. Uniformity: government organizations have to be consistent and fair in their treatment.
There could be many more ethical concerns added to the above list like benevolence, collegiality, courage,
dedication, faithfulness, representativeness, truthfulness, selflessness, loyalty, privacy, constitutionalism,
tolerance, sincerity, optimism, openness, lawfulness etc. However, the overall objective is to ensure good
governance with the prime concern for ethical principles, practices, orientations and behaviour. Also,
these concerns are related to each other and violation of any one automatically leads to the violation of
other concerns.
B. Ethical Concerns in Private Institutions

Ethics in private institutions refer to the ethical principles which should govern business activities. Business
ethics provides a code of conduct which guides managers and employees in performing their jobs.
Ethics lay down norms of behaviour by the business. There are many behavioral conducts which can be
judged on the dimensions of ethics. Few examples are:
219
●● to charge fair prices from the customer
●● to use fair weights for measurement of commodities
●● to pay taxes to the government, to earn reasonable profits
●● to give fair treatment to the workers
Significance
There is a myth that ethics are made for the government only and private sector has nothing to do with ethics
and values. Their sole purpose is to make profit by any way. However,
Ethical behaviour is also important for private organization as it influences its internal as well as external
relations. The difference between government and private sector lies in the motives or goals and priorities
(like social development or profitability) in making decisions. In public organizations, an official needs to be
ethical so that citizen can be served in a better way however in private organization, a manager needs to be
ethical so that business can become better.
Today, a businessman is pressurized by various factors to follow a business practice which is ethical from
society’s point of view. Some of these factors are:
1. Environmental pressures: Since business activities are carried on within the boundaries of the society,
it is argued that business should be guided by the ethics established by the society. In fact it is said that
all organizations are public as they serve public in one or another way. For example, a transport services
company, private buses are there, dairy products company etc. Whether it is public or private, the final
consumer or beneficiary is a human being and that’s why ethics become necessary irrespective of the
nature of an organization.
For a moment, we may assume that a business is an economic institution and is in no way concerned with
social values and ethics. Then frauds, scandals, scams, payoffs and kickbacks will be justified on the ground of
maximization of profits. There should be no surprise, shock or uproar when business acts immorally.
A private business is an integral part of the society. It is in fact the trusty of the resources of the society so
the business must observed the ethical standards of the society while using the resources. Thus, a private
organization may have no option but to desist from undesirable practices like hoarding, profiteering due
to pressure from society. For example, media, trade unions are there for the rights of employees.
2. Enlightened self-interest: today business enterprises firmly believe that business ethics are in their own
self-interest. That is, if a business firm follows business ethics, it will lead to higher profits and prosperity
in the long run. For example, Tata’s, Birla’s, Infosys all have become successful because they include
ethics in their business. Corporate social responsibility is there. It leads to trust and credibility. People
invest in these companies because they know that these companies will not cheat them. Government
also provides benefits to such companies as they have high rankings in the society. Tax benefits; land
acquisitions, PPP projects etc.
3. Moral consciousness: it would not be an exaggeration to say that most business people behave ethically
because of their moral consciousness. Like other members of society, they also believe that ethical business
conduct is good business as well as good citizenship.
4. Legal requirements: in almost every sphere of business activity, laws have been enacted which declare
certain business practices as illegal and prohibited. Regulatory framework is there. SEBI, RBI, company
laws, are there to enforce these laws.
Ethical concerns
Some of the most important concerns for every private institution are:
1. Responsibility and accountability towards the stakeholders which includes customers, employees,
managers, shareholders and the society.
2. Transparency and disclosure: are important as all the stakeholders have the right to know the decisions
taken and how they are implemented. Performance and results known to all the stakeholders will lead to
trustworthiness, credibility and participation. Better understanding can only lead to better and long term
relationships.
220
3. Integrity, loyalty and honesty: are the human qualities which are required in every private organization.
4. Commitment: towards the goals of the organization and towards the benefit of all the stakeholders.
5. Statutory and legal obedience: It leads to trust and better relations between private and government
sector. Obedience to the laws has always been considered ethical.
6. Responsiveness: Private organizations are needed to be responsive towards their clients and shareholders.
7. Quality of products and services: very important for every private organization as it secures and benefits
the interests of all the stakeholders. Providing quality below what the organization is claiming is always
considered unethical by the society.
8. Excellence: integrating efficiency, economy and effectiveness. If a person is naturally not efficient than
we cannot say that he is unethical but if he deliberately slows down his work or don’t try to give his best,
then one can say that it is unethical. Giving one’s best in one’s job.
However, a private organization is more concerned with administrative efficiency rather than policy and
service efficiency. For example, you are given the choice of making either cheap bread or alcohol. Private
sector will go for alcohol manufacturing as it is more profitable even if it is not appropriate for the society. Private
organizations are less concerned with the satisfaction level till the time people are buying their products.
C. Ethics in NGOs
An NGO is a non-profit making, voluntary service organization whose primary role is to provide public
services and awareness. An NGO borrows its objectives from the government and procedures from the private
sector. Such procedures are flexible in nature and thus provide autonomy and independence to NGOs for
effective functioning.
Unlike government, external and internal accountability and vigilance is much less which makes it more
important that an NGO has a strong set of ethics. Internal accountability comes from ethics only.
Discretion and power in absence of accountability will lead to corruption. This temptation can only be
countered by a strong ethical character.
Secondly, an NGO can justify its functioning and expenditure only when it behaves ethically. Commitment,
dedication, integrity and compassion which are essential values for public service can only be expected from
an ethical person. The adoption and internal enforcement of a suitable code not only provides an ethical check
for an NGO, it also serves as a statement to beneficiaries, donors and the public that the NGO takes seriously
the importance of maintaining high standards. Such a code can assist stakeholders in identifying and avoiding
“pretenders” and irresponsible NGOs.
Thirdly, most of the NGO’s teaches the world to behave in an ethical manner. If the organization itself is
corrupt than it will certainly lose its credibility and trustworthiness. For example, Transparency International
propagates the message of honesty and truthfulness.
Recently, the protests against the Kundankulam Nuclear Plant were alleged to have been motivated by Western
governments using the Indian NGOs as a conduit. This kind of behaviour must be avoided. NGOs should
not be allowed to be used for private gains at the cost of public interest. People trust NGO’s because of their
nature and they greatly influence the opinion of public. Hence, it becomes imperative for NGOs to be ethical
and professional in their dealings and to observe strict codes of conduct within themselves.
Ethical Concerns of NGOs
1. Transparency 2. Integrity 3. Responsiveness
3. Equality 4. Dedication 5. Justice
6. Honesty 7. Accountability 8. Empathy and compassion
9. Courage
Distinction between private and public institutions

The distinction between public and private sector is greatly influenced by the political philosophy of each
nation. For example, in USA, the private sector plays a very important role in the American economy and
221
society. Public sector in many ways depends on the private sector for the supply of goods and services. Hence,
the tendency in that country is towards a blurring of lines rather than a distinct bifurcation of responsibilities.
For example, weapons and defense equipment are made by private sector. They just can’t sell them to anybody
just for profitability. National interest has to be taken into account.
In India earlier, there was a clear distinction as public sector had been the dominant sector. Ethics of efficiency,
economy, effectiveness, competition, merit, profitability, were often related to the private sector. Larger social
interest had been ignored earlier.
But in the past 20-25 years, things have changed. Liberalization, privatization and globalization have changed
the structure, process and behaviour of organizations in developing countries like India. LPG regime has
bridged the gap between the functioning of private and public sector undertakings. The current advocacy of
privatization and public private partnerships is indicative of this trend. Government is now being called upon
to play more and more enabling role than the traditional doing role.
An enhancement in the value system has been seen in both the sectors. Ethics of private institutions have
been absorbed by the public sector and vice versa. Public organizations now cannot ignore efficiency and
profitability in their functioning. Autonomy and performance are now valued in public sector also. Similarly,
private management can no more ignore the larger public and national interest. Now society has also become
the responsibility of private organizations. Environmental ethics, international ethics, administrative ethics
have now become the part of the curriculum of private management schools.
Thus, we can say that consideration for general welfare as well as better business has become a common
concern for both public and private institutions. Moral dimensions and criteria can be applied to all kinds of
organizations and business and public sector have started sharing some basic values and norms.
nn
222
Chapter - 4
Ethical Dilemmas in Government
and Private Institutions
A
s we have discussed earlier, ethical questions are those in which we have to choose between right and
wrong. Is it right to give money to the beggar or one should avoid it as it promotes beggary? Inter
caste marriages or gay marriages are right or wrong. Every society has a set of ethics and it expects
its members to follow it. Thus certain standards are there. But individual ethics or morality is also there. Every
person has its own set of ethics. Thus taking decision becomes difficult especially when there is a conflict
between morality and social norms and ethics. Also, in culturally pluralistic societies, it becomes even more
difficult as unanimity is not there on standards of ethics. Thus identifying ethical grounds is biggest problem
in taking ethical decisions. And it this presence of multiple criterions, that often lead to ethical dilemmas.
An ethical dilemma exists when one is faced with having to make a choice where:
1. Significant value conflicts are there.
2. There are alternatives that are equally justifiable.
3. Significant consequences are there on the stakeholders in a given situation.
For example, there are situations where you have to choose between truth and loyalty; individual and
community; justice and mercy; or short term and long term (environmental concerns); Economic development
or environmental values. Your organisation is doing something wrong. For example, child labour is used. A
government official has visited the factory for inspection. Now you are in dilemma of Loyalty vs. Truth. Other
conflicts are there like impartial treatment or social equality, respecting sovereignty of other nations against
the right to intervene in other nations affairs to protect the vulnerable sections like in Sri Lanka and Myanmar.
Conflict of Interest
A conflict of interest is also a kind of ethical dilemma only, which involves a conflict between a public
official’s duty to serve the public interest, and the public official’s private interests.
There are three types of conflict of interest to be aware of:
1. An actual conflict of interest – where an officer is in a position to be influenced by their private interests
when doing their job.
2. A perceived conflict of interest – where an officer is in a position to appear to be influenced by their
interests when doing their job.
3. A potential conflict of interest – where an officer is in a position where they may be influenced in the
future, by their private interests when doing their job.
A poorly-managed perceived conflict of interest can be just as damaging as a poorly-managed actual conflict
of interest. Public sector officers must not only behave ethically; they must also be seen to behave ethically.
Private interests: The term ’private interests include not only the personal, professional or business interests
that an officer may have, but also the personal, professional or business interests of the individuals or groups
that the officer associates with. This might include relatives, friends or even rivals and enemies.
In other words, private interests are those interests that can bring either benefits or disadvantage to the officer,
or to others whom the officer may wish to benefit or disadvantage. Such interests can involve an actual or
potential financial gain or loss and can involve property, shares, unpaid debts, or some form of gift or benefit
– including a job opportunity or secondary employment.
Other private interests may not have a financial component, but could involve personal or family relationships
or sporting, social or cultural activities that could influence an officer’s judgement or decision.
223
Public duty to serve the public interest: The ‘public interest’ is the collective interest of the entire community
– not the sum of individual interests or the interest of a particular group. All public sector officers have a public
duty to put the public interest above their own personal or private interests when carrying out their official
duties. This principle applies to anyone engaged to deliver government programs and services, whether as a
full- or part-time employee, casual or contract staff member, board member, consultant or volunteer.
When interests’ conflict: While conflicts of interest should be avoided wherever possible, conflicts often
happen without anyone being at fault. Public officials are also individuals, and there will be occasions when
an officer’s own private interests may come into conflict with their public duty to put the public interest first.
Conflicts of interest are not wrong in themselves, but they should be properly identified and declared, and
effectively and transparently managed. It is when a conflict of interest has been ignored, improperly acted
on, or has influenced actions or decision making, that the conduct (not the conflict itself) could be seen as
misconduct, abuse of office or even corruption.
The following are some examples of conflicts of interest. If an officer’s public duty requires them to become
involved in any decision or action regarding the matter, where the officer:
●● owns property, the value of which may be altered by their agency’s activities;
●● has shares in a family business that offers for a contract with their agency;
●● is offered a benefit in the course of carrying out their work-related duties;
●● holds secondary employment with an organization that is applying to the agency for a related consideration;
●● has a strongly held personal conviction on an issue that is being considered by the agency; and/or
●● Orders goods for a private business and improperly accesses government procurement arrangements.
Managing conflicts of interest
●● Serving the public interest: Public officials should make decisions and provide advice on the basis
of the relevant law and policy, and the merits of each case, without regard for personal gain (i.e. be
“disinterested”). The integrity of official decision-making should not be prejudiced by the religious,
professional, party-political, ethnic, family, or other personal preferences or alignments of the decision-
maker.
●● Supporting transparency and scrutiny: Public officials and public organizations are expected to act
in a manner that will bear the closest public scrutiny. This obligation is not fully discharged simply
by acting within the letter of the law; it also entails respecting broader public service values such as
disinterestedness, impartiality and integrity.
●● Promoting individual responsibility and personal example: Public officials are expected to act at all
times so that their integrity serves an example to other public officials and the public.
●● Engendering an organizational culture which is intolerant of conflicts of interest: Public organizations
should provide and implement adequate management policies, processes, and practices in the working
environment to encourage the effective control and management of conflict of interest situations. Public
organizations should create and sustain a culture of open communication and dialogue concerning integrity
and its promotion. Public organizations should provide guidance and training to promote understanding
and dynamic evolution of the public organization’s established rules and practices, and their application
to the working environment.
●● As soon as the officer concerned becomes aware of a conflict of interest, they must register the conflict
of interest and discuss it with their manager or supervisor to determine the most appropriate way of
managing the situation. There are several management strategies available:
●● Register – where details of the conflict of interest are declared and registered. (In low-risk situations
this single strategy may be sufficient.)
●● Restrict – where restrictions are placed on the officer’s involvement in the matter.
●● Recruit – where a disinterested third party is used to oversee part or all of the process that deals with
the matter.
●● Remove – where the officer chooses, or is requested, to be removed completely from the matter.
224
●● Relinquish – where the officer relinquishes the private interest that is creating the conflict.
●● Resign – where the officer resigns from their position with the agency. (This strategy should be
considered only if the conflict of interest cannot be resolved in any other workable way.)
●● The procedures for managing conflicts of interest should be documented in the agency’s Conflict of
Interest Policy and Code of Conduct, and properly communicated to staff.
●● In addition, potential stakeholders should be required to divulge all potential conflicts of interest at the
time they offer to provide services. Failure to make adequate disclosure at any time may be grounds for
later ending the contract.
Thus, the primary goal of managing conflicts of interest is to ensure that decisions are made – and are seen to
be made – on proper grounds, for legitimate reasons, and without bias.
Resolving Ethical Dilemma

In order to get out of an ethical dilemma, one must be able to identify and choose the ethical grounds or
standards (Norm or requirement) which will help him in taking and defending the decisions.
However, we must also understand that no decision is perfect and justifiable in every context. Even UPSC
has also recognised this thing that there cannot be one correct decision in every situation. There can be many
correct decisions of a particular problem. In preliminary stage, decision making questions have no wrong
choices. All the choices are correct. It is just that which choice is better than others in the given context.
●● FDI in retail sector (retailer’s rights versus social interest)
●● democratic right to protest (JNU Case)
●● Armed Forces Special Power Act (public security vs. Human rights).
So many cases are there. In all these cases, one can justify all possible decisions. One should go for that option
which can be justified in the best possible manner. In the syllabus, two contexts are given, that is public and
private institutions. Both these institutions have their own goals and priorities which help them to take the
decisions accordingly.
Now what are the bases of ethical grounds?
In order to understand the basis of ethical decision making, one must also understand what criterions should
not be taken to defend your ethical decisions. Some of these are:
1. Ethics is not religion. Many people are not religious, yet they are ethical. Most religions do advocate high
ethical standards but sometimes do not address all the types of problems we face. Often, people follow
ethical behaviour not because they are good but because they fear god. Religion can be the basis of ethics
but it can also become the basis of behaving immorally. Many people have used religion very positively
in public sphere like Gandhi ji but there had been people like Osama Bin Laden (Al Qaeda).
2. Ethics are not laws. Law can become ethically corrupt, as some totalitarian regimes have made it. Laws
may deviate from what is ethical. Like AFSPA. Laws during the time of emergency. Laws made by
Taliban regime in Afghanistan.
3. Ethics is not following culturally accepted norms. Khap panchayats are there. They are not ethical. Culture
is also not perfect. Orthodox, conservative society can behave unethically in many situations.
4. Ethics are also not science. Science can provide important data to help us in making better ethical choices.
But every decision cannot be taken on the basis facts and rationality. Human concerns are also there.
Ethics are subjective. Verifiable truths are not there.
5. Ethics are not also what we are feeling. Some people feel bad when they do something unethical but some
feel good when they do something wrong. And often our feelings will tell us it is uncomfortable to do
the right thing if it is hard. People don’t do right things because they feel uncomfortable. Right things are
often not easy to do. Sense of morality comes from conscience which includes both feelings and ethics.
If our ethics are not based on feelings, religion, law, accepted social practice, or science, what are they based
on? One can say that they are based on our common sense. If you can apply your common sense, you can
come out from any ethically challenging situation.
225
There are no hard and fast rules to come out from such situation. No standard procedure is there. You have to
think, do some brainstorming and you we’ll get the solution. Below, some approaches have been discussed
which can aid you to take an ethically correct decision. However, there is no end to these approaches and
the idea is not to give you a set of principles which will always lead to a correct decision. Solving an ethical
dilemma with an open mind has always been a best technique.
For example, there is one approach which we can follow to come out from an ethical dilemma. All of you are
known to this approach. Many times, you have read about it in your NCERT books. It is Gandhi’s Talisman,
which says:
“I will give you a talisman. Whenever you are in doubt, or when the self becomes too much with you, apply
the following test. Recall the face of the poorest and the weakest man [woman] whom you may have seen, and
ask yourself, if the step you contemplate is going to be of any use to him [her]. Will he [she] gain anything
by it? Will it restore him [her] to a control over his [her] own life and destiny? In other words, will it lead to
swaraj [freedom] for the hungry and spiritually starving millions?
Then you will find your doubts and your self melt away.”
It’s a clear approach towards decision making which involves Gandhian philosophy. Similarly, there can
be a Nehruvian approach or an approach taken by Bhagat Singh or Subhas Bose during the days of India’s
struggle for freedom. There are many philosophers and scholars who have suggested different dimensions or
approaches to identify the ethical standards. Let us discuss some approaches given by them.
1. The Utilitarian Approach

Utilitarianism is a moral principle that holds that the morally right course of action in any situation is the one
that produces the greatest balance of benefits over harms for everyone affected. So long as a course of action
produces maximum benefits for everyone, utilitarianism does not care whether the benefits are produced by
lies, manipulation, or coercion.
Utilitarianism offers a relatively straightforward method for deciding the morally right course of action for
any particular situation i.e.
●● First identify the various courses of action that can be taken.
●● Second, determine all of the future benefits and harms that would result from each course of action for
everyone affected by the action.
●● And third, choose the course of action that provides the greatest benefits after the costs have been taken
into account.
This type of reasoning is often used by the government as it has to settle down contrasting claims of different
sections of society. It is not always possible to satisfy everyone. Under such conditions, one should go for
this approach. For example, armed forces special powers act. This act is often criticised by civil society. But
it is justified on the basis that, it may harm few people but is beneficial for the public at large. It helps in
maintaining law and order and secure people from terrorist activities.
Many dams or nuclear power plants are established even when they lead to rehabilitation of many people.
Such projects may put few people at risk but are beneficial in the development of nation at large.
USA for example after 9/11 2001 has increased the security level on airports. Such level of security may harm
few people or it may be unfair to a particular religious group, yet it is justified as the system has avoided any
such attack after the tragedy of 9/11.
Most of the laws in IPC and CrPC in India are based on this approach. Capital punishment for example may
be harmful to the culprit and people who depend upon the criminal but it will be beneficial for the society.
Section 144 of CrPC calls for curfew; Driving rules and regulations are there.
Criticism
However, some criticism and loopholes are also there in this approach. It is often difficult, if not impossible, to
measure and compare the values of certain benefits and costs. How do we go about assigning a value to life or
to art? And how do we go about comparing the value of money with, for example, the value of life, the value
226
of time, or the value of human dignity? Moreover, can we ever be really certain about all of the consequences
of our actions? How can you value dignity and respect and compare it with national security. Thus personal
beliefs and bias may creep in while assigning values to different consequences.
Perhaps the greatest difficulty with utilitarianism is that it fails to take into account considerations of justice.
We can imagine instances where a certain course of action would produce great benefits for society, but they
would be clearly unjust. For example, British rule in India was supported by many as they claimed that it is
beneficial for the development of India. Many predicted that India will not survive one year if it is allowed to
govern itself. Diversity of views and culture will lead to disintegration.
During the apartheid regime in South Africa in the last century, South African whites claimed that all South
Africans—including blacks—were better off under white rule. These claims were based on utilitarian approach
only. These whites claimed that in those African nations that have traded a whites-only government for a
black or mixed one, social conditions have rapidly deteriorated. Civil wars, economic decline, famine, and
unrest, they predicted, will be the result of allowing the black majority of South Africa to run the government.
If such predictions were true—and the end of apartheid has shown that the prediction was false—then the
white government of South Africa would have been morally justified by utilitarianism, in spite of its injustice.
As we discussed in the third unit, Means are intrinsically linked to the goodness of ends. This approach
neglects the means value. This approach only looks towards the end result. For example, construction of a
dam even if it leads to forceful rehabilitation of people.
2. Rights approach
Many controversies today are couched in the language of rights. Indeed, we seem to have witnessed an
explosion of appeals to rights—gay rights, prisoners’ rights, animal rights, smokers’ rights, fetal rights, and
employee rights, right to education, health, food. The appeal to rights has a long tradition.
What is a right?
A right is a justified claim on others. If ‘A’ has a right to freedom, then ‘A’ has a justified claim to be left alone
by others. Turned around, ‘A’ can say that others have a duty or responsibility to leave him alone. If someone
has a right to education, then he has a justified claim to be provided with an education by society.
This approach starts from the belief that humans have a dignity based on their ability to choose freely what
they do with their lives. In order to resolve a dilemma by using this approach, one has to consider whether
the action would respect the basic rights of the individuals involved. How would the action affect the basic
well-being of those individuals?
The “justification” of a claim is dependent on some standard acknowledged and accepted not just by the
claimant, but also by society in general. The standard can be as concrete as the Constitution, which guarantees
the right of free speech and assures that every Indian accused of a crime “shall enjoy the right to a speedy trial
by an impartial jury,” or a local law that spells out the legal rights of landlords and tenants.
Criticism
But rights should not be the sole consideration in ethical decision-making. In some instances, the social costs
or the injustice that would result from respecting a right are too great, and accordingly, that right may need to
be limited. Relying exclusively on a rights approach to ethics tends to emphasize the individual at the expense
of the community.
For example, Indian constitution has provided for fundamental rights in ‘Part III’. However, all these rights are
not absolute in nature and certain reasonable restrictions are provided for “the interest of public order”. Like
section 144 of CrPC is against the right to association. Certain exceptions are also given in the constitution.
Like state can provide for special status to socially and educationally backward sections of society. Most of
the rights can be suspended during the time of emergency.
Conflict between rights: Sometimes the rights of individuals will come into conflict and one has to decide
which right has priority. The right to property was taken away from the list of fundamental rights because it
was going against the right to equality. Land reforms in India were initiated after this only.
227
In Indian constitution only, right to equality is given but as the same time under article 30 all minorities based
on religion and language are given the right to establish and administer educational institutions. They can
regulate the admission process and students from minorities can be given special status and reservation.
In cases such as this, we need to examine the freedoms or interests at stake and decide which of the two is
the more crucial for securing human dignity. For example, is free association or equality more essential to
maintaining our dignity as persons?
3. Justice Approach
It is the idea of justice which has been consistently linked to ethics and morality. In fact, no idea has been
more consistently linked to ethics and morality than the idea of justice. From the Republic, written by the
ancient Greek philosopher Plato, to A Theory of Justice, written by the late Harvard philosopher John Rawls,
every major work on ethics has held that justice is part of the central core of morality.
Justice means giving each person what he or she deserves or giving each person his or her due. But saying
that justice is giving each person what he or she deserves does not take us very far. How do we determine
what people deserve? What criteria and what principles should we use to determine what is due to this or that
person?
The most fundamental principle of justice—one that has been widely accepted since it was first defined by
Aristotle more than two thousand years ago—is the principle that “equals should be treated equally and
unequals unequally.” In its contemporary form, this principle is sometimes expressed as follows: “Individuals
should be treated the same, unless they differ in ways that are relevant to the situation in which they are
involved.” This principle implies that there should be fair distribution of benefits and burdens. If everyone
has equal value as a person, then everyone has an equal claim to a share. If there is a reason they are unequal,
then they should get an unequal share.
For example, if Banti and Babli both do the same work, and there are no relevant differences between
them or the work they are doing, then in justice they should be paid the same wages. And if Banti is paid
more than Babli simply because he is a man, or because he is white, then we have an injustice—a form of
discrimination—because race and sex are not relevant to normal work situations.
There are many differences that are regarded as justifiable criteria for treating people differently.
●● For example, we think it is fair and just when a parent gives his own children more attention and care in
his private affairs than he gives the children of others; (equality with context).
●● We think it is fair when the person who is first in a line at a theatre is given first choice of theatre tickets;
(privilege with context)
●● We think it is just when the government gives benefits to the needy that it does not provide to more affluent
citizens;
●● We think it is just when some who have done wrong are given punishments that are not meted out to others
who have done nothing wrong; and
●● We think it is fair when those who exert more efforts or who make a greater contribution to a project
receive more benefits from the project than others.
These criteria—need, desert, contribution, and effort—we acknowledge as justifying differential treatment,
then, are numerous. On the other hand, there are also criteria that we believe are not justifiable grounds for
giving people different treatment. In the world of work, for example,
●● We generally hold that it is unjust to give individuals special treatment on the basis of age, sex, race, or
their religious preferences. If the judge’s nephew receives a suspended sentence for armed robbery when
another offender unrelated to the judge goes to jail for the same crime,
●● Or the brother of the Director of Public Works gets the million dollar contract to install sprinklers on the
municipal golf course despite lower bids from other contractors; we say that it’s unfair.
●● We also believe it isn’t fair when a person is punished for something over which he or she had no control,
or isn’t compensated for a harm he or she suffered.
228
The foundations of justice can be traced to the notions of social stability, interdependence, and equal dignity.
As John Rawls has pointed out, the stability of a society—or any group, for that matter—depends upon the
extent to which the members of that society feel that they are being treated justly. When some of society’s
members come to feel that they are subject to unequal treatment, the foundations have been laid for social
unrest, disturbances, and strife. The members of a community, Rawls holds, depend on each other, and they
will retain their social unity only to the extent that their institutions are just. Moreover, as the philosopher
Immanuel Kant and others have pointed out, human beings are all equal in this respect: they all have the same
dignity, and in virtue of this dignity they deserve to be treated as equals. Whenever individuals are treated
unequally on the basis of characteristics that are arbitrary and irrelevant, their fundamental human dignity is
violated.
Justice, then, is a central part of ethics and should be given due consideration in our moral lives. In evaluating
any moral decision, we must ask whether our actions treat all persons equally. If not, we must determine
whether the difference in treatment is justified: are the criteria we are using relevant to the situation at hand?
Criticism
But justice is not the only principle to consider in making ethical decisions. Sometimes principles of justice
may need to be overridden in favour of other kinds of moral claims such as rights or society’s welfare. Like
government has taken the land of farmers for making road. Price paid was below market price. Injustice was
there. Yet it was justified in the name of social welfare.
The criterion for making a just decision can be different for different people. In order to understand the
complexity, let us take an example from ‘Idea of Justice’ a book written by Amartaya Sen in 2009.
Suppose there is a flute and three children are claiming it.
Child 1: I have worked hard to make this flute, so I should get it (Value of hard work, labour is involved).
Child 2: says, I can play flute very well so I should get it. Only I can make a complete use of it (Liberal
competition claim; values of ability and competition).
Child 3: says other 2 children are rich and I am poor, so I should get the flute. Other two have other means
of enjoying life.
Now the question is who should get the flute. It will be unethical for others to give flute to anyone. All are
ethically correct. This example shows that justice can be different for different people.
There can be no solution to such problem. Under such scenario, government will try to make a balancing act
but not all will be satisfied. The solution is as elusive as the dream of completely just society.
Nevertheless, justice is an expression of our mutual recognition of each other’s basic dignity, and an
acknowledgement that if we are to live together in an interdependent community we must treat each other as
equals.
4. The Common Good approach

In order to understand this approach, we must understand first what common goods are. The word good
in common good connotes two things. First is some positive entity, something which brings goodness or
wellbeing. Second is the economic meaning of good. Good is a material that satisfies human wants and
provides utility.
The common good is a notion that originated over two thousand years ago in the writings of Plato, Aristotle,
and Cicero. More recently, the contemporary ethicist, John Rawls, defined the common good as “certain
general conditions that are...equally to everyone’s advantage”.
The common good describes a specific “good” that is shared and beneficial for all (or most) members of a
given community. The question which should be asked while following this approach is: “Are we doing our
part to look out for the common good in this situation?”
Examples of particular common goods or parts of the common good include:
229
●● an accessible and affordable public health care system, and effective system of public safety and security,
●● peace among the nations of the world,
●● a just legal and political system,
●● unpolluted natural environment, and
●● A flourishing economic system.
Because such systems, institutions, and environments have such a powerful impact on the well-being of
members of a society, it is no surprise that virtually every social problem in one way or another is linked to
how well these systems and institutions are functioning. As these examples suggest, the common good does
not just happen. Establishing and maintaining the common good require the cooperative efforts of some, often
of many, people.
Just as keeping a park free of litter depends on each user picking up after himself, so also maintaining the
social conditions from which we all benefit requires the cooperative efforts of citizens. But these efforts pay
off, for the common good is a good to which all members of society have access, and from whose enjoyment
no one can be easily excluded.
All persons, for example, enjoy the benefits of clean air or an unpolluted environment, or any of our society’s
other common goods. In fact, something counts as a common good only to the extent that it is a good to which
all have access.
The common good approach calls for those decisions which lead to establishment and maintenance of
common good. A society where people accept modest sacrifices for a common good is always more desirable
than a contentious society where group selfishly protect their own benefits.
Criticism
Now from the discussion, it might seem that since all citizens benefit from the common good, we would all
willingly respond to urgings that we each cooperate to establish and maintain the common good. However,
there are certain problems in it.
First, according to some philosophers, the very idea of a common good is inconsistent with a pluralistic
society like ours. Different people have different ideas about what is worthwhile or what constitutes “the good
life for human beings”. Differences have increased during the last few decades as the voices of more and more
previously silenced groups, such as women and minorities, have been heard. Given these differences, some
people urge, it will be impossible for us to agree on what particular kind of social systems, institutions, and
environments we will all pitch in to support. Even in a very small group like gram Sabha in a village, there
are conflicts and diverse view regarding what is good for all.
And even if we agreed upon what we all valued, we would certainly disagree about the relative values things
have for us. While all may agree, for example, that an affordable health system, a healthy educational system,
and a clean environment are all parts of the common good, some will say that more should be invested in
health than in education, while others will favour directing resources to the environment over both health
and education. Such disagreements are bound to undercut our ability to evoke a sustained and widespread
commitment to the common good. In the face of such pluralism, efforts to bring about the common good
can only lead to adopting or promoting the views of some, while excluding others, violating the principle
of treating people equally. Moreover, such efforts would force everyone to support some specific notion of
the common good, violating the freedom of those who do not share in that goal, and inevitably leading to
paternalism (imposing one group’s preference on others), tyranny, and oppression.
A second problem encountered by proponents of the common good is what is sometimes called the “free-rider
problem”. The benefits that a common good provides are, as we noted, available to everyone, including those
who choose not to do their part to maintain the common good. Individuals can become “free riders” by taking
the benefits the common good provides while refusing to do their part to support the common good.
An adequate water supply, for example, is a common good from which all people benefit. But to maintain
an adequate supply of water during a drought, people must conserve water, which entails sacrifices. Some
individuals may be reluctant to do their share, however, since they know that so long as enough other people
230
conserve, they can enjoy the benefits without reducing their own consumption. If enough people become
free riders in this way, the common good which depends on their support will be destroyed. Many observers
believe that this is exactly what has happened to many of our common goods, such as the environment or
education, where the reluctance of all people to support efforts to maintain the health of these systems has led
to their virtual collapse.
The third problem encountered by attempts to promote the common good is that of individualism. Our
historical traditions place a high value on individual freedom, on personal rights, and on allowing each person
to “do her own thing”. Our culture views society as comprised of separate independent individuals who are
free to pursue their own individual goals and interests without interference from others. In this individualistic
culture it is difficult, perhaps impossible, to convince people that they should sacrifice some of their freedom,
some of their personal goals, and some of their self-interest, for the sake of the “common good”. Our cultural
traditions, in fact, reinforce the individual who thinks that she should not have to contribute to the community’s
common good, but should be left free to pursue her own personal ends.
Finally, appeals to the common good are confronted by the problem of an unequal sharing of burdens.
Maintaining a common good often requires that particular individuals or particular groups bear costs that
are much greater than those borne by others. Maintaining an unpolluted environment, for example, may
require that particular firms that pollute install costly pollution control devices, undercutting profits. Making
employment opportunities more equal may require that some groups, such as white males, sacrifice their own
employment chances. Making the health system affordable and accessible to all may require that insurers
accept lower premiums, that physicians accept lower salaries, or that those with particularly costly diseases or
conditions forego the medical treatment on which their live depend. Forcing particular groups or individuals
to carry such unequal burdens “for the sake of the common good”, is, at least arguably, unjust. Moreover, the
prospect of having to carry such heavy and unequal burdens leads such groups and individuals to resist any
attempts to secure common goods.
All of these problems pose considerable obstacles to those who call for an ethic of the common good.
Still, appeals to the common good ought not to be dismissed. For they urge us to reflect on broad questions
concerning the kind of society we want to become and how we are to achieve that society. They also challenge
us to view ourselves as members of the same community and, while respecting and valuing the freedom of
individuals to pursue their own goals, to recognize and further those goals we share in common.
5. Virtue approach
For many, the fundamental question of ethics is, “What should I do?” or “How should I act?” Ethics is
supposed to provide people certain principles or rules that tell us what to do. Rules that tell us what is right
and what is wrong.
Many people, for example, are passionate adherents of the moral principle of utilitarianism: “Everyone is
obligated to do whatever will achieve the greatest good for the greatest number.” Others are just as devoted
to the basic principle of Immanuel Kant: “Everyone is obligated to act only in ways that respect the human
dignity and moral rights of all persons.”
Moral principles like these focus primarily on people’s actions and doings. We “apply” them by asking what
these principles require of us in particular circumstances. The source of ethics can be anything like your
profession, legal ethics, organisational ethics etc.
But are moral principles all that ethics consists of? Critics have rightly claimed that this emphasis on moral
principles smacks of a thoughtless and slavish worship of rules, as if the moral life was a matter of scrupulously
checking our every action against a table of do’s and don’ts. Fortunately, this obsession with principles and
rules has been recently challenged by several ethicists who argue that the emphasis on principles ignores a
fundamental component of ethics--virtue. These ethicists point out that by focusing on what people should do
or how people should act, the “moral principles approach” neglects the more important issue--what people
should be. In other words, the fundamental question of ethics is not “What should I do?” but “What kind of
person should I be?”
231
Thus, virtues approach maintains that the fundamental question of ethics is not “What should I do?” but
“What kind of person should I be?” that is what kind of person I am and will become if I take a particular
decision.
It is a self-based approach in which the person acts according to his virtues to reach the ideals which have
been set by him. There are certain ideals, such as excellence or dedication to the common good, toward which
a person should strive and which allow the full development of humanity. For a civil servant, secularism,
democracy, equality are all ideals. Ideal are the values that one actively pursues as goals.
“Virtues” are attitudes, dispositions, or character traits that enable us to pursue the ideals we have adopted.
Honesty, courage, compassion, generosity, fidelity, integrity, fairness, self-control, and prudence are all
examples of virtues.
For example, one may often see People saying that Gandhi ji is their ideal. What they want to say that they
want to be like Gandhi ji by following the path of truth and non-violence. Here truth and non-violence are
two virtues.
Virtues are habits. That is, once they are acquired, they become characteristic of a person. For example, a
person who has developed the virtue of generosity is often referred to as a generous person because he or she
tends to be generous in all circumstances.
Virtue approach is a system used for making moral decisions that is based on goals and character, rather than
rules and consequences. While taking a decision using virtue approach, one should ask himself: ‘Does this
action represent the kind of person I am or want to be?’ this will help the person to follow his virtues.
Virtues are morally uplifting in nature. They give us a sense of goodness, a sense of inspiration is there when
we work according to our virtues. For example diplomacy; Diplomacy is a quality rather than a virtue. If an
officer is diplomatic, he can manipulate things for solving his purpose. But nothing inspirational is there. But
then there are things like honesty. You work with honesty than you feel good and inspiring even when your
honesty has cost you something. Gandhi ji used to get strength and motivation from his virtues of truth and
non-violence only in order to achieve god or truth or to achieve integration with god.
Criticism
Sometimes your virtues are defined by others. A person should guard that other persons should not define what
is virtuous for you. For example, obedience is a virtue. A child is there who has been taught by his parents that
he should obey them. One day he gets a call from his friend that he needs you as he has an accident. It 11 in
the night and your parents have told you not to go out after 10. Then what will you do. You will feel good by
helping your friend also. Thus a conflict is there.
Sometimes your virtues are decided by the state. Like before independence, British government maintained
that following laws and regulations is virtues but Gandhi ji maintained that breaking the salt law was virtues.
Like a dam has been constructed. Government is showing that dam making is virtues but local people believe
that something wrong is there and protesting through peaceful and democratic means is virtues for them.
Democratic citizenship means citizen should not only follow the government but also awareness should be
shown through peaceful methods if something wrong is happening.
To conclude, one can say that multiple approaches have been there to resolve ethical dilemmas in different
scenarios. It is always better to analyses a case using maximum perspectives as it leads to more clarity and
insight. How these approaches can be applied in cases is explained in Section B.
nn
232
Chapter - 5
Laws, Rules and Regulations as
Sources of Ethical Guidance
Law, Rules and Regulations
Law is a system of rules that are enforced through legal authority to govern behaviour. Laws can be made
by legislator, resulting in statutes, by the executive through decrees and regulations, or by judges through
binding precedent, normally in common law jurisdictions. Private individuals can create legally binding
contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court
process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, and the rights
encoded therein. The law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a
mediator of relations between people.
Laws are generally divided into two types, Criminal and Civil. Criminal lawsare designed to protect society
as a whole from wrongful actions and police and administration is authorized to take action on behalf of the
citizens. Some examples can be:
●● Traffic/road laws: drink driving, speeding,
driving in an unregistered vehicle, willful
damage of vehicles, not wearing a helmet,
stopping for pedestrians, correct indicating
●● Public order (peaceful and safe community):
drug use, public decency, carrying of weapons
in public, rioting, protest marches, assault,
defamation
●● Property: arson, trespass, theft, littering,
vandalism, intentional damage
●● People: passive smoking, rape, murder,
harassment, suicide, sexual abuse.
Civil laws help to solve problems which occur
between individuals or groups. It is the victim who
approaches the court of law with help of trained
legal personnel and police act on the directions of
court. Examples can be:
●● Contract law (agreements, responsibilities):
not allowed to break a contract, marriage,
misleading advertisements
●● Employment law: fair duties as an employer,
equal opportunities, wrongful dismissal, age
discrimination
●● Family law: abuse of children, domestic violence, custody of children, maintenance issues
●● Law of Torts: compensation, others injuring themselves on your property
Essential characteristics of law
1. Consistent – it will be somewhat difficult for people to adhere to requirements that are contradictory. A
requirement is no law when it not consistent
2. Universal – The requirements must be applicable to everyone with similar characteristics facing the same
set of circumstances.
233
3. Published – for a requirement to be accessible to people, it must be published in writing in the form that
everyone can have access to it.
4. Accepted – laws have to be generally and utterly obeyed.
5. Enforced – Members of society must be compelled to obey the law in the case they refuse l to choose
to do so voluntarily. Traffic law is an example of what an operational law is in our society today and it
encapsulates the five characteristics aforementioned.
Difference between Laws, Rules and Regulations

To many people, laws and rules are the same and can be used simultaneously. But technically, these are
different words and are used in different contexts. Laws are actually the principles and regulations established
in a community by some authority and applicable to its people, whether in the form of legislation or of custom
and policies recognized and enforced by judicial decision. Breaking a law is a punishable crime and has
drastic consequences such as hefty fines or jail time.
Rules are guidelines that are provided to maintain smooth functioning of an organization and to maintain
peace and harmony among its people. In terms of definition, rules are quite similar to laws. However, they
differ from laws because they are not as rigid as a law. Once a law is enacted it must be followed by all citizens
but rules are often changed and altered depending on the place, organization and people. Company law for
example is enacted by the parliament but within this law, provisions are there in which bureaucracy has been
authorized to make rules under the broad guidelines set by the law. These rules provide flexibility and can be
changed as per the situation. Even a law can be changed but only when there is change in policy or ideology.
One more difference between rules and laws is the consequences associated with breaking them. While each
is developed to invoke a sense of order, fair play, and safety, the weight of a law is much heavier than the
weight of a rule.
Rules and Regulations: One of the main differences between rules and regulations is that by rules you
restrict and by regulations you control certain procedures. By ‘traffic regulations’ you tend to understand
that the traffic is controlled by certain procedures. By ‘traffic rules’ you tend to understand that you should
follow certain restrictions when it comes to moving in a traffic. A regulation, in legal terms, is more official
than a rule. With a regulation, you can control things by restriction or by rule. In other words, Regulation has
legal force. For example, a regulation issued by a local government or an administrative agency becomes a
legal rule. It becomes a restriction that has legal force.
Ethics, Morality and Law – What’s the difference?

Some people talk about their morality, others talk about a set of ethics and everyone in a society is governed
by the same set of laws. Knowing the difference and relationship between these standards is important
though, because they most of the times overlap with each other and in some cases can also come in
conflict with each other.
●● Law is an enactment made by the state. It is backed by physical coercion. Its breach is punishable by the
courts. It represents the will of the state and realizes its purpose.
●● Laws reflect the political, social and economic relationships in the society. It determines rights and duties
of the citizens towards one another and towards the state.
●● It is through law that the government fulfils its promises to the people. It reflects the sociological need of
society.
●● Law and morality are intimately related to each other. Laws are generally based on the moral principles of
society, but not always. Both regulate the conduct of the individual in society. For example, it is not illegal
to lie to a friend but many people believe it is not ethical. In the same vein, beating the speed limit on the
road is illegal and I am sure, not many people will disagree that it is unethical to over speed. To further
complicate the concept of ethics is to say that what is ethical for a group of people maybe be considered
unethical for another group in the same society (beef eating).
234
●● They influence each other to a great extent. Laws, to be effective, must
represent the moral ideas of the people. But good laws sometimes serve
to rouse the moral conscience of the people and create and maintain such
conditions as may encourage the growth of morality.
●● Laws regarding prohibition and spread of primary education are examples
of this nature. Morality cannot, as a matter of fact, be divorced from
politics. The ultimate end of a state is the promotion of general welfare
and moral perfection of man.
●● It is the duty of the state to formulate such laws that will elevate the
moral standard of the people. The laws of a state thus conform to the
prevailing standard of morality. Earlier writers on Political Science never
made any distinction between law and morality.
●● Plato’s Republic is as good a treatise on politics as on ethics. In ancient India, the term Dharma connoted
both law and morality. Law, it is pointed out, is not merely the command of the sovereign, it represents
the idea of right or wrong based on the prevalent morality of the people.
●● Moreover, obedience to law depends upon the active support of the moral sentiments of the people. Laws
which are not supported by the moral conscience of the people are liable to become dead letters.
●● For example, laws regarding Prohibition in India have not succeeded on account of the fact that full moral
conscience of the people has not been aroused in favor of such laws.
●● As Green put it, “In attempting to enforce an unpopular law, a government may be doing more harm than
good by creating and spreading the habit of disobedience to law. The total cost of such an attempt may
well be greater than the social gain.”
●● Although law and morality arc interdependent yet they differ from each other in their content, definiteness
and sanction.
Some points of distinction between law and morality may be brought out as follows:
Law:
1. Law regulates and controls the external human conduct. It is not concerned with inner motives. A person
may be having an evil intention in his or her mind but law does not care for it.
2. Law will move into action only when this evil intention is translated into action and some harm is actually
done to another person.
3. Law is universal in a particular society. All the individuals are equally subjected to it. It does not change
from man to man.
4. Political laws are precise and definite as there is a regular organ in every state for the formulation of laws.
5. Law is framed and enforced by a determinate political authority. It enjoys the sanction of the state.
Disobedience of law is generally followed by physical punishment.
6. The fear of punishment acts as a deterrent to the breach of political law.
7. Law falls within the purview of a subject known as Jurisprudence.
Morality:
1. Morality regulates and controls both the inner motives and the external actions. It is concerned with the
whole life of man. The province of law is thus limited as compared with that of morality because law is
simply concerned with external actions and does not take into its fold the inner motives.
2. Morality condemns a person if he or she has some evil intentions but laws are not applicable unless these
intentions are manifested externally.
3. Morality is variable. It changes from man to man and from age to age. Every man has his own moral
principles.
4. Moral laws lack precision and definiteness as there is no authority to make and enforce them.
5. Morality is neither framed nor enforced by any political authority. It does not enjoy the support of the
state. Breach of moral principles is not accompanied by any physical punishment.
235
6. The only check against the breach of morality is social condemnation or individual conscience. ‘Moral
actions are a matter of choice of inner conscience of the individual; laws are a matter of compulsion’.
Quotes on Laws, Rules and Regulations

1. The law is the public conscience. — Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan
2. Without law men are beasts. - Maxwell Anderson
3. The precepts of the law may be comprehended under these three points: to live honestly, to hurt no man
willfully, and to render every man his due carefully. — Aristotle
4. Even when laws have been written down, they ought not always to remain unaltered. — Aristotle
5. Law without justice is a wound without a cure. — William Scott Downey
6. An unjust law is itself a species of violence. — Mahatma Gandhi
7. Bad laws are the worst sort of tyranny. — Edmund Burke
8. Laws are not masters but servants, and he rules them who obeys them. — Henry Ward Beecher
9. The final test of civilization of a people is the respect they have for law. — Lewis F. Korns
10. At his best, man is the noblest of all animals; separated from law and justice he is the worst. —
Aristotle
11. In law a man is guilty when he violates the rights of others. In ethics he is guilty if he only thinks of
doing so. — Immanuel Kant
12. If we destroy human rights and rule of law in the response to terrorism, they have won. — Joichi Ito
13. Live your life as though your every act were to become a universal law. — Immanuel Kant
14. Law is nothing other than a certain ordinance of reason for the common good, promulgated by the person
who has the care of the community. — Thomas Aquinas
15. In matters of conscience, the law of the majority has no place. — Mahatma Gandhi
16. The clearest way to show what the rule of law means to us in everyday life is to recall what has happened
when there is no rule of law. — Dwight D. Eisenhower
17. The Nazi period could have happened only in Germany because the German education of obedience to
any law and order was the main problem. — Heinrich Boll
18. Mob law is the most forcible expression of an abnormal public opinion; it shows that society is rotten to
the core. — Timothy Thomas Fortune
19. It may be true that the law cannot make a man love me, but it can keep him from lynching me, and I think
that’s pretty important. — Martin Luther King, Jr.
20. No written law has ever been more binding than unwritten custom supported by popular opinion.
— Carrie Chapman Catt
21. It is the spirit and not the form of law that keeps justice alive. — Earl Warren
nn
236
Chapter - 6
Conscience as Source of Ethical Guidance

Let’s say that you have an ethical question, a situation in which you really have no idea what the right thing
to do is. Where do you turn? To your conscience? Religion? Socrates? In most cases and for most people, the
answer to this question is conscience as it is conscience that always remains with you.
Different perspectives of conscience

Conscience is a capacity, intuition or decision that helps to distinguish right from wrong. Different people
have tried to define conscience in different ways from different contexts:
1. The word “conscience” derives etymologically from the Latin conscientia, meaning “privity of knowledge”
or “with-knowledge”. The English word implies internal awareness of a moral standard in the mind
concerning the quality of one’s motives, as well as a consciousness of our own actions.
2. In psychological terms, conscience is defined as something which leads to feelings of remorse when a
human commits actions that go against his moral values and feelings of pleasure and well-being when our
actions, thoughts and words are in conformity to our value system as well as value systems of people.
3. Lawrence Kohlberg considered critical conscience to be an important psychological stage in the proper
moral development of humans.
4. Michel Glautier argues that conscience is one of the instincts and drives which enable people to form
societies. He says: - “groups of humans without these drives or in whom they are insufficient cannot form
societies and do not reproduce their kind as successfully as those that do.”
5. Charles Darwin considered that conscience evolved in humans to resolve conflicts between competing
natural impulses-some about self-preservation but others about safety of a family or community; the claim
of conscience to moral authority emerged from the “greater duration of impression of social instincts” in
the struggle for survival. In such a view, behavior destructive to a person’s society (either to its structures
or to the persons it comprises) is bad or “evil”.
6. The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius believed that conscience was the human capacity to live by rational
principles that were congruent with the true, tranquil and harmonious nature of our mind and thereby that
of the Universe: “To move from one unselfish action to another with God in mind. Only there, delight and
stillness ... the only rewards of our existence here are an unstained character and unselfish acts.”
7. Conscience also features prominently in Buddhism. In the Pali scriptures, for example, Buddha links the
positive aspect of conscience to a pure heart and a calm, well-directed mind. It is regarded as a spiritual
power, and one of the “Guardians of the World”. The Buddha also associated conscience with compassion
for those who must endure cravings and suffering in the world until right conduct culminates in right
mindfulness and right contemplation.
8. Albert Einstein, as a self-professed adherent of humanism and
rationalism, viewed an enlightened religious person as one whose
conscience reflects that he “has, to the best of his ability, liberated
himself from the fetters of his selfish desires and is preoccupied with
thoughts, feelings and aspirations to which he clings because of their
super-personal value.” Einstein often referred to the “inner voice” as a
source of both moral and physical knowledge
9. According to Fromm, conscience is ‘a reaction of ourselves to
ourselves; the voice of our true selves’ that guides us to achieve our
full potential’.
237
10. Sigmund Freud supposed that conscience was attained through experience and that it was the part of the
human mind that seeks to make sense of disorder and to deal with the internal conflicts caused by guilt.
He believed that the conscience was influenced by both early and later life principles.
11. Immanuel Kant expressed the idea of the critical conscience which was rather like a court of law in our
minds where the prosecutors or conscience excuse or accuse thoughts and actions. He also claimed that
although moral people feel contentment within the soul after following the instruction of one’s conscience,
they should not do good deeds for the sake of experiencing this inner peace, rather they should do it as
part of their duty. Rousseau expressed an analogous opinion that conscience somehow connected man to
a greater metaphysical unity.
12. Psychological studies have revealed that a conscience aims to make moral decisions in ‘overwhelming
forces of inescapable situations’ despite the risk of adverse consequences. If conscience goes, then
everything collapses, conscience is central to our identity and it is as component in the moral decisions
making process, however, failure to acknowledge and accept that conscientious judgments can be seriously
mistaken on account of their relativistic nature, may only promote situations where one`s conscience
is manipulated by others to provide unwarranted justifications for non-virtuous and self-centered acts.
Without adequate constraint of external, altruistic, normative justification, conscience may be considered
morally blind and dangerous both to the individual concerned and humanity as a whole.
Theories of Conscience
Philosophical theories of conscience may be categorized by bringing them under three headings:
1. Moral knowledge theories: People speak of their conscience “telling them to do such-and-such.” Such
talk might imply that conscience is a source of moral knowledge about what to do. Moral knowledge
theories of conscience try to explain how conscience affords us such knowledge. Some religious theories
of conscience, for instance, interpret the voice of conscience as the voice of God within us.
2. Motivation theories: People also speak of their conscience urging them to do the right thing, or bothering
them if they have done (or are thinking of doing) the wrong thing. There are also “prickings” and
“proddings” of conscience. This suggests that conscience motivates us to do the right thing and to avoid
the wrong thing. Motivation theories attempt to account for this.
3. Reflection theories: Conscience seems also to involve a certain way of thinking reflectively about what
to do – a way that gives first priority to moral considerations. A reflection theory of conscience is one that
gives prominence to this aspect of conscience and tries to account for the kind of reflection it involves.
Because moral epistemology, the psychology of moral motivation and the nature of moral reasoning are all
fundamental topics in moral philosophy, these theories of conscience get at some of its central concerns. These
three kinds of theory are not mutually exclusive or contradictory to each other. Infact they are complementary
and supplementary to each other and can be taken together to describe conscience in a comprehensive way.
Conscience and Law

English humanist lawyers in the 16th and 17th centuries interpreted conscience as a collection of universal
principles given to man by god at creation to be applied by reason; this gradually reforming the medieval
Roman law-based system with forms of action, written pleadings, use of juries and patterns of litigation that
displayed an increased concern for elements of right and wrong on the actual facts.
A conscience vote in a parliament allows legislators to vote without restrictions from any political party to
which they may belong. In his trial in Jerusalem, Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann claimed he was simply
following legal orders under paragraph 48 of the German Military Code which provided: “punishability of
an action or omission is not excused on the ground that the person considered his behaviour required by his
conscience or the prescripts of his religion”.
The United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) which is part of international customary
law specifically refers to conscience in Articles 1 and 18. Likewise, the United Nations International Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) mentions conscience in Article 18.1.
238
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience
and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood
— United Nations, Universal Declaration on Human Rights Article 1
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change
his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to
manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance
— United Nations, Universal Declaration on Human Rights Article 18
Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right shall include freedom
to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice, and freedom, either individually or in community with
others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in worship, observance, practice and teaching
— United Nations, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Article 18.1
Conscience as a Guide to Ethical Decision Making

It is arguable topic whether or not the conscience is the most reliable form of decision making or not. However,
there are many different opinions on conscience when it comes to decision making. The idea of the conscience
has developed from early Christian views; however it has now developed through the psychological views of
it being linked or part of the mind.
Secular perspectives of the conscience advocate the statement that the conscience is not a reliable guide
to ethical decision making as it determines that there is subjectivity within moral values due to individual
experiences and nurture. Ethical decision-making helps people to make the correct decisions when it comes
to moral judgment. However, the secular approaches do not provide a precise method of understanding what
the right path is.
St Paul thought the conscience was a moral guide, which is within and does not need any rules or theories to
be followed. St Paul’s idea of the conscience is widespread to everyone. Butler believed that the conscience
was a God given ability to reason. Butler thought that the conscience should be understood as a judge within
everybody, a judge that makes moral decisions for people. He recommended that as it is within people and
appears to have a higher authority we therefore must listen to it, and take on board the decision in which
our conscience makes. One of the main weaknesses is the idea that not everyone can have the same type of
conscience as young children and people with mental illnesses will not have the same.
Saint Augustine visualized the conscience as the voice of God speaking to people from within. It is the law of
God in the hearts of people that they use to understand right and wrong actions. For him, the conscience must
always be in every circumstance turned towards the good and away from all that is evil.
Thus, from religious perspective, the conscience is a reliable guide to ethical decision-making as it relies on
our innate ability to determine what is good and bad. But the same is not true from secular perspective.
Thus, one can conclude that for most people, most of the time, ethical intuitions are reliable. But we can’t put
blind faith in them, because this would be to endorse the times when they fail. There are people who do things
that we would consider obviously evil. Such people may have had their ethical intuitions thrown off balance
by a traumatic event, an abusive childhood, or a chemical imbalance in their brain. But whatever the source
is we need to be on guard against becoming such a person, and thus can’t justifiably lean on our conscience
unless we have verified in some other way that it is always correct.
Importance of Conscience for Bureaucrats, Politicians and Citizens

“Inner Voice” is important especially in democracy as it has various participants such as citizens, NGOs,
corporate to be administered by the politicians who are elected by them only. But at individual level, every
person has conscience which assists them to take important decision. Thus it can act as strong tool to evade
away the individual self-centered thinking.
1. Political Level: Conscience can help to lesson corruption, nepotism and profit seeking behaviour. Thus
provoke them to act in benevolence of society at large and uphold the constitution principles. At each and
239
every decision they should keep in mind that they were elected to serve the citizens and not to serve their
own needs and greed.
2. Bureaucratic Level: The crisis of conscience is important whether to just mere follow the orders from
superior’s v/s to follow the right path of judgment. The intrinsic voice of serving the nation maintaining
highest standards of honesty and probity is important as they are link between citizens and political
figures.
3. Citizen Level: Collective and individual conscience of inhabitants is very important because it describes
the existing society conditions such as keeping surrounding clean, actively contributing in elections,
dissent to undemocratic principles. Therefore adhering to it will also control mass prejudice such as riots
and lynching of offenders.
Furthermore, it is important to dynamically excel and improve at individual and institution level. Thus if
everyone acts and adhere to their principles values, the moral degradation can be controlled and faith in
governing institutions can be reinstituted.
Quotes on conscience
1. There is a higher court than courts of justice and that is the court of conscience. It supersedes all other
courts. — Mahatma Gandhi
2. Our greatest happiness does not depend on the condition of life in which chance has placed us, but is
always the result of a good conscience, good health, occupation, and freedom in all just pursuits.
— Thomas Jefferson
3. Immanuel Kant was so impressed by our instinctive moral conscience that he had the following words
inscribed on his tomb: ‘there are two things which fill me with awe: the starry heavens above us, and the
moral law within us’.
4. Charles Darwin was awed by the existence of our conscience, writing that ‘the moral sense affords the
best and highest distinction between man and the lower animals’
5. I love the man that can smile in trouble, that can gather strength from distress, and grow brave by reflection.
It’s the business of little minds to shrink, but he whose heart is firm, and whose conscience approves his
conduct, will pursue his principles unto death. — Thomas Paine
6. Conscience is the perfect interpreter of life. — Karl Barth
7. Conscience is the inner voice that warns us somebody may be looking. — H.L. Mencken
8. Scourges, racks, and flames, can inflict no pains to be compared with the stings and tortures of a guilty
conscience. — John Thornton
9. A man’s conscience can tell him his situation better than seven watchmen in a lofty tower.
10. Let every man be free to act from his own conscience; but let him remember that other people have
consciences too; and let not his liberty be so expansive that in its indulgence it jars and crashes against the
liberty of others. — E. H. Chapin
11. Conscience is an exact recorder, that writes every man’s history; an inward witness, that will sooner or
later speak the whole truth; an impartial judge, whose sentence will acquit or condemn.
12. If we neglect conscience, most evils are possible. — Edward Counsel
13. We never do anything so secretly, but that it is in the presence of two witnesses: God, and our own
conscience. — Benjamin Whichcote
14. Consciences keep silence more often than they should, that’s why laws were created. — José Saramago
nn
240
Chapter - 7
Accountability and Ethical Governance
I n order to comprehend the related concepts, first we must understand the basic meaning of both these terms
and then how they are related with each other.
Ethical governance
Governance is defined as a manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country’s economic,
human and social resources for maintenance and developmental functions. When good is added as a prefix to
governance, a value dimension is added, which includes both means and ends oriented values in context of
democracy, profession, citizens, ethics and morality.
Good governance is inherently ethical in nature. Thus, ethical governance denotes administrative measures,
procedures and policies that fulfil criteria required for the ethically good or acceptable handling of public
affairs, such as in public administration, public health care, education, and social security.
In the context of public administration, ethical governance implies a value assessment and is thus value laden.
Thus, the term ‘ethical governance’ should be used for actual systems of governance only when the appraisal
is based on a critical and unbiased evaluation of their goals and means. Such evaluation requires invoking
normative premises (i.e., commands and prohibitions) such as
●● ‘Governance should be equal and impartial’,
●● ‘Civil servants ought to keep their promises and be true to their word’, and
●● ‘Authorities should take good care of public affairs’.
It not only includes the criterion, but also the mechanism through which thus criterion is enforced.
Accountability includes this system only which ensures ethical conduct on part of civil servants.
Thus, ethical governance, as a normative notion, denotes the characteristics or virtues of ethically good civil
servants. At the same time, it denotes the criteria based on which the ethical quality of governance is assessed.
We can also differentiate between the minimalist concept and the maximalist concept of ethical governance.
The minimalist concept involves the minimum requirements for ethically acceptable governance, whereas the
maximalist concept aims at enriching our understanding of what ethically good and high quality governance
involves or could involve.
The minimalist concept of ethical governance states absolute prohibitions that public authorities and civil
servants are forbidden to violate in all circumstances. They include prohibitions of all forms of corruption
(e.g., bribery, graft, and nepotism), extortion and coercion, deception, theft, and discrimination
The maximal concept of ethical governance additionally invokes positive commands, such as ‘Be fair and
impartial’, ‘Safeguard the well-being of citizens’, and ‘Take good care of the administrative tasks entrusted
to you’.
Accountability
After the advent of welfare state, the numbers of government function are increasing in variety and complexity.
With the advance technology and specialization, state has started planned development with direct investment
in the economic activities. Bureaucracy is becoming large with increased responsibility and power. Therefore,
to create a sense of Duty, and to ensure ethics in administration, the concept of administrative accountability
and control come.
Meaning of accountability: accountability is the obligation of the administration to give a satisfactory
account of their performance and the manner in which they have exercised the power conferred on them. The
aim of accountability is to check wrong and arbitrary actions and to increase efficiency and effectiveness.
241
Accountability also means liability or answerability .it is responsibility to some outside or higher level of
authority by a person or group of person in an organization. Accountability is reinforced by punitive action.
Accountability is to take complete responsibility by a person or an organization for what he/she or the
organization did or failed to do (which was their duty) and must be able to give a satisfactory reason for it and
the use of authority entrusted in them to carry out that responsibility.
Civil servants though not directly accountable to the People or their representatives but they are Vigilance
authorities and Ombudsman in all organizations to keep a tab on them and also they are indirectly accountable
for their action/exercise of authority to the people through the political executive (who are answerable to the
Houses of Parliament for their Ministries) and Courts of Law.
If there is no accountability then the civil servants would turn in to despots (unfair/cruel rulers), arbitrary and
corrupt. Power in a democratic society requires control because more power must be complemented with
more accountability and control. However, it is also true that balancing between autonomy and accountability
has always been the greatest dilemmas for popular governments.
Lord Acton said,” power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely “. therefore, to check the absolute
power, some control mechanism is must.
Thus, one can say that accountability and ethics are closely related as effective accountability helps the
achievement of ethical standards in the governance system.
Types of Accountability
Effective administration requires administrators to exercise discretion, and the exercise of discretion
requires accountability. The question then becomes, to whom and for what are public administrators
accountable?Different obligations or means of accountability of public administrators include:
●● Constitutional: a civil servant is obliged to follow the values enshrined under Indian constitution. It is the
supreme law of land and is fundamental in the governance of the country (article 37). Constitution under
article 309 that acts of the appropriate Legislature may regulate the recruitment and conditions of service
of persons appointed to public services and posts in connection with the affairs of the Union or any State.
Art.310 – Doctrine of Pleasure i.e. Every member of Defence/ All India Service/Civil service or person
holding civil post under Union holds such post during pleasure of President. Certain safeguards to Civil
servants have been provided under article 311.
●● Political: The principle of anonymity in civil service flows directly from the doctrine of ministerial
responsibility which is a feature of the parliamentary democracy as prevalent in India. Bureaucrat is
supposed to work behind the curtain and avoid media limelight and public gaze. He’ll not get credit for the
success and he’ll not be blamed for the failure. It’ll be responsibility of the political executive to handle
all the applaud and criticism.
●● Legal: bureaucracy gets its authority and acceptance because of its legal structure.
●● Judicial: The Courts have the authority and right as per the constitution of India to examine the legality
and validity of acts of the permanent executive in order to safeguard the citizen’s rights. An aggrieved
citizen or party on his/her behalf can file a civil or criminal suit in the court if his rights have been
violated or if any particular act of the legislature is ultra vires or unconstitutional that is not in spirit of
the constitution and has a corrupt objective it is struck down and made null and void by the courts of law.
●● National: obligation towards national interest. A civil
●● Democratic: obligation towards democratic values like secularism, tolerance, equality and universal
adult suffrage
●● Professional: they are obliged to follow professionalism and code of conduct
●● Personal (Family and Friends): they have obligation towards their family and other components of their
personal life. Since a civil servant is a public figure, it is important for him to have high moral conduct in
personal relations, so that it can become an example for others.
●● Self or moral: an administrator also has obligation towards himself. Towards his virtues, ideals and
conscience. Moral responsibility comes from the sense of morality and substance of ethics prevailing in
the society.
242
●● Social: he is obliged by the norms and values prevailing in the society provided they are consistent with
constitutional and professional values. He must respect citizens and take into account social conditions
while making decisions.
●● Public Interest/General Welfare: integrity in context of civil services means that an administrator must
always give primacy to public interest over his personal interest.
●● Humanity or the World: a civil servant is also obliged by the general concerns of humanity and
internationalism. Like case of Nigerian citizens in Delhi.
●● Religion or God: every civil servant also has a religion and he’s bound by the code of morality as per the
interpretation of the religion.
Interrelation between Self-accountability and external accountability
Self-accountability and external accountability are interrelated for it is the latter that imposes expectations
on the former. However, there are certain time-tested norms of moral conduct that determine the nature of
self-accountability.
These precepts of moral philosophy may be considered as internal checks. Essentially, however, it is the
synthesis of external as well internal checks that determine the parameters of administrative ethics; the
higher the level of ethics, the lower the need for strong instruments of external accountability and control.
Conversely, lower the level of ethics, higher the need for potent external means for ensuring accountability.
Max Weber had maintained that the outside (extra-agency) checks on public administration were inadequate.
Hence, the value of self-accountability is immense. The desire to be ethical in one’s profession should spring
from within. Seventy years ago, John Gaus in his book, The Frontiers of Public Administration (1936) had
remarked that public employees were expected to exercise an “inner check” rooted in professional standards
of administration and ideals. This type of emphasis needs to be seriously reasserted.
Problems in Civil Services Accountability

A pertinent question which arises many times in government organizations is: “Why is it difficult to guard
the guardians?” There are certain intrinsic features of the administrative system that make it difficult for the
external regulating institutions to control it and also ensure its accountability. A few of these imponderables
are discussed below:
1. Special Expertise: Public administrators are often experts in their specific area of functioning and it is
difficult for any outside agency to surpass them in their areas of specialization.
2. Information secrecy: They generate and control crucial information that may be difficult to be accessed
or even comprehended by law regulators, much less by the common citizens. Although the Right to
Information Act (or similar legislations) is there in most countries, there is cost to be paid for obtaining
information and verifying its authenticity. The administrators do not easily part with such information and
are too keen to let their citadels remain impregnable.
3. Full-Time Status: Most public administrators are full-time, while outsiders cannot devote equal amount
of time in overseeing their activities – legislators, judiciary, Comptroller and Auditor General of India and
even the media have relatively less time to keep a watch over the actions of administrators. They cannot
seek all the crucial information from administrators and even if they get it, they do not have sufficient time
to process and use it effectively.
4. Massive Expansion of Bureaucracy: In a country such as India, the role of public administration has been
increasing incessantly. Its regulatory, developmental, promotional and entrepreneurial responsibilities
have been multiplying and with that also its size. The number of public personnel as well as the agencies
they work for has gone up so much that it is difficult for the political executive or the legislature to
exercise effective control over them. Likewise, in large-sized organizations like Public Works Department,
Income Tax Department, Police Department, etc., it is impossible for higher officials to keep an eye on the
conduct of their subordinates. The geographical distribution of government agencies also makes the span
of control too wide to be handled effectively. Even computerization of all personnel records cannot ensure
surveillance over the conduct of all personnel.
5. Lack of Coordination among agencies: The number and kinds of agencies to ensure probity in public
administration have also been increasing continually. In India, for instance the Central Bureau of
243
Investigation, the Central Vigilance Commission, State Lok Ayuktas, State Vigilance Bodies and Anti-
Corruption Departments are co-existing sans effective coordination among them.
There are lacunae in the working of the vigilance machinery and absence of harmony among the variegated
anti-corruption agencies. For years altogether, the permission to prosecute government officials is not
granted to the Anti-Corruption Departments. The Lok Pal is yet to be appointed at the national level and
there is no agency that is doing the job supposed to be undertaken by him. The judiciary is slow and there
are no fast-track courts for dealing with cases of corruption.
6. Excessive Security: Most countries grant protection to civil servants and refrain from punishing them for
the common lapses in the performance of their duties. Besides, there are no punishments prescribed for
non-performance or for low productivity. Article 311 of the Indian Constitution makes it almost impossible
to remove a civil servant. A sense of over-security pervades the personnel system and the inquiry system
is so dilatory and cumbersome that it is devoid of any threat or fear. Resultantly, a low level of discipline
in most government organizations is witnessed.
7. Misinterpretation of Role and Obligation: Civil servants frequently engage themselves in actions that
are unethical and against public interest. Over time, they get used to defining their role and responsibilities
in a parochial manner that is self-centered, group-centred or organisation-centred and never people-
centred. Since all-important professional groups, including the politicians, also adopt a tunnel vision in
perceiving social reality, there are hardly any countervailing forces for the prevention or correction of
a parochial interpretation of public interest by the administrative personnel. As a result, both ethics and
accountability suffer.
8. Orthodox Loyalty: In India and in most developing countries, public employees are socialized into
developing loyalty towards the organization that they serve and to the superior authority under which they
work. It is customary in the Indian society to show respect to the superior and to refrain from criticism of
one’s boss in a public organization.
Any voice against the superiors is considered as an act of insubordination. In such a cultural climate, even
the honest and conscientious employees do not speak out against unethical practices of their peers and
seniors. And the undue compassion occasionally shown to the subordinates on their errors of omission and
commission also tend to strengthen the sinews of a `soft state’. All this represents a misplaced loyalty and
magnanimity that eats into the vitals of the ethical order in public administrative system. As the Indian
democracy becomes more mature, it is hoped that whistle blowing will be considered a legitimate and
rational activity in the future, and will be protected under the laws and rules.
9. Trivial and the Substantive Ethics: The conduct rules for civil servants emphasize upon meticulously
following the norms of good conduct. Some of these rules have remained unchanged since long and
now appear to be ridiculous. No wonder, these are ignored by all. Likewise, there is a stress that official
property; equipment and stationery should not be used for personal purposes. These relate, inter alia, to
the use of official vehicles and phone. Such rules are `conspicuous, more in their violation than in their
enforcement, and compared to broader issues of ethics and morality, these are at best, examples of trivial
or petty morality. Not that they should be ignored but they must not be permitted to replace the more
crucial ethical concerns of duty, fairness, objectivity and commitment. In matters of administrative ethics,
occasionally we tend to be ‘penny wise and pound foolish’. It means we delve into the trivial rather than
more pertinent and serious issues of ethics. We need to guard against this trend.
10. Employees’ Unions: Another impediment in the way of enforcing discipline and codes of conduct is the
tendency of employees’ unions to resist the managerial action against their members even when they have
blatantly violated ethical norms. Assertive or aggressive unions can throttle any action, even a legitimate
one, against their members. As a result, the supervisory level leadership in public systems gets exasperated
and starts ignoring the unethical actions of their subordinates. In a political system, where employees’
unions are aligned with powerful political parties – whether in power or in opposition – administrative
leadership refrains from taking a tough stand even against the culprit employees for fear of compulsive
back-tracking or humiliation.
Note: solutions to these issues in administrative accountability can be found in next unit, under the topic of
corruption. nn
244
Chapter - 8
Strengthening of Ethical and Moral
Values in Governance
I
n prehistoric time of India, good governance was conceptualized as Ram Rajya. The cardinal aphorism
of be good and do good was applied to all the monarchies, whether personal or professional; and the
governmental system was no exception. Kautilya in his magnum opus (Arthashastra) urged the rulers to
be compassionate to their subjects.
In contemporary India, more and more inhabitants are becoming educated, progressive and aware of their
rights. Therefore, ethics in governance are attracting attention of all the people who talk of good governance.
The general objective of morality is to ensure good governance with prime concern for moral values, practices
and behaviour. These moral values are inculcated in an individual by her parents, teachers, religion, society
and the environment of workplace.
The important duty of governance is to effectively and impartially implement what is called the social contract.
Hence, it demands a highly competent, well informed administration. It envisages the government institutions
to become innovative, participatory and have a good deal of sound policy formulation, open-mindedness, and
distinct citizen orientation.
The advancement of ethics and moral values in good governance suggests legality of government action,
rationality in policy and decision making, evolving a sense of responsibility, ensuring accountability,
strengthening work commitment, creating excellence, facilitating spirit of individual and organizational goals,
developing responsiveness, showing compassion, protecting the national interests, protecting the spirit of
justice, bringing transparency and elevating integrity. Actually, these values expect the controllers of ancient
India to be the civil servants of modern India that are guided by a spirit of service.
Thus, role of ethics and moral values is significant in bringing good governance. There are numerous ways to
strengthen the moral values in governance. In fact, the whole syllabus of paper IV has this central objective
of strengthening ethical governance.
1. Inculcating values in society: In Ramayana, Maharshi Valmiki has underscored a very basic principle of
governance in simple words “Yatha Raja Tatha Praja”. The message is loud and clear. The general erosion
in values, ethics morality or integrity that is seen in a society only mirrors the character of those who run
the affairs of that society.
2. Developing human resources; mental and physical
3. Protecting human rights and political freedoms.
4. Providing for health, safety and welfare;
5. Building social capital by strengthening civil society;
6. Protecting the natural environment;
7. Mobilizing financial resources for development;
8. Creating partnerships and collaborations with the private sector and non-governmental organizations for
service delivery;
9. Democratizing and decentralizing government;
10. Providing or facilitating the provision of physical and technological infrastructure
11. Enabling private sector development
12. Introducing accountability tools like RTI, social audit, citizen charter etc.
13. Political leadership
14. Strong ethical management and management of ethics through training and incentives.
245
15. Reforming police, judiciary and legislature as per the needs of modern society.
16. Developing and enforcing a comprehensive code of ethics for all public executives.
17. Zero tolerance against corruption
18. Learning from different political regimes and administrative structures. For example, developed under the
stewardship of Lord Nolan in the context of the United Kingdom, the Seven Principles of Public Life can
be applied universally, regardless of differences in politics, history or culture.An independent office of
Ethics Commissioner, on the US pattern can be created in other nations also.
For example, electoral reforms can create new types of and bases for representation; establish or revise the
qualifications for registration and voting; modify election rules and voting procedures; determine the process
of candidate selection; prevent corrupt or unfair voting practices; guarantee voting rights; and determine how
the public can hold elected officials accountable.
Governance reforms can delineate the units of government at national, regional and local levels, their roles
and responsibilities, and the relationships among them that can strengthen mechanisms for decision making,
interaction, coordination and cooperation and create procedures for dispute resolution and settlement.
Administrative reforms improve the quality of government by specifying the procedures of bureaucratic
accountability, of decision making by rule of law, and of the role of the judiciary in maintaining them.
Innovative governments concerned with quality strengthen the efficacy and transparency of financing,
procurement, contracting, accounting and other management functions. Civil Service reforms establish or
adjust the duties, responsibilities and obligations of public employees, pay levels, recruitment procedures,
incentives, training and career development rules, and ethical standards.
Globalization requires governments to not only arrange for the provision of conventional physical infrastructure
such as roads and utility systems but, increasingly, to take a strong role in strengthening the infrastructure
required to promote technological innovation, apply knowledge, and expand information systems. Expanding
knowledge-oriented infrastructure requires government to collaborate with the private sector and with
universities and research institutes in creating what the United Nations describes as “Knowledge, Innovation
and Technology Systems” (KITS).
Governments are increasingly developing electronic systems (e-government) that open access to information
about public institutions, allow public agencies at different levels of administration to cooperate more
effectively, and make it easier for citizens to obtain public services. More governments are strengthening
their e-government capacity to cut costs, increase the efficiency and effectiveness of public agencies, make
decision-making and service delivery faster, improve the quality of service delivery and enable new and
innovative approaches to governance.
nn
246
Chapter - 9
Ethics in International Relations
I
n discussing ethical reasoning in international relations, it is important to remember that individuals make
decisions, not states, cultures, institutions, agencies, or organizations. These individuals will differ in
their attitudes toward morality and in its role in international affairs. There will be disagreement in the
same manner as there will be disagreement over what is the national interest and the best way to achieve any
interest.
The skeptics, state moralists, and cosmopolitans will generally agree, however, on the following:
●● Morality does play a role in international relations, even if only the minimal role accepted by the cynics.
Moral arguments do move and constrain people and leaders. Morality is real, even if its norms may not
be universal.
●● However, the international system lacks a strong consensus on moral values. It is largely because
the institutions at international level are weak, compared to those of functioning states representing
communities of people. In the situation of anarchy, there is no superior power to a state, no common
legislature, no central executive, no strong judiciary, and no enforcement power. Moreover, international
situations are often more complex than domestic situations.
●● Nevertheless, rudimentary law and existing institutions and regimes provide enough order to allow some
important moral choices. Additionally, there are large areas of international relations that are based not
on conflict or potential conflict, but cooperation through bilateral relations, international institutions
and regimes, and international law and custom. Despite its weaknesses, international law affects state
behavior because it provides predictability and legitimacy. Predictability in behavior, following the rules,
is necessary for vast range of international interactions from aircraft flight control to diplomatic immunity.
Legitimacy -- what is viewed and accepted as being right -- is a source of power. If other states believe
that what you are doing is right, then the likelihood of achieving your goals is increased. Acting against
international law carries burdens, both at home and abroad.
●● There are even moral choices during war enshrined in law and custom, mostly derived from the just
war doctrine. There is room for choice even in the brutal environment of war. At minimum, the military
commander and his political leaders must consider the consequences of their decisions.
247
At minimum, the decision making process at international level should identify the moral values relevant to
the situation, include these norms in the assessment of the policy options, and in coming to a decision weigh
the moralconsequences of these options. Ideally, from a moralist point of view, the choice should be the most
desirable action from among morally legitimate alternatives.
Thus, as Stanley Hoffmann argues, while we must admit that there is a huge gap between what is moral and
what is likely in international affairs, we should not resign ourselves to the consequences of inaction, but
rather take every opportunity to narrow the gap.
Theoretical aspects of International Relations

A theory of international relations is a set of ideas that explains how the international system works. Unlike an
ideology, a theory of international relations is backed up with evidence. The two major theories of international
relations are realism and liberalism.
Realism
According to realism, states work only to increase their own power relative to that of other states. Realism
also claims the following:
●● The world is a harsh and dangerous place. The only certainty in the world is power. A powerful state will
always be able to outdo—and outlast—weaker competitors. The most important and reliable form of
power is military power.
●● A state’s primary interest is self-preservation. Therefore, the state must seek power and must always
protect itself
●● There is no overarching power that can enforce global rules or punish bad behaviour.
●● Moral behaviour is very risky because it can undermine a state’s ability to protect itself.
●● The international system itself drives states to use military force and to war. Leaders may be moral, but
they must not let moral concerns guide foreign policy.
●● International organizations and law have no power or force; they exist only as long as states accept them.
Politicians have practiced realism as long as states have existed. Most scholars and politicians during the
Cold War viewed international relations through a realist lens. Neither the United States nor the Soviet Union
trusted the other, and each sought allies to protect itself and increase its political and military influence
abroad. Realism has also featured prominently in the administration of George W. Bush.
Machiavelli: One of the best-known realist thinkers is the notorious Niccolo Machiavelli. In his book The
Prince (1513), he advised rulers to use deceit and violence as tools against other states. Moral goals are so
dangerous, he wrote, that to act morally will bring about disaster. He also gave advice about how to deal with
conflicts among neighbouring states and how to defend one’s homeland. Machiavelli’s name has become
synonymous with nasty and brutal politics.
National Interest
Most theories of international relations are based on the idea that states always act in accordance with their national
interest, or the interests of that particular state. State interests often include self-preservation, military security,
economic prosperity, and influence over other states. Sometimes two or more states have the same national
interest. For example, two states might both want to foster peace and economic trade. And states with diametrically
opposing national interests might try to resolve their differences through negotiation or even war.
Liberalism
Liberalism emphasizes that the broad ties among states have both made it difficult to define national interest
and decreased the usefulness of military power. Liberalism developed in the 1970s as some scholars began
arguing that realism was outdated. Increasing globalization, the rapid rise in communications technology, and
the increase in international trade meant that states could no longer rely on simple power politics to decide
matters. Liberal approaches to international relations are also called theories of complex interdependence.
Liberalism claims the following:
248
●● The world is a harsh and dangerous place, but the consequences of using military power often outweigh
the benefits. International cooperation is therefore in the interest of every state.
●● Military power is not the only form of power. Economic and social power matter a great deal too.
Exercising economic power has proven more effective than exercising military power.
●● Different states often have different primary interests.
●● International rules and organizations can help foster cooperation, trust, and prosperity.
Relations among the major Western powers fit a model of complex interdependence very well. The United
States has significant disagreements with its European and Asian allies over trade and policy, but it is hard
to imagine a circumstance in which the United States would use military power against any of these allies.
Instead, the United States relies on economic pressure and incentives to achieve its policy aims.
Idealism: Idealism is a specific school of liberalism that stresses the need for states to pursue moral goals
and to act ethically in the international arena. Idealists believe that behaviour considered immoral on an
interpersonal level is also immoral in foreign policy. Therefore, idealists argue that dishonesty, trickery, and
violence should be shunned.
Just War Theory

The principles of a Just War originated with classical Greek and Roman philosophers like Plato and Cicero
and were added to by Christian theologians like Augustine and Thomas Aquinas. The just war theory is an
attempt to reconcile three things:
●● taking human life is seriously wrong
●● states have a duty to defend their citizens, and defend justice
●● protecting innocent human life and defending important moral values sometimes requires willingness to
use force and violence
The theory specifies conditions for judging if it is just to go to war, and conditions for how the war should be
fought. The theory is not intended to justify wars but to prevent them, by showing that going to war except
in certain limited circumstances is wrong, and thus motivate states to find other ways of resolving conflicts.
The doctrine of the Just War can deceive a person into thinking that because a war is just; it’s actually a good
thing. But behind contemporary war theory, there lies the idea that war is always bad. A just war is permissible
because it’s a lesser evil, but it’s still an evil.
Elements: There are three parts to Just War theory, all with Latin names:
1. Jus ad bellum: the conditions under which the use of military force is justified.
2. Jus in bello: how to conduct a war in an ethical manner.
3. Jus post bellum: conduct following the cessation of a war
A war is only a Just War if it is both justified, and carried out in the right way. Some wars fought for noble
causes have been rendered unjust because of the way in which they were fought.
Principles of the Just War
●● A just war can only be waged as a last resort. All non-violent options must be exhausted before the use of
force can be justified.
●● A war is just only if it is waged by a legitimate authority. Even just causes cannot be served by actions
taken by individuals or groups who do not constitute an authority sanctioned by whatever the society and
outsiders to the society deem legitimate.
●● A just war can only be fought to redress a wrong suffered. For example, self-defence against an armed
attack is always considered to be a just cause. Further, a just war can only be fought with “right” intentions:
the only permissible objective of a just war is to redress the injury.
●● A war can only be just if it is fought with a reasonable chance of success. Deaths and injury incurred in a
hopeless cause are not morally justifiable.
●● The ultimate goal of a just war is to re-establish peace. More specifically, the peace established after the
war must be preferable to the peace that would have prevailed if the war had not been fought.
●● The violence used in the war must be proportional to the injury suffered. States are prohibited from using
force not necessary to attain the limited objective of addressing the injury suffered.
249
●● The weapons used in war must discriminate between combatants and non-combatants. Civilians are never
permissible targets of war, and every effort must be taken to avoid killing civilians. The deaths of civilians
are justified only if they are unavoidable victims of a deliberate attack on a military target.
●● Internationally agreed conventions regulating war must be obeyed.
●● Comparative justice shall be there i.e the moral merit on our side must clearly outweigh the moral merit
on the other.
●● All non-violent alternatives must be exhausted before resorting to war.
●● War should be regarded as a tragic necessity.
●● Proportionality in the use of force shall be there i.e no action should be taken that generates more harm
than good.
●● As much as possible, the enemy must be treated in good faith in order to keep open the possibility of
reconciliation.
●● Following the cessation of a war, three possibilities emerge: either the army has been defeated, has been
victorious, or it has agreed to a ceasefire. Principles of justice may then be applied to each situation.
The principle of discrimination should be employed to avoid imposing punishment on innocents or
non-combatants; the rights or traditions of the defeated deserve respect; the claims of victory should
be proportional to the war’s character; compensatory claims should be tempered by the principles of
discrimination and proportionality; and, controversially, the need to rehabilitate or re-educate an aggressor
should also be considered.
This theory bridges theoretical and applied ethics, since it demands an adherence, or at least a consideration of
meta-ethical conditions and models, as well as prompting concern for the practicalities of war. A few of those
practicalities have been mentioned above. Other areas of interest are: hostages, innocent threats, international
blockades, sieges, the use of weapons of mass destruction or of anti-personnel weapons (for example, land
mines), and the morality and practicalities of interventionism.
United Nations Charter

The United Nations Charter ‘is the legal and moral foundation of international relations’. In its principles,
one can find a code of ethics for present and future. Preamble of this charter provides for both end and means
values that must be taken into account by all member nations.
Preamble: We the peoples of the United Nations determined
●● to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold
sorrow to mankind, and
●● to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal
rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and
●● to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other
sources of international law can be maintained, and
●● to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,
And for these ends
●● to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbours, and
●● to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and
●● to ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that armed force shall not be
used, save in the common interest, and
●● to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples.
Role of India
India has made a remarkable contribution in the ethical governance of the world.
India was the separate member of the League of Nations. It is also the founding-member of the United Nations.
Article 51 is considered the concrete provision dealing with the relation of Indian Constitution and international
law. Further, Article 51A gives effect to the declaration in Article 29(1) of the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights, which emphasis the duty of individuals to the community.
250
Article 51 directs the state to respect international law although it does not make international law as a part of
Indian law. Article 51 is a directive principle i.e. it is to be read with article 37 of constitution of India which
lays down the provisions contained in part iv shall not be enforceable in any courts but the principles therein
laid down are nevertheless fundamental in governance of the country and it shall be the duty of the state to
apply these principles in making laws.
Thus if there occurs a conflict between the international and the municipal law, the courts shall as far as
possible shall try to provide a harmonious construction between the two laws.
Article 51 in The Constitution of India 1949
51. Promotion of international peace and security The State shall Endeavour to
(a) Promote international peace and security;
(b) Maintain just and honourable relations between nations;
(c) Foster respect for international law and treaty obligations in the dealings of organized peoples with one
another; and encourage settlement of international disputes by arbitration (negotiation, settlement).
Nehru on international ethics
Nehru laid the foundations of India’s foreign policy. He was an internationalist. His aversion to narrow,
egoistic and expansionist nationalism had been great. According to Nehru (The Discovery of India) the
world has become internationalized, production is international, markets are international and transport is
international. No nation is really independent; they are all interdependent. Therefore, some kind of fusion is
necessary between nationalism and internationalism.
Panchsheel: Buddhist influence was there as in 1954 he used the Buddhist concept of panchasila in a
secular context to indicate the principles of co-existence in a divided world. The Five Principles of Peaceful
Coexistence, known in India as the Panchsheel (five virtues) Treaty, are a set of principles to govern relations
between states. These Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence are:
1. mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity,
2. mutual non-aggression,
3. mutual non-interference in each other’s internal affairs,
4. equality and mutual benefit, and
5. Peaceful coexistence.
Since then, these principles have been widely recognized and observed by the international community, and
have served as basic norms of state-to-state relations.
Nehru’s non-alignment policy: Nehru policy of non-alignment was based on three considerations:
●● India is a newly emergent nation- state. She has to concentrate on economic and social reconstruction.
Non-alignment thus is a natural policy for a new nation state.
●● Historical grounds: throughout her history, India has followed the policy of peace. She has never sanctioned
expansionist power politics.
●● Non-alignment is supported by the exigencies of the international power politics. In a hostile world divided
into armed sections, it was a wise strategy to strengthen the peace area. This can be done if several states
refuse to join the rival camps and act as mediators in lessoning international tensions. The strengthening
of peace areas would act as necessary deterrent to the clash of the two groups.
Thus he advocated a dynamic approach to non-alignment in which states will take active part in peace process
rather than remaining neutral to the rival camps.
Criticism: Many people have criticized Nehru for running a moral discourse in international relations but it was
the presence of values which gave India a distinct voice in world sphere. No leader can deny national interest
but Nehru always defined national interest in the context of universal values like peace, disarmament, equality
and brotherhood. He was an exponent of a peaceful approach and accepted the techniques of negotiations
and cooperative understanding. Even now, many of the percepts of India’s foreign policy like Gujral doctrine,
Nuclear Doctrine of India, India’s refugee policy indicates India’s emphasis on ethical conduct. nn
251
Chapter - 10
Ethical Issues in International Funding
R
eward and punishment has always been an important tool to form or change the attitude of a person,
same is true at international level also. Funding by international agencies and western countries is
also a kind of reward for manipulating the behaviour of developing countries. Also punishment not
only means punishing someone through economic sanctions but also the withdrawal of reward is regarded as
punishment.
Funding in international relations has many positives and negative attached with it and everything depends
upon the reason for which funding has been done.
Funding in cold war era was largely done to manipulate newly independent countries to join one of the two
power blocs existing at that time. The process created many tyrants and enhanced inequalities between the
north and the south. In the waning years of cold war, institutions like World Bank Group took certain steps for
the development of human kind. These steps were called as first generation reforms or Washington Consensus.
First Generation Reforms: Washington Consensus

The Washington Consensus is a set of 10 economic policy prescriptions considered to constitute the “standard”
reform package promoted for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington, D.C.–based institutions
such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and the US Treasury Department. It was coined
in 1989 by English economist John Williamson.
The consensus as originally stated by Williamson included ten broad sets of relatively specific policy
recommendations:
1. Fiscal policy discipline, with avoidance of large fiscal deficits relative to GDP;
2. Redirection of public spending from subsidies (“especially indiscriminate subsidies”) toward broad-
based provision of key pro-growth, pro-poor services like primary education, primary health care and
infrastructure investment;
3. Tax reform, broadening the tax base and adopting moderate marginal tax rates;
4. Interest rates that are market determined and positive (but moderate) in real terms;
5. Competitive exchange rates;
6. Trade liberalization: liberalization of imports, with particular emphasis on elimination of quantitative
restrictions (licensing, etc.); any trade protection to be provided by low and relatively uniform tariffs;
7. Liberalization of inward foreign direct investment;
8. Privatization of state enterprises;
9. Deregulation: abolition of regulations that impede market entry or restrict competition, except for those
justified on safety, environmental and consumer protection grounds, and prudential oversight of financial
institutions;
10. Legal security for property rights.
However, these first generation reforms failed to create a more equal and prosperous world as they were
nothing but the imposition of western style on developing countries. Most criticism has been focused on trade
liberalization and the elimination of subsidies, especially in the agriculture sector. In nations with substantial
natural resources, criticism has tended to focus on privatization of industries exploiting these resources.
Washington consensus policies failed to efficiently handle the economic structures within developing
countries. The cases of East Asian countries such as Korea and Taiwan are known as a success story in which
their remarkable economic growth was attributed to a larger role of the government by undertaking industrial
policies and increasing domestic savings within their territory. From the cases, the role for government was
252
proven to be critical at the beginning stage of the dynamic process of development, at least until the markets
by themselves can produce efficient outcomes.
It was this failure that led to a second generation of reforms in the first decade of this century. The “second
generation” reforms are aimed at “ensuring that the State fulfills its proper role in a market economy, by
creating a level playing field for all sectors and implementing policies for the common good, particularly
social policies that will help to alleviate poverty and provide more equal opportunity. These reforms focus on
4 areas in particular:
1. the financial system – paying greater attention to the soundness of banking systems and encouraging
greater transparency, better data dissemination and the liberalisation of capital accounts;
2. “Good Governance” – Good governance is defined by the IMF as:
●● increased transparency of government operations to limit opportunities for corruption and enhanced
public accountability,
●● enforcing a simple and transparent regulatory framework for the privatised sector,
●● guaranteeing the professionalism and independence of the judiciary
●● enforcing property rights
●● respect for human rights and democratic values
●● sustainable and inclusive development
3. Composition of fiscal adjustment – reducing unproductive expenditures such as military spending and
focusing spending on social sectors; and
4. Deeper structural reform – including civil service reform, labour market reform, trade and regulatory
reform, and agrarian reform.
These second generation reforms are more congruent to ethical conduct required at international level and are
lauded as a beginning to create a world which is more equal and fair.
Ethical issues in International Trade and Business

International trade & business require ethical conduct to maintain moral values which can lead to sustainable
development. Professionalism, honesty, compliance would lead to a healthy & transparent business
environment along with individual’s own development which they can bring to personal and social life. Some
of the ethical Concerns in international trade and business are:
1. Wealthier countries generally seek to protect their own markets and agricultural sectors against cheap
exports from poorer countries. This can be seen as being overly restrictive on poorer countries. It is known
as Protectionism in trade policy.
2. Critics have argued that WTO is unethical for several reasons. For example, they place economic
considerations ahead of concerns for the environment or human rights. WTO takes power away from
individual nations, which is undemocratic.
3. Trade negotiations at WTO, especially regarding rights of domestic farmers of third world countries is
another issue.
4. There is no international ethical code of conduct, accepted and followed by all the countries; lack of
governments’ initiative to create ethical cooperation framework and thus to enhance ethical behavior in
international business. For example, IPR Issues, GI tag issues etc.
5. Controlling trade routes and imposing sanctions to “teach lesson” to a country. 1973 oil embargo, bombing
of Iraq and recent American ban on Iran ignores the pain and travesty which local people have to suffer.
6. Ideological clashes like capitalism vs. socialism
7. Giving subsidy at home but asking others not to do so or hidden subsidies
8. Currency devaluation
9. Pushing economic agenda under diplomacy and neo-liberalism
10. MNC lobbying
11. Illegal trade of animal body parts
253
12. Trade on GM crops
13. Dumping by countries like china
14. Pricing of drugs by pharmaceutical MNCs
15. Sanctions imposed by developed countries on developing ones to create pressure.
16. Trade of arms and ammunition by developed nations to the rebel groups while playing their strategic
games
17. Human rights related: Some illegal forms of trade human trafficking, trade in drugs, human organs, etc.
are unethical as their inherent nature of being inhumane are being dealt with UNHRC.
18. The corporate try to monetize the indigenous knowledge of the native without substantially compensating
them for same.
19. Many times, country employs its intelligence agency to put pressure on the corrupt politician of poor
country e.g oil for food program of Iran
20. Bio-piracy which takes away natural rights of indigenous people over traditional knowledge.
Way forward:
1. There is need of an international ethical code of conduct, accepted and followed by all the countries.
Every individual and corporate body must also outline its ethical values and ensure their understanding
and belief in their effectiveness and importance. Such uniform code of conduct will help to boost trust &
create healthy environment during deals.
2. There must be a provision of two types of ethical values viz rigid and flexible. In rigid category, there are
those values which cannot be renounced under any circumstances such as honesty, professionalism and
integrity. And on the other hand, in the flexible ones, those values which can be liberalized or interpreted in
different ways as per the situation under it such as cultures’ values and remuneration policies, transportation
costs, storage costs, price fixing etc.
3. Trade should not lead to imperialism. All nations must be allowed to grow and prosper.
4. The technologically advanced nations should not try to monopolize the market of less advanced countries
by dumping their goods.
5. Least developed nations should be given free access to international markets for their quick development.
6. Questions of subsidies in agriculture should be dealt with humane understanding. i.e by taking into account
the socio-economic background of the nation. Arm twisting should be avoided.
7. Trade of hazardous goods like biological waste, e-waste should be curtailed. Such trade is unsustainable.
8. IPR and patents regime should be developed with proper inclusion of all member nations of UN and
should not be a exercise conducted by the developed nations to fulfill their vested interest and appropriate
the world resources.
9. Interactions at international level: When traders from different country would meet then they would better
understand each other codes & also each country would try to understand other culture leading to suitable
business environment.
10. Complying with Nehruvian view which maintains that national interest can only be defined in context of
universal values like peace, tolerance and fraternity.
nn
254
Chapter - 11
Corporate Governance
I
ndia has the largest number of listed companies in the world, and the efficiency and wellbeing of the
financial markets is critical for the economy in particular and the society as a whole. Therefore, it is
imperative to design and implement a dynamic mechanism of corporate governance, which protects the
interests of relevant stakeholders without hindering the growth of enterprises.
Corporate governance can be defined as a set of system, processes and principles which ensure that a company
is governed in the best interest of all stakeholders. It involves a set of relationships amongst the company’s
management, its board of directors, its shareholders, its auditors and other stakeholders.
These relationships, which involve various rules and incentives, provide the structure through which
the objectives of the company are set, and the means of attaining these objectives as well as monitoring
performance are determined. Thus, the key aspects of good corporate governance include transparency
of corporate structures and operations, the accountability of managers and the boards to shareholders and
corporate responsibility towards stakeholders.
Principles of Corporate Governance

A company should:
1. Recognize and publish the respective roles and responsibilities of board and management
2. Have a board of an effective composition, size and commitment to adequately discharge its responsibilities
and duties
3. Actively promote ethical and responsible decision-making
4. Have a structure to independently verify and safeguard the integrity of the company’s financial reporting
5. Promote timely and balanced disclosure of all material matters concerning the company
6. Respect the rights of shareholders and facilitate the effective exercise of those rights
7. Establish a sound system of risk oversight and management and internal control
8. Fairly review and actively encourage enhanced board and management effectiveness
9. Ensure that the level and composition of remuneration is sufficient and reasonable and that its relationship
to corporate and individual performance is defined
10. Recognize legal and other obligations to all legitimate stakeholders
Constituents of Corporate Governance

There are three key constituents of corporate governance:
1. The Board of Directors: The pivotal role in any system of corporate governance is performed by the
board of directors. It is accountable to the stakeholders and directs and controls the Management. It
stewards the company, sets its strategic aim and financial goals and oversees their implementation, puts
in place adequate internal controls and periodically reports the activities and progress of the company in
a transparent manner to the stakeholders.
2. The Shareholders: The shareholders’ role in corporate governance is to appoint the directors and the
auditors and to hold the board accountable for the proper governance of the company by requiring the
board to provide them periodically with the requisite information, in a transparent fashion, of the activities
and progress of the company.
3. The Management: The responsibility of the management is to undertake the management of the company
in terms of the direction provided by the board, to put in place adequate control systems and to ensure
their operation and to provide information to the board on a timely basis and in a transparent manner to
enable the board to monitor the accountability of Management to it.
255
Legal Framework
The corporate governance legal framework in India primarily consists of the following legislations and
regulations:
●● The Companies Act, 2013: The new Companies Act of 2013 has replaced the earlier Companies Act
of 1956. The new Act seeks to bring corporate governance and regulation practices in India at par with
the best global practices. The corporate sector has been given more flexibility in regulating their affairs,
subject to full disclosure and accountability of their actions, with minimum government approvals. The
Act provides more opportunities for new entrepreneurs and enables wide application of Information
Technology in the conduct of affairs by corporates.Some of the other provisions of 2013 act are:
o One third of the board of directors of every listed company should be independent directors and
government may prescribe for minimum number of independent directors in other public companies.
o The board shall meet atleast four times a year with maximum time gap of four months in between two
meetings.
o A qualified and independent audit committee with independent directors forming the majority.
o Performance evaluation of independent directors to be done by entire board of directors excluding the
director being evaluated.
o Setting up of nomination and remuneration committee.
o Setting up of stakeholders’ relationship committee.
o Setting up of national company law tribunal and national company law appellate tribunal to fast track
company law cases.
o Establishing a vigil mechanism for directors and employees to report genuine concerns and rewarding
employees for their integrity.
●● The Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956: This Act covers all types of tradable government
paper, shares, stocks, bonds, debentures, and other forms of marketable securities issued by companies.
The SCRA defines the parameters of conduct of stock exchanges as well as its powers.
●● TheSecurities and Exchange Board of India Act, 1992: This Act established the independent capital
market regulatory authority, SEBI, with the objective of protecting the interests of investors in securities,
and promote and regulating the securities market.
●● The Depositories Act, 1996: This Act established share and securities depositories, and created the legal
framework for dematerialization of securities.
●● Listing Agreement of Stock Exchanges: Apart from the basic provisions of the Companies Act, every
listed company needs to comply with the provisions of the listing agreement. Non-compliance with
the same, would lead to delisting of the company from the respective stock exchange. Further, SEBI is
empowered under Section 11 and Section 11A of SEBI Act to prescribe conditions for listing. However,
Section 32 of the SEBI Act, 1992 states that the provisions of the SEBI Act, 1992 shall be in addition
to, and not in derogation of, the provisions of any other law for the time being in force. This agreement
defines the rules, processes, and disclosures that companies must follow to remain as listed entities.
Corporate Governance and NPA’s

In a series of recent cases, starting with the United Bank of India, Syndicate Bank Ltd, Dena Bank, Oriental
Bank of Commerce and PNB, the increasing level of non-performing assets (NPAs) have brought into sharp
focus the need to improve corporate governance and skill levels in public sector banks (PSBs). Some reasons
behind this problem can be:
●● Too much centralization and concentration of power in the hands of top executives. In most of the above
banks, senior officials were involved in the scam. Their close connections with politicians also helps them
to give loans which are almost impossible to recover. Thus, a close nexus is found between politician,
bank officials and businessman.
●● Many reports suggest that corruption could as well be a contributing factor to the level of bad debts.
256
●● Wide disparity between the compensation levels in the private and public sector banks.
●● Secrecy and high level of discretion.
●● Non-adherence to lending procedures due to poor supervision.
●● Imbalance between accountability and autonomy.
What can be done?
●● P.J. Nayak committee (in 2014) suggested to separate the posts of chairman and managing director in
PSBs. This will create dual control and will avoid concentration of power.
●● Good salary packages for bank officials.
●● Zero tolerance against corruption in form of quick disposal of case and strict punishment
●● De-politicization of PSBs. Politicians shall have no say in appointment and removal of top executives.
●● External audit system on regular basis.
●● More private banks to create a sense of competition.
●● Matching power with responsibility.
Corporate Governance in Family Business

The Kingfisher Airlines (KFA) story highlights the governance philosophy of family-controlled business
groups in India. Groups often build diversified portfolio of business to reduce the risk of family investment.
Diversification strategies and other corporate strategies are decided at the family level, outside the board
of the holding company or a group company. Those are often formulated based on family needs, such as
succession plan, and reflect the aspirations of the family. The board simply approves the strategies placed
before it. For example, the investment in KFA by the UB group reflects the aspirations of Mr. Mallya. Some
observed that the KFA model reflected his flamboyant personality.
Every business family aims to protect and create family wealth. Therefore, the interests of stakeholders are
protected. But, sometime, promoter’s exuberance and aspirations expose the company to unwarranted risks,
the family focuses on empire building or family feud destroys wealth. It is utopian to expect independent
directors to protect the company from undue risks arising from such exuberance and aspirations, family’s empire
building initiatives or poor family governance. At best, the board is used as a sounding board, while the final
decision remains with the family. Thus, the family, not the board, is the highest decision-making body.
In family-managed business groups, the monitoring role of independent directors is secondary and the
advisory role is primary. It will remain so even if the law emphasizes the monitoring role. Moreover, as in the
case of KFA, independent directors, who have no stake in the company, prefer to resign from poorly governed
or crisis-ridden companies, rather than continue and protect stakeholders’ interest.
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

The term social responsibility conveys the moral conduct that relates to such broad issues as environmental
pollution, discrimination, poverty, unemployment and inflation. Accordingly, an organization whose practices
contribute to such things would be viewed as socially irresponsible.
An automobile manufacturer who produces car with faulty brakes, a
pharmaceutical house that makes false claims about its cold remedies, or
a food company whose TV ads promotes substandard food are socially
irresponsible. Corporate social responsibility not only includes compliance
to the law and ethical setup of the society but it goes beyond it.
CSR policy functions as a built-in, self-regulating mechanism whereby a
business monitors and ensures its active compliance with the spirit of the
law, ethical standards, and international norms. In some models, a firm’s
implementation of CSR goes beyond compliance and engages in “actions
that appear to further some social good, beyond the interests of the firm and
that which is required by law.”
257
CSR is a process with the aim to embrace responsibility for the company’s actions and encourage a positive
impact through its activities on the environment, consumers, employees, communities, stakeholders and all
other members of the public sphere who may also be considered as stakeholders.
CSR Programs could range from overall development of a community to supporting specific causes like
education, environment, healthcare etc.
Even during ancient times, social responsibility was recognized by wealthy merchants. They use to share a
part of their wealth with the wider society by way of setting up temples for a religious cause. Moreover, these
merchants helped the society in getting over phases of famine and epidemics by providing food and shelter.
The industrial families of the 19th century such as Tata, Godrej, Bajaj, Modi, Birla, were strongly inclined
towards economic as well as social considerations.
During the independence movement and even after that, under the influence of Gandhi, many business houses
established trusts for schools and colleges and also helped in setting up training and scientific institutions.
CSR Initiatives in India

●● ITC Group has been able to generate sustainable livelihood opportunities for six million people through
its CSR activities. Their e-Choupal program, which aims to connect rural farmers through the internet for
procuring agriculture products, covers 40,000 villages and over four million farmers. Its social and farm
forestry program assists farmers in converting wasteland to pulpwood plantations.
●● Organizations like Bharath Petroleum Corporation Limited, Maruti Suzuki India Limited, and
Hindustan Unilever Limited, adopt villages where they focus on holistic development. They provide
better medical and sanitation facilities, build schools and houses, and help the villagers become self-
reliant by teaching them vocational and business skills.
●● The Tata Group conglomerate in India carries out various CSR projects, most of which are community
improvement and poverty alleviation programs. Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (1945, Mumbai),
Indian Institute of Science (1909, Bangalore), Tata Institute of Social Sciences are all examples of efforts
in field of education. Maternal and Newborn Survival Initiative (MANSI) by TATA Steel is a project to
reduce child and infant mortality in states like Jharkhand.
●● Mahindra & Mahindra runs programs such
as Nanhi Kali focusing on girl education,
Mahindra Pride Schools for industrial
training, and Lifeline Express for healthcare
services in remote areas. There’s Project
Hariyali has planted more than 8 million
trees till date.
●● SAP India in partnership with Hope
Foundation, an NGO that works for the
betterment of the poor and the needy
throughout India, has been working on short
and long-term rebuilding initiatives for the
tsunami victims.
●● Reliance Industries Ltd. launched a
countrywide initiative known as “Project
Drishti”, to restore the eye-sights of visually challenged Indians from the economically weaker sections
of the society.
●● SBI under village adoption scheme “SBI Ka Apna Gaon”, is adopting villages in Uttrakhand for
development of rural social and infrastructure facilities to remove regional imbalances.
●● Bharat Petroleum: Project BOOND, which has evolved from the construction of rain water harvesting
structures to making villages’ drought free.
●● Infosys: The Infosys Foundation midday meal program, an initiative in partnership with the Akshaya
Patra Foundation, spans several states across India.
258
Government Guidelines
The Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA) had introduced the Corporate Social Responsibility Voluntary
Guidelines in 2009. These guidelines have now been incorporated within the 2013 Act and have obtained
legal sanctity. Section 135 of the 2013 Act, seeks to provide that every company having a net worth of 500
crore INR, or more or a turnover of 1000 crore INR or more, or a net profit of five crore INR or more, during
any financial year shall constitute the corporate social responsibility committee of the board.
The 2013 Act mandates that these companies would be required to spend at least 2% of the average net-profits
of the immediately preceding three years on CSR activities, and if not spent, explanation for the reasons
thereof would need to be given in the director’s report (section 135 of the 2013 Act).
This CSR committee needs to comprise of three or more directors, out of which, at least one director should be
an independent director. The committee shall formulate the policy, including activities specified in Schedule
VII, which are as follows:
●● Eradicating extreme hunger and poverty
●● Promotion of education
●● Promoting gender equality and empowering women
●● Reducing child mortality and improving maternal health
●● Combating human immunodeficiency virus, acquired immune deficiency syndrome, malaria and other
diseases
●● Ensuring environmental sustainability
●● Employment enhancing vocational skills
●● Social business projects
●● Contribution to the Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund or any other fund set-up by the central
government or the state governments for socio-economic development and relief, and funds for the
welfare of the scheduled castes and Tribes, other backward classes, minorities and women.
●● Such other matters as may be prescribed
SEBI has also (in 2012) mandated the inclusion of Business Responsibility Reports as part of the annual
reports of the Top 100 listed entities based on market capitalization at BSE and NSE. It is mandatory to make
these reports available on the website of the company.
There have been mixed reactions to the introduction of the ‘spend or explain’ approach taken by the MCA
with respect to CSR. It may take a while before all of Corporate India imbibes CSR as a culture.
However, activities specified in the Schedule are not elaborate or detailed enough to indicate the kind of
projects that could be undertaken, for example, environment sustainability or social business projects could
encompass a wide range of activities.
In overall analysis, making 2% investment almost compulsory can be regarded as a stronger approach towards
enforcing CSR on Indian companies which have not shown much progress in this field. For example, many
times employee’s benefits are transferred to CSR activities. A lot will also depend upon the political will
for the success of this act. Like recently, Chhattisgarh government asked the corporates to deposit their
contributions to CSR in CM’s community development fund.
Recent trends in CSR spending in India
●● KPMG’s yearly ‘India CSR Reporting Survey’ that analyzed India Inc’s CSR activities in 2017, reveals
that the instances of companies spending less than two percent of their profits have decreased in the past
three years.
●● More structured CSR budgets have been put in place now and many organizations are seeking the support
of “external implementing agencies”.
●● Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Odisha are the top five states when it comes to
the number of CSR projects being implemented. These account for 32 percent (or 629 projects) of all CSR
projects and initiatives underway in India.
259
●● In 2017, education and healthcare accounted for
over 56 percent (Rs 4,045 crore) of the total CSR
spends (Rs 7,215.9 crore) in India. A part of it
could be due to the government’s push for the girl
child’s education through its ‘Beti Padhao Beti
Bachao’ drive.
●● Companies that had higher women representation
in their boards had more programmes dedicated to
reducing gender inequality.
●● Public sector companies executed 22 percent
of all CSR projects in 2017 accounting for 31
percent of the total CSR expenditure. Non-PSUs,
on the other hand, implemented 78 percent of the
projects.
●● Only five percent of all CSR projects in 2017 was
executed by companies not of Indian origin. These accounted for a mere three percent of overall CSR
expenditure.
●● The Ministry of Corporate Affairs in April 2018 has decided to put in place a centralised system to keep
a tab on entities’ compliance with CSR obligations under the company law 2013. The move comes
against the backdrop of rising instances of non-compliance with Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
requirement. Presently, Registrar of Companies (RoC) is responsible to check whether entities concerned
are complying with norms pertaining to social welfare spending activities under the Act.
nn
260
Probity in Governance
Concept of Civil Services
I
n 1996, United Nations adopted an international code of conduct for public officials. As per the document,
a public service is defined as the class and the tasks of officials who act as delegates of elected officials.
The elected representatives embody the legitimacy to define public interest, while public service ensures
that public interest is served and public trust is maintained.
A public service is associated with government and it is offered by administrative bodies to people living
within its region and considered essential to modern life. The term is linked with a social agreement (usually
expressed through democratic elections) that numerous services that are being agreed upon, should be offered
to all, irrespective of income.
A public service is a part of interconnected structure that exists alongside but outside the private affairs of
citizens and entities. It serves people, government, its own institution and law of the land. In doing so, it gets
influence as well as influence the value system of the society.
According to UN, each public service must follow 3 General Principles
1. A public office, as defined by national law, is a position of trust, implying a duty to act in the public
interest. Therefore, the ultimate loyalty of public officials shall be to the public interests of their country
as expressed through the democratic institutions of government.
2. Public officials shall ensure that they perform their duties and functions efficiently, effectively and with
integrity, in accordance with laws or administrative policies. They shall at all times seek to ensure that
public resources for which they are responsible are administered in the most effective and efficient manner.
3. Public officials shall be attentive, fair and impartial in the performance of their functions and, in particular,
in their relations with the public. They shall at no time afford any undue preferential treatment to any
group or individual or improperly discriminate against
any group or individual, or otherwise abuse the power and
authority vested in them.
Public service in Indian Context: as per Section 21 (12) (a)
of the Indian Penal Code, 1860, “every person in the service or
pay of the government or remunerated by fees or commission
for the performance of any public duty by the government” is a
public servant. The definition of “Public Service” has been
enlarged by The Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988. It includes
services like:
●● Civil services like IAS, State level services
●● Services under PSUs
●● Judicial services
●● Police services
●● Educational services
●● Medical services
●● Military services
●● Political executives and other elected politicians
Special features: Some of the special features which also
distinguish Public services from private services are:
261
●● They are provided by administration which works under political direction and scrutiny.
●● They are usually provided by local or national monopolies, especially in sectors which are natural
monopolies. Example includes maintenance of law, judiciary and order and medical services.
●● They often involve outputs that are hard to attribute to specific individual effort.
●● Certain public services are vital to the existence of community itself. (such as national security, law and
order, health care, transport and communications)
●● Public services are provided by large scale administration which affects entire socioeconomic structure
of society.
●● Public Accountability is the hall-mark of Public services in a democracy.
●● Public services aim to promote social good and are not oriented towards making profit for the government.
●● Public servants operate within a legal framework.
●● Public servants are required by law to maintain a high degree of consistency and equality of treatment in
serving the people.
nn
262
Chapter - 2
Philosophical Basis of Probity and Governance
B
efore getting into the philosophical basis, we must understand these two terms. Governance has
already been discussed in unit 6. The second term is probity. A word which often leads to confusion
rather than enlightenment among readers.
Probity
Probity is the quality of having strong knowledge of moral principles and integrity in personal or public
relations. It also includes the honesty and decency of a person or organisation in applying these moral
principles in personal and public life. Probity represents the maximalist approach to life, in which a person
adheres to the best principles and ideals rather than simply avoiding corrupt or dishonest practices in personal
and public relations.
Personal relations: adultery or extra marital affairs, discrimination, old age abuse, pornography, open
defecation etc.
Public life: corruption, favouritism, nepotism, inefficiency etc.
Probity in personal life: Every day, we hear and talk about probity in public life. We expect our political
leaders and bureaucrats to be transparent in their dealings. Their alleged misdeeds, scandals and scams are
publicized and discussed threadbare. We seek revenge and demand their heads. But have we ever thought of
our own personal lives and wondered will it withstand our own scrutiny.
We tend to lead a twin-faced life. On the face of it we profess honesty and integrity but are we clean in our
dealings. This dichotomy in our thoughts and actions is a source of pain and sorrow in our life. The first step
towards self-improvement is the probity in the personal lives.
Guru Nanak says whenever we prepare to do an act we must ask ourselves “will I be able to place it in front
of the God. Will it withstand His scrutiny?”Only if our act can pass this litmus test shall we do it. However, it
is easier said and done. There are temptations and pressures which push us towards the opposite. Adultery or
extra marital affairs, discrimination, old age abuse, pornography are some repercussions of absence of probity
in public relations.
Probity in public life: Probity in public life are the standards that society expects those elected or appointed
to public office to observe and maintain in the conduct of the public affairs to which they have been entrusted.
These standards are what safeguard the nation from corruption by politicians and public officials who have
been given almost unrestricted access to public resources together with the power to take decisions that
impact on the lives of everyone and the nation as a whole.
The absence of integrity and probity in public life is manifested in corruption which is a worldwide
phenomenon. But its impact is strongest and most pervasive in developing states like India.
Difficulties in practicing probity are:
●● High level of inequality among communities
●● Poor work culture.
●● No incentive
●● No fear and accountability
●● Lack of leadership
●● Increases lust of money and materialism.
●● Discretion and no transparency
●● Poor and ambiguous value system
263
These difficulties can be overcome through:
●● Value education
●● Transformational leadership
●● Strong oversight through Parliament, law enforcement, independent media and a vibrant civil society
●● Decentralization and people empowerment
●● Good and ethical governance
●● Code of ethics and a sound work culture
●● High level of tolerance and dedication
●● Developing altruism and ethical literacy
●● Optimistic attitude and high EI
Philosophical basis of governance and probity

Under this topic, we have to relate what we have discussed till now. Most of the discussion has been done
under moral philosophy unit.
Western thought
1. Socrates: Socrates believed that a government works best when it is ruled by individuals who have the
greatest ability, knowledge and virtue and possess a complete understanding of themselves.
2. Plato: In the Republic, Socrates was challenged to “tell us how justice benefits a man intrinsically, and in
the same way how injustice harms him”. To do this, he had to show what justice is. His model of the just
state was that of a healthy organism, where all the parts function for the benefit of the whole and the whole
benefits the parts.
Plato gave an elaborate account of the elements which go into the making of a city (a small state). Many
different kinds of roles are undertaken by different people. The survival of the whole depends on each
one performing their functions properly. Justice is sticking to one’s role, doing one’s own work and
not interfering with others. It, along with the other virtues of a state, temperance, courage and wisdom,
contributes to the excellence of that state. Indeed, justice is necessary for the other three virtues.
3. Aristotle: as per Aristotle, due to their natural sociability, men have eventually gathered in a politically
organized community. Once realized, this association is required to demonstrate its superiority and this
thing can be established by means of its ability to perform the functions for which it was “invented.”
Aristotle lays the basis for both the theory of good governance and the ways to achieve it. The purpose
of a regime that is underlain by good governance should be the happiness of the members of the political
community.
Out of these citizens, themselves inhabitants of the city, but somehow primum inter pares, there will
emerge the one who will be recognized as their leader, who should have been himself ruled before being
legitimize, so that he might understand those whom he will rule and know their aspirations: “The one that
is ruled is like the master of flutes and the ruler is the flute player who makes use of them” — Aristotle tells us.
The virtue of justice is a feature of a state; for justice is the arrangement of the political association and a
sense of justice decides what is just.’
4. St. Augustine: discussed about the role of religion in society and laid down the foundations for the
principles of just war theory.
5. Machiavelli: The Prince in 1513, talked about Realpolitik. So long as he keeps his subjects united and
loyal, a prince ought not to mind gaining the reputation for cruelty.
6. Thomas Hobbes: He came up with the morality of self – interest and started the work on social contract
theory. With this social contract established, the sovereign power would accept the responsibility for
mediating all disputes concerning the society, both internal and external. Should any member of the
society violate an agreement with another member of that society, that individual would be guilty of
violating their unconditional agreement to support the social contract, which would then render them
unjust and subject to punishment.
264
Conversely, if the Leviathan, or sovereign power, violated its own responsibility to protect the members
of the society in its charge, that society could then find itself another sovereign to rule it.
7. Jeremy Bentham: Gross or Quantitative Utilitarianism
8. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873): Mill’s Refined or Qualitative Utilitarianism
Indian thought
Governance in India traces its earliest known form to the monarchical system which was used for the execution
of public services. A lot of information regarding the organisation and functions of Indian administration is
obtained from Vedic literature, Buddhist treatises, Jain literatures, Dharmasastras, Ramayana, Mahabharata,
Manu Smriti and Arthashastra.
Manu the first King: The first form of the ‘State’ in India can be traced back to the times of Manu the
first King and progenitor of mankind according to Hinduism. In Manusmriti, the Divne Theory of Origin of
State has been clearly propounded. According to Manu, God has created the king to protect the people from
anarchy and exploitation by the powerful persons.
While describing the nature of relation between state and dharma Manu made clear that King should regulate
the behavior of Praja (People) according to Dharma, which is possible with the help of law. The king of Manu
is free from the worldly control. He is having the ultimate authority in the form of Dand (Punishment) which
rules over the whole Praja (People).
Ramayana and Mahabharata: have portrayed the role of the King as the whole and sole of administration
being assisted in his work by many officers. The decentralization process had started in ancient India. As a
result of this, empires were divided into provinces, provinces into districts and districts into urban and rural
centres from administrative angle. During the ancient period state administration was divided into numerous
departments.
ArthaShastra: By the time Kautilya wrote the ArthaShastra, the Indian system of public services was well
developed and the treatise of Kautilya gives a very first detailed account of the same. The word artha is
used to denote the substance of livelihood of men. The Arthashastra is thus the science which deals with the
acquisition and protection of the means of livelihood. It shows how this activity should be carried out.
At the same time, it is a means of ensuring the wellbeing of man in general. It has a twofold aim. The first,
palana, refers to the administration and protection of the state. The second, labha, is conquest and acquisition
of territory. It is, therefore, the science dealing with state affairs in the internal as well as the external spheres.
It is the science of statecraft or politics and administration.
Kautilya viewed the State as an institutional necessity for human advancement. According to him the State
comprises of eight elements King, Minister, Country, fort, treasury, army, friend and enemy. And State’s
prime function was to maintain law and order, punishing wrong doers and protecting subjects.
It is noteworthy that Arthashastra shifted attention from political philosophy to political science. Political
philosophy was the favourite arena of the Greek thinkers such as Plato and Aristotle. Plato’s idealism is in
sharp contrast with the practical realism of Kautilya. The aim of the Arthashastra is to show how a state ought
to be ruled. It speaks in terms of a highly materialistic world that is at times perceived by Kautilya keeping
the moral angle aside.
Some quotes from Kautilya’s Arthashastra:
1. “In the happiness of his subjects lies the king’s happiness; in their welfare his welfare. He shall not
consider as good only that which pleases him but treat as beneficial to him whatever pleases his subjects.”
2. “Learn from the mistakes of others, you can’t live long enough to make them all yourselves.”
3. “The fragrance of flowers spreads only in the direction of the wind. But the goodness of a person spreads
in all directions.”
4. “Before you start some work, always ask yourself three questions – Why am I doing it, what the results
might be and will I be successful. Only when you think deeply and find satisfactory answers to these
questions, go ahead.”
5. “A man is great by deeds, not by birth.”
265
6. “We should not fret for what is past, nor should we be anxious about the future; men of discernment deal
only with the present moment.”
7. “As soon as the fear approaches near, attack and destroy it.”
8. “Once you start working on something, don’t be afraid of failure and don’t abandon it. People who work
sincerely are the happiest.”
Mughal administration: the next noteworthy development in the evolution of civil services in India came
during the Mughal era. The Mughal administration was the most organized and long lasting and has even
carried on to the modern times. Akbar was the architect of this system as he led to the consolidation of the
Mughal Empire.
The Mughal administration did carry forward a lot of the earlier traditions in political and administrative
matters already existing in India but they upheld greater centralisation and a rigid structure without paying
much interest to social services of health and welfare and also morals as compared to the Mauryan rulers.
There was an Islamic state and almost all the principles of government, taxation rules, and departmental
arrangements were imported from the PersoArab crescent of khalifs of Iran and Egypt.
When the British came to India, they very naturally took over the Mughal system then prevailing, made the
most necessary changes in it and, while retaining its old framework, they reluctantly and slowly added such
new elements as the safety and prosperity of the country demanded from time to time.
After independence, the philosophy of the governance was laid down under different articles of the constitution.
Philosophical Basis of Democracy

The term “democracy” first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of
Athens. Led by Cleisthenes, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508–507
BC. The first sophists prepared Athenian males for public life in the polis by teaching them how to debate
through the art of rhetoric.
1. Plato: Plato discusses five types of regimes (Republic, Book VIII). They are Aristocracy, Timocracy,
Oligarchy, Democracy, and Tyranny. These five regimes progressively degenerate starting with Aristocracy at
the top and Tyranny at the bottom.
Plato’s Republic presents a critical view of democracy through the narration of Socrates: “Democracy, which
is a charming form of government, full of variety and disorder, and dispensing a sort of equality to equals and
unequaled alike.”
Plato argues that only Kallipolis, an aristocracy led by the unwilling philosopher-kings (the wisest men), is
a just form of government. According to Plato, other forms of government place too much focus on lesser
virtues and degenerate into other forms from best to worst, starting with timocracy, which overvalues honour,
then oligarchy, which overvalues wealth, which is followed by democracy.
An oligarchy is originated by extending tendencies already evident in a timocracy. In contrast to platonic
aristocrats, timocrats are allowed by their constitution to own property and thus to both accumulate and waste
money. Because of the pleasures derived therefrom, money eventually is prized over virtue, and the leaders
of the state seek to alter the law to give way and accommodate to the materialistic lust of its citizens. As a
result of this new found appreciation for money, the governors rework the constitution yet again to restrict
political power to the rich only. That is how a timocracy becomes an oligarchy. Oligarchy then degenerates
into democracy
In democracy, the oligarchs, or merchant, are unable to wield their power effectively and the people take
over, electing someone who plays on their wishes (for example, by throwing lavish festivals). However, the
government grants the people too much freedom, and the state degenerates into the fifth form, tyranny, or
mob rule.
The aristocratic state that Plato idealizes is composed of three caste-like parts: the ruling class, made up of
the aforementioned philosophers-kings (who are otherwise identified as having souls of gold); the auxiliaries
of the ruling caste, made up of soldiers (whose souls are made up of silver), and whose job in the state is to
266
force on the majority the order established by the philosophers; and the majority of the people (souls of either
bronze or iron), who in contrast to the first two classes are allowed to own property and produce goods for
themselves, but are also obliged to sustain with their own activities their rulers’ — who are forbidden from
owning property in order to preclude that the policies they undertake be tainted by personal interests.
The aristocratic man is better represented by Plato’s brand of philosopher: a man whose character and
ambitions have been forged into those ideal for a just ruler through a rigorous education system designed
to train intellectuals that are selfless and upright, and whose souls have been made calm and aware of the
absolute Good by learning the Truth based on the Platonic Ideas.
2. Aristotle: In his Politics, Aristotle divides
government into 6 kinds, 3 good and 3 bad.
The good forms are monarchy, aristocracy,
and polity, while the bad forms are tyranny,
oligarchy, and democracy. Each of the good
forms has the possibility of turning into its bad
form - i.e., monarchy into tyranny, aristocracy
into oligarchy and polity into democracy.
By democracy, Aristotle really means mob
rule. Polity corresponds more to what we’d
think of as modern democracy - a stable,
orderly institution that represents and protects
the people.
Indeed, unlike his teacher Plato, who sought to create an ideal model of the state ruled by philosopher-kings,
Aristotle thought that the best form of government was determined by the situation. For a virtuous people,
polity could very well be the best form of government; for a subservient people, monarchy or aristocracy
might be the natural state of affairs.
Why democracy is bad: Aristotle conceives all things, including governments, in terms of telos; an end or a
purpose of anything. For Aristotle, if something achieves its telos then it is virtuous. Aristotle believes that the
telos of a government, a constitution, should be the good life – it should lead to the happy and good life of its
citizens. Democracy is not a good form of rule because a rule of the majority or the rule of the poor does not
achieve the telos of the city-state. In democracy, people work for their good rather than for the common good.
For Aristotle, democracy is bad because if the decisions are made by people who do not have the telos of the
city-state at the core of their actions, then the telos of the city-state will never be reached, and the government
will not be virtuous. Aristotle states that whenever large groups of people get together to make decisions it
is inevitable that their personal bias will appear, and the decisions will not be made for the virtue of the city-
state.
Aristotle believes in aristocracy – rule by merit. The rule based on numerical equality is in direct conflict with
Aristotle’s belief in rule by merit. In a democracy, with the characteristics above, a non-virtuous person has
an opportunity at rule, regardless of merit. This leads to a city-state that cannot attain its telos and therefore
is, by definition, a non-virtuous form of governance.
3. Republican theory: A common view among early and renaissance Republican theorists was that
democracy could only survive in small political communities. Heeding the lessons of the Roman Republic’s
shift to monarchism as it grew larger; these Republican theorists held that the expansion of territory and
population inevitably led to tyranny. Democracy was therefore highly fragile and rare historically, as it could
only survive in small political units, which due to their size were vulnerable to conquest by larger political
units. Montesquieu famously said, “If a republic is small, it is destroyed by an outside force; if it is large, it
is destroyed by an internal vice.” Rousseau asserted, “It is, therefore the natural property of small states to be
governed as a republic, of middling ones to be subject to a monarch, and of large empires to be swayed by a
despotic prince.”
nn
267
Chapter - 3
Information Sharing and Transparency
Information Sharing
James Madison once said, “A people who mean to be their own governors must arm themselves with power
that knowledge gives”. And government information seems to be the most powerful source of knowledge
in a democracy. Democracy must be built through open societies that share information. When there is
information, there is enlightenment. When there is debate, there are solutions. When there is no sharing of
power, no rule of law, no accountability, there is abuse, corruption, subjugation and indignation.
Clearly Governments all over the world are information rich. Within this information there almost certainly
lies a great untapped value and benefit to people. Government information refers to:
1. information that citizens need to understand their rights, entitlements, and obligations;
2. information that government needs to plan, participate, manage and deliver services and programs for the
benefit of individual citizens, as well as the community as a whole;
3. information that government needs to participate and position itself in the global community and economy;
4. information that government needs to plan for, manage and support national security activities designed
to protect the community; and
5. Information that public servants and stakeholders need to be able to do their jobs and fulfill their roles
within both agency and whole-of-government contexts.
Information sharing is key to the Government’s goal of delivering better, more efficient public services that
are coordinated around the needs of the individual. It is a vital element in improving outcomes for all.
Why information sharing is important?
Information sharing enables better government service delivery and improved policy development through
focused inter agency collaboration. The requirement for improved information sharing in government is
highlighted world over.
●● Information sharing by government can provide numerous benefits to governments and the public. It
would bring less red tape, less complex and inconsistent forms and less repetition of processes, such as
authentication.
●● Sharing information between and within governments provides more efficient use of public funding
through reduction in repetition of tasks associated with information management such as; collection,
authentication, validation and storage.
●● Fostering an environment of access to a better quality and comparable information will help improve
evidence-based decision-making and better informed cross-jurisdictional initiatives.This will result in
providing more seamless access to government services.
●● People will benefit from improved services across many public service sectors. Better management of
natural resources, more effective and efficient emergency services and health services, and improved
policy and planning for their communities.
●● It will lead to true participation of the citizens in the governance of the country.
However, it is important to strike thebalance between sharing information for good governanceand
safeguarding it from those who want to harm the nation. In this regard, it is important that a country should
come up with National Information Strategy which must acknowledge information as a national asset that
must beboth protected and shared, as appropriate.
For example, the National Strategy for Information Sharing and Safeguarding of USA aims to strike the
proper balance between sharing information with those who need it to keep our country safe and safeguarding
268
it from those who would do us harm. Other countries like New Zealand and UK also have such information
strategy. However, it is not there in India. Official secrets act-1923 and RTI act calls for certain information
which must not be shared. 2nd ARC in its first report has said that The Official Secrets Act, 1923 should be
repealed, and substituted by a chapter in the National Security Act, containing provisions relating to official
secrets.
Barriers to Information Sharing
A major reason for poor information sharing isa culture that is resistant to sharing information and too much
centralization and misinterpretation of rules calling for secrecy. For example, the Central Civil Services
(Conduct) Rules prohibit unauthorized communication of
information (similar provisions exist for the state government employees under their respective Rules). Rule
says that:
‘No Government servant shall, except in accordance with any general or special order of the Government
or in the performance in good faith of the duties assigned to him, communicate, directly or indirectly,
any official document or any part thereof or information to any Government servant or any other person
to whom he is not authorized to communicate such document or information.’
The accent in these rules is on denial of information to public. As per 2nd ARC first report, this rule must be
changed to:
“Every Government servant shall, in performance of his duties in good faith, communicate to a member
of public or any organization full and accurate information, which can be disclosed under the Right to
Information Act, 2005.
Explanation – Nothing in this rule shall be construed as permitting communication of classified information
in an unauthorized manner or for improper gains to a Government servant or others.”
Other problems in information sharing are:
●● A lack of leadership and coordination within agencies
●● Absence of a clear value proposition
●● Information management practices that restrict sharing capability
●● Malpractices and corruption
●● Lack of infrastructure and technology
●● Requires motivation, time and energy which are often in short supply in government organizations.
●● Lack of demand and awareness among people
How Information Sharing can be Improved
●● Awareness raising through Information education including Privacy education
●● Changing work culture practices
●● Communication plan
●● Information governance which includes law, methods, standards and guidelines and manage and spread
information
●● Capability gap analysis
●● Management of intellectual property/copyright/licensing
Transparency in Government
In context of public services, transparency implies openness, communication and accountability. It is a
metaphorical extension of the word “transparent” which means an object that can be seen through.
With regard to the public services, it means that holders of public office should be as open as possible about
all the decisions and actions they take. They should give reasons for their decisions and restrict information
only when the wider public interest demands it (Chapman, 2000).
Radical transparency in management demands that all decision making should be carried out publicly. All
draft documents, all arguments for and against a proposal, the decision about the decision making process
269
itself, and all final decisions, are made publicly and remain publicly archived.
Article 12 of the Charter for the Public Service in Africa demands that:
“Administrative decisions shall always be taken in accordance with transparent, simple and understandable
procedures, while ensuring accountability.”
Government transparency includes transparency between:
1. Government and citizens
2. Government and governments
3. Government and civil society
4. Government and private sector
5. Within government
Transparency thus has become a novel value of democracy. Governments and civil society have embraced
it as a preferred reform strategy for improving governance. Transparency promotes accountability and
provides information for citizens about what their Government is doing. As a principle, public officials, civil
servants, managers and directors of companies and organizations have a duty to act visibly, predictably and
understandably to promote participation and accountability.
However, simply making information available is not sufficient to achieve transparency. Large amounts of
raw information in the public domain may breed opacity rather than transparency. Information should be
managed and published so that it is:
1. Relevant and accessible: Information should be presented in plain and readily comprehensible language
and formats appropriate for different stakeholders. It should retain the detail and disaggregation necessary
for analysis, evaluation and participation. Information should be made available in ways appropriate to
different audiences.
2. Timely and accurate: Information should be made available in sufficient time to permit analysis,
evaluation and engagement by relevant stakeholders. This means that information needs to be provided
while planning as well as during and after the implementation of policies and programmes. Information
should be managed so that it is up-to-date, accurate, and complete.
Right to privacy: A challenge, though, is balancing one set of citizen rights with another: how do we honor
rights to free speech and open discourse and yet preserve the protections of the Privacy Act? How do we
ensure equal access to all citizens (regardless of age, expertise or location) yet not have government agencies
stall as they first absorb a potential avalanche of opinions?
Some initial areas for action might be those programs that touch more citizens directly, such as health care,
housing (e.g., mortgage lending), education or retirement benefits. Government should find ways to allow
people to more easily get information, research legislation in plain language, or offer their ideas on how
they’d like to engage with their government. Another avenue is first to simplify the government; address
outmoded policies/legislation and enforce measures designed to limit how much information the government
collects, processes and stores.
nn
270
Chapter - 4
Right to Information
L
ack of information denies people the opportunity to develop their potential to the fullest and realize the
full range of their human rights. Aristotle once said:
“If liberty and equality, as is thought by some are chiefly to be found in democracy, they will be best
attained when all persons alike share in the government to the utmost”.
Individual personality, political and social identity and economic capability are all shaped by the information
that is available to each person and to society at large. The practice of routinely holding information away
from the public creates ‘subjects’ rather than ‘citizens’ and is a violation of their rights. This was recognized
by the United Nations at its very inception in 1946, when the General Assembly resolved:
“Freedom of Information is a fundamental human right and the touchstone for all freedoms to
which the United Nations is consecrated”.
Enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the right’s status as a legally binding treaty obligation
was affirmed in Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights which states:
“Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold
opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and
ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers”
This has placed the right to access information firmly within the body of universal human rights law.
The right to access information underpins all other human rights. For example, freedom of expression and
thought inherently rely on the availability of adequate information to inform opinions. The realization of
the right to personal safety also requires that people have sufficient information to protect themselves. In
Canada, a court has recognized that the right to security creates a corollary right to information about threats
to personal safety which would be violated if the police force knew of a threat and failed to provide that
information to the threatened individual.
The right to food is also often reliant on the right to information. In India for example, people have used
access laws to find out about their ration entitlements and to expose the fraudulent distribution of food grains.
Quite simply, the right to information is at the core of the human rights system because it enables citizens to
more meaningfully exercise their rights, assess when their rights are at risk and determine who is responsible
for any violations.
Right to access information is also inherent in good governance. Good governance has four elements-
transparency, accountability, predictability and participation.
Constitutional Provisions, Judicial Pronouncements and RTI Act

Right to Information (RTI) is basically a derivative of the Article 19 of the Constitution which deals with
protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech etc.RTI can also be related to Right to Life and
Personal Liberty (Article 21) under Indian constitution.
Over the years, the Supreme Court has consistently ruled in favor of the citizen’s right to know. The nature of
this right and the relevant restrictions thereto, has been discussed by the Supreme Court in a number of cases:
●● In Bennett Coleman v. Union of India (1972), the right to information was held to be included within
the right to freedom of speech and expression guaranteed by Art. 19(1)(a).
●● In State of UP vs. Raj Narain (1975), the Court explicitly stated that the responsibility of officials to
explain and to justify their acts is the chief safeguard against oppression and corruption.’
●● In S.P. Gupta v. President of India (1982), the right of the people to know about every public act, and
the details of every public transaction undertaken by public functionaries was described.
271
●● In People’s Union for Civil Liberties v. Union of Indiacase, the right to information was further elevated
to the status of a human right which is necessary for making governance transparent and accountable.
The first and most well-known right to information movement in India was the Mazdoor Kisan Shakti
Sangathan (MKSS), which began its right to information work in Rajasthan during the early 1990s.
Recognizing the need for setting out a practical regime for securing of information by citizens from the
public authorities, and to promote transparency and accountability in the working of all public authorities, the
Parliament enacted the Right to Information Act in 2005.
The law is comprehensive and covers disclosure of information on almost all matters of governance. It is
applicable to Government at all levels—Central, State and Local (both rural and urban) and also to the
bodies owned, controlled or substantially financed by the government, as well as to the non-governmental
organizations receiving government grants. It covers the legislature, the judiciary, the executive and all
constitutional bodies.The Central Information Commission in Sarbajit Roy vs DERC case, held that even
private bodies which perform a ‘public’ function will come under the RTI Act.
The salient features (or provisions) of the Act are mentioned below:
1. Governments at different levels shall develop educational programs for the public especially disadvantaged
communities on RTI. Training shall be given to officers in this regard.
2. The Act confers on all citizens the right of access to the information and, correspondingly, makes the
dissemination of such information an obligation on all public authorities.
3. It provides for the appointment of a public information officer in each department to provide information
to the public on request.
4. It fixes a 30-day deadline for providing information; deadline is 48 hours if information concerns life
or liberty of a person. Information will be free for people below poverty line. For others, fee will be
reasonable.
5. The Act imposes obligation on public agencies to disclose the information suo-motu to reduce requests for
an information. Government bodies have to publish details of staff payments and budgets.
6. Certain types of information are exempted from disclosure. These relate to sovereignty and integrity of
India, security, scientific or economic interest of the country, cabinet deliberations and so on.
7. A public information officer may reject a request for information if it involves an infringement of
copyright subsisting in a person other than the state. Restrictions are made for third party information.
The submission of third party is to be considered while taking a decision about disclosure of information.
8. It provides for the establishment of a Central Information Commission and State Information Commissions
to implement the provisions of the Act. They will be high-powered independent bodies to act as appellate
authorities and vested with the powers of a civil court.
9. The Central Information Commission entertains complaints and appeals in case of offices, financial
institutions, public sector undertakings, etc., under the Central Government and the Union Territories
while the State Information Commission entertains complaints and appeals pertaining to offices, financial
institutions, public sector undertakings, etc., under the control of the concerned State Government.
10. The CIC and Information Commissioners shall be appointed by the President on the recommendation of
a committee consisting of—Prime Minister as Chairperson, the Leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha; a
Union Cabinet Minister to be nominated by the Prime Minister.
11. CIC shall be appointed for a term of 5 years from date on which he enters upon his office or till he attains
the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. He is not eligible for reappointment. Salary will be the same as
that of the Chief Election Commissioner. This will not be varied to the disadvantage of the CIC during
service.
12. Governors of states will appoint state information commissioners. Their term will be of five years.
13. The Chief Information Commissioner and State Information Commissioner will publish an annual report
on the implementation of the Act. These reports will be tabled before Parliament and state legislature.
14. The Act overrides the Official Secrets Act, 1923. The information commissions can allow access to the
information if public interest outweighs harm to protected persons. The Official Secrets Act 1923 is
272
India’s anti espionage (Spy” and “Secret agent”) act held over from British colonization. The disclosure
of any information that is likely to affect the sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State,
or friendly relations with foreign States, is punishable by this act.
15. It carries strict penalties for failing to provide information or affecting its flow. The erring officials will be
subjected to departmental proceedings.
16. The information commission shall fine an official Rs. 250 per day (subject to a maximum of Rs. 25,000)
if information is delayed without reasonable cause beyond the stipulated 30 days.
17. The Act provides for a system of two appeals in case the information is denied: first appeal to the senior of
the concerned public information officer within 30 days and second appeal to the Information Commission
within 90 days. The decision of the Information Commission is binding.
18. The appeals at both stages must be disposed of within 30 days which is extendable by 15 days if necessary.
But, in any case the decision must be given within 45 days.
19. There is a bar on jurisdiction of courts. Hence, no court can entertain any suit, application or other
proceeding in respect of any order made under the Act.
20. Its purview does not extend to intelligence and security organizations like Intelligence Bureau, RAW,
BSF, CISF, NSG and so on. However, information pertaining to allegations of corruption or violation of
human rights by these organizations will not be excluded.
21. The Act repealed the old Freedom of Information Act (2002) which was un-notified and hence, not
operational.
Achievements of RTI act
Right to Information, apart from its impact on bringing better governance and exposing corruption has
empowered the individual citizen through enforcement of human dignity. Some of its achievements are:
●● Scams Exposed: Several scams were exposed using the RTI Act, including the Adarsh Housing scam,
which resulted in the exit of the Chief Minister of Maharashtra. RTI was also used in the 2G, coal blocks
allocations and Commonwealth Games scandals.
●● Rights based Demands: It led to the demand for several other equally important rights like the right to
employment guarantee, the right to education and the right to food security.
●● I-T Returns of the Parties: In 2008, CIC ordered the disclosure of I-T returns filed by political parties —
which triggered a battle for bringing political parties under the purview of RTI.
●● Accessible File Notings: After a series of orders and reminders by the CIC, the government, in 2012,
made available file notings under the RTI Act. This has created pressure on bureaucrats to write properly
on files.
●● Assets of Ministers, Bureaucrats and Judges: As a result of pressures brought about by the transparency
law, the assets and liabilities of ministers, civil servants and judges are now available in the public domain,
and are updated annually.
●● In 2008, an RTI application by a Punjab-based NGO revealed that heads of the local branches of the
Indian Red Cross Society had used money intended for the victims of the Kargil war and natural disasters
to buy cars, air-conditioners and pay for hotel bills.
Negative repercussions of RTI act
There is no doubt that RTI Act is proving helpful in bringing about greater transparency and accountability in
the functioning of the government. However, it is also being observed that at times this mechanism has been
misused in following ways:
(i) frivolous RTI applications which serve no public purpose
(ii) Misuse of these provisions for vested interests
(iii) Interference and pessimism in decision making process of public servants
(iv) Reluctance on part of officers to take bold decisions
(v) Created extra work for already over-burdened administration. Huge number of RTI queries filed makes it
difficult for public authorities to respond to them in a timely manner.
273
A 2014 study conducted by the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative (CHRI) revealed that over 1.75 crore
RTI applications have been filed from 2005 to July 2014. Add to this the fact that a lot of the RTI queries
filed are frivolous. For example, after the PMO website released a list of RTI queries about PM Modi, it was
revealed that one of the RTI queries was the following: “What is the speed of internet of Wi-Fi in the PMO?”
Thus, there is a need to resolve the dichotomy between the need for transparency and accountability and
protecting honest civil servants from undue harassment. It can be done by
(i) Providing Monitoring mechanisms for ensuring transparency in program implementation.
(ii) Providing adequate Safeguards to officers such that autonomy and accountability can be balanced.
(iii) Encouraging officers to take decisions by rewarding them for success.
(iv) Defining standard operating procedure and Code of Conduct in context of RTI for officers
(v) Encouraging voluntary disclosure of information
(vi) Value education for all
(vii) Encouraging participation of people in governance through trust building measures.
(viii) Penalty for those who use measures for personal interests.
(ix) Bringing people under moral (if not legal) regulations through propagating positive values.
(x) Media can restrict itself in crossing the boundaries by coming out with norms for media activism.
Challenges/Obstacles for the Successful Implementation of RTI

●● The legislative framework includes several pieces of restrictive legislation, such as the Official Secrets
Act, 1923;
●● The pervasive culture of secrecy and arrogance within the bureaucracy;
●● It provides for information on demand, so to speak, but does not sufficiently stress information on matters
related to food, water, environment and other survival needs that must be given pro-actively, or suo moto,
by public authorities
●● The most scathing indictment of the Bill has come from critics who focus on the sweeping exemptions
it permits. Restrictions on information relating to security, foreign policy, defence, law enforcement and
public safety are standard. But RTI Act also excludes Cabinet papers, including records of the council
of ministers, secretaries and other officials; this effectively shields the whole process of decision-making
from mandatory disclosure.
●● Infrastructure provided to Information commissioner-ate is inadequate. It results in delay in processing
application and penalizing authorities.
●● State governments such as Karnataka have come up with orders reducing the word limit, making formats
for question and in some cases prohibited questions in regional languages.
●● Maharashtra government has issued a directive to all departments and offices in 2014, asking them not to
provide any information under the RTI Act if it “does not constitute any public interest”.
274
●● There have been more than 350 instances of harassment of citizens including murder, attacks and
intimidation from the time the law came into force in 2005, according to an analysis by Delhi-based
advocacy group National Campaign for People’s Right to Information (NCPRI).
Political Parties under RTI

●● Six national parties in India have refused to comply with the CIC order of 2013, declaring them as Public
Authorities.
●● In March 2015, the CIC passed another order which in effect said that it was helpless in the matter and
would not impose penalty or enforce compliance of its 2013 order.
●● Earlier, it had issued summons on three occasions to the parties concerned to present their arguments, all
of which were ignored.
●● The new order says that penalty can only be imposed on the Public Information Officer (PIO) and since
the political parties have not appointed them, no action can be taken.
●● Faced with the only such case of non-compliance in the RTI’s history, the CIC suggested that further
action be taken by the Union government or by courts.
●● The petitioners called the CIC move “an abdication of its responsibilities”. “The CIC is not a court, but
a quasi-judicial body. It is expected to follow not the letter of the law, but the spirit of the law. Following
this, the Act clearly gives it the power to award penalty and compensation,”
Rationale for defining political parties as public authorities
●● They were recipients of valuable state resources in the form of land, accommodation, and tax exemptions
which amounted to “substantial funding” by the public exchequer.
●● Free airtime on AIR or DD during election time.
●● Also by the virtue of acting for the public they should be open to public scrutiny.
●● PPs have constitutional recognition under Article 102(2), 191(2), and Tenth schedule as well as statutory
recognition under section 29(A) of RPA 1951.
Arguments for bringing political parties under RTI
●● Greater transparency: Bringing political parties under the ambit of RTI would bring financial
transparency in the working of political parties.
●● More Accountability: Political parties receive huge sums of money from the public as donations and are
not liable to pay any taxes and must therefore be accountable to the public.
●● Great harm is being caused to public interest due to lack of transparency in the political system and the
political parties, as the electoral system is generating huge black money and large sums of money are
being spent on every election, thus leading to violation of citizen’s rights under Article 14, 19(1)(a) and
21 of the Constitution of India.
●● Real democracy where political parties are not mere vote gathering machines, but are vibrant, democratic
organizations that are truly representative of the people, by the people and, most importantly, for the
people.
●● Less influence of industrial houses on policy making: Most of the parties have almost 75% of their
income from unknown sources. Generally corporate and industrial houses give them funds to change
policies, give illegal clearance and to hamper their competitor’s interest. It may also hamper people and
national interest.
Arguments against bringing political parties under RTI
●● Unfurling the RTI umbrella over political parties has implications for political strategy and functioning as
once conceded, even information on the distribution or denial of ticket can be sought — clearly a situation
that is untenable given the competitiveness, secrecy and intricacy of political decision making.
●● Political rivals with malicious intentions would file RTI applications, thereby adversely affecting the
functioning of the parties
275
●● Political parties do not maintain the documentation needed to respond to wide-ranging RTI queries and
they cannot be expected to establish a new organization only to fulfill the sweeping questions that will
come under the RTI.
●● If the argument that political parties received “substantial funding” is applied equitably, it would apply to
all similarly placed NGOs.
●● The government, in its counter affidavit, also contended that there are already provisions in the
Representation of People Act, 1951, as well as the Income Tax act of 1961 that lead to transparency
regarding the financial aspects of the political parties.
While there might be genuine concerns about the potential misuse by political opponents, neither the
government nor the political parties have come forward with any plan to implement the recommendations of
the various Law Commission reports regarding financial transparency of political parties.
Future prospects: why RTI needs a second revolution?

●● Decline in the enthusiasm of the Civil Society to use RTI as a tool for transparent government.
●● Continued indifference and hostility towards RTI by the civil servants.
●● Many small-time blackmailers, in the guise of media persons or RTI activists, have successfully milked
the RTI to make a living or settle personal scores, thus giving it a bad name among public authorities.
●● The initial interest shown by the media has also somewhat waned.
●● Long pendency in most information commissions — some even for a year or more — signals their casual
approach. This, in turn, emboldens public authorities to take the RTI casually.
●● A widespread reluctance to penalize errant government officials also contributes to a general sense of
laxity in the enforcement of this law.
●● The appointment of information commissioners, especially in the states — many of whom are not equal
to the task in terms of intellect and stature — has seriously undermined the citizen’s trust in information
commissions.
●● The absence of enforcement provisions in the law has rendered the information commissions toothless.
●● The law is too ambitiously and, some say, unrealistically drafted as it defines both “information” and
“public authority” in the widest possible manner. As a result, the sheer volume and variety of information
being sought places a huge burden on the public authorities. This induces a strong sense of resistance in
them.
Post-independence history of India can be bifurcated in two different eras, one pre-RTI Act and the other one
post RTI-Act. ‘Right-To-Information’ Act has given India a second freedom where a citizen is now much-
more empowered. But it is just a starting and not an end. RTI surely need a second revolution to revive the
old fervour with which it was first initiated. As far as laws go, the RTI Act has been the best thing to happen
after the Constitution of India; we must make it work.
Quotes on Transparency
1. “I for one have the conviction that the government ought to be outside and not inside. I, for my part,
believe the there ought to be not place where everything can be done that everyone does not know about.
Everyone knows corruption thrives in secret place and avoid public place.” — Woodrow Wilson
2. “People who mean to be their governors must arm themselves with power which Knowledge gives. A
popular government without popular information or the means of acquiring it is but a prologue to a farce
or tragedy or perhaps both.” — James Madison
3. “Nothing is safe that does not show that it can bear discussion and publicity.” — Lord Action
4. “Governments which pursues secret aims, or which operates in greater secrecy than the effective conduct
of its proper function require, or which turn information services into propaganda agencies, will lose the
trust of the people. It will be countered by ill-informed and destructive criticism.”
— British Franks committee (1972)
276
5. “Secrecy in government is fundamentally antidemocratic, perpetuating bureaucratic error. Open discussion
based on full information and debates on public issues are vital to our national health.”
— Just Douglas of USA
6. A lack of transparency results in distrust and a deep sense of insecurity. — Dalai Lama
7. The keys to brand success are self-definition, transparency, authenticity and accountability.
— Simon Mainwaring
8. Transparency in government, no less than transparency in choosing government, remains a vital national
interest in a democracy. — Merrick Garland
9. There can be no faith in government if our highest offices are excused from scrutiny - they should be
setting the example of transparency. — Edward Snowden
10. Connectivity enables transparency for better government, education, and health. — Bill Gates
nn
277
Chapter - 5
Citizen’s Charters
A
s per 12th report of 2nd ARC (Citizen Centric Administration - The Heart of Governance), Citizen’s
Charter is an instrument which seeks to make an organization transparent, accountable and citizen
friendly. A Citizen’s Charter is basically a set of commitments made by an organization regarding the
standards of service which it delivers.
The commitments / promises constitute the heart of a Citizen’s Charter. Even though these promises are not
enforceable in a court of law, each organization should ensure that the promises made are kept and, in case of
default, a suitable compensatory / remedial mechanism should be provided.
The concept of Citizen’s Charter enshrines the trust between the service provider and its users. The concept
was first articulated and implemented in the United Kingdom by the Conservative Government of John Major
in 1991 as a National Programme with a simple aim: to continuously improve the quality of public services for
the people of the country so that these services respond to the needs and wishes of the users. The programme
was re-launched in 1998 by the Labour Government of Tony Blair which rechristened it “Service First”.
Objectiveof Citizen’s Charter: The basic objective of the Citizen’s Charter is to empower the citizen
in relation to public service delivery. The six principles of the Citizen’s Charter movement as originally
framed were:
I. Quality: Improving the quality of services;
II. Choice: Providing choice wherever possible;
III. Standards: Specify what to expect and how to act if standards are not met;
IV. Value: Add value for the taxpayers’ money;
V. Accountability: Be accountable to individuals and organizations; and
VI. Transparency: Ensure transparency in Rules/ Procedures/ Schemes/ Grievances
Components of a Citizen’s Charter: A good Citizen’s Charter should have the following components:
1. Vision and Mission Statement of the Organization
2. Details of Business transacted by the Organization
3. Details of ‘Citizens’ or ‘Clients’
4. Statement of services including standards, quality, time frame etc. provided to each Citizen/ Client group
separately and how/ where to get the services
5. Details of Grievance Redress Mechanism and how to access it
6. Expectations from the ‘Citizens’ or ‘Clients’
7. Additional commitments such as compensation in the event of failure of service delivery.
International Scenario: The UK’s Citizen’s Charter initiative aroused considerable interest around the world
and several countries implemented similar programmes. Some examples are:
●● Australia (Service Charter, 1997),
●● Belgium (Public Service Users’ Charter 1992),
●● Canada (Service Standards Initiative, 1995),
●● France (Service Charter, 1992),
●● India (Citizen’s Charter, 1997),
●● Jamaica (Citizen’s Charter 1994),
●● Malaysia (Client Citizen’s Charters - A Handbook Charter, 1993),
●● Portugal (The Quality Charter in Public Services, 1993), and
●● Spain (The Quality Observatory, 1992)
278
Indian Scenario
Over the years, in India, significant progress has been made in the field of economic development. This, along
with a substantial increase in the literacy rate, has made Indian citizens increasingly aware of their rights.
Citizens have become more articulate and expect the administration not merely to respond to their demands
but also to anticipate them. It was in this climate that since 1996 a consensus had evolved in the Government
on effective and responsive administration.
In a Conference of Chief Ministers of various States and Union Territories held on 24 May, 1997 in New Delhi,
presided over by the Prime Minister of India, an “Action Plan for Effective and Responsive Government” at
the Centre and State levels was adopted. One of the major decisions at that Conference was that the Central
and State Governments would formulate Citizen’s Charters, starting with those sectors that have a large
public interface (e.g., Railways, Telecom, Posts, Public Distribution Systems). These Charters were required
to include standards of service and time limits that the public can reasonably expect avenues of grievance
redress and a provision for independent scrutiny with the involvement of citizen and consumer groups.
Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances in Government of India (DARPG) initiated
the task of coordinating, formulating and operationalizing Citizen’s Charters. Guidelines for formulating
the Charters as well as a list of do’s and don’ts were communicated to various government departments/
organizations to enable them to bring out focused and effective charters.
Primarily an adaptation of the UK model, the Indian Citizen’s Charter has an additional component
of ‘expectations from the clients’ or in other words ‘obligations of the users’. Involvement of consumer
organizations, citizen groups, and other stakeholders in the formulation of the Citizen’s Charter is emphasized
to ensure that the Citizen’s Charter meets the needs of the users.
Evaluation of Citizen’s Charters
Evaluation of effectiveness of Citizen’s Charters in India through different agencies has not been encouraging.
Some major findings are:
1. By and large service providers are not familiar with the philosophy, goals and main features of the Charter;
2. Poor design and content: Most organizations do not have adequate capability to draft meaningful and
succinct Citizens’ Charter. Critical information that end-users need to hold agencies accountable are
simply missing from a large number of charters.
3. Lack of public awareness: While a large number of public service providers have implemented Citizens’
Charter, only a small percentage of end-users are aware of the commitments made in the Citizens’ Charter.
Effective efforts of communicating and educating the public about the standards of delivery promise have
not been undertaken.
4. Charters are rarely updated: Charters reviewed for this report rarely showed signs of being updated.
Some documents date back to the inception of the Citizens’ Charter programme nearly two decades ago.
Only 6% of Charters reviewed even make the assurance that the document will be updated sometime after
release.
5. End-users and NGOs are not consulted when Charters are drafted: Civil society organizations and
end-users are generally not consulted when Charters are being formulated. It was found that in most cases,
the needs of senior citizens and the disabled are not considered when drafting Charters.
6. Resistance to change: The new practices demand significant changes in the behaviour and attitude of
the agency and its staff towards citizens. At times, vested interests work for stalling the Citizens’ Charter
altogether or in making it toothless.
What can be done?
As per 12th report of 2nd ARC (Citizen Centric Administration - The Heart of Governance), Citizen’s Charters
should be made effective by adopting the following principles:
●● One size does not fit all
●● Citizen’s Charter should be prepared for each independent unit under the overall umbrella of the
organization’s charter
279
●● Wide consultation which include civil society and staff in the process
●● Firm commitments to be made
●● Internal process and structure should be reformed to meet the commitments given in the Charter
●● Redress mechanism is case of default
●● Periodic evaluation of Citizen’s Charters
●● Benchmark using end-user feedback
●● Hold officers accountable for results
●● Need for wider publicity of the Charter through print media, posters, banners, leaflets, handbills, brochures,
local newspapers etc. and also through electronic media.
●● Need for creation of database on consumer grievances and redress
●● Replication of best practices in this field.
●● Orientation of staff about the salient features and goals/objectives of the Charter; vision and mission
statement of the department; and skills such as team building, problem solving, handling of grievances
and communication skills.
●● Earmarking of specific budgets for awareness generation and orientation of staff.
●● Replication of best practices in this field.
The Right of Citizens for Time Bound Delivery of Goods and Services and Redressal of their Grievances
Bill, 2011 (Citizen’s Charter) is also pending in parliament. The Bill seeks to create a mechanism to ensure
timely delivery of goods and services to citizens. Every public authority is required to publish a citizen’s
charter within six months of the commencement of the Act. The Charter will detail the goods and services to
be provided and their timelines for delivery.
nn
280
Chapter - 6
Code of Ethics and Code of Conduct
A
s per 2nd ARC’s 10th report; Refurbishing of Personnel Administration – Scaling New Heights, civil
servants have special obligations because they are responsible for managing resources entrusted to
them by the community, because they provide and deliver services to the community and because
they take important decisions that affect all aspects of a community’s life.
The community has a right to expect that the civil service functions fairly, impartially and efficiently. It is
essential that the community must be able to trust and have confidence in the integrity of the civil service
decision-making process.
Within the civil service itself, it needs to be ensured that the decisions and actions of civil servants reflect the
policies of the government of the day and the standards that the community expects from them as government
servants.
The expectation that the civil service will maintain the same standards of professionalism, responsiveness and
impartiality in serving successive political governments is a key element of the way our democratic polity
functions.
In a democracy, an efficient civil service must have a set of values, principles and behavioral conducts that
distinguishes it from other professions. Ethical codes refer to these values, principles, and behavioral conducts
only, which every professional shall aspire for. We have different ethical codes for different professions, as per
the requirement. There are two type of ethical codes: code of ethics and code of conduct.
Importance/utility of ethical codes:

1. It functions as a professional statement and has both cognitive and emotive value.
2. It helps the professional to decide whether his actions are right or wrong.
3. It brings consistency and responsibility in the behaviour of an employee.
4. It brings legality and rationality in the actions of government.
5. It brings accountability in government functioning.
6. It helps in controlling the menace of corruption and favoritism.
7. It helps civil servant to defend his actions against ill guided complaints.
8. It helps civil servant to do right things in right ways
9. It provides a strong prima facie reason to act in a certain way.
10. It helps in resolving ethical dilemmas.
1. Code of Ethics
A code of ethics is a guide of general and core ethical values designed to help professionals conduct business
honestly and with integrity. The ethical values in a code of conduct are based on the organization’s core values
and the standards to which the professional will be held accountable. It is a document which usually outlines:
1. the mission and values of an organization.
2. the ethical principles based on the organization’s core values.
3. The standards to which the professional will be held.
4. how professionals are supposed to approach problems.
Criticism of code of ethics:
1. They are very general, abstract and difficult to enforce.
2. They are subjective and different individuals can give different interpretations to them.
281
3. Do not provide quick solutions in emergency situations.

4. Neglect socio-cultural and political context.
5. They are highly descriptive in nature.
2. Code of conduct
A code of conduct is a set of principles and behaviours which an individual must follow for the successful and
ethical conduct of business. It contains:
1. Principles which are based on the core values of an organization.
2. Detailed and specific behaviors which an individual must follow in form of do’s
3. Detailed and specific behaviors which an individual must not follow in form of don’ts
Codes of Conduct are designed to anticipate and prevent certain specific types of behavior; e.g. conflict of
interest, self-dealing, bribery, and inappropriate actions. Most often, they are fairly lengthy and detailed. Most
codes of conduct focus on the “do nots” rather than on affirmative obligations. That is, they detail specific
actions in which employees are not to engage.
Criticism of code of conduct
1. It is almost impossible to predict every possible situation that may arise in the future.
2. They are often restrictive rather than affirmative obligations.
3. They are highly prescriptive in nature
4. They generally are designed to address only minimal forms of ethical behavior.
5. They are very complex with many sub clauses and exceptions
6. Use of legal language makes them difficult to understand.
7. Different codes at different levels are required.
Having explored the concepts of code of ethics and codes of conduct, it is important to note that there are
no “pure” models. Most governments are on a continuum between ethics codes and codes of conduct. The
public management context is critically important. A 1997 study showed the relationship between managerial
systems in several countries and the use of code of ethics (integrity based) and codes of conduct (compliance
based). Although more developed countries lean toward ethics codes, rather than codes of conduct, the stage
of development is not determining. Other variables such as the population of a country or its public service
regime might be more likely to explain their success.
Comparing Code of Conduct and Code of Ethics
Both a Code of Ethics and a Code of Conduct are similar as they are used in an attempt to encourage specific forms
of behaviour by employees. Ethics guidelines attempt to provide guidance about values and choices to influence
decision making. Conduct regulations assert that some specific actions are appropriate, others inappropriate. In
both cases, the organization’s desire is to obtain a narrow range of acceptable behaviors from employees.
With similarities, comes differences. Both are used in an attempt to regulate behavior in very different ways.
Ethical standards generally are wide-ranging and non-specific, designed to provide a set of values or decision-
making approaches that enable employees to make independent judgments about the most appropriate course
of action. Conduct standards generally require little judgment; you obey or incur a penalty, and the code
provides a fairly clear set of expectations about which actions are required, acceptable or prohibited.
Ethical Codes in Different Countries

In some countries, values for civil services have been embodied in laws – e.g. in Australia - and in some
countries these are enshrined in the respective Constitutions. Article 153 of the Polish Constitution states that:
“A corps of civil servants shall operate in the organs of government administration in order to ensure a
professional, diligent, impartial and politically neutral discharge of the State’s obligations.”
Most countries that have reformed their civil services such as New Zealand, Australia and the UK have
established a set of principles to guide civil service behaviour in the form of values and a legally enforceable
code of conduct, setting out standards of behaviour expected of those working in the civil services.
282
UK: In the UK, following the recommendations of the Nolan Committee on standards in public service, the
Civil Service Code was incorporated into a law that came into force in 1996. The Code is a clear and concise
statement of standards of behaviour that the civil servants must follow, and is a part of the civil servant’s terms
and conditions of employment. In addition to describing the integrity and loyalty required of civil servants, the
Code prohibits deceiving Parliament or the public, misuse of official positions, and unauthorized disclosure
of confidential information. The Code provides a right of appeal to independent Civil Service Commissioners
on matters of propriety and conscience, if the problem cannot be resolved within the department in question.
Lord Nolan Committee on Standards in Public Life: The Committee on Standards in Public Life (CSPL) is
an advisory non-departmental public body of the United Kingdom Government, established in 1994 to advise
the Prime Minister on ethical standards of public life. The Committee’s First Report in 1995 established The
Seven Principles of Public Life, also known as the “Nolan principles”. They were:
1. Selflessness: Holders of public office should take decisions solely in terms of the public interest. They
should not do so in order to gain financial or other material benefits for themselves, their family, or their
friends.
2. Integrity: Holders of public office should not place themselves under any financial or other obligation to
outside individuals or organizations that might influence them in the performance of their official duties.
3. Objectivity: In carrying out public business, including making public appointments, awarding contracts,
or recommending individuals for rewards and benefits, holders of public office should make choices on
merit.
4. Accountability: Holders of public office are accountable for their decisions and actions to the public and
must submit themselves to whatever scrutiny is appropriate to their office.
5. Openness: Holders of public office should be as open as possible about all the decisions and actions that
they take. They should give reasons for their decisions and restrict information only when the wider
public interest clearly demands.
6. Honesty: Holders of public office have a duty to declare any private interests relating to their public duties
and to take steps to resolve any conflicts arising in a way that protects the public interest.
7. Leadership: Holders of public office should promote and support these principles by leadership and
example.”
New Zealand: In New Zealand, the reforms have led to the enactment of the State Services Act with focus
on ethics and public service ethos. This was primarily because civil service reforms in New Zealand created
a system in which loyalty of the civil servant was to his/her department or agency rather than to the public
service as a whole. So, it was necessary to raise the awareness about ethics, and public service values and
ethos. The State Services Commission took the lead in raising such awareness and issued the Code of Conduct
for civil servants. A Standards and Ethics Board was also set up.
Australia: In Australia, reforms in this respect have been the most comprehensive. Section 10 of the Public
Service Act, 1999 contains a declaration of fifteen values like impartiality, accountability, equality, equity, etc.
whereas Section 13 lays down the code of conduct for Australia’s civil service.
Indian Scenario
In India, the current set of ethical norms are the Conduct Rules, contained in the Central Services (Conduct)
Rules, 1964 and analogous rules applicable to members of the All India Services (All India Services Conduct
rules 1968 for IAS, IPS and IFS) or employees of various State Governments. The code of behaviour as
enunciated in the Conduct Rules, while containing some general norms like ‘maintaining integrity and
absolute devotion to duty’ and not indulging in ‘conduct unbecoming of a government servant’ is generally
directed towards cataloguing specific activities deemed undesirable for government servants. These conduct
rules do not constitute a code of ethics.
These rules are more in the nature of “do’s” and “don’t”. The Conduct Rules cover matters such as property
transactions, acceptance of gifts, joining of non-political organization and host of other issues covering almost
every activity which a normal individual undertakes.
283
The rules are highly restrictive, seriously curtailing freedom of operation of a government employee, couched
in vague language and sometimes impractical to follow. If a government servant wishes to carry serious
academic activity and publish articles and books, he has to take permission, which does not come by easily.
The conduct rules are followed more in breach than in practice and gives a handle to government to harass
honest and dedicated officers, while the dishonest and corrupt get away due to complicated procedure involved
in taking disciplinary action. The rules are totally inadequate to deal with cases of malfeasance or misconduct
of public servants as they give numerous escape routes for the unscrupulous.
First Initiative for Code of Ethics- May 1997: The Department of Administrative Reforms of Government
of India had prepared a Code of Ethics for public services, as part of an Action Plan for an Effective and
Responsive Government which was presented in a conference of Chief Ministers presided by the Prime
Minister held in May 1997. The objective of the Code was to prescribe standards of integrity and conduct that
are to apply to public services. The principles laid down in the code were laudable but unfortunately, they
were not issued as a Code of Ethics for public servants.
Second Initiative for Public Service Values - Public Service Bill 2006: In 2006 the department of Personnel
drafted a Public Service Bill, which enumerated fundamental values of Public Services, a Code of Ethics,
a Management Code etc. with the object of developing public services as a professional, politically neutral,
merit based and accountable civil service. The main values by which the Public Servants shall be guided are
as follows:
●● allegiance to the Constitution and the law, democracy, nationalism, sovereignty, integrity of India and the
security of the nation;
●● function in apolitical manner;
●● Act objectively, impartially, honestly, equitably, and in a fair and just manner;
●● Act with integrity and in a courteous and just manner;
●● Establish high standards, and ensure quality service, effective working and prompt decision making;
●● Be accountable for the decisions;
●● Establish merit as the fundamental principle in employment, promotion and placements;
●● Discharge functions with due regard to diversity of the nation/community and religion but without
discrimination of caste, community, religion, gender or class and duly protecting the interest of poor,
underprivileged and weaker sections;
●● Provide honest, impartial and frank advice to political executive;
●● Ensure that public money is used with utmost economy and care;
The Public Service Bill has not made any headway and seems to have gone in cold storage. One problem with
the draft bill was that it intended to fulfil too many objectives. Apart from values and ethics, the Bill envisaged
lying down principles of management of public services, principles which should govern appointment to
public services, performance indicators for public services etc. With such wide ranging and diverse coverage
of matters relating to service matters, it is difficult to reach consensus and secure legislative approval.
2nd ARC Recommendations
As per 2nd ARC (10th report; Refurbishing of Personnel Administration – Scaling New Heights), a
comprehensive Civil Service Code can be conceptualized at three levels. At the apex level, there should be a
clear and concise statement of the values and ethical standards that a civil servant should imbibe. These values
should reflect public expectations from a civil servant with reference to political impartiality, maintenance
of highest ethical standards and accountability for actions. At the second level, the broad principles which
should govern the behaviour of a civil servant may be outlined. This would constitute the Code of Ethics. At
the third level, there should be a specific Code of Conduct stipulating in a precise and unambiguous manner, a
list of acceptable and unacceptable behaviour and actions. The values and the Code of Ethics should be given
a statutory backing by including them in the proposed Civil Services Bill.
The report also said that in addition to commitment to the Constitution these values should include:
1. Adherence to the highest standards of probity, integrity and conduct
284
2. Impartiality and non-partisanship
3. Objectivity
4. Commitment to the citizens’ concerns and public good
5. Empathy for the vulnerable and weaker sections of society.
2nd ARC is also of the view that these values, per se, may not be enforceable.But a mechanism may be put in
place so that efforts are made, particularly, by those inleadership positions, for inculcating these values in all
persons in their organizations. Thereport has asked the government to draw lessons from the Australian Public
Service Act which has defined a set of values. That law prescribes that an Agency Head must uphold and
promotethe Australian Public Service (APS) Values. It is also prescribed that theCommissioner’s functions
include –
(a) Evaluating the extent to which Agencies incorporateand uphold the APS Values
(b) Evaluating the adequacy of systems and procedures inAgencies for ensuring compliance with the Code of
Conduct (Section 41).
An independent agency should audit organizations/departments and evaluate themeasures the organization
has undertaken to uphold the civil service values. The Central Civil Services Authority may be entrusted
with this task.
The Commission has studied the issue of ethics in public life in other countries and in its Report on “Ethics
in Governance”, it has highlighted the seven principles of public life enunciated by the Nolan Committee in
UK. Drawing from these, the Commission has suggested the inclusion of the following principles (at second
level) in the Code of Ethics for civil servants in India:
1. Integrity: Civil servants should be guided solely by public interest in their official decision making and
not by any financial or other consideration either in respect of themselves, their families or their friends.
2. Impartiality: Civil servants in carrying out their official work, including functions like procurement,
recruitment, delivery of services etc, should take decisions based on merit alone.
3. Commitment to public service: Civil servants should deliver services in a fair, effective, impartial and
courteous manner.
4. Open accountability: Civil servants are accountable for their decisions and actions and should be willing
to subject themselves to appropriate scrutiny for this purpose.
5. Devotion to duty: Civil servants maintain absolute and unstinting devotion towards their duties and
responsibilities at all times.
6. Exemplary behaviour: Civil servants shall treat all members of the public with respect and courtesy and,
at all times, should behave in a manner that upholds the rich traditions of the civil services.
At the third level are a set of specific guidelines regulating the conduct of civil servants. As mentioned
earlier, the present Conduct Rules regulate the behaviour of civil servants. Although these constitute a very
comprehensive and wide ranging set of guidelines, they suffer from many shortcomings and anomalies. To
illustrate:
(1) No Class I officer shall, except with the previous sanction of the Government, permit his son, daughter
or other dependent, to accept employment in any [company or firm] with which he has official dealings or in
any other [company or firm] having official dealings with the Government. Since there may be no company or
firm in India that does not have any dealing with theGovernment, all firms and companies are automatically
covered by such a sweeping rulewhich is likely therefore to be observed more in breach than in reality and
which in any case,may not necessarily involve any type of conflict of interest. Moreover, even if permission
istaken in advance, if the acceptance of employment really involves any element of nepotismor conflict of
interest, such permission cannot absolve the civil servant from any disciplinary or criminal liability.
(2) A Government servant shall so manage his private affairs as to avoid habitual indebtedness or insolvency.
A Government servant, against whom any legal proceeding is instituted for the recovery of any debt due from
him or for adjudging him as an insolvent, shall forthwith report the full facts of the legal proceedings to the
Government. This appears to be a meaningless provision which is unlikely to be enforced nor does ithave any
direct linkage with the official work of the civil servant.
285
Therefore, in the light of the above, the Conduct Rules need to be completely redrawn based on the values
and code of ethics as suggested in the report. The proposed Central Civil Services Authority may be consulted
while drawing up the Conduct Rules and for interpreting any ‘grey areas’ that may emerge in enforcing these
Conduct Rules.
Note: Based on above recommendations, The Government of India has amended All India Services (Conduct)
Rules, 1968, in 2014. A code of ethics containing values and principles has been added to already existing
code of conduct.
Conduct Rules for Civil Services, Judiciary, Legislature and Regulators

Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964 (Updated)
Some general rules pertaining to civil services are:
1. maintain absolute integrity;
2. maintain devotion to duty
3. Do nothing which is unbecoming of a Government servant.
4. commit himself to and uphold the supremacy of the Constitution and democratic values
5. defend and uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, public order, decency
and morality;
6. maintain high ethical standards and honesty;
7. maintain political neutrality;
8. promote the principles of merit, fairness and impartiality in the discharge of duties;
9. maintain accountability and transparency;
10. maintain responsiveness to the public, particularly to the weaker section;
11. maintain courtesy and good behaviour with the public;
12. Take decisions solely in public interest and use or cause to use public resources efficiently, effectively and
economically;
13. declare any private interests relating to his public duties and take steps to resolve any conflicts in a way
that protects the public interest;
14. not place himself under any financial or other obligations to any individual or organization which may
influence him in the performance of his official duties;
15. not misuse his position as civil servant and not take decisions in order to derive financial or material
benefits for himself, his family or his friends;
16. make choices, take decisions and make recommendations on merit alone;
17. act with fairness and impartiality and not discriminate against anyone, particularly the poor and the under-
privileged sections of society;
18. refrain from doing anything which is or may be contrary to any law, rules, regulations and established
practices;
19. maintain discipline in the discharge of his duties and be liable to implement the lawful orders duly
communicated to him;
20. maintain confidentiality in the performance of his official duties as required by any laws for the time
being in force, particularly with regard to information, disclosure of which may prejudicially affect the
sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, strategic, scientific or economic interests of
the State, friendly relation with foreign countries or lead to incitement of an offence or illegal or unlawful
gain to any person;
21. Perform and discharge his duties with the highest degree of professionalism and dedication to the best of
his abilities.
22. No Government servant shall, in the performance of his official duties, or in the exercise of powers
conferred on him, act otherwise than in his best judgment except when he is acting under the direction of
his official superior. The direction of the official superior shall ordinarily be in writing. Oral direction to
286
subordinates shall be avoided, as far as possible. Where the issue of oral direction becomes unavoidable,
the official superior shall confirm it in writing immediately thereafter.
23. No Government servant shall in the performance of his official duties, act in a discourteous manner;
Code of Conduct for Judiciary

The Supreme Court of India in its Full Court Meeting held on May 7, 1997 unanimously adopted a charter
called the ‘Restatement of Values of Judicial Life’, generally known as the Code of Conduct for judges. It
reads as under:
a) Justice must not merely be done but it must also be seen to be done. The behaviour and conduct of members
of the higher judiciary must reaffirm the people’s faith in the impartiality of the judiciary. Accordingly,
any act of a Judge of the Supreme Court or a High Court, whether in official or personal capacity, which
erodes the credibility of this perception, has to be avoided.
b) A Judge should not contest the election to any office of a club, society or other association; further he shall
not hold such elective office except in a society or association connected with the law.
c) Close association with individual members of the Bar, particularly those who practise in the same court,
shall be eschewed.
d) A Judge should not permit any member of his immediate family, such as a spouse, son, daughter, son-in-
law or daughter-in-law or any other close relative, if a member of the Bar, to appear before him or even
be associated in any manner with a cause to be dealt with by him.
e) No member of his family, who is a member of the Bar, shall be permitted to use the residence in which the
Judge actually resides or other facilities for professional work.
f) A Judge should practise a degree of aloofness consistent with the dignity of his office.
g) A Judge shall not hear and decide a matter in which a member of his family, a close relation or a friend is
concerned.
h) A Judge shall not enter into public debate or express his views in public on political matters or on matters
that are pending or are likely to arise for judicial determination.
i) A Judge is expected to let his judgments speak for themselves. He shall not give interviews to the media.
j) A Judge shall not accept gifts or hospitality except from his family, close relations and friends.
k) A Judge shall not hear and decide a matter in which a company in which he holds shares is concerned
unless he has disclosed his interest and no objection to his hearing and deciding the matter is raised.
l) A Judge shall not speculate in shares, stocks or the like.
m) A Judge should not engage directly or indirectly in trade or business, either by himself or in association
with any other person. (Publication of a legal treatise or any activity in the nature of a hobby shall not be
constructed as trade or business).
n) A Judge should not ask for, accept contributions or otherwise actively associate himself with the raising
of any fund for any purpose.
o) A Judge should not seek any financial benefit in the form of a perquisite or privilege attached to his office
unless it is clearly available. Any doubt in this behalf must be got resolved and clarified through the Chief
Justice.
p) Every Judge must, at all times, be conscious that he is under the public gaze and there should be no act or
omission by him which is unbecoming of the high office he occupies and the public esteem in which that
office is held.
These are only the “Restatement of the Values of Judicial Life” and are not meant to be exhaustive but
illustrative of what is expected of a Judge.
The following two Resolutions were also adopted in the said Full Court Meeting of the Supreme Court of
India:
●● “RESOLVED that an in-house procedure should be devised by the Hon’ble Chief Justice of India to take
suitable remedial action against Judges who by their acts of omission or commission do not follow the
universally accepted values of judicial life including those indicated in the “Restatement of Values of
287
Judicial Life”.
●● RESOLVED FURTHER THAT every Judge should make a declaration of all his/her assets in the form
of real estate or investments (held by him/her in his/her own name or in the name of his/ her spouse or
any person dependent on him/her) within a reasonable time of assuming office and in the case of sitting
Judges within a reasonable time of adoption of this Resolution and thereafter whenever any acquisition
of a substantial nature is made, it shall be disclosed within a reasonable time. The declaration so made
should be to the Chief Justice of the Court. The Chief Justice should make a similar declaration for the
purpose of the record. The declaration made by the Judges or the Chief Justice, as the case may be, shall
be confidential”.
2nd ARC on Ethical Framework for the Judiciary
• A National Judicial Council should be constituted, in line with universally accepted principles where the
appointment of members of the judiciary should be by a collegium having representation of the executive,
legislature and judiciary.
• The National Judicial Council should be authorized to lay down the code of conduct for judges, including the
subordinate judiciary.
• The National Judicial Council should be entrusted with the task of recommending appointments of Supreme
Court and High Court Judges.
• It should also be entrusted the task of oversight of the judges, and should be empowered to enquire into alleged
misconduct and impose minor penalties. It can also recommend removal of a judge if so warranted.
• Based on the recommendations of the NJC, the President should have the powers to remove a Supreme Court or
High Court Judge.
• Article 124 of the Constitution may be amended to provide for the National Judicial Council. A similar change will
have to be made to Article 217.
• Also, since the Council is to have the authority to oversee and discipline judges, further changes will need to be
made to Article 217 (Clause 4).
• A Judge of the Supreme Court should be designated as the Judicial Values Commissioner. He/she should be
assigned the task of enforcing the code of conduct. Similar arrangement should also be made in the High Court.
Ethical Framework for Legislators

1. The Committee on Ethics of the Rajya Sabha
Chapter XXIV of the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in the Council of States provides for
constitution of the Committee on Ethics to oversee the moral and ethical conduct of Members. The Committee
on Ethics was first constituted by the Chairman of the House on 4th March 1997. In its First Report, the
Committee had, inter-alia, dealt with matters such as values in public life, criminalization of politics and
electoral reforms. It suggested a framework for a Code of Conduct for Members of the Rajya Sabha. The
following is the existing framework of the Code of Conduct for Members of the Rajya Sabha:
The Members of Rajya Sabha should acknowledge their responsibility to maintain the public trust reposed in
them and should work diligently to discharge their mandate for the common good of the people. They must
hold in high esteem the Constitution, the Law, Parliamentary Institutions and, above all, the general public.
They should constantly strive to translate the ideals laid down in the Preamble to the Constitution into a
reality. The following are the principles which they should abide by in their dealings:
(i) Members must not do anything that brings disrepute to the Parliament and affects their credibility.
(ii) Members must utilize their position as Members of Parliament to advance general wellbeing of the
people.
(iii) In their dealings if Members find that there is a conflict between their personal interests and the public
trust, which they hold, they should resolve such a conflict in a manner that their private interests are
subordinated to the duty of their public office.
(iv) Members should never expect or accept any fee, remuneration or benefit for a vote given or not given
by them on the floor of the House, for introducing a Bill, for moving a resolution, putting a question or
288
abstaining from asking a question or participating in the deliberations of the House or a Parliamentary
Committee.
(v) Members should not take a gift, which may interfere with honest and impartial discharge of their official
duties. They may, however, accept incidental gifts or inexpensive mementoes and customary hospitality.
(vi) If Members are in possession of confidential information owing to their being Members of Parliament
or Members of Parliamentary Committees, they should not disclose such information for advancing
their personal interests.
(vii) Members should not misuse the facilities and amenities made available to them.
(viii) Members should not be disrespectful to any religion and work for the promotion of secular values.
(ix) Members should keep uppermost in their mind the fundamental duties listed in part IV A of the
Constitution.
(x) Members are expected to maintain high standards of morality, dignity, decency and values in public life.
2. The Committee on Ethics of the Lok Sabha
There is a Committee on Ethics of the Lok Sabha to oversee the moral and ethical conduct of Members of that
House. The Committee on Ethics (Thirteenth Lok Sabha) in its First Report observed that norms of ethical
behaviour for members have been adequately provided for in the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business
in the Lok Sabha, directions by the Speaker and in the conventions which have evolved over the years on the
basis of recommendations made by various Parliamentary Committees. Apart from the existing norms, the
Committee recommended that the members should abide by the following general ethical principles:
(i) Members must utilize their position to advance general wellbeing of the people.
(ii) In case of conflict between their personal interest and public interest, they must resolve the conflict so
that personal interests are subordinate to the duty of public office.
(iii) Conflict between private financial/family interest should be resolved in a manner that the public interest
is not jeopardized.
(iv) Members holding public offices should use public resources in such a manner as may lead to public good.
(v) Members must keep uppermost in their mind the fundamental duties listed in Part-IV of the Constitution.
(vi) Members should maintain high standards of morality, dignity, decency and values in public life.
As per available information, only a few State Legislatures such as Andhra Pradesh, Orissa etc. have adopted
Codes of Conduct for their Legislators. A Resolution was unanimously adopted at the ‘All India Conference
of Presiding Officers, Chief Ministers, Ministers of Parliamentary Affairs, Leaders and Whips of Parties on
Discipline and Decorum in Parliament and Legislatures of States and Union Territories’ held at New Delhi
on 25th November, 2001. The Resolution included adoption of a Code of Conduct for Legislators. It was also
recommended that Ethics Committees be constituted in all Legislatures where these have not already been
constituted for enforcing the Code of Conduct.
2nd ARC: Enforcement of Ethical Norms in Legislatures
While the enunciation of ethical values and codes of conduct puts moral pressure on public functionaries, they
need to be backed by an effective monitoring and enforcement regime. Unfortunately, this has been absent
on many occasions in Indian parliament. Legislatures like in Canada and UK have adopted different models
for this purpose.
UK: Based on the recommendations of the Nolan Committee (1994, UK), the House of Commons in UK
has established the office of Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards. The Commissioner’s main
responsibilities are:
1. Providing advice on a confidential basis to individual Members and to the Select Committee on Standards
and Privileges about the interpretation of the Code of Conduct and Guide to the Rules relating to the
Conduct of Members.
2. Preparing guidance and providing training for Members on matters of conduct, propriety and ethics.
3. Monitoring the operation of the Code of Conduct and Guide to the Rules and, where appropriate, proposing
possible modifications of it to the Committee.
289
4. Receiving and investigating complaints about Members who are allegedly in breach of the Code of
Conduct and Guide to the Rules, and reporting his findings to the Committee.
The constitution of the Office of Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards has helped the House by bringing
greater transparency in matters relating to ethical standards. It has also helped the Members by providing
them timely advice in matters relating to the Code of Conduct.
The 2nd ARC is of the view that both Houses of Parliament may consider creation of a similar office. It is
envisaged that this Office would function under the Speaker. It could also assist the Ethics Committee in the
discharge of its functions, provide advice to the Members when required and maintain records.
3. Code of Conduct for Ministers
Government of India (Ministry of Home Affairs) has prescribed a Code of Conduct which is applicable to
Ministers of both the Union and State Governments. Some key provisions are:
●● Ministers shall disclose the details of the assets and liabilities, and of business interests, of himself and of
members of his family.
●● Maintaining no connection with any business that he/she was pursuing before becoming the minister.
●● A Minister should not accept valuable gifts (above Rs. 5000/-) except from close relatives, and he or
members of his family should not accept any gifts at all from any person with whom he may have official
dealings.
●● A Minister should not permit their spouse and dependents to accept employment under a Foreign
Government, in India or abroad, or in a foreign organization (including commercial concerns) without
prior approval of the Prime Minister.
2nd ARC view: According to 2nd ARC, the Code of Conduct is a starting point for ensuring good conduct by
Ministers. However, it is not comprehensive in its coverage and is more in the nature of a list of prohibitions;
it does not amount to a Code of Ethics. Some recommendations are:
a. In addition to the existing Code of Conduct for Ministers, there should be a Code of Ethics to provide
guidance on how Ministers should uphold the highest standards of constitutional and ethical conduct in
the performance of their duties.
b. Dedicated units should be set up in the offices of the Prime Minister and the Chief Ministers to monitor the
observance of the Code of Ethics and the Code of Conduct. The unit should also be empowered to receive
public complaints regarding violation of the Code of Conduct.
c. The Prime Minister or the Chief Minister should be duty bound to ensure the observance of the Code
of Ethics and the Code of Conduct by Ministers. This would be applicable even in the case of coalition
governments where the Ministers may belong to different parties.
d. An annual report with regard to the observance of these Codes should be submitted to the appropriate
legislature. This report should include specific cases of violations, if any, and the action taken thereon.
e. The Code of Ethics should inter alia include broad principles of the Minister-civil servant relationship and
the Code of Conduct should stipulate the details regarding it.
f. The Code of Ethics, the Code of Conduct and the annual report should be put in the public domain.
Code of Ethics for Regulators

There are codes of conduct for professionals and other trades. In fact, such codes have existed in society since
time immemorial. For example, Hammurabi’s code prescribed:
●● If a builder builds a house, and constructs it well, the owner will pay two shekels for each surface of the house.
●● If a builder builds a house for someone, and does not construct it properly, and the house which he built,
falls down and kill its owner, then that builder shall be put to death.
Note:The Code of Hammurabi is a well-preserved Babylonian law code of ancient Mesopotamia, dating back
to about 1754 BC.
The prescription and enforcement of Codes of Conduct for different sections of society is generally through
internal or self-regulatory mechanisms. The Self-Regulatory Authority of a profession means a select Body
290
of its members which is responsible for
growth and development of the profession in
the background of its responsibility towards
society and State. The functions of such a
Self-Regulatory Body may include:
(i) Issues of professional education:
development of curriculum, setting
up of teaching standards, institutional
infrastructure, recognition of degrees etc.
and
(ii) Matters connected with licensing, and
ethical conduct of the practitioners.
Guilds are the oldest example of such a
mechanism. A guild was an association of
persons of the same trade or pursuits, formed
to protect mutual interests and maintain standards. With the emergence of competition and industrialization,
guilds have, more or less, ceased to exist. However, the last century has seen the emergence of a large number
of professions, especially in what is today termed as the services sector.
These professions initially organized themselves into different types of associations in order to pursue
common objectives and also to evolve acceptable norms of behaviour and mechanisms to enforce them. In
some cases, such mechanisms have been provided statutory backing.
●● The Indian Medical Council Act, 1956 (102 of 1956), prescribes that the Council may prescribe standards
of professional conduct and etiquette and a Code of Ethics for medical practitioners. The Medical Council
has accordingly made regulations relating to the Professional Conduct – ‘Etiquette and Ethics for
Registered Medical Practitioners’.
●● The Advocates Act, 1961 incorporates the functions of the Bar Council of India, which include laying
down standards of professional conduct and etiquette for advocates.
●● The Chartered Accountants Act, 1949 stipulates the creation of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of
India for regulation of the profession of chartered accountancy in India. The Chartered Accountants Act, 1949
and the Schedules to the Act also set out the acceptable forms of behaviour of members of the profession.
●● The Press Council of India functions under the Press Council Act, 1978. It is a statutory, quasi-judicial
body, which acts as a watchdog of the press. It adjudicates the complaints against and by the press for
violation of ethics and for violation of the freedom of the press respectively. The objects and functions
of the Council include laying down a code of conduct for newspapers, news agencies and journalists
in accordance with high professional standards. The Press Council of India has issued the Norms of
Journalistic Conduct, to which the media is supposed to adhere.
●● The Institution of Engineers (Incorporated under the Royal Charter, 1935) has prescribed a ‘Code of
Ethics for Corporate Members.’
●● Institute of Company Secretaries of India (ICSI) – formed under the Company Secretaries Act, 1980
●● Council of Architecture (COA) – formed under the Architects Act, 1972
Apart from internal regulators, there is another category of regulators, which may be termed as ‘External
Regulators’. An example of an external regulator is the All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE),
which is a statutory body, established for proper planning & coordinated development of the technical education
system throughout the country. The introduction of competition in erstwhile governmental functions has seen
the emergence of a number of ‘External Regulators’. The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India and the State
Power Regulatory Authorities are some other examples.
Trust between Professionals and Citizens
In general, there is a relationship of deep trust between a professional and his client. A professional practitioner
is in a position to have access to the most personal details of a person and hence he is obliged to act in
291
consonance with the principles of beneficence and justice to justify this trust. The professionals need to
maintain high standards of practice and show respect for professional ethical values. The trust also implies
that they update their knowledge, skill and ability at periodic intervals in order to deliver their services
competently.
Formed with enthusiasm and vision, the Regulatory Authorities worked with zeal and interest in the initial
years of their existence. Though, commitment to self-interest may have been there in some form or the other
on their agenda, the level of professional competence and conduct was adequately high in the early years of
Independence and by and large, the medical profession, engineers, lawyers and others conducted themselves
with great responsibility and professionalism. But in recent years, the drift in almost all professions towards
self-interest has become markedly pronounced.
The general perception is that instead of being self-regulatory, Regulatory Bodies have become “self-
promoting lobbies running to the rescue of delinquents, starting agitations against any action that is taken,
organizing strikes and hardly taking steps to uphold standards or action against professional misconduct”.
Decline of ethics among professionals can be attributed to two primary factors:
1. The tenor of the overall educational system; and
2. Impact of the environment.
While behavioral changes can be brought about through carefully designed training programmes, trying to
change entrenched mindsets is more difficult. It needs sustained efforts from all concerned. Ethics finds a very
small space in our current academic content. There is need to give it a prominent place in the curricula being
followed by professional institutions throughout the country.
Once the education part of a profession is hived off to different machinery, the currently existing regulatory
structure would be free to devote time and energy to issues of entry and maintenance of professional ethics
and standards. In this context, holding workshops, seminars and interactive sessions periodically would be
of great value.
Some recommendations of second ARC:
Professional education should be taken away from the domain of the existing Regulatory Bodies and handed
over to specially created agencies – one for each of the streams of higher/professional education. These
Bodies may be called National Standards and Quality Council for Medicine, National Standards and Quality
Council for Management etc. After this bifurcation, the work of the existing Regulatory Bodies’ would remain
confined to issues concerning registration, skill upgradation and management of professional standards and
ethics. On creation of these separate Councils, the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) will
stand abolished.
Such Councils should be created by law and their role should be to lay down norms, standards and parameters
on issues concerning growth and development of their stream viz.
(a) setting up new institutions,
(b) designing/ updating curriculum,
(c) faculty improvement,
(d) carrying out research / innovation, and
(e) Other key issues concerning the stream.
There should be stronger ties between educational institutions in the public and private sectors through
mechanisms such as exchange of faculty.
nn
292
Chapter - 7
Work Culture
W
ork culture represents the collective values, beliefs and principles of organizational members and is
a product of such factors as history, product, market, technology, and strategy, type of employees,
management style, and national culture. Culture includes the organization’s vision, values, norms,
systems, symbols, language, assumptions, beliefs, and habits
An organization is formed to achieve certain goals and objectives by bringing individuals together on a
common platform and motivating them to deliver their level best. It is essential for the employees to enjoy at
the workplace for them to develop a sense of loyalty towards it.
Work culture plays an important role in extracting the best out of employees and making them stick to the
organization for a longer duration. The organization must offer a positive ambience to the employees for them
to concentrate on their work rather than interfering in each other’s work.
Concept: Work culture is a concept which deals in the study of:
●● Beliefs, thought processes, attitudes of the employees.
●● Ideologies and principles of the organization.
It is the work culture which decides the way employees interact with each other and how an organization
functions. In layman’s language work culture refers to the mentality of the employees which further decides
the ambience of the organization.
Organizational Culture vs. National Culture

Culture provides a guide or the directions for how we think and behave. Cultural values that can influence
business can be categorized in following ways:
1. The individualism/collectivism dimension: Individualist cultures place a high value on individual
achievement and self-interest. The United States is an example of an individualistic culture. Collectivist
cultures value working toward collective goals and group harmony. Mexico and several countries in Asia
including India adhere to more collectivistic principles.
2. Power distance: this dimension refers to the “power inequality” between superiors and subordinates. The
United States has some elements of both a higher and a lower power distance culture. Over the years, the
U.S. business environment has adopted forms of management, such as participative management, that
place supervisors and subordinates on more equal terms. Arab countries and India score higher on the
power distance dimension. Cultures with high power distance tend to be more hierarchal.
3. Uncertainty avoidance: it refers to how members of a society respond to uncertainty or ambiguity.
Cultures that score high on the uncertainty avoidance dimension, such as Great Britain and India, tend
to avoid risk-taking. Organizations within these cultures may have more rules in place to ensure that
employees do not deviate from accepted standards. Cultures with less uncertainty avoidance, such as
Canada, believe that risk-taking and innovation are important in achieving successful outcomes.
4. Masculinity vs. femininity: it reflects whether a certain society is predominantly male or female in terms
of cultural values, gender roles and power relations.
Strong, Weak and Healthy Cultures

Strong culture: is said to exist where staff respond to stimulus because of their alignment to organizational
values. In such environments, strong cultures help firms operate like well-oiled machines, engaging in
outstanding execution with only minor adjustments to existing procedures as needed.
Weak culture: Conversely, there is weak culture where there is little alignment with organizational values,
and control must be exercised through extensive procedures and bureaucracy.
293
Research shows that organizations that foster strong cultures have clear values that give employees a reason to
embrace the culture. Organizations may derive the following benefits from developing strong and productive
cultures:
●● Better aligning the company towards achieving its vision, mission, and goals
●● High employee motivation and loyalty
●● Increased team cohesiveness among the company’s various departments and divisions
●● Promoting consistency and encouraging coordination and control within the company
●● Shaping employee behaviour at work, enabling the organization to be more efficient
Where culture is strong, people do things because they believe it is the right thing to do. This may also lead
to a risk of another phenomenon called groupthink. “Groupthink” was described by Irving Janis. He defined
it as “a quick and easy way to refer to a mode of thinking that people engage when they are deeply involved
in a cohesive in-group, when the members’ strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically
appraise alternatives of action.”
This is a state in which even if they have different ideas, they do not challenge organizational thinking, and
therefore there is a reduced capacity for innovative thoughts. This could occur, for example, where there is heavy
reliance on a central charismatic figure in the organization, or where there is an orthodox belief in the organization’s
values, or also in groups where a friendly climate is at the base of their identity (avoidance of conflict). In fact,
groupthink is very common and happens all the time, in almost every group. Members that are defiant are often
turned down or seen as a negative influence by the rest of the group because they bring conflict.
Healthy culture: Organizations should strive for what is considered a “healthy” organizational culture in
order to increase productivity, growth, efficiency and reduce counterproductive behaviour and turnover of
employees.A variety of characteristics describe a healthy culture, including:
●● Acceptance and appreciation for diversity
●● Regard for and fair treatment of each employee as well as respect for each employee’s contribution to the
company
●● Employee pride and enthusiasm for the organization and the work performed
●● Equal opportunity for each employee to realize their full potential within the company
●● Strong communication with all employees regarding policies and company issues
●● Strong company leaders with a strong sense of direction and purpose
●● Ability to compete in industry innovation and customer service, as well as price
●● Investment in learning, training, and employee knowledge
Healthy companies are able to deal with employees’ concerns about the well-being of the organization
internally, before the employees would even feel they needed to raise the issues externally. It is for this reason
that whistleblowing, particularly when it results in serious damage to a company’s reputation, is considered
to be often a sign of a chronically dysfunctional work culture.
Adaptive and un-adaptive cultures: According to many studies, organizations with adaptive cultures perform
much better than organizations with un-adaptive cultures. An adaptive culture translates into organizational
success; it is characterized by managers paying close attention to all of their constituencies, especially
customers, initiating change when needed, and taking risks. An un-adaptive culture can significantly reduce a
firm’s effectiveness, disabling the firm from pursuing all its competitive/operational options.
Work culture in India: a survey conducted in 2013 has found that majority of employees do not like their
work and they do it because of compulsion. A TimesJobs survey conducted in 2016 has revealed that nearly
50% of surveyed professionals have cited bad work culture as the most worrisome element of their workplaces.
●● 52% employees rated their workplace as “bad” while only 20% rated it as “good”.
●● Those who expressed dissatisfaction with their growth path, nearly 60% employees felt their workplace
offered limited opportunities for career growth.
●● More than half of the employees who said they are unhappy with their reporting manager also stated
unclear vision of the manager as the most annoying trait which hindered their growth, followed by
favoritism, rigidity and lack of domain knowledge.
294
●● Of the employees who raised concerns about the lack of recognition at the workplace, 70% said they don’t
feel valued at work.
●● Punctuality is not a strong virtue in most companies.
●● Hierarchies dominate the relations, which are largely formal.
Example of healthy work culture: TCS
The work environment at TCS is built around the belief of growth beyond boundaries. Some of the critical
elements that define its work culture are global exposure, cross-domain experience, and work-life balance.
People from diverse backgrounds and geographies have come together in pursuit of a common vision.
Corporate culture is open and inclusive; irrespective of employee’s experience, he will immediately be
welcomed into the team, and would always have a significant role to play. Other attributes are:
●● On-the-job learning: Intense training and development programs facilitate on-the-job learning.
●● Mentor programs: to foster supportive relationships that help develop skills, behavior, and insights to
enable employees to attain goals.
●● Community Services: as part of CSR activities
New Work Culture in NDA Government

An overhaul of the government’s work culture was one of the major changes PM Narendra Modi promised
before taking charge in 2014. A number of steps have been taken in this regard:
●● Unlike in the past, bureaucrats can’t keep files with them for too long. A time limit has been set which
can be different for different levels. Officers are now expected to move files quickly and not to sit over
pending work.
●● The prime minister has also asked bureaucrats to work hard but at the same time not work under any
pressure. He said it’s important to take breaks and be relaxed. The Prime Minister has made it clear
that officers are open to discuss anything with him. Soon after assuming charge, Modi had met all top
secretaries and shared his phone number with them so that they could reach him directly. There have
been instances when Modi has directly called up the officers concerned on a particular subject instead of
following the protocol.
●● The bio metric attendance system launched in September 2014 has had a big impact on the functioning of
officials. An analysis of the data shows that employees are spending nearly twenty minutes extra in office
every day. The Biometric Attendance System dashboard; which keeps updating itself in real-time can
indicates the number of officials working in offices at any given time.
●● Another novel idea that the prime minister came up with was to send senior bureaucrats to the places
where they had served as young officers. This was done to get an insight on what has changed and what
needs to be done for development in small cities and rural areas. The bureaucrats were required to give a
report after making these visits.
●● Not just officials, PM has ensured that highest standards of probity be maintained by people holding high
offices. Ministers were ordered to leave the conduct and management of any business they have interests
before being appointed minister.
●● PM has also ordered that all the Union Ministers to submit details of their assets, liabilities and business
interests to his office within two months of taking charge. The PM has made it clear to Ministers ensure that
that their family members do not participate in the business of supplying goods or services to government.
●● The Modi government has put a restriction on frequent travelling of Governors ensuring that they spend
considerable time in their state. The decision has been taken after it was noticed that some governors spent
days outside their respective states. Now they have been told to stay in their respective states for at least
292 days in a year and not leave station until or unless approved by the President.
●● Even foreign trips of officials are under scrutiny. The PMO has made it mandatory for officials going on
foreign tours to submit an “outcome report” when they return. Foreign junkets are also being discouraged
by the Prime Minister.
●● In a bid to doing away with bureaucratic hurdles and red tape from the system, government has focused
on the need to transform from the existing culture of Avoid, Bypass, Confuse, Delay” (ABCD) to a culture
of “Responsibility, Ownership, Accountability, Discipline (ROAD). nn
295
Chapter - 8
Quality of Service Delivery
S
ervice quality in public sector is an indicator of how satisfied citizens are with the quality and standard
of services provided by the government. It is the comparison between expectations of a citizen and
performance shown by the public servant. Equation for service quality is:
SQ = P - E
Where;
●● SQ is service quality
●● P is the individual’s perceptions of given service delivery
●● E is the individual’s expectations of a given service delivery
When customer expectations are greater than their perceptions of received delivery, service quality is deemed
low. When perceptions exceed expectations then service quality is high. Organizations will deliver the services
in accordance with the Service Agreement. This basically includes:
●● Delivering the services in a timely and efficient manner using the standard of care and foresight expected
from an experienced provider
●● Acting in accordance with the highest applicable professional ethics, principles and standards
●● Demonstrating a commitment to ethical practices and behaviours, and implementing these practices
through appropriate training and monitoring.
Five Dimensions of Service Quality

The model of service quality, also known as the gaps model was developed by a group of American authors
in 1988. It highlights the main components of high quality service. The SERVQUAL authors originally
identified ten dimensions of service quality, but after testing and retesting, some of the dimensions were found
to be auto correlated and the total number of dimensions was reduced to five, namely - reliability, assurance,
tangibles, empathy and responsiveness. These five dimensions are thought to represent the dimensions
of service quality across a range of industries and settings. Among students of marketing, the mnemonic,
RATER, an acronym formed from the first letter of the five dimensions is often used as an aid to recall.
1. Reliability: The ability to perform the promised service dependably and accurately. It includes developing
appropriate competence to deliver the services.
2. Assurance: The knowledge and courtesy of employees and their ability to convey trust and confidence,
so that citizens can feel secure.
3. Tangibles: The appearance of physical facilities, equipment, personnel and communication materials.
This will further enhance the credibility of organization.
4. Empathy: The provision of caring, knowing and individualized attention to customer
5. Responsiveness: The willingness to help customers and to provide prompt service. It also includes
making yourself accessible to the customers.
This model can be applied to Indian administration in order to identify the causes of poor service delivery.
For example, poor aesthetic sense and unhygienic environment in government offices often leads to lowering
of ‘tangibles’ factor of service quality. Similarly, indifference on part of government officials towards people
brings down the ‘empathy’ component.
However, now with the expansion of service sector and options available in form of private sector, the
consumers are demanding better quality and standard products and services. There has also been an increase
in the awareness and demand of rights and quality among people, which is creating pressure on government to
296
either perform or perish. All this has led to some changes in last few years which can be seen in government
functioning.
Total Quality Management

Total Quality Management (TQM) is a management approach that originated in the 1950s and has steadily
become more popular since the early 1980s. Total quality is a description of the culture, attitude and
organization of a company that strives to provide customers with products and services that satisfy their
needs. Quality Council of India under Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances has also
included some of the components of TQM along with RATER Model in its training manual for government
offices to improve services quality.
Eight key elements: To be successful implementing TQM, an organization must concentrate on the eight key
elements:
1. Ethics 2. Integrity
3. Trust 4. Training
5. Teamwork 6. Leadership
7. Recognition 8. Communication
TQM has been coined to describe a philosophy that makes quality the driving force behind leadership, design,
planning, and improvement initiatives. For this, TQM requires the help of those eight key elements. These
elements can be divided into four groups according to their function. The groups are:
I. Foundation – It includes: Ethics, Integrity and Trust. TQM is built on a foundation of ethics, integrity
and trust. It fosters openness, fairness and sincerity and allows involvement by everyone. This is the key
to unlocking the ultimate potential of TQM.
II. Building Bricks – Basing on the strong foundation of trust, ethics and integrity, bricks are placed to reach
the roof of recognition. It includes: Training, Teamwork and Leadership. Training ensures that employees
have interpersonal skills, the ability to function within teams, problem solving, decision making, job
management performance analysis and improvement, business economics and technical skills. With the
use of teams, the business will receive quicker and better solutions to problems.Leadership is possibly the
most important element in TQM. It appears everywhere in organization. Leadership in TQM requires the
manager to provide an inspiring vision, make strategic directions that are understood by all and to instill
values that guide subordinates.
III. Binding Mortar – It includes: Communication.Communicationbinds everything together. Starting from
foundation to roof of the TQM house, everything is bound by strong mortar of communication. It acts
as a vital link between all elements of TQM. Communication means a common understanding of ideas
between the sender and the receiver. The success of TQM demands communication with and among all the
297
organization members, suppliers and customers. Supervisors must keep open airways where employees
can send and receive information about the TQM process.
IV. Roof – It includes: Recognition. Recognition should be provided for both suggestions and achievements
for teams as well as individuals. Detecting and recognizing contributors is the most important job of a
supervisor. As people are recognized, there can be huge changes in self-esteem, productivity, quality and
the amount of effort exhorted to the task at hand.
Hence, lead by example, train employees to provide a quality product, create an environment where there is
no fear to share knowledge, and give credit where credit is due is the motto of a successful TQM organization.
Recommendations of Second ARC

Second ARC in its twelfth report – ‘Citizen Centric Administration - the Heart of Governance’, is of the view
that the best way of increasing services quality is to make administration citizen centric. The commission,
therefore has recommend that the Union Government as well as State Governments should make Seven Step
Model for Citizen Centricitymandatory for all public service organizations.
The ARC Seven Step Model for Citizen Centricity
1. Define: all services which you provide and identify your clients in broadest possible manner. It will help
in developing an insight into citizens’ needs.
2. Set: standards and norms for each service. It has been well said that ‘what cannot be measured never
gets done’. A good starting point would be getting an input from the clients as to what their expectations
are about each one of the identified services. It is very important that these standards are realistic and
achievable. Complaints redress mechanism should form an integral part of this exercise. These standards
should then form an integral part of the Citizen’s Charter.
3. Develop: capability to meet the set standards. Capacity building would include conventional training but
also imbibing the right values, developing a customer centric culture within the organization and raising
the motivation and morale of the staff.
4. Perform to achieve the standards. Internal mechanisms have to be evolved to ensure that each individual
and unit in the organization performs to achieve the standards. Having a sound performance management
system would enable the organizations to guide individuals’ performance towards organizational goals.
5. Monitor performance against the set standards. Since all commitments have to form a part of the Citizen’s
Charter, it would be desirable that an automatic mechanism is provided which signals any breach of
committed standards. This would involve taking corrective measures continuously till the system stabilizes.
Compliance to standards would be better if it is backed up by a system of rewards and punishments.
6. Evaluate the impact through an independent mechanism. This evaluation could be through random survey,
citizens’ report card, obtaining feedback from citizens during periodic interactions or even an assessment
by a professional body. Such an evaluation would bring out the degree to which the unit is citizen centric
or otherwise. It would also highlight the areas wherein there have been improvements and those which
require further improvements. This would become an input in the continuous review of the system.
7. Continuous improvement based on monitoring and evaluation of results. With rising aspirations of the
citizens, new services would have to be introduced, based on the monitoring and evaluation, standards
would have to be revised and even the internal capability and systems would require continuous up-
gradation.
Sevottam Model
Sevottam is a model developed by Department of Administrative Reforms & Public Grievances (DARPG)
for public Service Delivery. Government accepted the Seven Step Model for Citizen Centricity, as proposed
by 2nd ARC and asked all ministries to adopt it in their functioning. DARPG documented this Seven Step
Model under the name Sevottam.
The word, Sevottam, is a combination of two Hindi words: ‘Seva’ (service) and ‘Uttam’ (excellence). Sevottam
Model is now regarded as a standard model for providing services in citizen centric governance.
298
Three Modules in Sevottam Framework: Sevottam focuses mainly on the following 3 key elements:
1. Formulation of a realistic Citizen’s Charter through a consultative process. It focusses on:
a) implementation
b) monitoring
c) review
These charters enumerate services provided by an organization, its time limits and quality standards. Citizen
charters empower people to demand quality service and seek remedies in case of non-delivery. Thus, Citizen’s
/ Client’s Charter makes the public services citizen centric by making them demand driven rather than supply
driven.
2. Grievance Redress Mechanism: Identification of services rendered, Service delivery processes, their
control and delivery requirements. It focuses on:
a) receipt
b) redress
c) prevention
This mechanism helps to redress citizen’s grievances in a time bound and systemic manner.
3. Public Service Delivery Capability: An effective process for complaint handling which focuses on:
a) customers
b) employees
c) infrastructure
It helps to augment human and technological resources for better service delivery with help of management
techniques such as information management systems, capability gap analysis etc.
Seven targets of Sevottam:
1. Timeliness: time norms for specific services are enumerated in Citizens’ Charter.
2. The services and norms are set as per active discussions with different stakeholders.
3. Effectiveness: a single window system for service deliverables is targeted for delivery to cut down on
assessees shuttling from one desk to another to get services.
4. Responsiveness: a robust grievance redress system is needed to listen to assessees grievance as well as
redress them timely.
5. Courteous behaviour: norm for behaviour, specially in assessees facing positions, is described in the
Citizens’ Charter and pro-active feedback on service delivery is gathered to judge this.
6. Information: facilitation centers and help centers are targeted to meet assesses needs of information.
7. Empathy: public grievance officers are needed to listen to assesses in their time of need
Benefits of Sevottam implementation:
●● Makes the public organization Citizen friendly, Accountable and Transparent
●● Improves the speed and quality of service delivery
●● Improve cleanliness and physical space in the office
●● Reduces causes of complaints, corruption and negligence.
●● Solves maximum complaints immediately on receipt.
●● Eliminates outdated activities, wastage of money and resources
nn
299
Chapter - 9
Utilization of Public Funds
O
ptimum utilization of public funds and resources has always been an ethical concern for the
government. Citizens show faith and trust in the ability of the government by entrusting them with
the responsibility to spend the resources on their behalf. It is in this context, People have the right to
held government accountable for its actions and Governments have the duty to spend these resources with
utmost care, prudence and efficiency. Some of the issues involved in fund utilization are:
●● Leakages in projects funding
●● Distribution of funds among different sectors
●● Bailing out PSU’s by using public funds
●● Distribution between plan and non-plan expenditure
●● Corruption in Government procurement
●● Equal distribution or benefits to all citizens
Effective utilization of public resources is critical to meeting development goals. Key programs in education
and health are overwhelmingly conducted within the public sector. And although private provision of
infrastructure has expanded in areas like telecommunications and energy, private investors remain wary of
socially-oriented sectors such as water and sanitation, and also show little willingness to invest in the poorest
countries.
At present, though, research indicates that increases in public spending are only weakly correlated with the
achievement of development outcomes in most developing countries. Government ineffectiveness -- in the
form of waste, inefficiency and corruption -- is largely responsible.
Poor resource usage is due in part to the fact that public spending is a complex, multifaceted process, which is
not naturally transparent to the general public. Budgets typically pass through a sequence of stages, including
formulation by ministries, scrutiny by legislative committees, approval by the legislature, distribution of
funds to ministries, further distribution to state and local authorities, and end-point delivery. Accountability
is hampered by deficiencies that include closed-door discussions, limited documentation, and poor data
reliability.
Weakly-performing public institutions, in turn, can seldom be expected to reform themselves in the absence of
external pressure. Unlike private companies, public bodies face no direct competitive pressures, and political
systems - especially in developing countries - are often inadequate at mobilizing public pressure for specific
institutional reform.
Weaknesses in public finance management can contribute to ineffective resource use through a number of
channels. Corruption can often take a significant toll, but even in countries where government personnel are
mostly honest, they can be hobbled by poor systems, inadequate training, or other deficiencies. Wherever
allocation decisions are taken outside informed independent scrutiny, society’s more powerful and articulate
groups tend to sway those decisions - to favor urban areas over rural, middle-class subsidies over pro-poor
programs, and certain ethnic/cultural groups over others.
Significance of probity in Financial Administration: The popular statements made on the importance of
financial administration to the government administration are mentioned below.
●● Morstein Marx: “Finance is as universally involved in administration as oxygen is in the atmosphere.”
Objectives of probity in Financial Administration
●● Kautilya: “All undertakings depend upon finance. Hence, foremost attention shall be paid to the treasury.”
●● Hoover Commission: Financial administration is “at the core of modern government.”
300
●● Lloyd George: “Government is Finance.”
●● Aaron Wildavsky: “Budget is the life blood of the government.”
Objectives of probity in financial administration: The broad objectives of probity in financial administration
are to:
●● provide accountability;
●● maintain public sector integrity;
●● ensure compliance with processes;
●● ensure that all offers will be evaluated against the same criteria;
●● preserve public and supplier confidence in Government processes;
●● minimize potential conflicts and the potential for litigation;
●● ensure the procurement activity provides the best outcome; and
●● avoid the potential for misconduct, fraud and corruption.
Principles of probity in public fund management: Four inter-linked principles of probity in public fund
management are:
1. fairness and impartiality in procurement process and distribution of benefits
2. accountability of public servants and transparency of service delivery process
3. confidentiality and security of information and materials as per rules and reason
4. Effective management of conflicts of interest (all three types)
Instruments of Financial Accountability in India

●● Constitutional provision like article 112-117, 266 (consolidated and public fund), 267 (contingency fund)
●● Parliamentary control through budgeting and audit; discussions and questions; parliamentary committees
like PAC, EC, COPU, Departmental committees etc.
●● Executive control over departments and ministries through methods like internal audit and integrated
financial advisor
●● Use of information technology
●● Press and media
●● Participatory methods like social audit
●● Judicial control through PIL and other cases
●● Independent bodies like CAG and CVC
●● Civil society
●● Use of RTI, RTS (Right to Service) and citizen charters
●● Whistle blower act
●● Institutions of Lokpal at centre and Lokayuktas at state level
Mechanisms to ensure probity in fund utilization

Micro-level case studies reinforce understanding of the benefits that accrue when citizens have the chance to
hold the public sector accountable:
●● Public expenditure tracking: In 1995, official Ugandan statistics indicated that a three-fold increase in
funding for primary education seemed to have produced no increase in enrollments. Improved tracking
revealed that, by under-reporting enrollments, local governments were able to divert grants intended for
schools to other purposes (up to 98 percent of the total in 1991). The central government responded by:
publishing amounts transferred to the districts in newspapers and radio broadcasts; requiring schools
to maintain public notice boards on monthly transfers of funds; and strengthening legal provision for
accountability and transparency. By 1999 schools were receiving nearly 100 percent of the grant funds.
●● Community control of program implementation: The EDUCO school program, set up initially as a short-
term expedient after the civil war in El Salvador, gave local communities unprecedented responsibility
for managing local primary schools, including power to hire and fire teachers. This empowerment of
301
the communities resulted in such significant improvements in teacher performance (and attendance) and
student achievement that the program has been made permanent within El Salvador, and also copied by
other Central American countries.
●● Citizen report cards: In parts of India, paying bribes can be a routine part of obtaining public services.
One Civil Society Organization created a “Citizen Report Card” on public service delivery across different
agencies and locations. The cards may be having an impact; a 2003 study indicated that bribery had fallen
sharply and satisfaction with public services had risen.
●● Benchmarking: India also provides examples of the creative use of “benchmarking.” This is an approach
which collects comparable data on performance and costs of relatively standardized tasks across different
local government jurisdictions: for example, the cost of building one kilometer of a standard design of
road or a standardized design of primary school. By making this information accessible, through the press
and other channels, effective public pressure is built on jurisdictions that are clearly out of line in their
performance.
2nd ARC fourteenth report: Strengthening Financial Management System

The 2nd ARC in its Report on Financial Management has made following recommendations:
1. Projects and schemes should be included in the budget only after detailed consideration. The norms
for formulating the budget should be strictly adhered to in order to avoid making token provisions and
spreading resources thinly over a large number of projects/schemes.
2. Irrational ‘Plan – Non Plan’ Distinction leads to Inefficiency in resource Utilization. Therefore, the Plan
versus non-Plan distinction needs to be done away with.
3. The capacity of individuals and institutions in government needs to be improved in order to implement
reforms in financial management. To facilitate this, a proper programme of training needs to be devised
and implemented in a time bound manner.
4. A robust financial information system needs to be created in the government in a time bound manner. This
system should also make accessible to the public, real time data on government expenditure at all levels.
5. There should be balanced reporting by the audit. Audit reports should not focus on criticism alone but
contain a fair assessment or evaluation, which would mean that good performance, is also acknowledged.
6. greater operational autonomy to government agencies and decentralization of administrative and financial
powers to them in order to improve their efficiency.
7. A paradigm shift from the traditional bottom up approach to budgeting to a top down technique focusing
on broader resource allocations as well as on outcomes rather than processes has also been recommended.
nn
302
Chapter - 10
Challenges of Corruption
C
orruption is a word that we often hear along with government and bureaucracy. In fact, it has become
a synonym of bureaucracy and a well-accepted attribute of governance process in India. It has become
the part of our culture because of its long and continuous presence.
Corruption today is a single largest stumbling block in the overall progress of our country. It has great
repercussions not only on the process of governance but also on the society, as it not only destroys the
structure of a system but also the character of an individual.
Corruption is a global problem and no country of the world is totally free of its menacing grip. But its radius
and impact is quite deep when it comes to south Asian countries.
Corruption in South Asia: Corruption happens everywhere, but South Asian corruption has four key
characteristics that make it far more damaging than corruption in any other parts of the world.
First, corruption in South Asia occurs up-stream, not down-stream. Corruption at the top distorts fundamental
decisions about development priorities, policies, and projects. In industrial countries, these core decisions are
taken through transparent competition and on merit, even though petty corruption may occur down-stream.
Second, corruption money in South Asia has wings, not wheels. Most of the corrupt gains made in the region
are immediately smuggled out to safe havens abroad. Whereas there is some capital flight in other countries
as well, a greater proportion goes into investment.
Third, corruption in South Asia often leads to promotion, not prison. The big fish – unless they belong to the
opposition – rarely fry. In contrast, industrialized countries often have a process of accountability where even
top leaders are investigated and prosecuted.
Fourth, corruption in South Asia occurs with hundreds of million people in poverty, not with per capita incomes
above twenty thousand dollars. While corruption in rich rapidly growing countries may be tolerable, though
reprehensible, in poverty stricken South Asia, it is political dynamite when the majority of the population
cannot, but to massive human deprivation and even more extreme income meet their basic needs while a few
make fortunes through corruption.
Thus corruption in South Asia does not lead to simply Cabinet portfolio shifts or newspaper headlines
inequalities. Combating corruption in the region is not just about punishing corrupt politicians and bureaucrats
but about saving human lives.
Meaning of corruption
Since there is no universal definition of corruption, different meanings have been attached by different
scholars. For example:
●● “Corruption is a general term covering misuse of authority as a result of considerations of personal gain,
which need not be monetary.” — David H. Bayley
●● “Corruption means that a civil servant abuses his authority in order to obtain an extra income from the
public.” — Jacob Vandana Klanveren
●● “Corruption is a behaviour which deviates public officials from the normal duties. This includes such
behaviour as bribery, nepotism and misappropriation.” — J.S. Nye
It must be noted that the word corruption has a moral implication. The Oxford English Dictionary gives
following meanings to corruption:
(1) Physical: the destruction or spoiling of anything, especially by disintegration or by decomposition with
its attendant unwholesomeness and loathsomeness,
303
(2) Moral: moral deterioration or decay; perversion or destruction of integrity in the discharge of public
duties by bribery or favour.
(3) The perversion of anything from an original state of purity
In short, corruption means deliberate and intentional exploitation of one’s position, status or resources,
directly or indirectly; for personal aggrandizement, whether it be in terms of material gain or enhancement
of power, prestige or influence beyond what is legitimate or sanctioned by commonly accepted norms to the
detriment of the interests of other persons or the community as a whole.
Types of corruption
Corruption takes many forms. Because there is no universally accepted definition of corruption, there is no
universally valid typology of corruption. Researchers on corruption have elaborated multiple classifications.
Some of them are:
1. Systemic and Sporadic corruption:
●● Systemic corruption: As opposed to exploiting occasional opportunities, endemic or systemic corruption
is when corruption is an integrated and essential aspect of the economic, social and political system, when
it is embedded in a wider situation that helps sustain it.
●● Sporadic (individual) corruption: occurs irregularly and therefore it does not threaten the mechanisms
of control nor the economy as such. It is not crippling, but it can seriously undermine morale and sap the
economy of resources.
2. Legal and Moral Corruption
●● A legal interpretation of corruption provides a clearly demarcated boundary between what is a corrupt
activity and what is not. ‘If an official’s act is prohibited by laws established by the government, it is
corrupt; if it is not prohibited, it is not corrupt even if it is abusive or unethical’.
●● Moral corruption explains this concept in the context of moral decay. Corruption is described as an
immoral and unethical phenomenon that contains a set of moral aberrations from moral standards of
society, causing loss of respect for and confidence in duly constituted authority
3. Collusive, Coercive and Non-conjunctive corruption
●● In collusive corruption the corruptees themselves are willing and active participants in the process and use
of corruption as an instrument for inducing wrong action or inaction on the part of authorities, deriving
benefit greater than the costs of corruption on their part.
●● Corruption is forced upon the corruptee by those in the position of power and authority in coercive
corruption.
●● In non-conjunctive corruption benefits are obtained at someone else cost and victims are unaware of their
victimization.
4. Political and administrative corruption
●● Political corruption is the behaviour of (elected) public officials which diverges from the formal components
the duties and powers, rights and obligations - of a public role to seek private gain.
●● Administrative corruption is defined as the institutionalized personal abuse of public resources by civil
servants.
5. Autogenic, Supportive and Extortive Corruption
●● Autogenic corruption involved just the perpetrator himself. Most at times he capitalizes on the ignorance
of others at that given time to excel.
●● Supportive Corruption involves actions taken to protect the existing corruption.
●● Extortive corruption is when a person coercively, methodically demands for something in exchange of
services.
304
6. White, Grey and Black Corruption
●● White corruption: Corrupt behaviour is coded tolerantly. This is typically the case in traditional family
based system as well as in patron-client based systems.
●● Grey corruption: Corruption is regarded with some opprobrium. Corruption is reprehensible in public
moral standards, but the affected persons are widely missing a consciousness of doing wrong. This is
typical for modern constitutional states and states in transition towards democratic political culture.
●● Black corruption: Corruption is generally regarded as severe violation of community moral and legal
norms. This is characteristic for modern democratic media societies.
9. Vertical levels of corruption
●● local politics (micro level)
●● middle level, regions (meso level)
●● nation-state level (macro level)
●● international level (mega level)
10. Other forms of corruption can be bribery, collusion, embezzlement of public funds and theft, fraud,
extortion, abuse of discretion, favouritism, clienteles, nepotism, the sale of government property by public
officials, patronage, Under-assessment of income tax, misuse of government employees for personal work,
Production of forged certificates, Acceptance of substandard stores/work etc.
Difference between Gifts and Bribes

A gift is something of value given without the expectation of return; a bribe is the same thing given in the
hope of influence or benefit. Because it is often impossible to determine the expectation of the giver, all
federal, state, and local officials, both elected and appointed, are governed by rules restricting gifts. In some
cases, gifts over a certain amount are disallowed; in others, they must simply be reported. These rules can
vary significantly from locality to locality, indicating disparities in each legislature’s understanding of when
a gift becomes a bribe.
In this context, it is well for government officials to remember the old saying, “There’s no such thing as a free
lunch,” or even a free pencil. Political and administrative decisions are supposed to be made on the merits
of the case, not based on whether or not the decision maker has received a lovely case of wine from one of
the parties. This is a simple matter of fairness. When decision makers take gifts, even if their votes are not
influenced, they give the appearance of being on the take, which undermines public confidence in government.
Moral and Ethical Implications of Corruption

Corruption as a human act has moral and ethical implications and so can be analyzed from the ethical and
moral perspectives. We can achieve such analysis against the background of different ethical systems like
Deontologism, Teleologism and Contractarianism.
1. Deontologist Approach
Deontology is an ethical theory that uses rules to distinguish right from wrong. Deontology is often associated
with philosopher Immanuel Kant. Kant believed that ethical actions follow universal moral laws, such as
“Don’t lie. Don’t steal. Don’t cheat.” Deontology is simple to apply. It just requires that people follow the
rules and do their duty. Deontology doesn’t require weighing the costs and benefits of a situation. This avoids
subjectivity and uncertainty because you only have to follow set rules and reason.
In relation to this ethical system, corruption is morally bad or an immoral act. It goes contrary to right
reason. One cannot use his position as a public servant for self-aggrandizement or for private gain. Right
reason cannot also tolerate this type of action because it goes contrary to the natural law enshrined in the
universal human moral sensibility. Going by the Kantian moral philosophy on which this ethical system
is built, corruption is seen as an immoral or morally bad action because it goes against the supreme moral
principle and the natural sense of duty that goes with it. Corruption cannot be used as categorical imperative
305
or a supreme moral principle which can be universally applied or acceptable. The reason for this is because
corruption contravenes the three maxims that should guide all human actions that have moral value.
Kant believes also that man has conscience which enables him to act in terms of duty. As morally responsible
agents, we know that corruption is bad, and deep within us, in the sanctuary of our consciences, we know
what we are doing is wrong. We are free to choose to be corrupt and to choose to be honest. In freely choosing
corruption, we freely go against our consciences, yet without wishing that such acts of transgression be
universalized. It is here then that we see that corruption is evil and morally unacceptable.
2. Teleology/Utilitarianism or Consequentialism approach: The teleological system predicates the
goodness or badness of an act on the effect or consequence of that action or the utility value of the particular
action. Another name for it is Utilitarianism or Consequentialism. It holds that an agent performs a morally
right action if such an action will maximize good and minimize evil, in terms of the number of people who
benefit from that particular action or the degree of pleasure the particular action causes on people. Corruption,
as we can see, has bad effects on the society, jeopardizes the common good and ultimately inflicts pain on a
very large number of people, if not on the whole nation.
In this regard, it is also pertinent to note that corruption, no matter the temporary benefit it brings to the
individual and those around him, can neither constitute nor contribute to man’s summum bonuum. There has
never been a time that man was completely satisfied or happy because of his wealth. The very rich also have
other desires which keep them anxious. They are not even satisfied with the amount of money they have.
Given the opportunity, they will still embezzle more. As a matter of fact, because corruption is a morally
depraved and condemnable act, it can even jeopardize man’s attainment of his summum bonuum, that is, his
highest good.
3. Contractarianism Approach
The third ethical system, the contractarianism or justice system, predicates moral responsibility on acts that
are based on rational choice, done with empathy, without any dint of partiality and motivated by a sense of
justice and fairness towards the other person. Our actions are good as long as they respect the right of others
and maintain the cohesiveness of the social contract on which society is based. If we go by the simplest
understanding of justice as giving someone his due, then we will easily see that since corruption deprives
people of their due, their due in terms of the good roads and other amenities the money corruptly embezzled
would have provided for them, then corruption is morally wrong. Corruption does not, in any way, promote
social cohesion or the social contract that binds people together, but rather threatens it.
Corruption does not allow one to be fair in one’s dealings with others. On all these counts, therefore, corruption
is morally bad. It is, therefore, the prerogative of ethics or moral philosophy to establish normative principles
that not only make corrupt practices morally bad but also command people to desist from them.
Counter Perspective: Functionalist Approach

Proponents of functionalist approach try to avoid moralising and concentrate more on the utilitarian qualities
of corruption. These theories argue that, if corruption was so detrimental, it would not have existed. Specifically
considering the prevailing conditions in the transitional societies or the developing world, functionalists view
corruption as a compensation for the insufficiency of the political and administrative arrangements available in such
societies and states.
Functionalists consider corruption as a mean to cut the red tape, improve administrative efficiency, reduce political
friction, substitute for reforms, avoid revolutions, lubricate the rusty wheel of the economy, and make demands
on otherwise inaccessible political and administrative systems of the developing world. It could be argued that in
functionalist’s view corruption is a form of recompense for lack of governance, as most of the so-called positives of
corruption are essentially the indicators of lower level of governance.
Causes of corruption
K. Santhanam Committee observes that “Corruption can exist only if there is someone to corrupt and capable
of corrupting.” The Punjab Administrative Reforms Commission has enumerated following causes of
corruption:
306
●● Lack of proper education and training of civil servants;
●● Low salaries;
●● Inadequate and inefficient supervision;
●● Political patronage of officials;
●● Complicated and dilatory procedures;
●● Collection of funds through officials;
●● Poor public opinion;
●● Unwillingness of people to complain against corrupt.
Some other causes of corruption are:
●● Political Corruption: Political corruption has greatly degraded administration and helped in the spread
of administrative corruption to at all levels. It the top is not clean, obviously the bottom is bound to be
unclean.
●● Lack of Transparency of Public Dealings: It has become a tradition and routine that every paper or
file that is maintained by the Government is marked ‘secret’ and ‘confidential’, no part of it is accessible
as a matter of right to the public. A general myth has been created that every official document/file is an
official secret. Many of the scams which are taking place every day are facilitated by and are possible
only because of the lack of transparency of these official dealings lack of information about these in the
public domain.
●● Non-Disclosure of Assets and Income: Another very important reason why public officials are able to get
away with bribes is that there is no law or rule or convention compelling or encouraging public officials
to disclose their income and assets. If a scrutiny is made on the assets and income of public officials, their
spouses and their children, it would be found that a very large number of officials have assets and incomes
disproportionate to their legal sources of income.
●● Social Environment: Societal culture or societal environmental has powerful impact on public
administration. That is why, it is said that administration is culture bound. Administrative culture is part
of the total culture of society. In the Indian society the ties of family, caste, community, religion and region
are still very strong. Public servants, therefore, are unable to sacrifice their group loyalty for the sake their
loyalty to the nation. This results in corrupt practices like nepotism, favouritism, etc.
●● Legacy of colonial system: Colonial governments were generally regarded as alien and hence illegitimate,
consequently, cheating and deceiving such an alien power was considered a fair game. But when that
colonial system was replaced by local power, the former attitude did not disappear and cheating the
government is still not considered by some as immoral action.
Other factors causing corruption among public servants are job scarcity, insufficient salary, and the ever
increasing powers being given to them by the state to regulate its economy and social affairs. This increased
regulatory authority creates various opportunities for money-making, as for instance in connection with
development planning permits, contracts for construction, granting import-export licenses, collecting customs
and other duties.
Remedies to Fight Corruption

Note: it’s an extract from 2nd ARC 4th Report: Ethics in Governance, which has been modified to suit
the needs of candidates.
Corruption is anti-national, anti-economic development and anti-poor. Fighting corruption is like fighting a
war. The war against corruption is the mother of all wars. However, combating corruption in public life has
become an exciting public sport in our country. Exposes of corruption scams and media debates on their
seamy side have created a great deal of public concern about the need to control corruption.
However, anti-corruption interventions so far made are seen to be ineffectual and there is widespread public
cynicism about them. The interventions are seen as mere posturing without any real intention to bring
the corrupt to book. They are also seen as handy weapons for partisan, political use to harass opponents.
307
Corruption is so deeply entrenched in the system that most people regard corruption as inevitable and any
effort to fight it as futile. This cynicism is spreading so fast that it bodes ill for our democratic system itself.
Two approaches: There are two, somewhat contrary, approaches in dealing with corruption and abuse of
office. The first is overemphasis on values and character. Many people lament the decline in values and the
consequent rise in corruption. The implicit assumption is that until values are restored, nothing much can be
done to improve the conduct of human beings.
The second approach is based on the belief that most human beings are fundamentally decent and socially
conscious, but there is always a small proportion of people, which cannot reconcile individual goals with the
good of society. Such deviant people tend to pursue personal gain at the cost of public good and the purpose
of organized government is to punish such deviant behaviour. If good behaviour is consistently rewarded and
bad behaviour consistently punished, the bulk of the people follow the straight and narrow path. However,
if goodbehaviour is not only not rewarded, but is actually fraught with difficulties and bad behaviour is not
only not punished, but is often extravagantly rewarded, then the bulk of the people tend to stray from the
honorable path.
In the real world, both values and institutions matter. Values are needed to serve as guiding stars, and they
exist in abundance in our society. A sense of right and wrong is intrinsic to our culture and civilization. But
values need to be sustained by institutions to be durable and to serve as an example to others. Values without
institutional support will soon be weakened and dissipated. Institutions provide the container, which gives
shape and content to values. This is the basis of all statecraft and laws and institutions. While incentives and
institutions matter for all people, they are critical in dealing with the army of public servants – elected or
appointed – endowed with authority to make decisions and impact on human lives and exercising the power
to determine allocation of resources. Public office and control over public purse offer enormous temptation
and opportunity to promote private gain at public cost. Therefore, creation of institutions and designing of
incentives are of utmost importance in promoting ethical conduct of public servants.
Measures against political corruption
1. Reform of Political Funding: A system for partial state funding should be introduced in order to reduce
the scope of illegitimate and unnecessary funding of expenditure for elections.
2. Tightening of Anti-Defection Law: The issue of disqualification of members on grounds of defection
should be decided by the President/Governor on the advice of the Election Commission.
3. Disqualification: Section 8 of the Representation of the People Act, 1951 needs to be amended to disqualify
all persons facing charges related to grave and heinous offences and corruption, with the modification
suggested by the Election Commission.
4. Coalition and Ethics: The Constitution should be amended to ensure that if one or more parties in a
coalition with a common programme mandated by the electorate either explicitly before the elections
or implicitly while forming the government, realign midstream with one or more parties outside the
coalition, then Members of that party or parties shall have to seek a fresh mandate from the electorate.
5. Appointment of the Chief Election Commissioner/Commissioners: a. A collegium headed by the
Prime Minister with the Speaker of the Lok Sabha, the Leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha, the Law
Minister and the Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha as members; should make recommendations for
the consideration of the President for appointment of the Chief Election Commissioner and the Election
Commissioners.
6. Expediting Disposal of Election Petitions: Special Election Tribunals should be constituted at the
regional level under Article 323B of the Constitution to ensure speedy disposal of election petitions and
disputes within a stipulated period of six months.
7. Grounds of Disqualification for Membership: Appropriate legislation may be enacted under Article
102(e) of the Constitution spelling out the conditions for disqualification of Membership of Parliament in
an exhaustive manner. Similarly, the States may also legislate under Article 198(e).
8. Ethical Framework for Ministers: In addition to the existing Code of Conduct for Ministers, there
should be a Code of Ethics to provide guidance on how Ministers should uphold the highest standards of
308
constitutional and ethical conduct in the performance of their duties. Dedicated units in PMO and CMO
can be setup to monitor the observance of the Codes. An annual report with regard to the observance of
these Codes should be submitted to the appropriate legislature.
9. Enforcement of ethical norms in Legislatures: An Office of ‘Ethics Commissioner’ may be constituted
by each House of Parliament (legislatures at state level). This Office, functioning under the Speaker/
Chairman, would assist the Committee on Ethics in the discharge of its functions, and advise Members,
when required, and maintain necessary records.
10. Office of Profit: The Law should be amended to define office of profit in a more objective and rational
manner, so that expertise and experience of elected representatives can be used without leaving any
window for corruption.
11. Discretionary schemes: Schemes such as MPLADS and MLALADS should be abolished.
12. Public authorities: Members of Parliament and Members of State Legislatures should be declared as
‘Public Authorities’ under the Right to Information Act, except when they are discharging legislative
functions.
13. Ethical framework for legislatures: already discussed in code of ethics chapter.
14. Immunity Enjoyed by Legislators: suitable amendments to be effected to Article 105(2) of the
Constitution to provide that the immunity enjoyed by Members of Parliament (or state legislatures) does
not cover corrupt acts committed by them in connection with their duties in the House or otherwise.
Measures against administrative and judicial corruption

1. Code of Ethics for Civil Servants, judiciary and regulators: already discussed in code of ethics chapter.
2. Defining Corruption: The following should be classified as offences under the Prevention of Corruption
Act:
●● Gross perversion of the Constitution and democratic institutions amounting to willful violation of oath of
office.
●● Abuse of authority unduly favoring or harming someone.
●● Obstruction of justice.
●● Squandering public money.
3. Collusive Bribery: Section 7 of the Prevention of Corruption Act needs to be amended to provide for a
special offence of ‘collusive bribery’. An Offence could be classified as ‘collusive bribery’ if the outcome
or intended outcome of the transaction leads to a loss to the state, public or public interest. The punishments
for all such cases of collusive bribery should be double that of other cases of bribery. The law may be
suitably amended in this regard.
4. Sanction for Prosecution: Prior sanction should not be necessary for prosecuting a public servant who
has been trapped red-handed or in cases of possessing assets disproportionate to the known sources of
income.
The Presiding Officer of a House of Legislature should be designated as the sanctioning authority for MPs
and MLAs respectively.
In all cases where the Government of India is empowered to grant sanction for prosecution, this power
should be delegated to an Empowered Committee comprising the Central Vigilance Commissioner and
the Departmental Secretary to Government. Similar arrangements may also be made at the State level.
5. Liability of Corrupt Public Servants to Pay Damages: In addition to the penalty in criminal cases the
law should provide that public servants who cause loss to the state or citizens by their corrupt acts should
be made liable to make good the loss caused and, in addition, be liable for damages. This could be done
by inserting a chapter in the Prevention of Corruption Act. Also the Corrupt Public Servants (Forfeiture of
Property) Bill as suggested by the Law Commission should be enacted without further delay.
6. Speeding up Trials under the Prevention of Corruption Act: by fixing a time limit for various stages
of trial.
7. Protection to Whistleblowers: Legislation should be enacted immediately to provide protection to
whistleblowers on the following lines proposed by the Law Commission:
309
●● Whistleblowers exposing false claims, fraud or corruption should be protected by ensuring confidentiality
and anonymity, protection from victimization in career, and other administrative measures to prevent
bodily harm and harassment.
●● The legislation should cover corporate whistle-blowers unearthing fraud or serious damage to public
interest by willful acts of omission or commission.
●● Acts of harassment or victimization of or retaliation against, a whistleblower should be criminal offences
with substantial penalty and sentence.
8. Constitutional Protection to Civil Servants (Article 311): Article 311 of the Constitution should be
repealed. Simultaneously Article 310 of the Constitution should also be repealed. Suitable legislation to
provide for all necessary terms and conditions of services should be provided under Article 309, to protect
the bona fide action of public servants taken in public interest; this should be made applicable to the
States. Necessary protection to public servants against arbitrary action should be provided through such
legislation under Article 309.
9. The Lok Pal: The Constitution should be amended to provide for a national ombudsman to be called
the Rashtriya Lokayukta. The role and jurisdiction of the Rashtriya Lokayukta should be defined in the
Constitution while the composition, mode of appointment and other details can be decided by Parliament
through legislation. The same must be done to constitute the office of Lokayukta at state level and office
of Ombudsman at the Local Levels.
10. Strengthening Investigation and Prosecution: The State Vigilance Commissions/Lokayuktas may be
empowered to supervise the prosecution of corruption related cases. The investigative agencies should
acquire multi-disciplinary skills and modern techniques of investigation like electronic surveillance, video
and audio recording of surprise inspections, traps, searches and seizures.
11. Citizens’ Initiatives: Citizens’ Charters should be made effective by stipulating the service levels and also
the remedy if these service levels are not met. Citizens may be involved in the assessment and maintenance
of ethics in important government institutions and offices. Reward schemes should be introduced to
incentivise citizen’s initiatives. School awareness programmes should be introduced, highlighting the
importance of ethics and how corruption can be combated.
12. False Claims Act: Legislation on the lines of the US False Claims Act should be enacted, providing for
citizens and civil society groups to seek legal relief against fraudulent claims against the government. This
law should have the following elements:
i. Any citizen should be able to bring a suit against any person or agency for a false claim against the
government.
ii. If the false claim is established in a court of law, then the person/ agency responsible shall be liable for
penalty equal to five times the loss sustained by the exchequer or society.
iii. The loss sustained could be monetary or non-monetary as in the form of pollution or other social costs. In
case of non-monetary loss, the court would have the authority to compute the loss in monetary terms.
iv. The person who brought the suit shall be suitably compensated out of the damages recovered.
13. Role of Media: It is necessary to evolve norms and practices requiring proper screening of all allegations/
complaints by the media, and taking action to put them in the public domain. The electronic media should
evolve a Code of Conduct and a self regulating mechanism in order to adhere to a Code of Conduct as a
safeguard against malafide action. Government agencies can help the media in the fight against corruption
by disclosing details about corruption cases regularly.
14. Social Audit: Operational guidelines of all developmental schemes and citizen centric programmes
should provide for a social audit mechanism.
15. Promoting Competition: Every Ministry/Department may undertake an immediate exercise to identify
areas where the existing ‘monopoly of functions’ can be tempered with competition. A similar exercise
may be done at the level of State Governments and local bodies. This exercise may be carried out in a time
bound manner, say in one year, and a road map laid down to reduce ‘monopoly’ of functions. The approach
should be to introduce competition along with a mechanism for regulation to ensure performance as per
310
prescribed standards so that public interest is not compromised. Some Centrally Sponsored schemes could
be restructured so as to provide incentives to States that take steps to promote competition in service
delivery.
16. Simplifying Transactions: There is a need to bring about simplification of methods in government
functioning. Leaving aside specific sectoral requirements, the broad principles of such reforms must
be: adoption of ‘single window’ approach, minimizing hierarchical tiers, stipulating time limits for
disposal etc. A system of rewards and incentives for simplification and streamlining of procedures may be
introduced in each government organization.
The principle of ‘positive silence’ should generally be used, though this principle cannot be used in all
cases. Wherever permissions/licenses etc are to be issued, there should be a time limit for processing of
the same after which permission, if not already given, should be deemed to have been granted. However,
the rules should provide that for each such case the official responsible for the delay must be proceeded
against.
17. Using Information Technology: Each Ministry/Department/Organization of Government should draw up
a plan for use of IT to improve governance. The Ministry of Information and Technology needs to identify
certain governmental processes and then take up a project of their computerization on a nationwide scale.
18. Integrity Pacts: The Commission recommends encouragement of the mechanism of ‘integrity pacts’.
As “a tool for preventing corruption in public contracting”, an integrity pact is a multi-party agreement
entered into by a public body seeking to procure goods and services of significant value, the companies
interested in bidding to supply the goods and services, and a third party organization such as a civil society
organization who will have a role in monitoring compliance with the pact.
In January 2014, the Government of India cancelled a US$630 million deal with AgustaWestland for
purchasing 12 AW 101 helicopters citing “breach of the Pre-contract Integrity Pact and the agreement by
AgustaWestland International Ltd.
19. Reducing discretion: All government offices having public interface should undertake a review of their
activities and list out those which involve use of discretion. In all such activities, attempt should be
made to eliminate discretion. Where it is not possible to do so, well-defined regulations should attempt
to ‘bound’ the discretion. Ministries and Departments should be asked to coordinate this task in their
organizations/offices and complete it within one year.
Decision-making on important matters should be assigned to a committee rather than individuals. Care
has to be exercised, however, that this practice is not resorted to when prompt decisions are required. State
Governments should take steps on similar lines, especially in local bodies and authorities, which have
maximum ‘public contact’.
20. Supervision: The supervisory role of officers needs to be re-emphasized. It bears reiteration that
supervisory officers are primarily responsible for curbing corruption among their subordinates, and they
should take all preventive measures for this purpose. In the Annual Performance Report of each officer,
there should be a column where the officer should indicate the measures he took to control corruption in
his office and among subordinates. The reporting officer should then give his specific comments on this.
21. Ensuring Accessibility and Responsiveness: Service providers should converge their activities so that
all services are delivered at a common point. Such common service points could also be outsourced to an
agency, which may then be given the task of pursuing citizens, requests with concerned agencies. Tasks,
which are prone to corruption, should be split up into different activities that can be entrusted to different
persons. A ‘single window front office’ for provision of information and services to the citizens with a file
tracking system should be set up in all government departments.
22. Monitoring Complaints: All offices having large public interface should have an online complaint
tracking system. If possible, this task of complaint tracking should be outsourced. There should be an
external, periodic mechanism of ‘audit’ of complaints in offices having large public interface. Apart from
enquiring into each complaint and fixing responsibility for the lapses, if any, the complaint should also be
used to analyse the systemic deficiencies so that remedial measures are taken.
311
23. Risk Management for Preventive Vigilance: Risk profiling of jobs needs to be done in a more systematic
and institutionlised manner in all government organizations. Risk profiling of officers should be done by a
committee of ‘eminent persons’ after the officer has completed ten years of service, and then once in every
five years.
24. Audit: It should be prescribed that as soon as any major irregularity is detected or suspected by the audit
team, it should be immediately taken note of by government. A suitable mechanism for this may be put in
place. It shall be the responsibility of the head of the office to enquire into any such irregularity and initiate
action. Audit teams should be imparted training in forensic audit.
25. Proactive vigilance on corruption: Taking proactive vigilance measures should primarily be the
responsibility of the head of the office. Some possible measures are
●● Intelligence Gathering: Supervisory officers should assess the integrity of his/her subordinates based
on his/her handling of cases, complaints and feedback from different sources. This could then become an
important input for risk profiling of officers.
●● Vigilance Network: A national database containing the details of all corruption cases at all levels should
be created. This database should be in the public domain.
26 Protecting the Honest Civil Servant: Every allegation of corruption received through complaints or
from sources cultivated by the investigating agency against a public servant must be examined in depth
at the initial stage itself before initiating any enquiry. Every such allegation must be analyzed to assess
whether the allegation is specific, whether it is credible and whether it is verifiable.
Only when an allegation meets the requirements of these criteria, should it be recommended for verification,
and the verification must be taken up after obtaining approval of the competent authority. The levels of
competent authorities for authorizing verifications/enquiries must be fixed in the anti-corruption agencies
for different levels of suspect officers.
Corruption Involving the Private Sector
1. The Prevention of Corruption Act should be suitably amended to include in its purview private sector
providers of public utility services. Non-Governmental agencies, which receive substantial funding,
should be covered under the Prevention of Corruption Act.
2. Serious Economic Offences: A new law on ‘Serious Economic Offences’ should be enacted.
Other Approaches
Apart from measures suggested by 2nd ARC, some other short term approaches can be used. Some of them are:
1. Bottom-up approach: instead of starting with big reforms from the top, one can start with easy to do
measures from the bottom. There are several simple steps that can be taken to control corruption in
public services that does not call for many resources and are unlikely to cause political and bureaucratic
resistance.
●● Written acknowledgements: All public agencies and service providers who receive applications/letters
should be required to issue acknowledgments in writing to the persons involved. Technologies are readily
available to issue numbers/codes that applicants can quote in case officials later deny that such applications
were submitted to them. A major source of delay, abuse of power and corruption can be nipped in the bud
through this simple reform.
●● Informal citizen charter: A list of the services and the terms and conditions to be fulfilled by citizens
to receive them should be prominently displayed at the entrance of public agencies. Conditions should
include the time deadlines for service delivery.
●● Periodic review of outdated laws: Heads of departments/agencies should be made responsible for a
periodic review of their laws, rules and regulations.
●● Periodic ‘adalats’ at local level: At the district level, the Collector or his deputy should hold periodic
“adalats” to resolve the grievances of citizens that remain unattended.
The fate of the many recommendations of the first and second Administrative Reform Commissions of India
is instructive. Rather than lose time by relying solely on cumbersome and complex reforms, the priority
should be to start with the simpler and easier to implement reforms.
312
2. Strengthen anti-corruption initiatives already under way: The merit of this approach is that civil
society or other external actors need not expend their energy and time to convince governments about the
need for these reforms.
●● Right to Services: Many state governments have already enacted the Right to Services law. Though their
coverage of services and other features differ somewhat, this law is a major step towards enhancing the
public accountability of service providers, and improving the reach, and quality of public services.
●● E-Governance: Government of India as well as state governments are actively involved in numerous
e-governance initiatives. The same must be continued with greater zeal.
●● Public Procurement: Governments, central, state, and local, procure goods and services on a large scale
through contractors and vendors. The aggregate annual expenditure involved is estimated at a tenth of the
country’s GDP. Public procurement, given its growth and complexity, offers vast scope for corruption,
conflicts of interest and non-transparent practices. Use of e-procurement systems and e-procurement
portals can bring on major impact of government resources. E-Tendering should be made mandatory
for all public procurements above a certain value limit initially, say Rs. 10 lakhs. The cooperation of the
private sector is essential for the success of a transparent and corruption free procurement system.
●● Experiment with delivery options: Inefficient and unresponsive delivery systems are a major cause
of the petty corruption that ordinary citizens, especially the poor, encounter in their transactions with
government agencies. Developing and experimenting with alternative delivery options is one way to
overcome this problem. Electronic service delivery, UID, conditional cash transfers (CCT), direct cash
transfers, are examples of the new options being tried out in the country to reduce the scope for corruption
and improve service delivery. It is important that both government and civil society are open and willing
to experiment with and learn from alternative delivery system experiments.
●● Judicial Reforms: There is considerable scope for administrative reform in the management and
disposal of cases by the judicial system. Several countries have streamlined their procedures for case flow
management and, as a result, reduced delays and the pendency of cases. In the 1990’s, concerted efforts
led by the former Chief Justice of India, M.N. Venkatachaliah, resulted in the reduction of pending cases
in the Supreme Court from nearly five lakhs to a mere 16,000 cases.
●● A Proactive Role for Industry and Civil Society: An influential group that could have made a difference
is organized industry. A specific initiative that concerned corporates could launch is the social audit of the
huge expenditures incurred by governments for numerous programmes and projects. If leaders of industry
will pool together a tenth of the amount they allocate to meet their corporate social responsibility (CSR) to
support independent and professional assessments of the kind mentioned above, and publicize the results,
it can have a salutary effect on both governance and corruption in public life.
Corruption quotes
1. “I will not let anyone walk through my mind with their dirty feet.” ― Mahatma Gandhi
2. If a country is to be corruption free and become a nation of beautiful minds, I strongly feel there are three
key societal members who can make a difference. They are the father, the mother and the teacher.
— A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
3. Where do the evils like corruption arise from? It comes from the never-ending greed. The fight for
corruption-free ethical society will have to be fought against this greed and replace it with ‘what can I
give’ spirit. — A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
4. “A man who has never gone to school may steal a freight car; but if he has a university education, he may
steal the whole railroad.” ― Theodore Roosevelt
5. Corruption is nature’s way of restoring our faith in democracy. — Peter Ustinov
6. Corruption is like a ball of snow, once it’s set a rolling it must increase. — Charles Caleb Colton
7. This source of corruption, alas, is inherent in the democratic system itself, and it can only be controlled, if
at all, by finding ways to encourage legislators to subordinate ambition to principle. — James L. Buckley
313
8. Corruption is just another form of tyranny. — Joe Biden
9. The inherent corruption of man can often bring down the best system. — Alexis Denisof
10. We mustn’t hesitate to cut corruption at its roots. — Felipe VI of Spain
11. The cancer that demands our urgent attention is corruption and poverty. — Miriam Defensor-Santiago
12. “The more corrupt the state, the more numerous the laws.” ― Tacitus
13. Civil disobedience becomes a sacred duty when the state has become lawless or corrupt. And a citizen
who barters with such a state shares in its corruption and lawlessness. — Mahatma Gandhi
14. Corruption is worse than prostitution. The latter might endanger the morals of an individual, the former
invariably endangers the morals of the entire country. — Karl Kraus
nn
314
Section ‘A’ Assignment Sheets

Section ‘A’ Assignment-1
Total marks: 100
1. Ethics and morals both relate to “right” and “wrong” conduct, but they are different and even conflicting
in some situations. Elucidate with the help of examples? (150 words, 10 marks)
2. Differentiate between the following: (10 marks, 150 Words)
(i) Personal ethics and public ethics
(ii) Discrimination and stereotypes
3. “Aptitudes have to be trained in order to be used well.” Explain this statement with the help of
examples? (150 words, 10 marks)
4. “Anybody can become angry - that is easy, but to be angry with the right person and to the right degree
and at the right time and for the right purpose, and in the right way - that is not within everybody’s power
and is not easy.” Discuss this quote of Aristotle in context of emotional intelligence?
(150 words, 10 marks)
5. Tolerance is treated as one of the foundational values of modern democratic rule. In this context:
(a) What do you mean by ‘Tolerance’? Discuss its important in public service?
(b) Being a civil servant, how can you initiate the culture of tolerance in your organization?
6. Given below are quotations of moral thinkers/philosophers. For each of these, bring out what it means to
you in the present context.
(a) It is very easy to defeat someone, but very difficult to win someone. (150 words, 10 marks)
(b) He who conquers other things is strong; he who conquers himself is mighty. (150 words, 10 marks)
(c) People will forget what you said, people will forget what you did, but, people will never forget how
you made them feel. (150 words, 10 marks)
7. “I believe government has no business to do business. The focus should be on Minimum Government but
Maximum Governance.” Elucidate this statement with the help of example? (150 words, 10 marks)
8. Mahatma Gandhi’s concept of Sarvodaya through Antyodaya is still relevant for the Indian society and for
the process of governance. Discuss with the help of examples? (150 words, 10 marks)
nn
315
Section ‘A’ Assignment - 2

Total marks: 100
1. What do you understand by the term ‘National Interest’ in international context? How you relate it with
universal values like peace, disarmament, equality and brotherhood. (150 words, 10 marks)
2. Determination of ethics is a complicated task as the criteria of judging is neither absolute nor universal
but variable depending on different factors. What are these factors and how they affect determination of
ethics? (150 words, 10 marks)
3. Differentiate between the following: (10 marks, 150 Words)
(i) Values and Ethics
(ii) Discrimination and stereotypes
4. What is the role of objectivity in civil services? Is it always possible for a civil servant to be objective in
all his/her decisions? Elucidate. (150 words, 10 marks)
5. “Gratitude is not only the greatest virtue but the parent of all others”. Do you agree and why? What
are the two most important things in your life that you are grateful for? (150 words, 10 marks)
6. Society’s Culture provides a guide or the directions for how we think and behave in an organizational
environment. Discuss in context of prevailing work culture in India? (150 words, 10 marks)
7. Explain different functions attitudes play in the life of an individual? Do you always act according to your
attitudes? If not, why? (150 words, 10 marks)
8. Serving the nation and people does not require big power and big money. It can be done from wherever
you are and whatever you do. Is this idea a practical idea or only a high moral ground which can never be
realized? (150 words, 10 marks)
9. Probity in governance is an essential and vital requirement for an efficient and effective system of
governance and for socio-economic development. Discuss with the help of examples? (150 words, 10
marks)
10. What is Gandhi’s Talisman? In present context, can this idea of Gandhi ji become the yardstick for
measuring the ethical worthiness of our social actions? (150 words, 10 marks)
nn
316

Total marks: 100
1. Ethics in private relations helps in humanizing public relations and plays an important role in forming the
moral system of a person. Discuss? (150 words, 10 marks)
2. What are some of the cardinal virtues which every individual must possess, according to you? What in
your opinion should be the ideals and related virtues for a civil servant in India? (150 words, 10 marks)
a) There is a higher court than courts of justice and that is the court of conscience. It supersedes all other
courts. (150 words, 10 marks)
b) However many holy words you read, however many you speak, what good will they do you if you do
not act on upon them? (150 words, 10 marks)
c) I am not afraid of an army of lions led by a sheep; I am afraid of an army of sheep led by a lion.
4. All people do not aspire for excellence. Do you agree? What does “excellence‟ mean to you? What are
you doing to develop the virtue of excellence in you? (150 words, 10 marks)
5. Explain the following in 75 words each. (150 words, 10 marks)
(a) ‘Corruption’ ultimately makes democracy dysfunctional.
(b) Progressive decline in standards of ‘public duty’
6. The need of citizen’s charter arises from the dissatisfaction of the customer. Comment on this statement
in context of public sector service delivery in India. (150 words, 10 marks)
7. Differentiate between the following: (20 marks) (300 Words)
i. Virtues and ideals
ii. Values and principles
iii. Gifts and bribes
iv. Leaders and managers
nn
317

Total marks: 100
1. Today, the consequences of loss of ethics in India are powerful enough to shape the destiny of an individual,
an organization or a nation. Comment. (150 words, 10 marks)
2. ‘Relationships are the DNA of governance. Without people who can develop trusting relationships with
other people, there is no governance.’ Elucidate? (150 words, 10 marks)
3. What do you understand by the term ‘Constitutional Law’? How it helps to integrate social values with
the process of governance? (150 words, 10 marks)
4. For global funding, donor institutions insist for various conditions. What are those conditions? Can you
justify these Aid conditionalities? (150 words, 10 marks)
(a) You will never do anything in this world without courage. It is the greatest quality of the mind next
to honor. (150 words, 10 marks)
(b) True wisdom comes to each of us when we realize how little we understand about life, ourselves, and
the world around us. (150 words, 10 marks)
6. Neutrality as a civil services value is a highly idealized notion and can exist only in highly ideal conditions
which are often not found in real situations. Discuss in context of India.
7. Explain the following: (20 marks) (300 Words)
(i) Courage of convictions
(ii) Intellectual Humility
(iii) Committed bureaucracy
(iv) Dedication to Public Service
8. What are Public services and how they are different from services provided by the private sector? Give
examples to support your answer? (150 words, 10 marks)
nn
318

Total marks: 100
1. ‘To walk among the kings and yet not lose the common touch’ is the approach which should be internalized
by civil servants in India. Discuss this statement in the context of empathy and compassion?
2. Is it possible for a public servant to be corrupt as well as efficient at the same time? What do you understand
by ‘being efficient’ in context of civil services? (150 words, 10 marks)
3. Attitudes held by an individual are highly influenced by his/her role models. Discuss? Write about any one
person who is your role model and how he has influenced your attitude towards life?
4. Write short notes on the following: (150 words, 10 marks)
a) Article 51 of Indian constitution
b) Social audit
5. What is Truthfulness? Is it always necessary for a civil servant to remain truthful or it depends upon the
situation? Give examples to support your assertions? (150 words, 10 marks)
6. What is the role of emotions in human life? Discuss some of the techniques (if any) you have adopted for
controlling and using your emotions for personal and social good. (150 words, 10 marks)
7. There are various ethical concerns and dilemmas before public administrator. What are the major sources
of ethical guidance and how you prepare yourself to resolve various dilemmas with the help of these
sources? (150 words, 10 marks)
8. Why in your opinion, there is no single, comprehensive, universally accepted definition of corruption.
Explain in context of laws in India and international conventions? (150 words, 10 marks)
9. What is self realization? Do you think it is important to achieve self realization for every person? If yes,
why? Also explain its relevance and importance with respect to public service. (150 words, 10 marks)
10. “I do not agree with what you have to say, but I’ll defend to the death your right to say it.” Discuss this
statement in the context of tolerance as a foundational value for civil services in India?
nn
319

Total marks: 100
1. Environment values and economic values are often seems to be contradictory to each other; but in long
term, they only together can bring well being for the mankind. Elucidate? (150 words, 10 marks)
2. Right to Information, apart from its impact on bringing better governance and exposing corruption,
empowers the individual citizen and promises to bring respect to him/her. Discuss?
3. Leakages in projects funding and irregularities in government procurement in India are not only
administrative but also ethical issues involved in utilization of public funds. Elucidate?
4. Adopting the right attitude can convert a negative emotion into a positive one. Explain with the help of
examples? (150 words, 10 marks)
5. Leadership is one of the essential determinants for values in organization. Describe how effective
leadership can raise the ethical standards of an organization? (150 words, 10 marks)
6. Write a short note on the following: (300 Words, 20 marks)
(a) Legal rational bureaucracy
(b) Conformity as a social influence
(c) Social capital
(d) Process of Socialization
7. Freedom without responsibility becomes license, and responsibility without freedom, a burden. Comment.
8. Differentiate between the following: (150 words, 10 marks)
(a) Dedication and commitment
(b) Radicals and Liberals
9. Discuss some of the steps taken in last 2 years by the government of India to improve work culture in
public organisations? (150 words, 10 marks)
nn
320

Total marks: 100
1. Public administrators should eradicate emotions as they interfere with decision-making and functioning
on daily basis. Critically analyze this statement while explaining the implications of emotions in public
services? (150 words, 10 marks)
2. ‘We must never forget that the free flow of information is essential to a democratic society.’ elucidate with
the help of examples? (150 words, 10 marks)
3. How code of ethics is different from code of conduct in public services? Which one (or both) is more
relevant in your opinion for good governance in India? (150 words, 10 marks)
4. ‘Only a man whose heart is firm, and whose conscience approves his conduct, will pursue his principles
unto death.’ Discuss? (150 words, 10 marks)
5. “An honest civil servant without effectiveness is like a soldier without gun”. Explain the essence of this
statement in the context of recent trend developing among working of honest civil servants.
6. “Subtlety may deceive you; integrity never will.” Discuss this quote of Oliver Cromwell in context of
Indian civil services? (150 words, 10 marks)
7. When being extraordinarily cunning, deceptive, vengeful and arrogant help people to succeed in the
society, how can we inculcate traits like, straightforwardness, honestly and politeness which make a
society much more livable? Analyze. (150 words, 10 marks)
8. What is public impartiality in civil services? What are the useful consequences of this concept in Indian
civil services? Should this principle always be followed by a civil servant? Give examples to substantiate
your reasons? (150 words, 10 marks)
9. Discuss the concept of law. Why the citizen is bound to obey the law and under what circumstances, they
need not obey the law of the land? (150 words, 10 marks)
10. “Hell has three gates: lust, anger and greed.” Discuss in the context of civil services?
nn
321

Total marks: 100
1. Work culture plays an important role in extracting the best out of employees and making them stick to the
organization for a longer duration. Discuss? (150 words, 10 marks)
2. Climate change has been described as a perfect ‘moral storm’? Elucidate. (150 words, 10 marks)
3. What makes moral conviction different or special relative to similarly strong but non-moral beliefs or
attitudes? Explain with the help of examples? (150 words, 10 marks)
4. Discuss the positive correlation between economic development of a country with the level of ethics in
governance system. (150 words, 10 marks)
5. Write a short note on the following: (300 words, 20 marks)
(a) Virtue of Magnanimity
(b) Efficiency in civil services
(c) Deontological approach to ethics
(d) Child rearing practices in India
6. Emotional intelligence is not the opposite of intelligence, it is not the victory of heart over head -- it is the
unique intersection of both. Elucidate? (150 words, 10 marks)
7. What could be the influence of a civil servants private life on his/her public life? As a future bureaucrat,
how would you prepare yourself to separate the two? (150 words, 10 marks)
8. Differentiate between the following: (150 words, 10 marks)
(a) Emotion and passion
(b) Aptitude test and achievement test
9. What is your opinion on the tolerance - Intolerance debate that is going on in India? Is it real or something
which is created by anti-national elements in India? (150 words, 10 marks)
nn
322

Total marks: 100
1. Only empathy and compassion can bridge the gap between the policy formulation and actual ground
realities. Explain with the help of examples in Indian context? (150 words, 10 marks)
2. Freedom and liberty are genuine aspiration of the people in a democracy. But without reasonable
restrictions and self discipline there is a danger that we may end up in an unprincipled anarchy.’ Examine
the above statement view of some of the recent happening in the country. (150 words, 10 marks)
3. Civil services values like tolerance, empathy, compassion, dedication and objectivity needs high level of
EI. Discuss with the help of examples? (150 words, 10 marks)
4. What factors impinge on the impartial functioning and moral fibre of a public official? What core values
can be the bulwark against corrupting influence? (150 words, 10 marks)
5. Free flow of information for citizen empowerment should be should be accompanied by proper utilization
of information. Discuss the step required for increasing the capability of individuals for utilizing
information properly. (150 words, 10 marks)
a) Strong minds discuss ideas, average minds discuss events, weak minds discuss people.
b) Live your life as though your every act were to become a universal law. (150 words, 10 marks)
c) Happiness depends upon ourselves. Happiness is the meaning and the purpose of life, the whole aim
and end of human existence. (150 words, 10 marks)
7. Corruption, scams, fraud, these are all characteristics which exist everywhere. It is regrettably the way
human nature functions, whether we like it or not. What successful economics do is keep it to a minimum.
No one has ever eliminated any of the stuff. Do you agree? Give reasons. (150 words, 10 marks)
8. ‘Persuasion involves a manipulation of a person which in itself can be regarded as an unethical conduct.’
Discuss? (150 words, 10 marks)
nn
323

Total marks: 100
1. What in your opinion is the relation between religion and morality? Is it necessary to become moral to be
called as religious and being religious to embrace morality? (150 words, 10 marks)
2. “True character is revealed in adversity”. Discuss the statement in light of the various challenges that
public service throw upon public servants? How would you respond to them? (150 words, 10 marks)
3. What are the different components of Emotional intelligence? Write about some of the steps that you have
taken to enhance each of these components of Emotional intelligence? (150 words, 10 marks)
4. If an individual wants to grow up as successful human being, one essential thing is to have rational
thinking. What does rational thinking means to you? Is it just controlling one’s emotion or something
else? Discuss with examples. (150 words, 10 marks)
a) True wisdom comes to each of us when we realize how little we understand about life, ourselves, and
the world around us. (150 words, 10 marks)
b) Good people do not need laws to tell them to act responsibly, while bad people will find a way around
the laws. (150 words, 10 marks)
c) Moral excellence comes about as a result of habit. We become just by doing just acts, temperate by
doing temperate acts, brave by doing brave acts. (150 words, 10 marks)
6. Explain with examples how whistle-blowing is both an ethical and unethical act if seen in different
perspectives? (150 words, 10 marks)
7. Different attitude objects are likely to fulfill a particular function or many different functions for different
people. Elucidate with the help of examples. (150 words, 10 marks)
8. How Socrates established the primacy of free thinking and moral courage in public life? in this context
only, also explain, What you mean by ‘speaking truth to power’? (150 words, 10 marks)
nn
324

Atul Garg Ethics Sec A

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Atul Garg Ethics Sec A

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Atul Garg Ethics Sec A

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

Civil Services GS Paper-IV

Ethics Integrity and Aptitude

Unit - 3 : Aptitude and Foundational Values for Civil Service

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Unit - 4 : Emotional Intelligence

Unit - 5 : Contributions of Moral Thinkers and

Unit - 6 : Public/Civil Service Values and Ethics in Public Administration

Unit - 7 : Probity in Governance

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Civil Services Mains Paper - IV

Unit 1: Ethics and Human Interface

Unit 3: Aptitude and foundational values for Civil Service

Unit 4: Emotional intelligence

Unit 5: Contributions of moral thinkers and philosophers

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Unit 6: Public/Civil service values and Ethics in Public administration

Unit 7: Probity in Governance

Unit 8: Case Studies on above issues

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Ethics and Morals

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Difference between Ethics and Morals

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Moral Philosophy Context

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Consequences of Ethics in Human Actions

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

World Bioethics Day

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

5. Public sector ethics

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Ethics in Private and Public Relations

Ethics in Public Relationships

Google it➡ PDF4Exams UPSC Materials

Relationship between Ethics in Private and Public Relations

Harmony in Private and Public Ethics