Introduction to Log Interpretation

Introduction to Log
Interpretation

Notes

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© Schlumberger 1999-2001 1
 Introduction to Log Interpretation In a well evaluation the questions asked are simple, where is the oil and
how much is there. Effectively the question is where will we perforate
and how much will come out, will it produce.
Log Interpretation These answers are available (usually) from log evaluation.
Interpretation is defined as the action of
explaining the meaning of something.
Log Interpretation is the explanation of logs ρb,
GR, Resistivity, etc. in terms of well and reservoir
parameters, zones, porosity, oil saturation, etc.
Log interpretation can provide answers to
questions on:

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Uses of logs has advanced over the 60+ years since the technique was
pioneered. Simple correlation and hydrocarbon indication has advanced to
geochemistry and resistivity profiling. Logs are employed to give
Why Run Logs information about the reservoir, from formation tops and marker beds to
porosity and permeability of layers, to porosity and fluids and their types.
The data used depends on the needs and the type of wells being evaluated.
An exploration well needs more data than a simple development well.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The elements of gas oil and water are not always present at the same time.
Any combination is possible.
To have a reservoir all the elements are needed:
The Reservoir A reservoir rock
A source rock (but it may be far away from the actual reservoir).
The cap rock has to be on top.
The structure must be there.

Notes

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 Reservoirs are represented differently by geologists with rocks and
Introduction to Log Interpretation reservoir engineers with the fluids.
The reservoir is pictured in two forms
Reservoir Geometry The cross section
Geological column
The Cross section shows the structure and the fluids
The geological column shows only the rocks making up the reservoir and
the depths of each layer

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The earth is made up of a number of components. At the centre is the
solid core which is Nickel - Iron ; around this is a liquid core of the same
material. The next part is a liquid called the Mantle, composed of much
The Earth lighter materials. Finally there is a solid crust, a very thin sheath when
compared to the total diameter.

pl
as
tic
Crust
10 miles
plastic

liquid
Notes
solid

Inner Core Core Mantle

750 miles 1400 miles 1800 miles
ρ = 10.7 g/cc ρ = 4.0 g/cc

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The crust is not one solid skin on the Mantle. It is broken into a number
of irregular “ plates “. The plates can be large, the pacific plate, or
relatively small, some of the Mediterranean plates. The centres of the
The Earth 2 plates are stable environments while the edges are the earthquake/volcano
regions of the earth. These plates move around driven by the convection
currents in the mantle.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The mantle is plastic. It flows in convection currents from the very hot
core to the outer Mantle/crust. These currents cause the crust to move.
The currents are continuous and are responsible for all the features on the
Plate Tectonics 1 earth's surface.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The rocks forming the earth’s crust are broken down into three major
classes reflecting their origins.
Igneous coming from molten material of the mantle, sedimentary rocks
Rocks General from sediments and metamorphic from the effects of heat and pressure of
both of the others.

There are three major classes of rock:

Igneous:

(e.g. Granite).

Sedimentary:

(e.g. Sandstone).
Notes

Metamorphic:

(e.g. Marble).

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Volcanic rocks are those seen immediately after a volcanic eruption. They
cool quickly resulting in an amorphous structure. They have no texture.
Plutonic rocks cool much slower as they come up from the Mantle and
Igneous Rocks stop much deeper inside the crust. They have a crystalline structure.
Continuing movements of the crust may bury the volcano and bring the
Comprise 95% of the Earth's crust. plutonic rock to a shallower depth or even surface.

Originated from the solidification of molten

material from deep inside the Earth.
There are two types:
Volcanic - glassy in texture due to fast cooling.
Plutonic - slow-cooling, crystalline rocks.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation A granite has no porosity or permeability of its own, however tectonic
forces may fracture the rock. Into these fractures hydrocarbons can flow
to create a reservoir.
Igneous Rocks and Reservoirs The nature of volcanoes is to eject material which is mixed with the
already existing formations. This is what happened in some places where
the sandstone of the reservoir has volcanic debris mixed into it.
Igneous rocks can be part of reservoirs.
Fractured granites form reservoirs in some parts
of the world.

Volcanic tuffs are mixed with sand in some

reservoirs.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The effect of heat and pressure is to transform the rock into a new form.
In doing this it destroys all porosity and any hydrocarbon. Metamorphic
rocks do not exist in reservoirs.
Metamorphic Rocks
2) Metamorphic rocks
formed by the action of temperature and/or
pressure on sedimentary or igneous rocks.

Examples are

Marble - formed from limestone

Hornfels - from shale or tuff
Gneiss - similar to granite but
formed by metamorphosis Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Sedimentary rocks are formed from the material of other rocks which
could be igneous, metamorphic or older sedimentary rocks. The
classification splits those rocks which form from materials transported
Sedimentary Rocks from one place to another - clastic rocks, from rocks which are created
from materials in their place of formation ; no transportation - non clastic
rocks.
The third category is Sedimentary rocks. These
are the most important for the oil industry as it
contains most of the source rocks and cap
rocks and virtually all reservoirs.

Sedimentary rocks come from the debris of older

rocks and are split into two categories

Clastic and Non-clastic.

Notes
Clastic rocks - formed from the materials of
older rocks by the actions of
erosion, transportation and
deposition.

Non-clastic rocks -
from chemical or biological
origin and then deposition.

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The depositional environment often plays a vital part of the evaluation of
a well and a field. This often defines the major lithology and points to the
possibilities of minor minerals. For example the shallow fan of the delta
Depositional Environments in the slide produces a conglomerate , the deep water is showing shales (
fine sediments ). Clues to the deposition come from a lot of
measurements in and around the well. Core data is invaluable for the
The depositional environment can be fossils, something that can’t be seen on logs. The analysis of Dipmeter
curves was always one of the first steps to choosing the depositional
environment. Lately the imaging tools have made the process much easier
Shallow or deep water. with high resolution borehole images.

Marine (sea) and lake or continental.

This environment determines many of the

reservoir characteristics

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The classical continental deposition of sand dunes produces an excellent
reservoir quality reservoir rock. To create a reservoir the dune has to be
buried with a source rock and cap rock providing the rest of the elements
Depositional Environments 2 of the reservoir.
The sediments carried down rivers will be deposited once the energy of
Continental deposits are usually dunes. the river currents drops. Heavier particles will come out first, leaving the
fine sediments to go into deep water.
A shallow marines environment has a lot of
turbulence hence varied grain sizes. It can
also have carbonate and evaporite formation.
A deep marine environment produces fine
sediments.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Sands are a reservoir rock, while shales are a source rock and a cap rock.
The shales are very fine grained and although the can contain fluids this
can only leak out in geological time, very slowly.
Clastic Rocks
Shales and silts also contain other minerals than Quartz. The sediments
are buried to create the sedimentary rock, initially filled with water.
Clastic rocks are sands, silts and shales. The
The source form which these rocks are formed can be of any type of rock.
difference is in the size of the grains.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Deltas can have huge extents. There are also a large number of potential
traps in this environment, channels, bars and sheets of sands further out in
the deeper water. hence the delta is one of the most prolific hydrocarbon
environments.
Depositional Environment - Delta They are also complex with the “ structure “ ranging from shallow ,
shoreline to deep water.
Sediments are transported to the basins by rivers.
A common depositional environment is the delta
where the river empties into the sea.
A good example of this is the Mississippi.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Ancient river beds below the current level can add up to a considerable
thickness, although the individual river channels are small, they are
numerous leading to a commercial reservoir.
Rivers The shape of a river/channel type deposition is often complicated, causing
problems for well placement. Dipmeter analysis helps the geologist
determine the direction of paleoflow and hence decide where to put the
next well.

Some types of deposition occur in rivers and Notes

sand bars.
The river forms a channel where sands are
deposited in layers. Rivers carry sediment
down from the mountains which is then
deposited in the river bed and on the flood
plains at either side.
Changes in the environment can cause these
sands to be overlain with a shale, trapping the
reservoir rock.
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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Carbonates contain about half the worlds reserves in less than half of the
reservoirs mainly due to the super giant fields of the Middle East.
Carbonates

Carbonates form a large proportion of all

sedimentary rocks.

They consist of:

Limestone.

Dolomite.
Notes

Carbonates usually have an irregular structure.

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Limestones and dolomites are usually reservoir rocks. A very dense, low
porosity limestone can, occasionally,dolomitisation is a very important
Carbonate types mechanism as it not only creates porosity but permeability paths vital to
some reservoirs.

Chalk reservoirs tend to have very high porosity and very low
Chalk is a special form of limestone and is formed
permeability.
from the skeletons of small creatures
(cocoliths). The evaporites are important as they form good cap rocks.

Dolomite is formed by the replacement of some of

thecalcium by a lesser volume of magnesium in
limestone by magnesium. Magnesium is
smaller than calcium, hence the matrix
becomes smaller and more porosity is created.

Notes
Limestone CaCO3

Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2

Evaporites such as Salt (NaCl) and Anhydrite

(CaSO4) can also form in these environments.

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation A reef is the simplest carbonate deposition, the skeletons of the reef
animals.
Depositional Environment In the shallow lagoons, Calcium Carbonate is deposited. Shells and so on
are added to the mixture. Changes in sea level allow the deposition of salt
Carbonates or anhydrite as a seal.
Carbonate deposition is very complex as the rocks themselves have “
particle “ sizes ranging from whole shells to line mud. The basic
deposition is in shallow seas from biological and chemical action. CaCo3
is soluble hence can be transported around as a solute and then
reprecipitated elsewhere.
In addition to the carbonates these environments also produce evaporites
such as salt ( NaCl ) and anhydrate ( Ca So4 ) . Other rocks include pyrite
( FeS2 ) and siderite ( FeCo3 ) and chert, microcrystalline quartz, the
carbonate reservoir is hence very complex.

Notes
Carbonates are formed in shallow seas
containing features such as:

Reefs.

Lagoons.

Shore-bars.
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 Introduction to Log Interpretation These are the major petrophysical properties of the rocks, they determine
how much oil can be contained and how well it will flow.
There are many other ways to describe a rock from a geological
Rock Properties perspective.
The minor constituents often determine how a rock behaves as a
reservoir, hence they are included in the description. For example the
Rocks are described by three properties: shale content of a sandstone and the type of shale will be used.

Porosity - quantity of pore space

Permeability - ability of a formation to flow

Matrix - major constituent of the rock

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The amount of porosity gives the volume of the reservoir containing
fluids. As it is a fraction it can be described as a number e.g. 0.25 or
commonly as a percentage, 25%. Porosity can range from zero to over
Definition of Porosity 50%. In normal reservoirs the range of 20% - 39%.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The two packing models shown represent some of the possibilities .Cubic
packing , with a porosity in excess of 47% is the theoretical maximum
which is rarely reached.
Porosity Sandstones These pictures are valid in a lot of cases as the sand sediments deposited
are often of uniform size and shape. The addition of smaller grains will
The porosity of a sandstone depends on the reduce the porosity.
packing arrangement of its grains.
The system can be examined using spheres. Chalk often exhibits cubic packing .
In a Rhombohedral packing, the pore
space accounts for 26% of the total
volume.

With a Cubic packing arrangement,

the pore space fills 47% of the total
Notes
volume.

In practice, the theoretical value is

rarely reached because:
a) the grains are not perfectly round,
and
b) the grains are not of uniform size.

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation In a clastic rock the grain size ( same size grains ) does not affect the
porosity. Thus a sand, a silt and a shale can have the same porosity .The
differences come in permeability where the grain size has a direct effect,
Porosity and Grain Size large grains meaning higher permeability. This is the reason that a
universal porosity - permeability transform does not work; two rocks with
the same porosity but different grain sizes will not have the same
A rock can be made up of small grains or large permeability. The saturation can occur even in the same “ sandstone “
grains but have the same porosity. layer in a reservoir in a sequence where the grain size has changed during
deposition e.g.. a firing up sequence.
This implies that the silts and shales have porosity containing fluid. The
Porosity depends on grain packing, not the grain fluid is water as the pore size is so small that capilliary forces prevent
size. hydrocarbon from entering.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Sandstones can also contain fractures and vugs, however this is rarer than
in the carbonates. In the case of vugs the latter are soluble while
sandstone is not.
Carbonate Porosity
Intergranular porosity is called "primary
porosity".

Porosity created after deposition is called

"secondary porosity".

The latter is in two forms:

Notes
Fractures

Vugs.

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The major difference in the two properties porosity or permeability is that
the former is a static rock property while the latter is a dynamic rock and
fluid property.
Permeability Definition The relationships between porosity and permeability are used in
reservoirs to investigate changing permeabilities through the formation.
They are often used as a lithofacies classification/description.
The rate of flow of a liquid through a formation
depends on:
The pressure drop.
The viscosity of the fluid.
The permeability.

The pressure drop is a reservoir property.

The viscosity is a fluid property.
The permeability is a measure of the ease at
which a fluid can flow through a formation. Notes

Relationships exist between permeability and

porosity for given formations, although they
are not universal.
A rock must have porosity to have any
permeability.
The unit of measurement is the Darcy.
Reservoir permeability is usually quoted in
millidarcies, (md).
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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The flow rate increases with increasing pressure drop; it decreases with
increasing length ; it increases with increasing surface area; it decreases
with increasing viscosity. Putting this altogether gives an equation with
Darcy Experiment the unknown as the permeability, K.
The key term in this equation is k/µ, called the mobility. This determines
how a given reservoir will behave depending on the fluid in there.
The flow of fluid of viscosity m through a
porous medium was first investigated in 1856
by Henri Darcy.
He related the flow of water through a unit
volume of sand to the pressure gradient
across it.
In the experiment the flow rate can be changed
by altering the parameters as follows:

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Permeability is a metric ( but not SI ) unit.
Note that the permeability depends directly on the flowrate, Q.

Darcy Law

Notes

K = permeability, in Darcies.
L = length of the section of rock, in centimetres.
Q = flow rate in centimetres / sec.
P1, P2 = pressures in bars.
A = surface area, in cm2.
µ = viscocity in centipoise.

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The flow rate through the large pore spaces is high hence the permeability
is high.

Permeability and Rocks

In formations with large grains, the

permeability is high and the flow rate
larger.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The flow rate through the small grained rocks is low hence the
permeability is low. The formation contrasts with the one in the previous
slide; with the same porosity the permeabilities can differ dramatically.
Permeability and Rocks 2 The ultimate contrast is between a very fine grained shale with zero
permeability and a coarse sandstone with a high permeability.
Due to bedding the permeability can change vertically to a clastic
In a rock with small grains the permeability is sequence . The vertical permeability kv is determined by the lowest
less and the flow lower. permeability layer. The horizontal permeability kh does not have this
problem. The anisotropy , Kv/Kh describes the difference between the
two. This ratio is always less than or equal to 1.

Notes

Grain size has no bearing on porosity, but has a

large effect on permeability.

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Clastic rocks are classified initially by their grain size. There are many
more complex classifications for this type of rock but this is the simplest.
In this list Conglomerates and Sandstones are reservoir rocks, Siltstones
Rock Classification and Shales are source rocks and shales are also cap rocks.
Non- Clastics can be described by their chemical composition, there are,
once again many more complex descriptions. Here limestone and
Clastics Dolomite are reservoir rocks and Silt and Anhydrite are cap rocks.
Rock type Particle diameter

Conglomerate Pebbles 2 - 64mm

Sandstone Sand .06 - 2mm
Siltstone Silt .003 - .06mm
Shale Clay <.003mm

Non-Clastics
Notes
Rock type Composition

Limestone CaCO3
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
Salt NaCl
Anhydrite CaSO4
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
Coal Carbon
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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Other gases can be found in wells, these include, helium, carbon dioxide
and hydrogen sulphide. In most cases these occur as traces together with
the hydrocarbon and water normally found.
Fluids in a Reservoir The formation water is uniquely described by its salinity. This varies from
500 ppm Chlorides to 250000ppm; a wide range.
The major rock property involved in production is the permeability.

A reservoir normally contains either water or

hydrocarbon or a mixture.

The hydrocarbon may be in the form of oil or gas.

The specific hydrocarbon produced depends on

the reservoir pressure and temperature.

The formation water may be fresh or salty.

Notes

The amount and type of fluid produced depends

on the initial reservoir pressure, rock
properties and the drive mechanism.

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Hydrocarbons vary widely in their properties. The first classification is by
fraction of each component. This ranges from a dry gas which is mostly
C1 (methane) to tar which is mostly the heavier fractions. The black oil
Hydrocarbon Composition normally found is between the two extremes, with some C1 and some
heavier fractions.
The hydrocarbon extracted from reservoirs varies in composition from
Typical hydrocarbons have the following place to place. Fluids originating from the same source rock will be
composition in Mol Fraction similar but never exactly the same.

Hydrocarbon C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6+

Dry gas .88 .045 .045 .01 .01 .01

Condensate .72 .08 .04 .04 .04 .08

Volatile oil .6-.65 .08 .05 .04 .03 .15-.2

Black oil .41 .03 .05 .05 .04 .42 Notes

Heavy oil .11 .03 .01 .01 .04 .8

Tar/bitumen 1.0

The 'C' numbers indicated the number of carbon

atoms in the molecular chain.

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Another way to describe the hydrocarbons is by the mixtures of the
groups of hydrocarbon structure types.
The three major groups are shown. The simplest and most abundant is the
Hydrocarbon Structure paraffin series, chains of carbon atoms with the hydrogen attached. The
chemical formula for this type of structure is C nHn+2. The more complex
ring structures, napthelenes and benzines occur in varying proportions.

The major
constituent
of
hydrocarbo
ns is
paraffin.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Oil is more complex than gas and has to be defined in a more complete
manner. The Gas-Oil Ratio, GOR (symbol Rs) is a measure of how much
gas is in the oil and thus how light it is. This is measured at a specific
Hydrocarbon Classification pressure and temperature , for example the reservoir conditions.
The API gravity is a weight. The definition equation given simply sets
Hydrocarbons are also defined by their weight numbers for given oils. The heaviest have the lowest API gravity. The
price of oil depends on its API gravity, with the standard or reference
and the Gas/Oil ratio. The table gives some crudes being the black oils between 30 and 40 API.
typical values:
GOR API Gravity

Wet gas 100mcf/b 50-70

Condensate 5-100mcf/b 50-70

Volatile oil 3000cf/b 40-50

Notes
Black oil 100-2500cf/b 30-40

Heavy oil 0 10-30

Tar/bitumen 0 <10

The specific gravity of an oil is defined as:

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The phase behaviour of the reservoir fluids are important as the fluid in
the reservoir will change as it is produced.
The pressure and temperature are two quantities that can be easily
Fluid Phases measured. Thus it is useful to describe the fluids behaviour during
production in these terms. Experimentally it is easier to measure pressure
and volume hence the classical experiment is done using these parameters
A fluid phase is a physically distinct state, e.g.: at a constant temperature.
gas or oil.

In a reservoir oil and gas exist together at

equilibrium, depending on the pressure and
temperature.

The behaviour of a reservoir fluid is analyzed

using the properties; Pressure, Temperature
and Volume (PVT).
Notes

There are two simple ways of showing this:

Pressure against temperature keeping the
volume constant.

Pressure against volume keeping the

temperature constant.

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The easiest experiment is to keep the temperature constant, measuring
volumes and pressures.
The fluid used is a pure, single component hydrocarbon. (This is not
PVT Experiment found in a reservoir fluid which consists of a number of components.)
Starting in the liquid and increasing the volume, the pressure drops
rapidly with small changes in volume until the first bubble of gas occurs.
This is the Bubble Point.
Further increase in the volume causes no change in the pressure until a
point is reached where all the liquid has vaporised.
This is the Dew Point.
Increasing the volume beyond this point causes the pressure to drop, but
much slower than with the liquid phase.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation This is a plot for the single hydrocarbon component used in the
experiment. The Vapour pressure curve terminates in the Critical Point.
Phase Diagram -single This is a unique point for any substance, pure or a mixture.
The plot describes how this fluid behaves with changing pressure and
component temperature.
If it starts in the liquid and the pressure is reduced, keeping the
The experiment is conducted at different temperature constant, it will cross the vapour pressure curve and become a
temperatures. gas. Starting as a liquid at constant pressure and increasing the
temperature will also change it to a gas. An example of this would be
The final plot of Pressure against Temperature is boiling water in an open container at sea level.
made.
The Vapour Pressure Curve represents the
Bubble Point and Dew Point.
(For a single component they coincide.)

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation
Reservoirs do not have simple single-component hydrocarbons. Their
Pressure/Temperature diagrams are more complex.
The Bubble Point and Dew Point curves still meet at the critical point.
Phase diagram Oil There is now an envelope where two phases, oil and gas, exist in
equilibrium. This is due to there being both heavy and light components
The Pressure/Temperature (PT) phase diagram for an oil
in the fluid.
reservoir: This typical diagram is used to describe how the oil at reservoir
Point 'A' is the initial reservoir condition of pressure and conditions behaves when it is produced to surface.
temperature.
If the reservoir is produced at a constant temperature
until the fluid reaches the wellbore, the line to Point 'B' is
drawn. This represents the flow of fluid from the reservoir to
the borehole. The fluid travelling to surface now drops in both
temperature and pressure arriving at he "separator
conditions" (s) with a final volume of oil and gas.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Gas condensates, as the name suggests, start as a gas and condense out
some liquid. This type of gas reservoir is commercially very good as the
liquid can easily be sold.
Phase Diagram Condensate/Gas This type of fluid is very dynamic and is difficult to produce efficiently.
The surface production system is more complex than for an oil.

Point 'C' is at the initial reservoir conditions. The

reservoir is produced at a constant temperature
from C to D. Fluids flowing up the well now
drop in temperature and pressure, crossing the
Dew point line and liquid condenses out.

At separator conditions (s) the result in both

liquid and gas on the surface.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation This is the final diagram for the reservoir fluids. This is a dry gas which
never enters the envelope under any normal producing conditions as there
are no heavy components.
Gas Reservoir There are some gases classed as ‘wet’gas. This refers to some liquid
being produced at surface, as with a condensate. However there is only an
minimal amount.
In a gas reservoir the initial point is A. Producing
the well to separator conditions B does not
change the fluid produced.

The point B is still in the "gas region" and hence

dry gas is produced.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Downhole, pressures and temperatures are high, on surface they are much
lower hence the fluids will change in volume.
Some gas comes out of the oil, the amount depending on the gas-oil ratio.
Hydrocarbon Volumes Water will only have dissolved gas in a gas well near the gas-water
contact. In general water produces water.

Fluids at bottom hole conditions produce

different fluids at surface:
Oil becomes oil plus gas.
Gas usually stays as gas unless it is a Condensate.
Water stays as water with occasionally some
dissolved gas.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The volume change has to be quantified. Surface volumes are measured
(production rates); these need to be converted to downhole conditions in
order to compute how much has been produced at reservoir conditions and
FVF Oil and Gas hence how much is left.
Bw is around 1, as water is nearly incompressible. Bo is measured in a
PVT laboratory experiment, it is just over 1, a typical value would be 1.2.
There is a change in volume between downhole Bg can be measured in the laboratory or using empirical charts. This
conditions and the surface. figure depends very much on the pressure and is always very small of the
order of 10-3.
The volume of the fluid at reference conditions is
described by the Formation Volume Factor:

Volume at downhole Conditions

FVF =
Volume at reference Conditions

Notes
Bo = formation volume factor for oil.
Bw = formation volume factor for water.
Bg = formation volume factor for gas.

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The porosity has to be split between the fluids occupying the pore space.
Saturation is the name given to the fraction of a given fluid. The total of
the fluids present must be 1 (or 100%).
Saturation The normal representation is as a percentage, in equations a fraction must
be used.

Formation saturation is defined as the fraction of

its pore volume (porosity) occupied by a given
fluid.

Volume of a specific fluid

Saturation =
pore volume

Definitions
Sw = water saturation.
So = oil saturation.
Sg = gas saturation. Notes
Sh = hydrocarbon saturation = So + Sg

Saturations are expressed as percentages or

fractions, e.g.
Water saturation of 75% in a reservoir with
porosity of 20% contains water equivalent to
15% of its volume.

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The graphical representation shows the simple porosity model split now
between water and hydrocarbon.
The volume of a fluid is the porosity times the saturation.
Saturation Definition Hence the volume of water Vw = φ*Sw, that of oil Vo = φ*So , and that
of gas, Vg = φ*Sg.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Wettability is caused by surface tension forces between the fluid
molecules.
Most reservoirs are water wet, mainly because the water was there first,
Wettability the rocks being deposited in water. The hydrocarbon which migrated in at
a later date displaces most of the water but rarely wets the rock as the
surface tension forces in the water are stronger.
The simple experiment in the figure shows a drop of water on a glass
slide, a similar diagram could be drawn for the opposite case using, for
example, mercury in place of water.

The wettability defines how a fluid adheres to the

surface (or rock in the reservoir) when there are
two fluids present, e.g. water and air.
The angle measured through the water is the Notes
"contact angle".
If it is less than 90° the rock is water wet; greater
than 90° the rock is oil wet.
Most reservoir rocks are water wet.

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation There is always water in the hydrocarbon zone. This water is “stuck” to
the rocks by surface tension forces, it is “wetting” the rocks. The water
will never be produced under normal production conditions, hence the
Irreducible Water Saturation term irreducible.
The amount of irreducible water depends on the grain size and on the
mixture of grains. A rock with a mixture of small grains and large grains
In a formation the minimum saturation induced can have water in the small grains and oil in the pore space associated
by displacement is where the wetting phase with the large grains.
becomes discontinuous.
In normal water-wet rocks, this is the irreducible
water saturation, Swirr.
Large grained rocks have a low irreducible water
saturation compared to small-grained
formations because the capillary pressure is
smaller.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The capillary pressure experiment is a simple one. It is often conducted
using a number of glass tubes to determine the controlling factor which is
the radius of the capillary tube. The smaller the tube the greater the height
Capillary Forces of the water and hence the capillary pressure.

Pc = capillary pressure.
σ = surface tension.
q = contact angle.
rcap = radius of capillary tube. Notes
In a simple water and air system the wettability
gives rise to a curved interface between the two
fluids.

This experiment has a glass tube attached to a

reservoir of water. The water "wets" the glass.
This causes the pressure on the concave side
(water) to exceed that on the convex side (air).
This excess pressure is the capillary pressure.
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 Introduction to Log Interpretation In a reservoir the pore spaces act as capillary tubes pulling the water up
into the oil column. There is a capillary transition zone at the oil-water
contact. There would also be one at the gas-water contact in a gas
Capillary Forces and Rocks reservoir. However there is no such phenomena at the gas-oil contact in
normal circumstances as the oil does not wet the rock.

In a reservoir the two fluids are oil and water

which are immiscible hence they exhibit
capillary pressure phenomena.
This is seen by the rise in the water above the
point where the capillary pressure is zero.

Notes

The height depends on the density difference and

the radius of the capillaries.

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The transition zone is a phenomenon seen in all reservoirs. The thickness
of this zone varies from less that the resolution of the standard tool to very
long, hundreds of feet.
Transition Zone The size of the pores also controls the permeability, small pores mean low
permeability. Hence a long transition zone suggests a low permeability
formation.
The phenomenon of capillary pressure gives rise
to the transition zone in a reservoir
between the water zone and the oil zone.
The rock can be thought of as a bundle of
capillary tubes.
The length of the zone depends on the pore size
and the density difference between the two
fluids.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation There are also the secondary drives, gravity drive, compaction and fluid
expansion. In reality all reservoirs have both primary and secondary
mechanisms.
Drive Mechanisms
A virgin reservoir has a pressure controlled by
the local gradient.
Hydrocarbons will flow if the reservoir pressure
is sufficient to drive the fluids to the surface
(otherwise they have to be pumped).
As the fluid is produced reservoir pressure drops.
The rate of pressure drop is controlled by the
Reservoir Drive Mechanism.
Drive Mechanism depends on the rate at which
fluid expands to fill the space vacated by the
Notes
produced fluid.
Main Reservoir Drive Mechanism types are:

Water drive.

Gas cap drive.

Gas solution drive

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Water has three advantages , firstly there is water in the hydrocarbon zone
in the form of irreducible water with which it can join and hence clean
around the grains. Secondly capillary pressure helps the water up the
Water Invasion 1 small pore channels.
Finally the water is often of very large extent and hence the pressure in
the reservoir remains high for a long time.
Water invading an oil zone,
moves close to the grain
surface, pushing the oil
out of its way in a piston-
like fashion.

Notes

The capillary pressure

gradient forces water to
move ahead faster in the
smaller pore channels.

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation There will always be some oil left in the rock, 100% recovery is
impossible.This residual oil fraction, Sor, is important as it controls the
amount of recoverable oil.
Water Invasion 2

The remaining
thread of oil
becomes
smaller.

It finally breaks
into smaller
pieces.
Notes

As a result, some
drops of oil are
left behind in
the channel.

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The (normally) large volume of the water system gives additional
assistance to this type of drive. The hydrocarbon is pushed out as its
pressure drops, while the pressure in the water remains higher hence the
Water Drive water will move to force the oil out.

Notes

Water moves up to fill the "space" vacated by

the oil as it is produced.

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The production of water will invariably increase. The amount of water
finally produced depends on capabilities of the surface production
facilities and the economics of the process. It can be as much as 98%.
Water Drive 2 Gas production is simply that associated with the oil and depends on the
gas-oil ratio.

Notes

This type of drive usually keeps the reservoir

pressure fairly constant.
After the initial “dry” oil production, water may
be produced. The amount of produced water
increases as the volume of oil in the reservoir
decreases.
Dissolved gas in the oil is released to form
produced gas.
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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The very high mobility of gas (low viscosity) means that it goes down the
large pore channels bypassing the smaller ones. Once past a zone the gas
will continue leaving the oil trapped; it will not be produced.
Gas Invasion
Gas is more mobile than oil and takes the path of
least resistance along the centre of the larger
channels.
As a result, oil is left behind in the smaller, less
permeable, channels.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The main type of gas drive is the gas cap drive. The gas cap expansion
forces the oil out.
The gas cap needs to be large for this type of drive to succeed.
Gas Cap Drive

Notes

Gas from the gas cap expands to fill the space

vacated by the produced oil.

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation As the gas cap expands the pressure drops hence the drive efficiency goes
down. In addition there is always breakthrough of the free gas and
production at an apparent high GOR.
Gas Cap Drive 2 The reservoir pressure will go down quickly.

As oil production declines, gas production

increases.

Rapid pressure drop at the start of production.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation This type of drive uses the energy of expansion of the gas dissolved in the
oil as there is no appreciable water or gas cap drive. This is very
inefficient as there on a little possible expansion. In addition the reservoir
Solution Gas Drive rapidly drops below bubble point in the reservoir itself. This means that
gas comes out of solution in the reservoir. This will create problems for
production and eventually the reservoir will die.

Notes

After some time the oil in the reservoir is below

the bubble point.
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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The slide shows the rapid decline in all the parameters in the reservoir,
pressure, production. The GOR also declines as the gas is produced.

Solution Gas Drive 2

An initial high oil production is followed by a
rapid decline.
The Gas/Oil ratio has a peak corresponding to
the higher permeability to gas.
The reservoir pressure exhibits a fast decline.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation The slide compares the total cumulative production of the various drive
mechanisms against the reservoir pressure. The water drive keeps the
pressure high and hence is the most efficient at production the reservoir
Drives General fluids.

A water drive can recover up to 60% of the oil in

place.
A gas cap drive can recover only 40% with a
greater reduction in pressure.
A solution gas drive has a low recovery.

Notes

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Coning is caused by producing the reservoir at a drawdown that is too
high and also having perforations that are too long. The water (or gas) is
drawn to the perforated interval and produced. This problem can usually
Drive Problems be fixed.

Water Drive:
Water can cone upwards
and be produced
through the lower
perforations.

Gas Cap Drive:

Gas can cone downwards
and be produced
through the upper
Notes
perforations.
Pressure is rapidly lost as
the gas expands.

Gas Solution Drive:

Gas production can occur
in the reservoir, skin
damage.
Very short-lived.
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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Most modern reservoirs have some sort of secondary recovery built into
their management from their initial production. The aim of all these
schemes is to maintain the pressure in the reservoir as high as possible for
Secondary Recovery 1 as long as possible.
The main problem with heavy oil is its high viscosity. Reduction of the
viscosity is achieved by heating the fluid, hence the steam injection and
Secondary recovery covers a range of techniques the in-situ combustion or by adding CO2. This substance reduces the
used to augment the natural drive of a viscosity of the oil by two orders of magnitude, for example from 500
centipoise to 5.
reservoir or boost production at a later stage in
Polymer injection adds polymers to the injection water to increase the
the life of a reservoir. viscosity of this fluid. Ordinary water has a much lower viscosity and
A field often needs enhanced oil recovery (EOR) hence does not sweep the heavy oil efficiently.
techniques to maximise its production.
Common recovery methods are:
Water injection.
Gas injection.
Notes
In difficult reservoirs, such as those containing
heavy oil, more advanced recovery methods
are used:
Steam flood.
Polymer injection. .
CO2 injection.
In-situ combustion.

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 Introduction to Log Interpretation Water can come from the sea water, or a nearby and different aquifer. The
injectors are set in patterns depending on the permeability of the
reservoir.
Secondary Recovery 2 Gas often comes from produced can which can be compressed and re-
injected into the gas cap.
water Both types of injection can operate at the same time.
injection

gas injection
Notes

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