Atoms and The Periodic: Classifying Matter
Atoms and The Periodic: Classifying Matter
Atoms and The Periodic: Classifying Matter
Atoms and
the Periodic
Table
End of Chapter exercises: 2‐
24, 2‐26, 2‐35, 2‐66, 2‐89, 2‐
91, 2‐93, 2‐96, 2‐101, 2‐103
Classifying Matter
Matter: Anything that occupies space and has mass.
Most easily observed property of matter = physical state
i.e. solid, liquid or gas
Solid – rigid shape, fixed volume, little change with
changing temperature and pressure.
Liquid – fixed volume, no definite shape – fluid → takes
on the shape of the container.
Gas – volume determined by the size of the
container. Varies with T and P
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– Atom – smallest particle of an element that retains the
characteristic chemical properties of the element.
Consists of a ….
– nucleus (of protons and neutrons)
– electrons in space about the nucleus.
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Compounds
– pure substance composed of 2 or more different
elements held together by chemical bonds (in a fixed
ratio)
– original characteristics of elements are replaced by the
characteristic properties of the compound e.g. colour,
hardness, melting point, etc.
– No variation in composition e.g. Iron pyrite FeS (46.55%
Fe and 53.45% S)
– Composition represented by a chemical formula, e.g.
H2O, NH4NO3
– composed of atoms …can be decomposed to those
atoms.
Physical Properties
i.e. colour, melting point, boiling point, density.
– Chemical substances are recognised by their physical
properties (appearance)
properties that can be observed and measured without
changing the composition of substance.
– Extensive properties – e.g. mass, volume
– Intensive properties –e.g. density, melting point, boiling
point – can be used to identify a material.
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Physical Changes
Some physical changes would
be
– Physical change, i.e.
– boiling of a liquid
change of state, size,
– melting of a solid shape.
– dissolving a solid in a liquid to
– Identity of substance
give a homogeneous mixture
preserved
— a SOLUTION.
– Does NOT result in a new
substance being formed
ATOMIC COMPOSITION
– The atom is mostly empty space
• protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
• the number of electrons is equal to the number
of protons electrically neutral …no net charge
• electrons in space around the nucleus.
• extremely small. One teaspoon of water has 3 times as
many atoms as the Atlantic Ocean has teaspoons of water.
ATOMIC COMPOSITION
– Protons
– + electrical charge
– mass = 1.672623 x 10‐24 g
– relative mass = 1.007 atomic mass units (u)
– Electrons
– negative electrical charge
– relative mass = 0.0005 u
– Neutrons
– no electrical charge
– mass = 1.009 u
1 u = 1/12th of mass of C – 12 atom = 1.66054 x 1024 g
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Atomic Structure
– Electronic Charge: e– = 1.602 x 1019 C
– Use multiples of this charge, i.e. 1 e– = 1
– p+ = + 1.602 x 1019 C ….. 1p+ = + 1
– Chemical properties of elements and molecules depend largely on the
electrons of atoms involved.
Atomic Number
– Atomic Number (Z) =
– The atoms of each element have a characteristic number of
protons → all atoms of a particular element have the same
number of protons in their nucleus, e.g. Hydrogen = 1 p+ and 1 e‐
– Also indicates position elements position on the Periodic Table,
e.g. 6th element = Carbon – 6 p+s and 6 e‐s (Z = 6)
– C atom with 6 protons and 6 neutrons is the mass
standard = 12 atomic mass units (u)
– Mass Number (A) = # protons + # neutrons
– A boron atom can have A = 5 p + 5 n = 10 u
Atomic Symbols
– Can use symbols for atoms: AZX, where X represents the
element.
– Subscript Z is optional – element symbol represents
atomic number.
Atomic Symbols
– e.g. Potassium (K): 19 p+ and 20 no → A = 39
– 39 K or 39K or Potassium‐39
19
– Lead (Pb): 82 p+ + 125 no → A = 207
Q1: What is the mass number of an iron atom with 30
neutrons? Give the symbol.
Q2. What is the composition of an atom of phosphorus
with 16 neutrons? Give mass number and symbol.
– If the atom has an actual mass of 30.9738 u, what is its mass
in grams?
– What is the mass of this atom relative to carbon–12?
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Isotopes
– Atoms of the same element (same Z) but different mass
number (A).
– Boron‐10 has 5 p and 5 n: 105B
– Boron‐11 has 5 p and 6 n: 115B
– Atoms of tin (Sn) can have 10 different masses
Hydrogen Isotopes
– Hydrogen isotopes have specific names: 1H = protium (no
neutrons)
– 2H = deuterium (D – heavy hydrogen)
– 3H = tritium (T ‐ radioactive)
Isotope abundance
– one isotope is usually more abundant than others.
% abundance = number of atoms of given isotope x 100
Total number of atoms of all isotopes
– e.g. Silver (Ag) has 2 isotopes – one with 60 no (% abundance =
51.839%) and the other 62 no.
– What are their mass numbers?
– What is the abundance of the isotope with 62 no.
Except for carbon – 12 (by definition mass = 12 u), isotope
masses are not integer values → usually very close to mass
number for isotope
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Isotopes …..
– Because of the existence of isotopes, the mass of a collection
of atoms has an average value.
– Average mass = relative ATOMIC MASS (WEIGHT)
– Boron is 19.9% 10B and 80.1% 11B. That is, 11B is 80.1 percent
abundant on earth.
– Average atomic mass ‐ between the 2 values, i.e. average
weight of a representative sample of atoms. For Boron:
relative atomic mass = 10.811
– For boron atomic weight
= 0.199 (10.0 u) + 0.801 (11.0 u) = 10.8 u
Isotopes …..
Rel Atomic mass = (% abundance Isotope 1)(mass Isotope1)
100
+ (% abundance Isotope 2)(mass Isotope 2)
100
– Atomic weight is always closer to the mass of the more
abundant isotope.
Q3. Cℓ: 35Cℓ mass = 34.96885 u, abundance = 75.77%
37Cℓ mass = 36.96590 u, abundance = 24.23%
Relative Atomic mass?
Q4: Silicon consists of 3 stable isotopes, 28Si (92.23%) with mass
27.97693 u; 29Si (4.68%) with mass 28.97649 u: and 30Si (3.09%)
with mass 29.97377 u. Calculate the relative atomic mass of Si.
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Fractional Abundance
Fractional abundance =
number of atoms of given isotope = % abundance
Total number of atoms of all isotopes 100
– eg. Antimony (Sb) has 2 stable isotopes, 121Sb, mass 120.904
u; and 123Sb, mass 122.904u. What are their relative
abundances?
– From the periodic table – get weighted relative atomic mass,
i.e. 121.760 u
– Rel. atomic mass = [(fractional abundance, isotope 1)(mass
isotope 1)] + [(fractional abundance, isotope 2)(mass isotope
2)
The collective fractional abundance of 28Si and 29Si is 0.9690.
Determine the % abundance of all 3 isotopes.
Q7 : Neon consists of 3 isotopes: 20Ne (19.992435 u); 21Ne
(20.993843 u); 22Ne (21.991383). The percentage abundance of
21Ne is 0.27%, determine the percentage abundance of the
other 2 isotopes.
Periodic Table
– Developed from experimental observations of chemical and
physical proper es of elements → now understood on the basis of
atomic structure
– Organisation
Groups (vertical columns) – elements with similar physical and
chemical properties.
Periods (horizontal rows)
Metals – left hand side of periodic table
– solid except for mercury (Hg).
– Gallium (Ga) melts at 29.8oC and Cesium (Cs) at 28.4oC.
– can conduct electricity
– malleable and ductile
– form alloys (solutions of 2 or more metals)
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Metalloids ‐ between metals and non‐metals (Text Book –
purple)
– have properties of both metals and non‐metals, this makes
them difficult to classify as either
metal or non‐metals.
– E.g. Silicon is a semiconductor …does not conduct electricity
under some applied voltages …becomes a conductor at higher
applied voltages
Periodic Table
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ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE
• number of electrons
• distribution / arrangement of electrons around nucleus
• energies of electrons
allows prediction of properties of atoms
Bohr Model
In early 1900s the atom was regarded as a ‘microscopic solar
system’ or ‘planetary structure’ – with electrons moving in circular
orbits around nucleus → this contradicted the classical laws of
physics.
Principle quantum number – n (n = 1, 2, 3 …)
– Determines energy of orbital; increased n implies
higher energy.
– Defines size of orbital; larger n implies larger orbital,
e‐ further from nucleus.
– Atoms with more than 1e‐, 2 or more of e‐s may have
same n‐value.
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Shapes of Orbitals
s‐orbitals
– The lowest energy orbital of Hydrogen is 1s
– Associated with quantum numbers n = 1 and ℓ = 0
– Electron density of 1s greater closest to the nucleus,
therefore 1s e‐ most likely to be found near the nucleus.
– Electron density spherically symmetrical (density at
certain distance from nucleus the same, regardless of
direction)
– All other s‐orbitals (2s, 3s …) are spherically
symmetrical, just larger radius
p-orbitals
– All orbitals for which ℓ = 1 have the same basic shape
– Electron density is concentrated in 2 regions on either side of
the nucleus resembles 2 lobes of a dumbbell.
– Drawn along x‐, y‐ and z‐axes, labelled according to axis,
px, py and pz.
– For each value of n, the 3 x p‐orbitals have the same
shape and size, only differ in spatial orientation.
Increase in size from 2p 3p 4p …
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d-orbitals
– When n = 3 or greater encounter d‐orbitals
– ℓ = 0 s‐orbitals – no nodal surfaces
– ℓ = 1 p‐orbitals – 1 nodal surface
– ℓ = 2 d‐orbitals – 2 nodal surfaces, therefore d‐orbitals
have 4 regions of electron density.
– 4 of the 5 d‐orbitals have ‘4 leaf clover’ shape,
– lie primarily in a plane
Electron Configuration
…many electron atoms
– Need to consider the nature of the orbitals, their relative
energies and how electrons populate the available orbitals.
– Orbitals are similar to those of the H‐atom presence of
more than one electron affects the energy of orbitals.
– e‐ ‐ e‐ repulsion causes subshells to be at different
energies for a given value of n.
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Electron Configuration
= the way electrons are distributed among the
various orbitals of an atom.
Pauli Exclusion Principle
– No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of 4
quantum numbers (n, ℓ, mℓ, ms) – governs arrangement of
electrons in atoms.
Orbitals fill in order of increasing energy, from lowest to
highest
Each orbital can hold up to two electrons, with spins paired
Orbitals of equal energy …each orbital becomes half‐filled
before any of them become completely filled (Hund’s Rule)
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– Core electrons can be ignored when considering the
chemistry of atom. Remaining electrons i.e. 2s1 = valence
electrons – electrons that determine the properties of the
element.
– Posi on of Li on the periodic gives the configura on → all
group 1A elements have 1 valence electron in an s‐orbital
of the nth shell, where n = number of period in which
element is found.
– e.g. Sodium (Na), 3rd period, 1st group: [Ne] 3s1
Potassium (K), 4th period, 1st group: [Ar] 4s1
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– All elements of group 4A have similar outer shell
configuration: [noble gas]ns2np2
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Period 3
– Similar electron configuration to 2nd period –
preceding noble gas neon and valence shell n = 3
– e.g. Si (group 4 A) – compare with C
1s2 2s22p6 3s23p2 or [Ne]3s23p2
– Period 3 ends with Argon 1s2 2s22p6 3s23p6
– Q1. Give a set of quantum numbers for each of the
valence electrons of aluminium:
– Q2. Give a set of quantum numbers for each of the
valence electrons of Arsenic.
Period 4:
– Next element, K (Z = 19), does the electron go into 4s or 3d?
– 4s (n + ℓ = 4 + 0 = 4), 3d (n + ℓ = 3 + 2 = 5) n + ℓ rule tell us
4s, also …
– Chemical properties of K indicate it is a member of the alkali
metal group → implies outermost electron occupies an s‐
orbital and not 3d‐orbital.
– Q3. Using the periodic table, write condensed electron
configurations for: (a) phosphorus, (b) cobalt, (c)
tellurium, (d) bismuth. How many valence electrons?
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– Elements filling d‐subshells → transition elements
– f‐subshells → lanthanides (4f) and actinides (5f)
– Transition elements always preceded by 2 s‐block
elements, i.e. fill ns orbital and then (n – 1)d
– Period 4: Scandium (Sc) – 1st transition element
– Sc: [Ar]3d1 4s2 or [Ar] 4s2 3d1
– Ti: [Ar] 3d2 4s2 or [Ar] 4s2 3d2
– Orbitals are filled in accordance with Hund’s rule – singly
into each d‐orbital until all 5 have one electron each.
Exceptions…
– Chromium (Cr) [Ar]3d5 4s1 not [Ar]3d4 4s2 – 3d and 4s
orbitals have approximately the same energy in Cr → each
of the 6 valence electrons are assigned to one of the
orbitals, same spin
–
– Copper (Cu): [Ar] 3d10 4s1, more stable when all d orbitals
have paired electrons.
– Cr and Cu do not follow the n + ℓ rule.
– Zn: [Ar] 3d10 4s2 ends the first transition series.
– 5th period – follows pattern of 4th with minor variations.
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Ionisation Energy
– i.e. the energy required to remove an electron from an atom
in the gaseous phase.
– Atom in ground state (g) → Atom+(g) + e‐
∆E ≡ ionisa on energy, IE
– To separate the electron from atom, energy must be supplied
to overcome the a rac on of the nuclear charge, → IE
positive.
– Atoms other than H have a series of IE’s, more than 1 electron
can be removed.
– e.g. 1st ionisation Mg (g) → Mg+ (g) + e‐ IE1 = 738 kJ/mol
1s2 2s22p6 3s2 1s2 2s22p6 3s1
– First ionisation energies generally increase across a
period and decrease down in a group.
– Across period: increase in effective nuclear charge,
Z*, with increasing atomic number → a racts the
electrons more strongly → atomic radius decreases →
energy to remove an electron increases.
– Variations due to e‐ – e‐ repulsions i.e. group 5 – 6,
4th e‐ in 2p makes it easier to remove.
– Down in group: electron being removed is further
from nucleus → less nuclear – electron attractive
force → less energy required to remove electron.
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→ large decrease also expected when 2 or more electrons are
removed.
– e.g. Aℓ (143 pm); Aℓ3+ (57 pm) – loses n = 3 shell
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