Principles of Agronomy and Agrometerology PDF
Principles of Agronomy and Agrometerology PDF
Principles of Agronomy and Agrometerology PDF
DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY
1. Course No. : AGRO 101
5. Specific Objectives:
a) Theory
By the end of the course, the students will be able to
i. understand the concepts of agronomy and agricultural meteorology
ii. know about the situation of agriculture in various agro-climatic zones of
India and Andhra Pradesh
iii. discuss the risks and uncertainties and ways to manage the same for better
crop production
b) Practical
By the end of the practical exercises, the students will be able to
i. identify different manures, fertilizers, green manure plants etc.
ii. participate in all agricultural operations like ploughing, puddling, sowing,
application of fertilizers, harvesting etc.
A) Theory Lecture Outlines
1. Definition of agriculture – meaning and scope of agronomy
2. History and development of agriculture in ancient India – agriculture in
civilization era
3. National and International Agricultural Research Institutes in India
4. Agro-climatic zones of India – soils, land use pattern, major sources of
irrigation and ground water potential
5. Agro-climatic zones of Andhra Pradesh – soils, land use pattern, major sources
of irrigation and ground water potential.
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6. Tillage and tilth – objectives of tillage – characteristics of ideal seed bed – effect
of tillage on soil properties – pore space, texture, structure, bulk density and
colour of the soil
7. Types of tillage – preparatory tillage – factors affecting preparatory cultivation,
after cultivation, puddling
8. Sowing – methods of sowing – time and depth of sowing for major agricultural
crops – cereals, pulses and oilseeds
9. Crop stand establishment – factors affecting optimum stand establishment
10. Planting geometry – competition – types of competition, intra and inter plant
competition – plant population – effect of plant population on growth and yield –
optimum plant density and planting pattern
11. Soil fertility – soil fertility and soil productivity – fertility losses – maintenance
of soil fertility – soil organic matter
12. Weed control – definition of weed – losses and uses of weeds – weed influence
on crop production – methods of wed control
13. Irrigation management – importance of irrigation – objectives of irrigation –
methods of irrigation – drainage and its advantages
14. Cropping systems – monocropping – definition and principles of crop rotation –
mixed cropping – intercropping – relay cropping – multistoried cropping – sole
cropping and sequence cropping
15. Harvest maturity symptoms and harvesting of major agricultural crops – rice,
maize, groundnut, sugarcane and pulses – maturity indices, method of harvesting,
threshing and winnowing – harvest index
16. Agricultural meteorology – introduction – definitions of meteorology,
climatology and agricultural meteorology – scope and practical utility of
agricultural meteorology
17. Composition and structure of atmosphere – definitions of weather and climate –
aspects involved in weather and climate
18. Solar radiation – definition, introduction of electromagnetic spectrum and
functions of light, solar constant, net radiation, black body radiation, emissivity,
absorptivity, reflectivity, transmissivity and albedo
19. Physiological response of different bands of incident radiation – factors affecting
distribution of solar radiation within the plant canopy
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References
Radha Krishna Murthy, V., Yakadri, M. and Prasad, P.V.V. 2006. Terminology on
Agricultural Meteorology and Agronomy. B.S. Publications, Hyderabad.
Radha Krishna Murthy, V. 2002. Basic Principles of Agricultural Meteorology. B.S.
Publications, Hyderabad.
Yellamanda Reddy, T. and Sankara Reddi, G.H. 2010. Principles of Agronomy.
Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.
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LECTURE NO – 1
The term agriculture is derived from the Latin words “ager” or “agri” meaning
“soil” and ‘cultra’ meaning ‘cultivation’
Agriculture is a very broad term encompassing all aspects of crop production,
livestock farming, fisheries, forestry etc.
Agriculture may be defined as the art, the science and the business of producing
crops and livestock for man’s use and employment.
Agriculture is the cultivation of lands for production of crops for a regular
supply of food and other needs for progress of the nation.
Agriculture is influenced by a large number of factors, some of which can be
controlled by man (soil and irrigation) which others are beyond the control (climate)
The term “Agronomy” is derived from Greek words “Agros” meaning “field”
and “nomos” meaning “to manage”
Agronomy is a branch of agricultural science which deals with principles and
practices of soil, water and crop management.
Agronomy deals with methods which provide favourable environment to the
crop for higher productivity.
For example
1. Knowledge of Botany is helpful in plant breeding and plant genetics and is
making possible for evolution of different varieties in crops suitable to
particular agro-climatic condition.
2. The knowledge of zoology (basic science of entomology) is helping the farmer
to identify the insect pests which are responsible for damage to agricultural
produce.
3. Soil chemistry helps in understanding the plant nutrient status in the soil and the
deficiency symptoms in plants.
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Scope of Agronomy
Agronomy is a dynamic discipline. With the advancement of knowledge and
better understanding of plant and environment, agricultural practices are modified and
new practices are developed for high productivity. For example, availability of
chemical fertilizer has necessitated the generation of knowledge on the method,
quantity and time of application of fertilizers. Similarly, availability of herbicides for
the control of weeds has led to development of knowledge about selectivity, time and
method of application of herbicides. To overcome the problems different management
practices are developed.
Population pressure is increasing but area under cultivation is static, therefore
more number of crops have to be grown on the same piece of land to increase the yield.
As a result, intensive cropping has come into practice.
New technology has to be developed to overcome the effect of moisture stress
under dryland conditions. As new varieties of crops with high yield potential become
available, package of practices have to be developed to exploit their full potential.
Restoration of soil fertility, preparation of good seed bed, use of proper seed
rates, correct dates of sowing for each improved variety, proper conservation and
management of soil moisture and proper control of weeds are agronomic practices to
make our limited land and water resources more productive.
LECTURE NO-2
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN
ANCIENT INDIA- AGRICULTURE IN CIVILIZATION ERA
Shifting cultivation
Subsistence Agriculture
Commercial Agriculture
FERTILIZERS:
Fertilizers consumption in India
1 1951-52 - 0.07m.t
PESTICIDES:
1950 - 100t
1996-97 - 92,700t
Latest - ?
Consumption of - 2006-07-41515 m. t
Pesticides (India)
10
MECHANIZATION :
9 Cattles are replaced to a great extent by Tractor.
1950-51 ?
Tractors (m) 0.01 2.63
Oil engines (m) 0.07 4.90
Electrical pumps (m) 0.02 9.80
9 Use of seed drills has picked up.
9 New planting equipments introduced into the country include potato planter,
groundnut planter, rice transplanter, sugar cane sett cutter – cum- planter.
9 Now combines are put to use for the harvest of wheat, rice, soya bean and gram.
9 One important obstacle in the way of mechanization in India is the size of
operational holding. The average farm size in India is 1.57 ha.
In other countries:
1993 ha in Australia
158 ha in USA
55 ha in UK
1.0 ha in Japan
WATERSHED PROGRAMMES:
Water shed programmes for soil and moisture conservation have been taken up.
Anna Hazare in Maharashtra (Ralegaon siddi) Rajendra Singh in Rajasthan worked on
watersheds.
Weather forecasting systems are improved due to the use of satellite
communications, particularly the short range forecast.
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Agricultural Extension:
In A.P DAATT (District Agricultural Advisory and Transfer of Technology)
centers and “Rytu Mitra” T.V programmes are educating the farmers about the better
management practices.
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LECTURE NO - 3
NCMRT : National Centre for Mushroom Research and Training, Solan, H.P.
NRCG : National Research Centre for Groundnut, Junagadh, Gujarat
NRCS : National Research Centre for Sorghum, (Directorate of Sorghum
Research) Hyderabad, A.P.
NRC for Soybean, Indore, M.P.
NRC for Spices, Calicut, Kerala NRC
for Cashew, Pattur, Karnataka NRC
for Citrus, Nagpur, Maharasthra
NRC for Rapeseed and Mustard, Bharatpur, Rajasthan
NRC for Oil Palm, Pedavegi, Andhra Pradesh.
NCWS : National Centre for Weed Science, Jabalpur, M.P.
NBPGR : National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi
NAARM : National Academy of Agricultural Research Management, Hyderabad
NBSSLUP : National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning, Nagpur,
Maharashtra
NPPTI : National Plant Protection Training Institute, National Institute of plant v
Health Management, Hyderabad, A.P.-NIPHM.
PDCSR : Project Directorate for Cropping Systems Research, Meerut, U.P.
SBI : Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTES:
CGIAR : Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research,
Washington, D.C.
CIFOR : Centre for International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia Centre
CIAT : International de Agricultural Tropical, Cali, Columbia Centre
CIMMYT : International de la Mejoramientode Maizy Trigo, Mexico Centre
CIP : International de la papa (International Potato Centre) Lima, Peru
International Plant Genetic Resources Institiute
IPGRI : International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, Rome, Italy
IBPGR : International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas,
ICARDA : Aleppo, Syria
International Centre for Research in Agro-Forestry, Nairobi, Kenya
ICRAF : International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics,
ICRISAT : Hyderabad, India
International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, U.S.A
IFPRI : International Institute for Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria
IITA : International Irrigation Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka
IWMI/IIMI :
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ICRISAT : On water
ILRI : International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
IRRI : International Rice Research Institute, Manila, Philippiness
ISNAR : International Service for National Agricultural Research, The Hague,
The Netherlands
WARDA : West Africa Rice Development Association, Ivory Coast, West Africa
1972 ICRISAT
1973 Minikit Trails Programme
1974 Command Area Development (CAD)
1975 Release of first cotton hybrid in India
1976 Report of National Commission on Agriculture
1976 Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)
1977 Training and Visit (T&V) System
1979 National Agriculture Research Project (NARP)
1982 National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)
1986 Establishment of Technology mission on oilseeds
1993 Release of First rice hybrid in India
1998 National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP)
ITDA - Integrated Tribal Development Agency
SFDA - Small Farmers Development Agency
HADP - Hill Area Development Project Special Programme for Horticultural
Crops
DRDA - District Rural Development Agency
LECTURE NO – 4
Since this area has a high potential for agriculture including forestry and
horticulture, a complete package of supply of inputs (quality seeds, saplings, fertilizers
and pesticides) coupled with marketing and processing, has to be organized for each
sub-zone.
6. TRANS-GANGETIC PLAINS
This zone consists of Punjab and Haryana, Delhi, Union Territories of and
Chandigarh and Sriganganagar district of Rajasthan. It is delineated into three sub-
zones, namely, foothills of Shiwalik and the Himalayas, plains (Semi arid) and arid
zone bordering the Thar desert. The major characteristics of the area are: highest net
sown area, highest irrigated area, least poverty level, high cropping intensity (170%)
and high ground water utilization.
Rice-wheat system is prevalent. There is need to evolve short duration
genotypes and also to diversify of the cropping. Food processing industries should be
established in areas where farmers have started taking up cultivation of vegetables and
fruit crops.
The soils of the region are shallow and medium in depth and the topography is
undulating with a slope of 1 to 10%. Rainfall is nearly 1300 mm. Integrated watershed
development approach to conserve soil and rainwater should be strengthened.
Tank irrigation is significant for sub-zone 2 and sub-zone 5. Irrigation by tube
wells is significant in sub-zone 1.
In kharif, 82% of the area is under rice. Most soils are acidic and in some areas
application of lime is necessary. Cultivation of crops like redgram, groundnut, and
soybean in uplands is to be encouraged. Mustard and vegetables are to be grown in
irrigated areas.
The rehabilitation of degraded peripheral forests is to be taken up on a large
scale. Nearly 30% of the forestland is estimated as degraded. Inland fisheries
programme needs to be encouraged.
area and the cropping intensity is 111%. Low value cereals and minor millets
predominate in the cropping systems.
The adoption of proven dryland technology in the watershed areas should aid
agriculture in this area.
Crop diversification has to be intensified and crops that require less moisture
should be preferred. Poultry has developed quickly in many areas of the zone.
Productivity of rice and millets is low and there is need for diversification to
horticulture crops such as Mango, Banana and Coconut. Fruit marketing and processing
should be systematized by developing appropriate infra structure.
The approach of homestead (group farming) system (one of the agro-forestry
systems) of reclaiming and using khar lands (saline soils) or pokhali lands (acidic soils)
needs to be planned and implemented. This zone is important for multi-storeyed
cropping.
dunes. The Indira Gandhi Nahar Project and DDP are the two main water sources of
great potential in this zone.
The small area of 0.31 m. ha. under forests is also in a degraded condition.
Increasing tree cover is important to (a) check desertification, (b) provide fodder to
livestock, (c) meet the fuel needs of the population, and (d) provide timber implements.
LECTURE NO – 5
Andhra Pradesh is the fifth largest state in India with a geographical area of
0 0 0 0
27.6 m. ha. It extends from 12 37 to 19 54 North Latitude and 76 50 to 84 45 East
Longitude.
The state is divided into three regions namely Coastal Andhra, Rayalaseema and
Telangana. The districts in each region are as follows
Guntur Adilabad
Prakasam Karimnagar
Nellore Warangal
Andhra Pradesh is divided into seven agro climatic zones. The details about the
geographical area, cropped area, irrigation facility and important crops grown in each
zone are furnished here under.
I. KRISHNA-GODAVARI ZONE
This zone includes districts of East Godavari, West Godavari, Krishna, Guntur
and parts of Khammam covering a geographical area of 5.60 m. ha. The zone has
extended coastline with annual rainfall ranging from 800 to 1100 mm. The soils are
predominantly deltaic alluvial, deep and medium black soils, red and red loamy soils
and coastal sands. Soil salinity is encountered in areas adjacent to the coast and in soils
under ill-drained situations. The zone is agriculturally most important with productive
soil resources, ideal tropical humid climate and vast irrigation potential (68% of
cultivated area is irrigated) under Krishna – Godavari canal systems which has been
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largely exploited. The net sown area is 2.3 m. ha. and the cropping intensity is 179%.
Rice is the principal crop grown and this zone is called as the rice bowl of the state with
43% of total area and production. Other important crops are pulses (blackgram,
greengram, redgram), sugarcane, seasmum, tobacco, chillies, cotton and banana.
Mango is a widely cultivated horticultural crop of the zone. Cropping is extensively
seen during both Kharif and rabi seasons. Water congestion, impeded drainage,
development of salinity, heavy rains and cyclones at the time of harvest are the major
constraints of crop production.
cotton, groundnut, turmeric and chillies and others. Cropping intensity is 110%. Wells
are the main source of irrigation followed by canals. Red chalka soils are predominant.
LECTURE NO - 6
Objectives of Tillage:
1. To produce a satisfactory seed bed for good germination and good crop growth.
2. To make the soil loose and porous.
3. To aerate the soil
4. To control weeds
5. To remove the stubbles. (that may harbour pests)
6. To expose the soil inhabiting pathogens and insect pests to sun and kill them.
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2. Soil texture: Relative proportion of different soil particles namely sand, silt and
clay.
Clay - <0.002mm.
3. Pore space: When a field is ploughed, the soil particles are loosely arranged and
pore space is increased. When the soil is in good tilth the capillary and non capillary
pores would be roughly equal. This facilitates free movement of air and moisture in
soil.
4. Bulk Density: (B.D) When the soil is loosened, the soil volume increases without
3
any affect on weight. BD of Clay soils is low (1.05 m and that of sandy soils is
3
high (1.25 – 1.30 m ) and Bulk density of tilled soil is less than that of untilled soil.
Particle density is always more than BD.
6. Soil Colour: Organic matter is mainly responsible for the dark brown to dark grey
colour of the soil. Tillage increases oxidation and decomposition of organic matter
resulting in fading of colour.
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LECTURE NO-7
Tillage operations are grouped into two types based on the time at which they
are carried out.
1. Preparatory cultivation – which is carried out before sowing the crop
→ Primary tillage – Ploughing
→ Secondary tillage – harrowing
→ Seed bed preparation – country plough can be used.
Intercultivation:
Tillage operations done between the crop rows with the following objectives :
• To destroy the weeds
• To form soil mulch
• To prevent cracking of soil
• To prevent crust formation
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Intercultivation starts from very early stage of crop i.e., two to three weeks from
sowing. Short duration crops require two-three intercultivations while long duration
crop requires 3-4 intercultivations.
After cultivation:
It includes intercultivation and various other special operations carried out in a
standing crop. They include.
1. Thinning and Gap filling.
2. Rogueing in crops for seed purpose.
3. Earthing up in crops like sugarcane, banana, and groundnut.
4. Propping in banana
5. Desuckering in banana
6. Wrapping and propping in sugarcane
7. Nipping in castor
8. Topping, Trimming and in tobacco (basal leaves are removed).
9. Defoliation in cotton
10. Hand pollination in sunflower.
Fertilizer application and in irrigation also comes under after cultivation.
PUDDLING
Rice growth and yields are higher when grown under submerged conditions.
Maintaining standing water throughout the crop period is not possible without
puddling. Puddling is ploughing the land with standing water so as to create an
impervous layer below the surface to reduce deep percolation losses of water to provide
soft seedbed for planting rice.
operations, puddling aims at destroying soil structure. The individual soil particles viz.,
sand, silt and clay are separated during puddling operation. The soil layer with high
moisture below the plough sole is compacted due to the weight of the plough. The soil
particles separated during puddling settle later. The sand particles reach the bottom,
over which silt particles settle and finally clay particles fill the pores thus making
impervious layer over the compacted soil.
Puddling is done with several implements depending on the availability of
equipment and nature of the land. Soils with bulk density less than 1.0 are considered
as problem soils as puddling with animal-drawn implements is difficult. The feet of the
animals sink very deep during puddling. Under such a situation, puddling is done with
spades by manual labour. Most of the farmers use wetland plough or worn out dryland
plough or mouldboard plough. Wetland puddler consists of a series of blades attached
to a beam at an angle. When it is worked, the soil is churned and puddling operation is
completed quickly compared to the country plough. Generally green manure is applied
to rice field which is incorporated by green manure trampler. Tractor drawn
implements can be used for puddling by attaching cage wheels to prevent sinking.
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LECTURE NO-8
SOWING
Seed material:
1. Seeds (grains used for sowing)
2. Veg propagules (stem cutlings, rooted slips, tubers, rhizomes, etc)
Stem cuttings – sugarcane, rose
Rooted slips – forage crops. (Fodder crops)
Tubers – potato
Rhizomes – turmeric
METHODS OF SOWING
Drilling Dibbling
Time of sowing:
1. Sowing very early in the season may not be advantageous.
Eg: sowing rainfed ground nut in early May results in failure of crop if there is
nd nd
prolonged dry spell from the 2 week of june to 2 week of july.
2. Delayed sowing invariably reduces yields
a. Eg: rainfed sorghum, yields are reduced due to delay in sowing beyond June,
reason – sorghum sown late is subjected to severe atlack of shoot borer.
b. Eg: In rainfed groundnut, sowing beyond July reduced the yields of all varieties
at Tirupathi.
3. Advancing sowing of Rabi sorghum. from November-September to October-
increases the yields considerably as more moisture would be available for early
sown crop.
4. Sowing the crop at optimum time is beneficial.
Increases yields due to suitable environment at all the growth stages of the crop.
1. Optimum time of sowing for Kharif crop – June or July
2. Optimum time for Rabi crop - last week of October to first week of November
3. Summer crop - First fortnight of January.
Depth of Sowing:
• Uneven depth of sowing results in uneven crop stand.
• Plants will be of different sizes and ages and finally harvesting is a problem as
there is uniformity in maturity.
• The thumb rule is to sow seeds to a depth approximately 3-4 times their
diameter.
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• The optimum depth of sowing for most of field crops ranges between 3-5 cm
• Shallow depth of sowing of 3-5 cm is enough for small seeds like sesamum,
finger millet and pearl millet.
• Very small seeds like tobacco are placed at a depth of one cm. Bold seeded
crops like castor, groundnut, cotton, and maize etc. are sown at 6-7 cm depth.
Seed rate:
1. Tobacco - 30g per hectare
3. Pulses - 10-12Kg/ha
LECTURE NO – 9
the crop stand (eg: stem borer in sorghum) kharif crops – June – July (best time
for sowing) rabi crops – October.
5. Depth of sowing – related to seed size, soil moisture availability. Deep sowing
may result in poor crop stand (low germination). Too shallow sowing may also
result in failure of germination.
6. Optimum soil moisture
7. Optimum soil temperature and aeration
8. Spacing – depends on crop and variety
9. Proper covering of the seed – in broadcast sowing bird damage is more if seeds
are not properly covered.
10. Formation of soil crust – in case of lateritic soils soil crust formation may hinder
germination. Shallow and frequent harrowings are practiced to break the crust.
(blind hoeing)
11. Compaction of seed bed – firm compaction is required between seed and soil
for good germination and also to minimize soil moisture loss. But hard
compaction may prevent seedling emergence. This may happen in heavy soils.
12. Bird damage in some crops – crops dig the soil and carry away sprouted seeds
of maize. (also in sunflower)
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LECTURE NO-10
What is competition?
Competition is the struggle between individuals with in a population for
available resources, when the level of resources is below the combined need of the
members of the population.
TYPES OF COMPETITION
1. Competition for nutrients: Nutrient uptake increases with increase in plant
population. Higher population under low fertility conditions leads to development
of nutrient deficiency symptoms because of competition.
2. Competition for light: Competition for light may occur whenever one plant casts a
shadow on another or within a plant when one leaf shades another leaf. In early
plant growth stages, there will be little mutual shading and even at relatively low
light intensities the plant will be able to photosynthesize with full efficiency. As the
plants grow, mutual shading increases and light becomes a limiting factor.
3. Competition for water: The success of any plant in community for water depends
on the rate and competitiveness with which it can make use of the soil water supply.
4. Intra-specific and inter-specific competition: In populations of similar genotypes,
in the absence of weeds, the competition is intra-specific (with in species), where
different species of crops are grown, in mixtures and where weeds present, the
competition is inter-specific (between species).
• Plant height increases with increase in plant population due to competition for
light.
• Sometimes it may happen that moderate increase in plant population may not
increase but decrease plant height due to competition for water and nutrients but
not for light.
• Leaf orientation is also altered due to population pressure. The leaves are erect
narrow and are arranged at longer vertical intervals under high plant densities.
This is a desirable architecture.
PLANTING PATTERN
Planting pattern influences crop yield through its influence on light interception,
rooting pattern and moisture extraction pattern. Different planting patterns are followed
to suit different weed control practices and cropping systems. Plant geometry refers to
the shape of plant while crop geometry refers to the shape of space available for
individual plants. Crop geometry is altered by changing inter and intra-row spacing.
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Square planting
It is reasonable to expect that square arrangement of plants will be more
efficient in the utilization of light, water and nutrients available to the individuals than
in a rectangular arrangement. In wheat, decreasing inter-row spacing below the
standard 15-12 cm i.e., reducing rectangularity, generally increases yield slightly. In
crops like Tobacco, intercultivation in both directions is possible in square planting and
helps in effective control of weeds. However, square planting is not advantageous in all
crops. Groundnut sown with a spacing of 30x10cm (3.33 lakh/ha) gave higher pod
yield than with same amount of population in square planting. Pod yield is reduced
either by increasing rectangularity or approaching towards square planting.
Rectangular planting
Sowing the crop with seed drill is the standard practice. Wider inter-row
spacing and closer intra-row spacing is very common for most of the crops, thus
attaining rectangularity. This rectangular arrangement is adopted mainly to facilitate
intercultivation. Sometimes only inter-row spacing is maintained and intra-row spacing
is not followed strictly and seeds are sown closely as solid rows.
LECTURE NO-11
The inherent capacity of the soil to supply plant nutrients in adequate quantities
and in suitable proportions is termed as Soil fertility.
Soil productivity refers to the capacity of a soil to produce crops.
A productive soil must be fertile, but a fertile soil may not be productive.
Crop N P K
2. Removal by weeds
3. Leaching losses – (more in sandy soils)
4. Loss through erosion
5. Loss in gaseous form (N – by denitrification and Volatilization)
So it is necessary to add nutrients to the periodically.
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Phosphorus in soil
44
2. It is one of the factors for crop 2. It is the interaction of all the factors
production. The other factors are that determine the magnitude of yields.
water supply, slope of the land,
depth of water table etc.
Denitrification:
NO3 NO2 NO2 N2
Volatilization:
NH4 + H2O NH3 + 2 H 2O
b) By addition of materials
1. Organic manures – (bulky and concentrated)
2. Inorganic fertilizers
3. Bio-fertilizers – rhizobium, azolla, azatobactor, BGA.
4. Soil amendments – lime, gypsum, paddy husk, groundnut shells etc.
5. Weedicides or fungicides – copper fungicides – add Cu, Triazines – add N.
6. Green manures or green leaf manuring
7. Crop residues (stubbles, etc.)
Soil organic matter: Any material of plant or animal origin found in the soil is known
as Organic matter.
45
Organic matter that is well decomposed and digested by many kinds of soil
micro organisms and converted into fairly stable, amorphous, brown to black material
is termed as “Humus”. It is very difficult to identify the parent material from which it
is derived.
LECTURE NO - 12
Bioherbicides:
• Pathogens like bacteria, fungi, virus are sprayed on weeds for their control.
• Strangler vine – Morrenia odorata – In citrus gardens in USA is controlled by
fungus, Phytophatora palmivora (Trade name: De vine).
• Aeschymomene Virginia (Joint vetch) – In rice and soybean in USA is
controlled by Colletotrichum gleosporoides (Trade name: Collego).
• Many aquatic weeds are controlled by carp fish (Grass carp, silver carp,
common carp).
• Competitive plants – Parthenium it controlled by Cassia sericea.
• Chemical methods – Weedicides / herbicides are the chemicals used for weed
control.
• Dinozeb was the first chemical introduced in 1933 in India. 2,4-D was first
weedicide tested in 1946. At present 13% of total chemicals used in India are
weedicicdes (75% insecticides), 8% fungicides and 4 % others).
• Weedicides are effective and provide weed control from the very first day, safe
to crops, cultural and mechanical methods can be avoided and perennial weeds
can be controlled.
Formulations :
1. Wettable powder (WP)
2. Soluble powder (SP)
3. Emulsificable concentrate (EC)
4. Sol concentrates (SC)
5. Granules (GR)
6. Fumigants
Based on methods :
1. Foliage application
2. Blanket application
3. Direct spray
4. Protected spray
5. Spot treatment
Soil Application:
• Surface application
• Sub surface layering
• Broadcast and band placement
• Fumigation
Formulations ?
• Active ingredients (ai) – Part of the formation i.e., directly responsible for
herbicide affect.
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LECTURE NO - 13
IRRIGATION:
Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the soil to supplement the
rainfall and groundwater contribution to assist the crop production.
Method of irrigation
Depending on soil type, slope, source of irrigation water, nature of crop
methods differ.
1. Surface methods of irrigation
a. Flooding
b. Boarder strip
c. Corrugations
d. Check basin
e. Ridge and furrow
f. Ring or basin
2. Sub- surface methods
3. Sprinkler irrigation.
4. Drip/trickle irrigation.
• Quantity of irrigation water depends on rooting depth and water holding
capacity of soil.
• Irrigation water can be quantified through weirs, flumes, orifices, water meters
etc.
53
Drainage: Removal of excess water from the surface or below the surface of the soil
so as to create favourable conditions for plant growth.
Benefits of drainage
1. Helps in soil aeration
2. Facilitates timely tillage operations.
3. Better and healthy root growth.
4. Favours growth of soil microorganism (better mineralization)
5. Warming up for optimum soil temperature maintenance.
6. Promotes leaching and reduce water logging.
7. Improves anchorage and reduce lodging.
8. Improves soil structure and decreases soil erosion.
9. Improves sanitary and health conditions and makes rural life happy.
55
LECTURE NO - 14
Cropping pattern: - It means the proportion of area under various crops, at a point of
time in a unit area. It indicates the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops
and fallow in an area.
Cropping System: It is an order in which the crops are cultivated on a piece of land
over a fixed period of time.
Disadvantage in Monocropping
• Improper use of moisture and nutrients from the soil
• Control of crop associated pests and weeds become a problem.
Multiple cropping
Growing two or more crops on the same piece of land in one agricultural year is
known as ‘Multiple cropping’.
It is the intensification of cropping in time and space dimensions i.e., more number of
crops with in a year and more number of crops on the same piece of land.
It includes intercropping, mixed cropping and sequence cropping.
Inter Cropping: It is growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of
land with a definite row pattern.
Ex: Setaria + Redgram in 5:1 ratio
Groundnut + Redgram in 7:1 ratio
(a). Additive series
(b). Replacement series
Mixed cropping
It is the process of growing two or more crops together in the same piece of
land. This system of cropping is generally practiced in areas where climatic hazards
such as flood, drought, frost etc. are frequent and common.
Sequence cropping
It can be defined as growing of two or more crops in sequence on same piece of
land in a farming year.
Depending on number of crops grown in an year, It is called double, triple and
quadruple cropping involving two, three and four crops respectively.
Relay cropping: It is analogous to a relay race where crop hands over land to next crop
in quick succession.
Ex: Maize – Early Potato – Wheat – Mungo
Multi storeyed system: Growing of plants of different heights in same field at the
same time is termed as multistoreyed cropping.
Ex: Coconut – Piper - banana – Pineapple.
1. The main objective is to utilize the 1. Main objective is to get at least one crop
space left between two rows of under any climatic hazards (flood, drought
main crop especially during early or frost) conditions.
growth period of main crop.
2. More emphasis is given to the 2. All crops are given equal care and there is
main crop and subsidiary crops are no main or subsidiary crop. Almost all the
not grown at the cost of main crop crops compete with one another.
thus there is no competition
between main and subsidiary crop.
3. Subsidiary crops are of short 3. The crops are almost of same duration.
duration and they are harvested
much earlier than main crop.
4. Both the crops are sown in rows. 4. Crops may be broad casted and sowing
The sowing time may be the same time for all the crops is the same.
or the main crop is sown earlier
than subsidiary crop.
58
LECTURE NO-15
DEFINITION:
Removal of entire plants or economic parts after maturity from the field is
called ‘Harvesting’.
Portion of the stem i.e., left on the field after harvesting is known as stubble.
The economic product may be grain, seed, leaf, root or entire plant.
S. No Crop Symptoms
S. No Crop Symptoms
4. Pulses Compact ears, on pressing hard fox tail millet seeds come out
6. Ground nut Brown coloured pods with hard seeds inside pods
7. Pods turn dark from light colour. Dark coloured patches inside
the shell, kernels red or pink. On pressing the kernels oil is
observed on the fingers.
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8. Sugarcane Leaves turn yellow, sucrose content more than 10% and brix
reading more than 18%
9. Tobacco Leaves slightly yellow in colour
RICE:
• The right stage for harvesting is at physiological maturity (80% of panicles are
ripe, 80% of spriklets in each panicle are ripe)
• Harvesting is mostly by sickles. Sheaves (bundle of plants) are kept in the field
for drying atleast for two days with periodical turning.
• Bundling →transporting→heaping
• Threashing – by beating against hard surface or
by trampling under the feet of cattle or
by using tractor or
by using threshing benches or
by using mechanical threshers.
• Winnowing – manual or power operated winnowers.
60
Parboiling
61
Milling of paddy
MAIZE
• Cobs harvested at 25-30% moisture dried for 3-4 days
• Shelling is done by beating with sticks or by using cattle, tractor or shellers.
• Grain is dried up to 10-12% moisture them stored.
• For popcorn, harvest at 30-35% moisture in cobs, slow drying of grain in shade
and optimum moisture for best popping is 12-14%
GROUND NUT
• Early harvest results in immature pods, in delayed harvest pods remain in soil
• Soil digging is done (mostly with country plough) to lift the plants with pods
from the soil hence optimum soil moisture is important at the time of harvest.
• Plants are lifted and placed upside down in the field in the form of small
circular heaps. After few days (2-3 days) pods are stripped. A simple comb type
hand stripper and pedal operated strippers are available.
• Moisture content in pods will be 40% at harvest. Dry the pods to bring down the
moisture content to less than 10% and store the pods.
• Storage is in the form of unshelled pods, for seed purpose pods are stored in
earthen pots.
62
SUGARCANE
• Duration 10-14 month for maturity
• Foliage becomes pale.
• Brix of TSS of the central internode is 15-16%. This is measured with hand
refracto meter.
• Sugarcane is harvested with knifes by cutling to the ground level. Leaves are
stripped and immature tops are removed, millable cane is used for making sugar
or jaggery.
• In western countries cane fields are burnt and within 8-10 hours cane is harvest
transported and crushed in the mills.
• Bullock or power operated crushers are used to extract juice (less than 65%)
• Cane juice is acidic in nature.
• For jaggery making, a clarificant – lime sucrate or extract of wild bhendi
(Abutilon indicum) is added to neutralize the juice.
• For preparing lime sucrate – lime is dissolved in water in 1:5 ratio, filtered and
added to cane juice.
• Juice is boiled at low temperature for better flocculation and the scum is
removed, later quick boiling at high temperature is done. During boiling jaggery
solution is put in cold water and there should be quick solidification, at that
stage stop boiling and pour it into moulds for cooling and final jaggery
collection.
*****
63
LECTURE NO -16
Atmosphere
The earth is elliptical in shape. It has three spheres. They are:
1 Hydrosphere: the water portion.
2 Lithosphere: the solid portion.
3 Atmosphere: the gaseous portion.
Agricultural Meteorology
Meteorology
Meteorology is defined as
♦ "The science of atmosphere".
♦ “A branch of physics of the earth dealing with physical processes in the atmosphere
that produce weather”.
64
ATMOSPHERE- STRUCTURE
Climatology
It is defined as “The science dealing with the factors which determine and
control the distribution of climate over the earth's surface”. Different factors affecting
the climate of a region are:
1. Latitude. 5. Low and high pressure belts.
2. Altitude. 6. Mountain barriers.
3. Land and water. 7. Ocean currents.
4. Winds and air masses 8. Extent of forests, etc.
The above factors are also known as “climatic elements”
Agricultural Meteorology
Agriculture is defined as “The art and science of production and processing of
plant and animal life for the use of human beings”. It is also defined as “A system for
harvesting or exploiting the solar radiation”.
Agriculture deals with three most complex entities viz., soil, plant and atmosphere
and their interactions. Among these three, atmosphere is the most complex entity over
65
LECTURE NO – 17
COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE –
DEFINITION OF WEATHER AND CLIMATE – ASPECTS INVOLVED
IN WEATHER AND CLIMATE
I Troposphere
1. The word “Tropo” means mixing or turbulence and “Sphere” means region.
2. The average height of this lower most layer of the atmosphere is about 14
kilometers above the mean sea level; at the equator it is 16 kilometers; and 7- 8
kilometers at the poles.
3. Under normal conditions the height of the troposphere changes from place to
place and season to season
68
4. Various types of clouds, thunderstorms, cyclones and anti cyclones occur in this
sphere because of the concentration of almost all the water vapour and aerosols
in it. So, this layer is called as “Seat of weather phenomena”.
5. The wind velocities increase with height and attain the maximum at the top of
this layer.
6. Another striking feature of troposphere is that there is a decrease of temperature
with increasing elevation at a mean lapse rate of about 6.5oC per kilometer or
3.6oF per 1,000 feet.
7. Most of the radiation received from the sun is absorbed by the earth's surface.
So the troposphere is heated from below.
8. In this layer, about 75 per cent of total gases and most of the moisture and dust
particles present.
9. At the top of the troposphere there is a shallow layer separating it from
stratosphere which is known as “Tropopause”.
10. The tropopause layer is thin and its height changes according to the latitudes
and infact this is a transitional zone and distinctly characterised by no major
movement of air.
II Stratosphere
1. This layer exists above the tropopause (around 20 km onwards) and extends to
altitudes of about 50-55 kilometers.
2. This layer is called as "Seat of photochemical reactions".
3. In any particular locality, the temperature remains practically constant at around
20 kilometers and is characterised as Isothermal because the air is thin, clear,
cold and dry.
4. The temperature of this layer increases with height and also depends upon
troposphere because troposphere is higher at equator than at poles.
5. In the upper parts of the stratosphere the temperatures are almost as higher as
those near the earth's surface, which is due to the fact that the ultra violet
radiation from the sun is absorbed by ozone in this region.
6. Less convection takes place in the stratosphere because it is warm at the top and
cold at the bottom.
7. There is also persistence of circulation patterns and high wind speeds.
8. The upper boundary of the stratosphere is called stratopause and above this
level there is a steep rise in temperature.
IV Ionosphere/Thermosphere
1. Ionosphere layer lies beyond ozonosphere (mesosphere) at a height of about 80
kms. above the earths surface and extends upto 400 kilometers.
2. The atmosphere in ionosphere is partly ionised. Enriched ion zones exist in the
form of distinct ionised layers. So, this layer is called as ionosphere.
3. Above the ozonosphere the temperature falls again. According to some
climatologists, the layer between 80 and 140 kilometers is known as
“Thermosphere”.
4. The ionosphere reflects radio waves because of one or multiple reflections of
short wave radio beams from the ionised shells. So, long distance radio
communication is possible due to this layer.
V Exosphere
1. The outer most layer of the earth's atmosphere is named as exosphere and this
layer lies between 400 and 1,000 kilometres.
2. At such a greater height the density of atoms in the atmosphere is extremely
low.
3. Hydrogen and Helium gases predominate in this outer most region.
4. At an altitude of about 500 to 600 kilometres the density of the atmosphere
becomes so low that collisions between neutral particles become extremely rare.
variable. It changes constantly sometimes from hour to hour and at other times
from day to day.
Example: The air temperature of Rajendranagar on 20-01-2000 at 2.30 p.m. is
32oC.
Climate
It is defined as
♦ “The generalised weather or summation of weather conditions over a given region
during comparatively longer period”.
♦ “The sum of all statistical information of weather in a particular area during a
specified interval of time usually a season or year or even a decade”. The aspects
involved are larger areas like a zone, a state; a country is described by normals etc.
Example: The climatic elements are latitude, longitude, altitude etc. In Andhra
Pradesh the winter temperatures range from 15 to 29oC.
5 Crop growth, development and yield Selection of crops suitable for a place
are decided by weather in a given is decided based on climate of the
season region
LECTURE NO – 18
Introduction
Solar radiation is the primary source of energy on earth, and life depends on it.
Solar radiation is defined as “The flux of radiant energy from the sun”. All matter at a
temperature above the absolute zero, imparts energy to the surrounding space. This
energy is transformed by green plants in the process of photosynthesis into the potential
energy of organic material. In inorganic bodies the rays absorbed are used in heating.
The variations of the total radiation flux from one site to another on the surface of the
earth are enormous and the distribution of plants and animals responds to this variation.
1 Radiation
♦ This is the process of transmission of energy from one body to another without the
aid of a material medium (solid, liquid, or gas).
Example: The energy transmission through space from the sun to the earth.
2 Conduction
♦ This is the process of heat transfer through matter without the actual movement of
molecules of the substances or matter. Heat flows from the warmer to cooler part of
the body so that the temperature between them are equalised.
Example: The energy transmission through an iron rod which is made warmer at
one end.
3 Convection
♦ This is the process of transmission of heat through actual movement of molecules
of the medium. This is the predominant form of transmission of energy on the earth
as all the weather related processes involve this process.
Example: Boiling of water in a beaker
Of the above three processes of transmission of energy convection is the predominant
form of transmission of energy on the earth. All the weather related processes involve
this process.
72
SOLAR SPECTRUM
73
4. Solar Radiation: When the radiation is transmitted from the sun, it is known as solar
radiation.
Solar spectrum
Radiant energy is transmitted in the form of electromagnetic waves by the sun. The
energy from the sun is spread over a very broad band of wave lengths known as solar
spectrum. It is also known as electromagnetic spectrum. The spectrum does not
constitute only one band, but a combination of different waves which are characterised
individually.
Example: U.V. rays, light part, Near I.R., Far I.R. Radio weaves, micro waves, radar
waves, etc.
Solar constant: It is the energy falling in one minute on a surface of 1 cm2 at the outer
boundary layer of the atmosphere, held normal to the sunlight at the mean distance of
the earth from the sun. The units are cal/cm2/min. "cal/cm2 “is also known as "Lan-
gley". The estimated value of this constant is from 1.94 to 2.0 largely/min. The average
value is 2 LY/mn.
It depends on:
1. Output of solar radiation.
2. Distance between the earth and the sun.
3. Transparency of the atmosphere.
4. Duration of the sunlight period
5. The angle at which the sun's rays strike the earth.
Net radiation
The difference between the incoming radiation from the sun and the out going
radiation from the earth is known as net radiation. The net radiation values become -ve
after late evening hours to early morning hours. It is a conservative term and plays an
importance role in the energy processes of the crops.
Black body: It is an ideal hypothetical body which absorbs all the electromagnetic
radiation falling on it. It neither reflects nor transmits any radiation striking it.
However, when heated it emits all the possible wavelengths of solar radiation and
becomes a perfect radiator. So, an ideal black body is a perfect absorber and a perfect
radiator.
76
Black body radiation: The radiation radiated by an ideal black body is known as black
body radiation.
Absorptivity: For an object this is the ratio of the electromagnetic radiant power
absorbed to the total amount incident upon the same object.
Like emissivity the values are less than one for other than a black body and one for a
black body.
LECTURE NO – 19
Factors affecting the distribution of solar radiation within the plant canopy
Type of plants
a) The leaves cereal crops like paddy, wheat etc., have a transmissivity in the
range of 5 to 10 per cent.
b) The broad leaves of ever green plants have lower value of 2 to 8 per cent, where
as aquatic plants have the transmissibility of 4 to 8 per cent.
c) Transmissivity changes with age of a leaf: the transmissivity of young leaves is
more as compared to old leaves.
1. Age of the leaves
The transmissivity of young leaves is more as compared to old leaves
2. Chlorophyll content:
As the chlorophyll content increases the values of transmissibility decreases.
3. Arrangement of leaves
a) The relative light interception by horizontal and erect foliage is 1 : 0.44
b) When the leaf area index is one (i) the light transmissibility of more upright
leaves is 74 as against 50 per cent for horizontal leaves
4. Angle of leaves
o
a) In full sunlight, the optimum inclination for efficient light use is 81 .
b) At full sunlight, a leaf placed at the optimum inclination is 4-5 times as efficient
in using light as a horizontal leaf.
c) The ideal arrangement of leaves (shall be) is that the lowest 13 per cent of the
o o
leaves lay at angles between 0 and 30 to the horizontal, that the adjoining 37
o o
per cent of the leaves lay at 30 to 60 and the upper 50 per cent of the leaves
o o
lay at 60 to 90 .
5. Plant density
In case of sparse crop stands not only the per cent of light transmissivity is more
but it is also variable with the time of the day. It is minimum at noon and maximum
during morning and evening hours. In dense crop canopies the light transmissivity is
less.
78
6. Plant height
When the plant height increases the transmissivity of light by the canopy
decreases.
LECTURE NO – 20
AIR TEMPERATURE
Temperature Distribution
1. Each day the earth receives energy in the form of incoming solar radiation from
the sun.
2. This shortwave solar radiation ranges mostly from ultra-violet (0.2 µm
wavelength) to the near infrared (3.0 microns wavelength), but reaches its
maximum at around 0.5 microns wavelength (Blue-green visible light).
3. This insolation is absorbed by the earth’s surface and is converted to heat (long
wave radiation)
4. The earth’s (terrestrial) longwave radiation reaches its peak intensity at 10
microns wavelength (thermal infrared) and is responsible for heating the lower
atmosphere.
TEMPERATURE AT
DIFFERENT PARTS OF GLOBE.
2. Ocean currents
Transport of ocean water in the form of currents carries heat from one part of the
earth to another which results in horizontal distribution of sea-surface temperature.
3. Mountain barrier: Mountain ranges tend to guide the movement of cold air
masses resulting in horizontal temperature variation. Ex: Himalayas protect India
from polar air.
o
10. However, the average adiabatic lapse rate is 6.5 C per kilometre height and it is
o
assumed as 0.5 c per 100 m.
11. Large scale atmospheric motions are approximately adiabatic and clouds and
snow or rain associated with them are primarily adiabatic phenomena in that
they result from cooling air associated with decreasing pressure of upward air
motion.
12. Simpler adiabatic phenomena on a smaller scale. A common example is that of
rising “bubbles” of air on a warm day, leading to cumulus cloud forms.
13. The growth of such cumulus clouds into thunder clouds is more complex but
still largely adiabatic phenomena.
LECTURE - 21
5. Freezing
1 Freezing damage is caused by the formation of ice crystals in the intracellular
spaces and extracellular spaces.
2 Ice within the cells cause injury by mechanical damage and plant parts or entire
plant may be killed or damaged.
3 If extracellular ice persists, the gradient of water vapour pressure between the
apoplast and the cells causes water to migrate out of the cells and into the
apoplast, where it freezes, thereby increasing the amount of ice, in the plant
tissue.
4 This results not only in mechanical damage to the tissue, but also brings about
dehydration of cell contents and lead to death of the cell.
Cardinal temperatures
There are three points of temperature which influence the growth of crop
I Meteorological factors
1. Solar radiation
86
a The amount of solar radiation available at any given location and point of time
is directly proportional to soil temperature
b Even though a part of total net radiation available is utilised in
evapotranspiration and heating the air by reradiation (latent heat and sensible
heat fluxes) a relatively substantial amount of solar radiation is utilized in
heating up of soil (ground heat flux) depending up on nature of surface.
c Radiation from the sky contributes a large amount of heat to the soil in areas
where the sun’s rays have to penetrate the earth’s atmosphere very obliquely.
2. Wind
Air convection or wind is necessary to heat up the soil by conduction from the
atmosphere.
Example: The mountain and valley winds influence the soil temperature.
4. Organic matter
a The addition of organic matter to a soil reduces the heat capacity and thermal
conductivity. But, the water holding capacity increases
b The absorptivity of the soil increases because of the dark colour of the organic
matter.
c At night, the rapid flow of heat from sub soil by radiation is reduced with the
addition of organic matter because of its low thermal conductivity.
d The darker the colour, the smaller the fraction of reflected the incoming
radiation.
e Dark soils and moist soils reflect less than light coloured and dry soils.
5. Soil moisture
a Moisture has an effect on heat capacity and heat conductivity.
b Moisture at the soil surface cools the soil through evaporation.
c Therefore, a moist soil will not heat up as much as a dry one.
d Moist soil is more uniform in temperature throughout its depth as it is a better
s
conductor of heat than dry soil.
88
LECTURE NO – 22
Pressure
Technically pressure is defined as “Force per unit area”.
Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure is defined as “The pressure exerted by a column of air
with a cross sectional area of a given unit i.e., a square inch or a square centimeter
extending from the earth surface to the upper most boundary of the atmosphere”.
♦
♦
♦
90
1. Lowest pressure at the centre and it Highest pressure at the centre and it
increases towards the outer rim decreases towards the outer rim
gradually. gradually.
3. Variety of clouds lies at different Little clouds with cool dry air are
heights. usually associated.
4. Highest rainfall occurs at the front side. Rainfall is almost negligible.
5. Wind velocity increases from outer rim Wind velocities ask much lesser than
to the centre. cyclones (Wind spirally rushes
outward from the centre to
periphere).
WIND
Air in horizontal motion is known as “Wind”. Winds are named by the direction
they come from. Windward refers to the direction a wind comes from and leeward is
the direction towards which it flows. The wind which flows more frequently from one
direction than any other is called as “Prevailing wind”.
91
1 Blows from mountain up slope to base. Blows from valley base to up slope.
3 Cooling of air close to slope takes place. Over heating of air adjacent to slope
takes place.
LECTURE NO – 23
HUMIDITY
Specific humidity
It is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapour in a sample of moist air to
the total mass of the sample. It is expressed as kg of water vapour in a kg of moist air.
Absolute humidity
It is the ratio of the mass of water vapour to the volume of moist air in which it
is contained. Absolute humidity is expressed as kg m-1.
Mixing ratio
It is the ratio of the mass of water vapour contained in a simple of moist air to
the mass of dry air. It is expressed as kg water vapour per kg dry air.
Relative humidity
It is expressed as the ratio of actual vapour pressure to the saturated pressure
expressed in terms of percentage. It is most common measure of atmospheric humidity.
Dew point
It is defined as the temperature to which a given parcel of air must be cooled at
constant pressure and constant water vapour content in order to become saturationed.
94
LECTURE NO – 24
Evaporation
The sun is the source of energy that activates the hydrologic cycle i.e. the heat
required for evaporation is supplied by the sun. The moisture in the atmosphere is
supplied by evaporation.
Evaporation is defined as “A physical process in which liquid water is converted
into its vapour”.
In this process molecules of water having sufficient kinetic energy to overcome
the attractive forces tending to hold them within the body of liquid water are projected
through the water surfaces.
3 Relative humidity: A mechanism to remove the vapour so that the vapour pressure
of the water vapour in the moist layer adjacent to the liquid surface is less than the
saturated vapour pressure of the liquid i.e., a vertical gradient of vapour pressure exists
above the surface.
When the air above water is dry or has low relative humidity, the evaporation will
be greater than when air has high relative humidity over the water.
II Water factors
1. Composition of water
The dissolved salts and other impurities decreases the rate of evaporation.
Evaporation is inversely proportional to the salinity of water. The rate of evaporation
from the surface of the sea is less than that of fresh water in rivers. Under equivalent
conditions ocean water evaporates 5 per cent less than fresh water in rivers.
2. Area of evaporation
If two volumes of water are equal in two containers, evaporation will be greater for
the one having the larger exposed surface.
Transpiration
Transpiration is defined as “The loss of water from living parts of the plant”. There
are 3 kinds of transpiration.
II Plant Factors
Some plants adopt physiological modifications to check the excess transpiration.
Some other plants modify their structure for this purpose, thereby withstand drought.
Such characters greatly effect the transpiration.
1 Plant height: The water need of a crop varies with its height. In general, the rate
of transpiration of a tall crop will be more (around 50 %) than when the crop is
cut or clipped to half.
98
2 Leaf characteristics: In some plants like cacti and other desert plants leaves are
altogether absent and their function taken up by the stem itself. In case of Pines,
Firs etc., the leaf size is very much reduced. In such cases reduction in leaf area
brings about reduction in transpiration. Some graminaceae family plants (maize),
flower plants, etc., roll up or turn the edges of their leaves when exposed to bright
sun and fast breeze. This causes reduction in the transpiration.
3 Availability of water to the plant: If there is little water in the soil, the tendency
for dehydration of leaf causes stomatal closure and a consequent fall in
transpiration. This situation occurs during a) periods of drought b) when the soil
is frozen and c) at a temperature so low that water is not absorbed by roots.
99
LECTURE-25
OROGRAPHIC RAINFALL
101
Types of rainfall
There are mainly 3 types of rainfall which are as follows:
1. Convectional rains
1 The air near the ground becomes hot and light due to heating. Then it starts upward
movement. This process is known as convection (This differs slightly from
`Convection' defined in Chapter (2).
2 As the air moves upward it cools at about 10oC per kelometer i.e., at dry adiabatic
lapse rate.
3 As it becomes saturated, relative humidity reaches to 100 per cent and dew point is
reached where the condensation begins. This level (height) is known as
condensation level.
4 Above this level, air cools at about 4oC per kilometre slightly less than i.e.,
saturated adiabatic lapse rate. First, cloud is formed.
5 Then, the further condensation results into precipitation. These rains are known as
convectional rains and mostly occurs in the tropics.
2. Orographic rains
1 When moist air coming from the sea or ocean strikes mountain it can not move
horizontally. It has to over come the mountations.
2 When this air rises upward, cools down, cloud is formed and condensation starts
giving precipitation.
3 These rains are known as orographic rains.
4 These are also known as `relief rains" as the rains also occurs when the air from sea
or ocean strike or pass over relief barriers.
5 Due to these processes rains with high intensity are possible on the windward side
of the mountain.
Monsoons
The term monsoon is derived from an Arabic word “Mausim” means “Season”.
There are different concepts to explain Indian monsoons. Of them the “Thermal
concept” proposed by Halley in 1636 is of more practical relevance than other concepts
like aerological, Flohins etc. The two types of distinguished monsoons over India are
a. South-West monsoon (SW), 2. North-East monsoon (NE)
102
LECTURE - 26
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF NORTH-EAST MONSOON
–ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE AND INFLUENCE OF
MONSOON RAINS ON FARM OPERATIONS
North-East monsoon
1. A complete reversal of the South west monsoon winds takes place during winter.
2. In this season the land mass over India cools more rapidly than the surrounding
oceans.
3. So, a strong high pressure centre develops over the continent.
4. On the other hand, the pressure over the adjacent oceans is relatively lower.
5. As a consequence, the pressure gradient is directed from land to sea and winds flow
in North-East direction.
6. Therefore, there is an outflow of air from the continental land mass to the adjacent
oceans.
7. The air flow brings “Cold dry” air towards low latitudes.
8. This monsoon is active from October to mid December.
9. The rainfall received is 10 to 20 per cent of the total annual rainfall of India
covering parts of Andhra Pradesh (Nellore, Chittore) and Tamil Nadu.
10. The driving mechanisms of monsoon
• Differential heating of land and ocean masses causes a pressure gradient and
wind is driven accordingly.
• Jwist to wind by rotation of earth.
• Moist process determines strength, vigour, location etc.
11. The path of monsoon air is distributed by diverse features like
• Earth’s rotation
• Mountain barriers
• The retarding effect of friction as winds blow over land.
Withdrawn of monsoon
1. The monsoon withdraws from northern India around mid September.
2. The monsoon withdraws from extreme South of Indian Peninsula by December.
LECTURE - 27
Clouds
Definition
Cloud is defined as “An aggregation of minute drops of water suspended in the
air at higher altitudes”. The rising air currents tend to keep the clouds from falling to
the ground.
Cloud formation
1 When air rises due to increase in temperature the pressure being less it expands and
cools until temperature is equalised. If the cooling proceeds further till the
saturation point, the water vapour condenses and cloud is formed.
2 Clouds are also formed
• When a current of warm air strikes the one that is cooler.
• When moist air from sea blows over a cold land.
Cumulus (Cu): Cumulus means heap or globular mass. This cloud is wooly and
bunchy with rounded top and flat base. This is seen in summer months as it is formed
due to convection. The height varies depending upon humidity of the atmospheric air.
Stratus (St): This cloud looks like a sheet. This is lowest in height from the ground.
Nimbus (Nb): This looks dark and ragged. Precipitation occurs from this cloud as the
prefix “nimbus” means associated with precipitation and `alto’ means above normal
height. Combination of different primary clouds is referred with these clouds.
Family A The clouds in this category are high. The mean lower level is 7 kilometers
and the mean upper level is 12 kilometers in tropics and sub-tropics. In this family there
are 3 sub-categories.
2) Cirrocumulus (Cc)
• Like cirrus clouds ice crystals are present in these clouds also.
• Looks like rippiled sand or waves of the sea shore.
• White, globular masses, transparent, with no shading effect.
• Meckerel sky
3) Cirrostratus (Cs)
• Like the above two clouds ice crystals are present in these clouds also
• Looks like whitish veil and covers the entire sky with milky white appearance.
• Produces “halo”
Family `B' The clouds in this category are middle clouds. The mean lower level is 3
kilometers and the mean upper level is 7 kilometers in tropics and sub-tropics. In this
family there are 2 sub categories as detailed below :
1) Altocumulus (Ac)
• In these clouds ice water is present
• Greyish or bluish globular masses.
• Looks like sheep back and also known as flock clouds or wool packed clouds.
2) Alto-stratus (As)
• In these clouds water and ice are present separately.
• Looks like fibrous veil or sheet and grey or bluish in colour.
• Produces coronos and cast shadows.
• Rain occurs in middle and high latitudes
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Family `C' The clouds in this category are lower clouds. The height of these clouds
extends from ground to upper level of 3 kilometers in tropics and sub-tropics. In this
family like high clouds there are 3 sub-categorises as stated below:
1. Strato cumulus (Sc)
• These clouds are composed of water.
• Looks soft and grey, large globular masses and darker than altocumulus.
• Long parallel rolls pushed together or broken masses.
• The air is smooth above these clouds but strong updrafts occur below.
2) Stratus (St)
• These clouds are also composed of water.
• Looks like fog as these clouds resemble greyish white sheet covering the entire
portion of the sky (cloud near the ground).
• Mainly seen in winter season and occasional drizzle occurs.
3) Nimbostratus (Ns)
• These clouds are composed of water or ice crystals.
• Looks thick dark, grey and uniform layer which reduce the day light effectively.
• Gives steady precipitation.
• Sometimes tooks like irregular, broken and shapeless sheet like.
Family `D’: These are the clouds formed due to vertical development i.e., due to
convection. The mean low level is 0.5 and means upper level goes upto 16 kilometers.
In this family two sub-categories are present as stated below.
1) Cumulus (Cu)
• These clouds are composed of water with white majestic appearance with flat
base.
• Irregualr dome shaped and looks like Cauliflower with wool pack and dark
appearance below due to shadow.
• These clouds usually develop into cumulo-nimbus clouds with flat base.
2) Cumulonimbus (Cb)
• The upper levels of these clouds possess ice and water is present at the lower
levels.
• These clouds have thunder head, with lowering envil top and develop vertically.
• These clouds produce violent winds, thunder storms, hails and lightening,
during summer.
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LECTURE - 28
Drought
1 Drought is explained by the following ways.
a. The condition under which crops fail to mature because of insufficient supply
of water through rains.
b. The situation in which the amount of water required for transpiration and
evaporation by crop plants in a defined area exceeds the amount of available
moisture in the soil.
c. A situation of no precipitation in a rainy season for more than 15 days
continuously.
Classification of Drought
Droughts are broadly divided into 3 categories.
Meteorological drought: If annual rainfall is significantly short of certain level (75
per cent) of the climatologically expected normal rainfall over a wide area, then the
situation is called by this term. In every state each region receives certain amount of
normal rainfall. This is the basis for planning the cropping pattern of that region or
area.
6 Drought tolerant crops for which row spacing can be increased without affecting
the final yield can be identified and practiced.
7 The dates of sowing shall be adjusted such that the reproductive stage of the crop
shall not pass through the drought, in addition to other stages for critical crop
growth.
LECTURE - 29
Precipitation
For general use the terms precipitation and rainfall are used as synonyms with each
other. Precipitation is defined as "Earthward falling of water drops or ice particles that
have formed by rapid condensation in the atmosphere and are too large to remain
suspended in the atmosphere". In condensation the water vapour is suspended in the air
in different forms. But, in the precipitation an appreciable deposit either in solid or
liquid form takes place on the earth surface. There are some common forms and
different types in precipitation.
Table: 8.1. Different forms and types of precipitation
I Liquid forms
1 Rain: It is defined as "Precipitation of drops of liquid water". The cloud consists of
minute droplets of water and when these droplets combine and form large drops and
can not remain suspended in the air they fall down as rain. These droplets are formed
by rapid condensation. The size of rain drop is more than 0.5 mm in diameter. The
imaginary lines drown on a map connecting the points of equal rainfall are known as
“Isohytes”.
2 Drizzle: It is more or less uniform precipitation of very small and minute rain drops.
These drops can be carried away even by light winds. The diameter of drizzle drop less
than 0.5 mm. It falls from low lying nimbostratus cloud. Fog merges to form drizzle.
3 Shower: It is the precipitation lasting for a short time with relatively clear intervals.
II Solid forms
1 Snow: It is defined as “Precipitation of water in solid form of small or large ice
crystals”. It occurs only when the condensing medium has a temperature well below
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freezing (OoC) temperature. It is also seen in the form of flakes which are aggregates of
many crystals, formed due to sublimation of water vapour at sub-freezing temperatures.
2 Hail: It is a precipitation of solid ice. A strong convective column on a warm sunny
day may cause the formation of pellets of spherical shape with concentric layers of ice,
which is known as hail. Hail falls from cumulo-nimbus clouds and is often associated
with thunder and storm. The size of hail ranges from peanut to cricket ball. The rainfall
associated with the hailstorms is called as "Hail Storm".
III Mixed
1 Sleet: It is the simultaneous precipitation of the mixture of rain and snow.
Occasionally half frozen drops also fall, as sleet forms when rain drops are frozen as
they fall through a layer of cold air.
2 Glaze: Freezing rain is known as glaze. This is formed at sub freezing temperatures
when rain falls on objects or on ground. It looks like a sheet or coat.
Condensation
♦ Condensation is defined as “The process in which the water vapour is converted into
its liquid".
♦ This process is inverse of evaporation process. In condensation 600 calories of heat
is released by each gram of water which was taken in the evaporation process.
♦ Thus the evaporation of water produces cooling effect and condensation gives
warming effect.
♦ The visible forms of condensed moisture in the atmosphere are known as
“Hydrometeors”.
Conditions for condensation: The following three conditions must be fulfilled for the
condensation occurrence of in the atmosphere.
a) Presence of sufficient water vapour
♦ An adequate amount of water vapour is necessary to bring about saturation of
air.
♦ Dew point shall be reached through this water vapour to begin condensation.
c) Cooling of air
Cooling of air upto and below dew point is necessary for saturation of
atmospheric air with water vapour.
Forms of condensation
Dew
The deposition of water vapour in the form of tiny droplets on the colder bodies
by condensation is known as dew.
The temperature at which water vapour condenses is known as dew point
temperature.
When the objects on the surface of the earth get cooled in the night below dew
temperature the water vapour is condensed on these surfaces.
Dew forms when condensation takes place above freezing point.
These surfaces should be good radiators and bad conductors of heat (Plant
leaves; window glasses, pieces of paper etc.
The conditions for the formation of dew are:
a. Clear sky
b. Absence of wind
With particularly favourable conditions, dew deposition may commence before
sunset and continued till after sunrise. Deposition trends to be reduced under very calm
conditions (wind speed range of 1-3 m/sec). Dew is an important secondary source of
moisture for crops during the non-rainy season and plays vital role in plant growth.
Dew occurrences benefit the plants in many ways.
Significance of dew
1 The dew deposited on the leaf surface in the morning delays the rise in leaf
temperature and thus reduces the rate of evapotranspiration.
2 Dew provides water for direct plant use. The amount of dew deposition varies
from 0.25 to 0.40 mm per night in semi-arid tropics (Usually, from September
to April dew amounts are measured in these areas).
3 Under suitable conditions, in semi-arid areas, it may exceed even 25-30 mm per
annum.
2 Frost
o
When the temperature of atmospheric air falls below O C before the dew point is
reached, the water vapour is directly converted into crystals of ice called as “Frost”.
This is a form of sublimation, because, water vapour is directly converted into ice.
Frost is injurious to agricultural and horticultural crops.
a Hoar frost
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The white and opaque deposition in the form of ice crystals having the shapes of
feathers, needles etc.
b Gleazed frost
This is caused by rains which are freezed on falling to the ground. This is
transparent.
3 Fog
“Low cloud” near the ground surface. Extremely small water droplets suspended in
the atmosphere reducing the horizontal visibility is known as `Fog'. Fog reduces the
visibility. The conditions for the formation of fag are
♦ Calm wind
♦ Atleast upto 75 % relative humidity
Fog is also called as “Cloud on and near the ground”. There is no particular form,
shape or structure to fog. The following are types of fog.
• Radiation fog
This results from rapid loss of night time radiation either from the ground or lower
air. This radiation produces cooling.
• Inversion fog: This is another type of radiation fog. This results from
condensation of water vapour in a mass of warm moist air lying over a layer of
cold air and near the ground.
These two fogs occur during night or cold morning. They disappear due to
desaturation of air with vapours after the rise of sun in the morning.
• Advection fog
This fog occurs when warm moist air rides in over a cold surface of either land or
water. These fogs occur at any time of the day.
4 Smog: The combined effect of smoke and fog droplets which reduce visibility is
called “Smog”. Some solid particles like dust, smoke from fires and industry restricts
the visibility further when these are added to smog which is known as `Haze'. On some
occassions toxic materials present in fog, smog and haze and these are harmful. All
these processes cause difficulty in rail, road, aviation and shipping traffics.
5 Rime: This is “Freezing fog” and is formed when wet fog has super cooled droplets
immediately freeze on striking objects having temperatures below freezing point. White
ice is formed on windward freezing point (telegraph post).
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6 Mist: Mist is less dense fog. The suspended water droplets in the atmosphere in the
atmosphere restrict the visibility between 1100 to 2200 yards or number 4 on the coded
scale (IMD). The obscurity is known as mist. The relative humidity is 75 per cent when
mist occurs. Mist disappears with rising sun.
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LECTURE - 30
1. Rainfall
Rainfall is the major source of water which is essential for plant growth and
development. However, rainfall is considered under it is a. Excess rainfall b. Scanty
rainfall and c Untimely. The total amount of rainfall in a season is not the criteria. But,
its well distribution over a large area is desirable. Heavy rains with short frequencies
will result in floods. If 125 mm of rain is received in two and half hours it is called as
heavy rain.
a Excess rainfall
1 Even though water in all its forms plays a fundamental role in the growth and
production of all crops excessive amounts of water in the soil alter various chemical
and biophysical processes.
2 Free movement of oxygen is blocked and compounds toxic to the roots are formed,
due to drainage problem.
3 Soils with high rate of percolation are unsuitable for cultivation as plant nutrients
can be removed rapidly.
4 Heavy rains directly damage plants on impact or interfere with flowering and
pollination.
5 Top soil layers are packed or hardened which delays or prevents emergence of
tender seedlings.
6 Snow and freezing rain are threats to winter plants. The sheer weight of ice and
snow may be sufficient to break limbs on trees and shurbs.
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7 A thick ice cover on the ground tends to produce suffocation of crop plants such as
winter wheat.
8 Under excess rainfall conditions floods occur. In areas drained by large river
systems.
9 Floods submerge crops; silt up fields; tank bunds and river embankments are
washed off.
b Scanty rainfall
This is a synonym with "Inadequate rainfall" or `Drought'. The influence of
drought can be observed not only on phenology but also on phenophases of crop plants
(chapter 8).
1 Water limitation from seedling emergence to maturity in all the cereals is very
damaging.
2 Water stress/drought during flowering reduces the size of inflorescence, affect
fertilization, grain filling and reduce final yield.
3 Plants show wilting symptoms
4 Cell division and enlargement are very sensitive to drought stress, which results in
stunted growth.
5 Drought effect nutrient absorption, carbohydrate and protein metabolism and
translocation of ions and metabolites.
6 Abscission of leaves, fruits and seeds can be induced by plant water deficit during
droughts.
7 Plant respiration is drastically reduced.
c Untimely rains
This refers to rainfall received too early or too late in the season with the result that
normal agricultural operations are upset (chapter 8).
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1 Too early rains do not permit proper preparation of seedbed due to heavy rains.
2 Too late rains delay sowings and pest attack cause collosal losses.
3 Wet spells during flowering and harvesting results in poor fertilization and
subsequent loss in yield.
2. Temperature
Temperature is essential for all plant physiological processes, gaseous exchange
between plant and environment, stability of plant enzymatic reactions etc (chapter 3).
However, both cold and heat waves and abnormal soil temperatures are adverse to crop
growth and development.
Advection Frost
The usual effects of Advection frost are:
1 The injury and death caused by frost is due to the formation of ice crystals in and
outside the plant cells.
2 During dormancy, plants can withstand lower temperatures upto -20oC.
3 Once growth has commenced temperatures of few degrees below freezing point
may be fatal.
4 The cell sap gets frozen below 0oC, as also between cells.
5 Extra cellular ice formation occurs followed by withdrawal of water from the cell.
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Radiation frost
The damage due to radiation frost differs from the above freeze damage in degree
and its spotly occurrence.
1 This radiation frost damage is critical during critical stages of growth.
2 Young seedlings may be killed.
3 Flowering stage is most prone.
4 Crops like potato, tomato and melons are vulnerable right upto maturity.
5 For most field crops and orchard crops flowering stage is most critical for frost
damage.
6 Forsty nights followed by warm sunny days produce a sunclad on orchard fruits,
considerably reducing their production.
b. Active methods
The active methods of frost protection are many, like use of
• Heaters.
• Wind machines.
• Sprinkling water.
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B. Heat Waves
These are very harmful during summer. These are experienced over Deccan and
Central parts of India during March to May. The harmful effects include shedding of
fruits, plants drying of water resources.
1 Loss of water by evaporation from irrigation channels.
2 Transpiration increases from plants beyond recouping levels
3 Plants tend to wilt and die owing to rapid desiccation.
4 Hot winds cause shrivelling effect at milk stage of all agricultural crops.
3. Wind
Wind has its most important effects on crop production indirectly through the
transport of moisture and heat. Vegetative growth at `Zero' wind, as experienced in
glass houses or under low glass cover is luxurient. But, there is typically a reduction in
vegetative growth as the wind increases to small values, viz., 1 or 2 metres per second.
SHELTER BELT
WIND BREAK
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Management of storms
1 Prevention of hails by hail suppression techniques.
2 Following forecasts of weather and protecting crops.
3 Spraying of salt on harvested paddy, to prevent the germination / sprouting of
harvested produce.
TORNADO
127
Management
Since, these are very rare, the location specific solutions like
1 Proper site selection.
2 Allowing air drainage.
3 Adequate water supply.
4 Pruning of orchard trees.
5 Spray of chemicals and plant harmones.
6 Covering plants with "hot caps" (covering plants with some standard and
recommended material) may prove beneficial.
6. Tornado
This is a violent, destructive storm of small horizontal dimensions. A
cumulonimbus cloud forms into a funnel shape with an vortex extending from the base
of the storm to the surface. The Whirl-wind encireles a small dimension of about 500
metres. These are capable of causing severe structural and other damages. The violent
winds associated with this abnormality are strong upward air currents. The tornados
occurring on water are known as “Water spouts”.
Management
1 Warning in advance
2 Precautions to protect the agricultural produce like transportation to safety places
etc.
3 Quick removal of debris immediately after damage.
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LECTURE – 31
Synoptic Reports
For better crop management under adverse weather conditions synoptic
climatology play an important role.
The term synoptic climatology is applied to investigations of regional weather and
circulation types. It is also used to refer to any climatological analysis which makes
some reference to synoptic weather phenomena. This field is concerned with obtaining
an insight into local or regional climates by examining the relationship of weather
elements individually or collectively to atmospheric circulation processes.
Synoptic climatology is defined as “The description and analysis of the totality of
weather at a single place or over a small area, in terms of the properties and motion of
the atmosphere over and around the place or area”.
There are essentially two stages to a synoptic climatological study.
1. The determination of categories of atmospheric circulation type.
2. The assessment of weather elements in relation to these categories.
Synoptic report Observed weather conditions are marked in brief coded form as a
synopsis of the conditions. Such a brief report on weather conditions is known as
“Synoptic report”.
3. Shading Precipitation
In addition to the above, different symbols are used for recording weather
phenomena, in relevant columns of the pocket register and the monthly meteorological
register by the observer. A few are mentioned in the Figure 9.1.
The duties of the observer: The routine duties of the observer include:
1. To make regular and careful observations and to note the general character of the
weather and record in the pocket register.
2. To prepare and dispatch the weather telegram as per the instructions to the
different forecasting centres, immediately after the observations are taken.
3. To send heavy rainfall telegrams to the various offices on warning list.
4. To prepare and post monthly meteorological and pocket registers for each month
to the controlling meteorological office.
5. To keep the instruments clean and maintain them properly.
After the observer sends the data as per the standard procedure it should be
decoded and the weather observations for each station must be plotted at the
appropriate location in a systematic manner following the international station model.
Only weather maps in first class forecasting centres approach the completeness of this
model. Printed maps and maps used for plotting usually have an appropriately
numbered circle corresponding to each reporting land station and observations are
plotted about this location in the appropriate position regardless of the number of
observations shown. The weather pattern affecting a locality is an integral part of the
much larger hemispheric weather pattern and it is necessary plot a map over a large
area. Even if observations are not to be plotted, it is necessary to know the plotting
scheme in order to read and interpret weather charts already plotted.
Weather Forecasting
The weather elements which influence the agricultural operations and crop
production can be forecast upto different spans of time. Weather forecast is defined as
“prediction of weather for the next few days to follow”.
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Types of observations
The main observations used in different weather forecasting types are as follows:
1. Surface observations
2. Upper air observations
3. Aircraft observations
4. Radar observations
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Different types of weather forecast. There are three types of weather forecast
(Table 9.2).
Table: 9.2. Types of weather forecast and their validity
2 Statistical methods
In this method correlations and regressions are calculated using weather elements.
This method is useful for long range weather forecast.
3 Numerical methods
This is basically an objective technique. Several equations are solved numerically
using high speed and large memory computers. This method is useful for short and
medium range forecasts.
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Agromet advisories
1 The IMD has established Agromet Advisory Service Units (AASUs) at the
meteorological offices of the state head quarters. These AASUs issue biweekly
agromet advisories to the states. First, the condition of the crops in the state and
then advisory on the farming operations, based on the past weather / likely future
weather realised is provided. The rainfall forecasts valid for the next two days and
the out look valid for two subsequent days is also given Assistance for the
agricultural related aspects is taken from the state agricultural universities and
agricultural departments.
2 The agromet advisories are sent to the “Farm Radio” division of All India Radio
stations through land line telegrams and are broadcast in the farm radio
programmes of respective states. A separate pictorial presentation of spatial rainfall
distribution over the state is sent to Doordarshan for telecasting in the respective
states.
3 The advisories are also sent through faxe to the Agromet Directorate of IMD, Pune
on the same day, where all the advisories sent by the various AASUs are
assembled and then a consolidated report is prepared. This report is faxed from
IMD Pune to IMD Delhi on subsequent day and is used for ministerial/secretarial
briefing.
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LECTURE – 32
Remote Sensing
The word “Remote sensing” was coined by Fischer in 1960 AD. Remote sensing is
defined as “Collection and interpretation of information about a target without being in
physical contact with it”. According to Lilesand and Kiefer, remote sensing is “The
science and art of obtaining information about an object, area or phenomenon through
the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in contact with the object, area or
phenomenon under investigation”.
REMOTE SENSING
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Multispectral scanning
The generalised processes and elements involved in electromagenetic remote
sensing of earth resources are
a Data acquisition and
b Data analysis
Sensors are used to record variations in the way earth surface features reflect
and emit electromagnetic energy. Multispectral scanners use sensors with very narrow
fields of view to scan an area of interest systematically and an image is built up as the
scan progress. Each sensor forms an image that represents the reflectance of the scan in
its particular wavelength of the scene in its particular waveband. The Indian Remote
Sensing Satellite System provide images with 36.25 m and 72.5 m ground resolution in
the bands 0.45 – 0.52 microm; 0.52 – 0.59 microm; 0.62 – 0.68 microm and 0.77 – 0.86
microm.
3. Water
• Water bodies show fairly good response to shortwave radiation.
• It also shows absorption in infrared bands.
*****