ASPRS Positional Accuracy Standards For Digital Geospatial Data

ASPRS Positional Accuracy Standards for
Digital Geospatial Data
EDITION 1, VERSION 1.0.0

NOVEMBER, 2014
Developed by:
ASPRS Map Accuracy Working Group
http://www.asprs.org/PAD-Division/Map-Accuracy-Standards-Working-Group.html
American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Edition 1, Version 1.0.0
ASPRS Positional Accuracy Standards for Digital Geospatial Data November, 2014
Contents
1 Purpose
1.1 Scope and applicability.................................................................................................1
1.2 Limitations...................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Structure and format..................................................................................................... 2
2 Conformance........................................................................................................................... 2
3 References............................................................................................................................... 2
4 Authority.................................................................................................................................. 3
5 Terms and definitions............................................................................................................. 3
6 Symbols, abbreviated terms, and notations.........................................................................5
7 Specific requirements............................................................................................................. 6
7.1 Statistical assessment of horizontal and vertical accuracies 7
7.2 Assumptions regarding systematic errors and acceptable mean error 7
7.3 Horizontal accuracy requirements for geospatial data 7
7.4 Vertical accuracy standards for elevation data 8
7.5 Horizontal accuracy requirements for elevation data...............................................10
7.6 Low confidence areas for elevation data...................................................................11
7.7 Accuracy requirements for aerial triangulation and INS-based
sensor orientation of digital imagery.........................................................................11
7.8 Accuracy requirements for ground control used for aerial triangulation...............12
7.9 Check point accuracy and placement requirements................................................12
7.10 Check point density and distribution.......................................................................13
7.11 Relative accuracy of lidar and IFSAR data...............................................................13
7.12 Reporting.................................................................................................................... 14
Annex A - Background (informative)......................................................................................15

A.1 Legacy Standards and Guidelines.............................................................................15
A.2 New Standard for New Era..........................................................................................16
A.2.1 Mapping Practices During the Film-based Era......................................................17
A.2.2 Mapping Practices During the Softcopy Photogrammetry Era............................18
A.2.3 Mapping Practices during the Digital Sensors Photogrammetry Era..................19
Annex B - Data Accuracy and Quality Examples (normative)..............................................20

B.1 Aerial Triangulation and Ground Control Accuracy Examples...............................20
B.2 Digital Orthoimagery Horizontal Accuracy Classes.................................................20
B.3 Digital Planimetric Data Horizontal Accuracy Classes.............................................25
B.4 Digital Elevation Data Vertical Accuracy Classes....................................................26
B.5 Converting ASPRS 2014 Accuracy Values to Legacy ASPRS 1990 Values...........27
B.6 Converting ASPRS 2014 Accuracy Values to Legacy NMAS 1947 Values.............29
B.7 Expressing the ASPRS 2014 Accuracy Values according to the FGDC
National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy (NSSDA)............................................30
B.8 Horizontal Accuracy Examples for Lidar Data..........................................................31
B.9 Elevation Data Accuracy versus Elevation Data Quality..........................................31
Annex C - Accuracy Testing and Reporting Guidelines (normative)...................................33

C.1 Check Point Requirements.........................................................................................33
C.2 Number of Check Points Required............................................................................33
C.3 Distribution of Vertical Check Points across Land Cover Types............................34
C.4 NSSDA Methodology for Check Point Distribution
(Horizontal and Vertical Testing) ...............................................................................34
C.5 Vertical Check Point Accuracy...................................................................................35
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C.6 Testing and Reporting of Horizontal Accuracies......................................................35

C.7 Testing and Reporting of Vertical Accuracies..........................................................36
C.8 Low Confidence Areas................................................................................................ 36
C.9 Erroneous Check Points.............................................................................................38
C.10 Relative Accuracy Comparison Point Location and Criteria
for Lidar Swath-to-Swath Accuracy Assessment.....................................................39
C.11 Interpolation of Elevation Represented Surface for Check
Point Comparisons...................................................................................................... 39
Annex D - Accuracy Statistics and Example (normative).....................................................41

D.1 NSSDA Reporting Accuracy Statistics......................................................................41
D.2 Comparison with NDEP Vertical Accuracy Statistics...............................................46
D.3 Computation of Percentile..........................................................................................48
Figures
Figure C.1 Topographic surface represented as a TIN...................................................39
Figure C.2 Topographic surface represented as a raster DEM......................................39
Figure D.1 Error Histogram of Typical Elevation Data Set,
Showing Two Outliers in Vegetated Areas...............................................................46
Tables
Table 7.1 Horizontal Accuracy Standards for Geospatial Data........................................8
Table 7.2 Vertical Accuracy Standards for Digital Elevation Data...................................9
Table A.1 Common Photography Scales using Camera with 9" film
format and 6" lens....................................................................................................... 17
Table A.2 Relationship between film scale and derived maps scale……………….......18
Table B.1 Aerial Triangulation and Ground Control Accuracy Requirements,
Orthoimagery and/or Planimetric Data Only.............................................................20
Orthoimagery and/or Planimetric Data and Elevation Data............................................20
Table B.3 Common Horizontal Accuracy Classes according to the new standard......21
Table B.4 Examples on Users Interpretation of the Horizontal Accuracy
for Digital Orthoimagery according to ASPRS 1990 Legacy Standard...................22
Table B.5 Digital Orthoimagery Accuracy Examples for Current Metric
Large and Medium Format Cameras..........................................................................24
Table B.6 Horizontal Accuracy/Quality Examples for High Accuracy
Digital Planimetric Data...............................................................................................25
Table B.7 Vertical Accuracy/Quality Examples for Digital Elevation Data....................26
Table B.8 Relating the vertical accuracy of the new ASPRS 2014 standard
to the legacy standards of ASPRS 1990 and NMAS of 1947....................................26
Table B.9 Examples on Vertical Accuracy and Recommended Lidar Points
Density for Digital Elevation Data according to the new ASPRS 2014 standard. . .27
Table B.10 Expected horizontal errors (RMSE r) for Lidar data in terms of
flying altitude............................................................................................................... 31
Table C.1 Recommended Number of check Points Based on Area...............................34
Table C.2 Low Confidence Areas......................................................................................37
Table D.1 NSSDA Accuracy Statistics for Example Data Set with 3D Coordinates.....41
Table D.2 Traditional Error Statistics for Example Elevation Data Set..........................47
Table D.3 Comparison of NSSDA, NDEP and ASPRS Statistics
for Example Elevation Data Set...........................................................................47
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Foreword
The goal of American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote sensing (ASPRS) is to advance the
science of photogrammetry and remote sensing: to educate individuals in the science of photogrammetry
and remote sensing; to foster the exchange of information pertaining to the science of photogrammetry
and remote sensing; to develop, place into practice and maintain standards and ethics applicable to
aspects of the science; to provide a means for the exchange of ideas among those interested in the
sciences; to encourage, publish and distribute books, periodicals, treatises, and other scholarly and
practical works to further the science of photogrammetry and remote sensing.
This standard was developed by the ASPRS Map Accuracy Standards Working Group, a joint committee
under the Photogrammetric Applications Division, Primary Data Acquisition Division and Lidar Division,
which was formed for the purpose of reviewing and updating ASPRS map accuracy standards to reflect
current technologies. Detailed background information can be found on the Map Accuracy Working
Group web page: http://www.asprs.org/PAD-Division/Map-Accuracy-Standards-Working-Group.html
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ASPRS Positional Accuracy Standards for Digital Geospatial Data
1 Purpose
The objective of the ASPRS Positional Accuracy Standards for Digital Geospatial Data is to replace the
existing ASPRS Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale Maps (1990), and the ASPRS Guidelines, Vertical
Accuracy Reporting for Lidar Data (2004) to better address current technologies.
This standard includes positional accuracy standards for digital orthoimagery, digital planimetric data and
digital elevation data. Accuracy classes, based on RMSE values, have been revised and upgraded from
the 1990 standard to address the higher accuracies achievable with newer technologies. The standard
also includes additional accuracy measures, such as orthoimagery seam lines, aerial triangulation
accuracy, lidar relative swath-to-swath accuracy, recommended minimum Nominal Pulse Density (NPD),
horizontal accuracy of elevation data, delineation of low confidence areas for vertical data, and the
required number and spatial distribution of check points based on project area.
1.1 Scope and applicability
This standard addresses geo-location accuracies of geospatial products and it is not intended to cover
classification accuracy of thematic maps. Further, the standard does not specify the best practices or
methodologies needed to meet the accuracy thresholds stated herein. Specific requirements for the
testing methodologies are specified as are some of the key elemental steps that are critical to the
development of data if they are to meet these standards. However, it is the responsibility of the data
provider to establish all final project design parameters, implementation steps and quality control
procedures necessary to ensure the data meets final accuracy requirements.
The standard is intended to be used by geospatial data providers and users to specify the positional
accuracy requirements for final geospatial products.
1.2 Limitations
This standard is limited in scope to addressing accuracy thresholds and testing methodologies for the
most common mapping applications and to meet immediate shortcomings in the outdated 1990 and 2004
standards referenced above. While the standard is intended to be technology independent and broad
based, there are several specific accuracy assessment needs that were identified but are not addressed
herein at this time, including:
1) Methodologies for accuracy assessment of linear features (as opposed to well defined points);
2) Rigorous total propagated uncertainty (TPU) modeling (as opposed to -- or in addition to -- ground
truthing against independent data sources);
3) Robust statistics for data sets that do not meet the criteria for normally distributed data and therefore
cannot be rigorously assessed using the statistical methods specified herein;
4) Image quality factors, such as edge definition and other characteristics;
5) Robust assessment of check point distribution and density;
6) Alternate methodologies to TIN interpolation for vertical accuracy assessment.
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This standard is intended to be the initial component upon which future work can build. Additional
supplemental standards or modules should be pursued and added by subject matter experts in these
fields as they are developed and approved by the ASPRS.
At this time this standard does not reference existing international standards. International standards
could be addressed in future modules or versions of this standard if needed.
1.3 Structure and format
The standard is structured as follows: The primary terms and definitions, references and requirements are
stated within the main body of the standard, according to the ASPRS standards template, without
extensive explanation or justification. Detailed supporting guidelines and background information are
attached as Annexes A-D. Annex A provides a background summary of other standards, specifications
and/or guidelines relevant to ASPRS but which do not satisfy current requirements for digital geospatial
data. Annex B provides accuracy/quality examples and overall guidelines for implementing the standard.
Annex C provides guidelines for accuracy testing and reporting. Annex D provides guidelines for
statistical assessment and examples for computing vertical accuracy in vegetated and non-vegetated
terrain.
2. Conformance
No conformance requirements are established for this standard.
3. References
American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS), ASPRS Accuracy Standards for
Digital Geospatial Data (DRAFT), PE&RS, December 2013, pp 1073-1085
American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS). (1990). ASPRS Accuracy
Standards for Large-Scale Maps,
http://www.asprs.org/a/society/committees/standards/1990_jul_1068-1070.pdf
American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS), ASPRS Guidelines, Vertical
Accuracy Reporting for Lidar Data,
http://www.asprs.org/a/society/committees/standards/Vertical_Accuracy_Reporting_for_Lidar_Data.pdf
Dieck, R.H. (2007). Measurement uncertainty: methods and applications. Instrument Society of America,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 277 pp.
Federal Geographic Data Committee. (1998). FGDC-STD-007.2-1998, Geospatial Positioning Accuracy

Standards, Part 2: Standards for Geodetic Networks, FGDC, c/o U.S. Geological Survey,
https://www.fgdc.gov/standards/projects/FGDC-standards-projects/accuracy/part2/chapter2
Federal Geographic Data Committee. (1998). FGDC-STD-007.3-1998, Geospatial Positioning Accuracy

Standards, Part 3: National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy (NSSDA), FGDC, c/o U.S. Geological
Survey, https://www.fgdc.gov/standards/projects/FGDC-standards-projects/accuracy/part3/chapter3
National Digital Elevation Program (NDEP). May 2004. NDEP Guidelines for Digital Elevation Data,
http://www.ndep.gov/NDEP_Elevation_Guidelines_Ver1_10May2004.pdf
National Geodetic Survey (NGS). November, 1997. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NGS-58, V.
4.3: Guidelines for Establishing GPS-Derived Ellipsoid Heights (Standards: 2 cm and 5 cm),
https://www.ngs.noaa.gov/PUBS_LIB/NGS-58.html
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National Geodetic Survey (NGS). March, 2008. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NGS-59, V1.5:
Guidelines for Establishing GPS-Derived Orthometric Heights,
http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/PUBS_LIB/NGS592008069FINAL2.pdf
Additional informative references for other relevant and related guidelines and specifications are included
in Annex A.
4. Authority
The responsible organization for preparing, maintaining, and coordinating work on this guideline is the
American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS), Map Accuracy Standards Working
Group, a joint committee formed by the Photogrammetric Applications Division, Primary Data Acquisition
Division and Lidar Division. For further information, contact the Division Directors using the contact
information posted on the APSRS web-site, www.asprs.org.
5. Terms and definitions
absolute accuracy – A measure that accounts for all systematic and random errors in a data set.
accuracy – The closeness of an estimated value (for example, measured or computed) to a standard or
accepted (true) value of a particular quantity. Not to be confused with precision.
bias – A systematic error inherent in measurements due to some deficiency in the measurement process
or subsequent processing.
blunder – A mistake resulting from carelessness or negligence.
confidence level – The percentage of points within a data set that are estimated to meet the stated
accuracy; e.g., accuracy reported at the 95% confidence level means that 95% of the positions in the data
set will have an error with respect to true ground position that are equal to or smaller than the reported
accuracy value.
consolidated vertical accuracy (CVA) – Replaced by the term Vegetated Vertical Accuracy (VVA) in this
standard, CVA is the term used by the NDEP guidelines for vertical accuracy at the 95 th percentile in all
land cover categories combined.
fundamental vertical accuracy (FVA) – Replaced by the term Non-vegetated Vertical Accuracy (NVA), in
this standard, FVA is the term used by the NDEP guidelines for vertical accuracy at the 95% confidence
level in open terrain only where errors should approximate a normal error distribution.
ground sample distance (GSD) – The linear dimension of a sample pixel’s footprint on the ground. Within
this document GSD is used when referring to the collection GSD of the raw image, assuming near-vertical
imagery. The actual GSD of each pixel is not uniform throughout the raw image and varies significantly
with terrain height and other factors. Within this document, GSD is assumed to be the value computed
using the calibrated camera focal length and camera height above average horizontal terrain.
horizontal accuracy  The horizontal (radial) component of the positional accuracy of a data set with
respect to a horizontal datum, at a specified confidence level.
inertial measurement unit (IMU) – an electronic device that measures and reports an aircraft’s velocity,
orientation, and gravitational forces, using a combination of accelerometers and gyroscopes, and
sometimes magnetometers.
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inertial navigation system (INS) – a navigation aid that uses a computer, motion sensors (accelerometers)
and rotation sensors (gyroscopes) to continuously calculate the position, orientation and velocity
(direction and speed of movement) of a moving object.
kurtosis –The measure of relative “peakedness” or flatness of a distribution compared with a normally
distributed data set. Positive kurtosis indicates a relatively peaked distribution near the mean while
negative kurtosis indicates a flat distribution near the mean.
local accuracy – The uncertainty in the coordinates of points with respect to coordinates of other directly
connected, adjacent points at the 95% confidence level.
mean error – The average positional error in a set of values for one dimension (x, y, or z); obtained by
adding all errors in a single dimension together and then dividing by the total number of errors for that
dimension.
network accuracy – The uncertainty in the coordinates of mapped points with respect to the geodetic
datum at the 95% confidence level.
non-vegetated vertical accuracy (NVA) – The vertical accuracy at the 95% confidence level in non-
vegetated open terrain, where errors should approximate a normal distribution.
percentile – A measure used in statistics indicating the value below which a given percentage of
observations in a group of observations fall. For example, the 95th percentile is the value (or score)
below which 95 percent of the observations may be found. For accuracy testing, percentile calculations
are based on the absolute values of the errors, as it is the magnitude of the errors, not the sign that is of
concern.
pixel resolution or pixel size – As used within this document, pixel size is the ground size of a pixel in a
digital orthoimage, after all rectifications and resampling procedures.
positional error – The difference between data set coordinate values and coordinate values from an
independent source of higher accuracy for identical points.
positional accuracy – The accuracy of the position of features, including horizontal and vertical positions,
with respect to horizontal and vertical datums.
precision (repeatability) – The closeness with which measurements agree with each other, even though
they may all contain a systematic bias.
relative accuracy – A measure of variation in point-to-point accuracy in a data set.
resolution – The smallest unit a sensor can detect or the smallest unit an orthoimage depicts. The degree
of fineness to which a measurement can be made.
root-mean-square error (RMSE) – The square root of the average of the set of squared differences
between data set coordinate values and coordinate values from an independent source of higher
accuracy for identical points.
skew – A measure of symmetry or asymmetry within a data set. Symmetric data will have skewness
towards zero.
standard deviation – A measure of spread or dispersion of a sample of errors around the sample mean
error. It is a measure of precision, rather than accuracy; the standard deviation does not account for
uncorrected systematic errors.
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supplemental vertical accuracy (SVA) – Merged into the Vegetated Vertical Accuracy (VVA) in this
standard, SVA is the NDEP guidelines term for reporting the vertical accuracy at the 95 th percentile in
each separate land cover category where vertical errors may not follow a normal error distribution.
systematic error – An error whose algebraic sign and, to some extent, magnitude bears a fixed relation to
some condition or set of conditions. Systematic errors follow some fixed pattern and are introduced by
data collection procedures, processing or given datum.
uncertainty (of measurement) – a parameter that characterizes the dispersion of measured values, or the
range in which the “true” value most likely lies. It can also be defined as an estimate of the limits of the
error in a measurement (where “error” is defined as the difference between the theoretically-unknowable
“true” value of a parameter and its measured value).Standard uncertainty refers to uncertainty expressed
as a standard deviation.
vegetated vertical accuracy (VVA) – An estimate of the vertical accuracy, based on the 95 th percentile, in
vegetated terrain where errors do not necessarily approximate a normal distribution.
vertical accuracy – The measure of the positional accuracy of a data set with respect to a specified
vertical datum, at a specified confidence level or percentile.
For additional terms and more comprehensive definitions of the terms above, reference is made to the
Glossary of Mapping Sciences; Manual of Photogrammetry, 6th edition; Digital Elevation Model
Technologies and Applications: The DEM Users Manual, 2nd edition; and/or the Manual of Airborne
Topographic Lidar, all published by ASPRS.
6. Symbols, abbreviated terms, and notations
ACCr – the horizontal (radial) accuracy at the 95% confidence level
ACCz – the vertical linear accuracy at the 95% confidence level
ASPRS – American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
CVA – Consolidated Vertical Accuracy
DEM – Digital Elevation Model
DTM – Digital Terrain Model
FVA – Fundamental Vertical Accuracy
GSD – Ground Sample Distance
GNSS - Global Navigation Satellite System
GPS – Global Positioning System
IMU – Inertial Measurement Unit
INS – Inertial Navigation System
NGPS  Nominal Ground Point Spacing
NPD  Nominal Pulse Density
NMAS  National Map Accuracy Standard
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NPS  Nominal Pulse Spacing
NSSDA  National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy
NVA  Non-vegetated Vertical Accuracy
RMSEr  the horizontal linear RMSE in the radial direction that includes both x- and y-coordinate
errors.
RMSEx  the horizontal linear RMSE in the X direction (Easting)
RMSEy  the horizontal linear RMSE in the Y direction (Northing)
RMSEz  the vertical linear RMSE in the Z direction (Elevation)
RMSE  Root Mean Square Error
RMSDz  root-mean-square-difference in elevation (z)
SVA – Supplemental Vertical Accuracy
TIN – Triangulated Irregular Network
VVA  Vegetated Vertical Accuracy
x́  sample mean error, for x
ѕ  sample standard deviation

γ1  sample skewness
γ2  sample kurtosis
7. Specific requirements
This standard defines accuracy classes based on RMSE thresholds for digital orthoimagery, digital
planimetric data, and digital elevation data.
Testing is always recommended but may not be required for all data sets; specific requirements must be
addressed in the project specifications.
When testing is required, horizontal accuracy shall be tested by comparing the planimetric coordinates of
well-defined points in the data set with coordinates determined from an independent source of higher
accuracy. Vertical accuracy shall be tested by comparing the elevations of the surface represented by
the data set with elevations determined from an independent source of higher accuracy. This is done by
comparing the elevations of the check points with elevations interpolated from the data set at the same
x/y coordinates. See Annex C, Section C.11 for detailed guidance on interpolation methods.
All accuracies are assumed to be relative to the published datum and ground control network used for the
data set and as specified in the metadata. Ground control and check point accuracies and processes
should be established based on project requirements. Unless specified to the contrary, it is expected that
all ground control and check points should normally follow the guidelines for network accuracy as detailed
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in the Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards, Part 2: Standards for Geodetic Networks, Federal
Geodetic Control Subcommittee, Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC-STD-007.2-1998). When
local control is needed to meet specific accuracies or project needs, it must be clearly identified both in
the project specifications and the metadata.
7.1 Statistical assessment of horizontal and vertical accuracies
Horizontal accuracy is to be assessed using root-mean-square-error (RMSE) statistics in the horizontal

plane, i.e., RMSEx, RMSEy and RMSEr. Vertical accuracy is to be assessed in the z dimension only. For
vertical accuracy testing, different methods are used in non-vegetated terrain (where errors typically
follow a normal distribution suitable for RMSE statistical analyses) and vegetated terrain (where errors do
not necessarily follow a normal distribution). When errors cannot be represented by a normal distribution,
the 95th percentile value more fairly estimates accuracy at a 95% confidence level. For these reasons
vertical accuracy is to be assessed using RMSEz statistics in non-vegetated terrain and 95th percentile
statistics in vegetated terrain. Elevation data sets shall also be assessed for horizontal accuracy where
possible, as outlined in Section 7.5.
With the exception of vertical data in vegetated terrain, error thresholds stated in this standard are
presented in terms of the acceptable RMSE value. Corresponding estimates of accuracy at the 95%
confidence level values are computed using National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy (NSSDA)
methodologies according to the assumptions and methods outlined in Annex D, Accuracy Statistics and
Examples.
7.2 Assumptions regarding systematic errors and acceptable mean error
With the exception of vertical data in vegetated terrain, the assessment methods outlined in this standard,
and in particular those related to computing NSSDA 95% confidence level estimates, assume that the
data set errors are normally distributed and that any significant systematic errors or biases have been
removed. It is the responsibility of the data provider to test and verify that the data meet those
requirements including an evaluation of statistical parameters such as the kurtosis, skew and mean error,
as well as removal of systematic errors or biases in order to achieve an acceptable mean error prior to
delivery.
The exact specification of an acceptable value for mean error may vary by project and should be
negotiated between the data provider and the client. As a general rule, these standards recommend that
the mean error be less than 25% of the specified RMSE value for the project. If a larger mean error is
negotiated as acceptable, this should be documented in the metadata. In any case, mean errors that are
greater than 25% of the target RMSE, whether identified pre-delivery or post-delivery, should be
investigated to determine the cause of the error and to determine what actions, if any, should be taken.
These findings should be clearly documented in the metadata.
Where RMSE testing is performed, discrepancies between the x, y or z coordinates of the ground point
check survey and the data set that exceed three times the specified RMSE error threshold shall be
interpreted as blunders and should be investigated and either corrected or explained before the map is
considered to meet this standard. Blunders may not be discarded without proper investigation and
explanation in the metadata.
7.3 Horizontal accuracy standards for geospatial data
Table 7.1 specifies the primary horizontal accuracy standard for digital data, including digital
orthoimagery, digital planimetric data and scaled planimetric maps. This standard defines horizontal
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accuracy classes in terms of their RMSEx and RMSEy values. While prior ASPRS standards used
numerical ranks for discrete accuracy classes tied directly to map scale (i.e., Class 1, Class 2, etc.), many
modern applications require more flexibility than these classes allowed. Furthermore, many applications
of horizontal accuracy cannot be tied directly to compilation scale, resolution of the source imagery or
final pixel resolution.
A Scope of Work, for example, can specify that digital orthoimagery, digital planimetric data, or scaled
maps must be compiled to meet ASPRS Accuracy Standards for 7.5 cm RMSE x and RMSEy Horizontal
Accuracy Class.
Annex B includes extensive examples that relate accuracy classes of this standard to their equivalent
classes according to legacy standards. RMSEx and RMSEy recommendations for digital orthoimagery of
various pixel sizes are presented in Table B.5. Relationships to prior map accuracy standards are
presented in Table B.6. Table B.6 lists RMSEx and RMSEy recommendations for digital planimetric data
produced from digital imagery at various GSDs and their equivalent map scales according to the legacy
standards of ASPRS 1990 and NMAS of 1947. The recommended associations of RMSE x and RMSEy,
pixel size, and GSD that are presented in the above mentioned tables of Annex B are based on current
status of mapping technologies and best practices. Such associations may change in the future as
mapping technologies continue to advance and evolve.
Table 7.1 Horizontal Accuracy Standards for Geospatial Data
Orthoimagery Mosaic
Absolute Accuracy
Horizontal Seamline Mismatch
Accuracy (cm)
Class
Horizontal Accuracy at
RMSEx and
RMSEr 95% Confidence Level
RMSEy (cm) (cm)
cm)
X-cm ≤X ≤1.414*X ≤2.448*X ≤ 2*X
7.4 Vertical accuracy standards for elevation data
Vertical accuracy is computed using RMSE statistics in non-vegetated terrain and 95 th percentile statistics
in vegetated terrain. The naming convention for each vertical accuracy class is directly associated with
the RMSE expected from the product. Table 7.2 provides the vertical accuracy classes naming
convention for any digital elevation data. Horizontal accuracy requirements for elevation data are
specified and reported independent of the vertical accuracy requirements. Section 7.5 outlines the
horizontal accuracy requirements for elevation data.
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Table 7.2 Vertical Accuracy Standards for Digital Elevation Data

Absolute Accuracy Relative Accuracy (where applicable)
Within- Swath-to- Swath-to-

Vertical NVA1 at
RMSEz VVA2 at Swath Swath Swath
Accuracy 95%
Non- 95th Hard Surface Non-Vegetated Non-Vegetated
Class Confidence
Vegetated Percentile Repeatability Terrain Terrain
Level
(cm) (cm) (Max Diff) (RMSDz) (Max Diff)
(cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
X-cm ≤X ≤1.96*X ≤3.00*X ≤0.60*X ≤0.80*X ≤1.60*X
Annex B includes examples on typical vertical accuracy values for digital elevation data and examples on
relating the vertical accuracy of this standard to the legacy map standards. Table B.7 of Annex B lists 10
common vertical accuracy classes and their corresponding accuracy values and other quality measures
according to this standard. Table B.8 of Annex B provides the equivalent vertical accuracy measures for
the same ten classes according to the legacy standards of ASPRS 1990 and NMAS of 1947. Table B.9
provides examples on vertical accuracy and the recommended Lidar points density for digital elevation
data according to the new ASPRS 2014 standard.
The Non-vegetated Vertical Accuracy at the 95% confidence level in non-vegetated terrain (NVA) is
approximated by multiplying the accuracy value of the Vertical Accuracy Class (or RMSE z) by 1.9600.
This calculation includes survey check points located in traditional open terrain (bare soil, sand, rocks,
and short grass) and urban terrain (asphalt and concrete surfaces). The NVA, based on an RMSE z
multiplier, should be used only in non-vegetated terrain where elevation errors typically follow a normal
error distribution. RMSEz-based statistics should not be used to estimate vertical accuracy in vegetated
terrain or where elevation errors often do not follow a normal distribution.
The Vegetated Vertical Accuracy at the 95% confidence level in vegetated terrain (VVA) is computed as
the 95th percentile of the absolute value of vertical errors in all vegetated land cover categories combined,
including tall weeds and crops, brush lands, and fully forested areas. For all vertical accuracy classes,
the VVA standard is 3.0 times the accuracy value of the Vertical Accuracy Class.
Both the RMSEz and 95th percentile methodologies specified above are currently widely accepted in
standard practice and have been proven to work well for typical elevation data sets derived from current
technologies. However, both methodologies have limitations, particularly when the number of check
points is small. As more robust statistical methods are developed and accepted, they will be added as
new Annexes to supplement and/or supersede these existing methodologies.
7.5 Horizontal accuracy requirements for elevation data

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Statistically, in non-vegetated terrain and elsewhere when elevation errors follow a normal distribution, 68.27% of errors are within
one standard deviation (s) of the mean error, 95.45% of errors are within (2 * s) of the mean error, and 99.73% of errors are within
(3 * s) of the mean error. The equation (1.9600 * s) is used to approximate the maximum error either side of the mean that applies
to 95% of the values. Standard deviations do not account for systematic errors in the data set that remain in the mean error.
Because the mean error rarely equals zero, this must be accounted for. Based on empirical results, if the mean error is small, the
sample size sufficiently large and the data is normally distributed, 1.9600 * RMSE z is often used as a simplified approximation to
compute the NVA at a 95% confidence level. This approximation tends to overestimate the error range as the mean error
increases. A precise estimate requires a more robust statistical computation based on the standard deviation and mean error.
ASPRS encourages standard deviation, mean error, skew, kurtosis and RMSE to all be computed in error analyses in order to more
fully evaluate the magnitude and distribution of the estimated error.
2
VVA standards do not apply to areas previously defined as low confidence areas and delineated with a low confidence polygon
(see Appendix C). If VVA accuracy is required for the full data set, supplemental field survey data may be required within low
confidence areas where VVA accuracies cannot be achieved by the remote sensing method being used for the primary data set.
9
This standard specifies horizontal accuracy thresholds for two types of digital elevation data with different
horizontal accuracy requirements:
 Photogrammetric elevation data: For elevation data derived using stereo photogrammetry, the
horizontal accuracy equates to the horizontal accuracy class that would apply to planimetric data
or digital orthoimagery produced from the same source imagery, using the same aerial
triangulation/INS solution.
 Lidar elevation data: Horizontal error in lidar derived elevation data is largely a function of
positional error as derived from the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), attitude (angular
orientation) error (as derived from the INS) and flying altitude; and can be estimated based on
these parameters. The following equation3 provides an estimate for the horizontal accuracy for
the lidar-derived data set assuming that the positional accuracy of the GNSS, the attitude
accuracy of the Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) and the flying altitude are known:
2
tan( IMU error)
√
Lidar Horizontal Error ( RMSE r )= ( GNSS positional error ) +
2
(
0.55894170
x flying altitude )
The above equation considers flying altitude (in meters), GNSS errors (radial, in cm), IMU errors (in
decimal degrees), and other factors such as ranging and timing errors (which is estimated to be equal to
25% of the orientation errors). In the above equation, the values for the “GNSS positional error” and the
“IMU error” can be derived from published manufacturer specifications for both the GNSS receiver and
the IMU.
If the desired horizontal accuracy figure for lidar data is agreed upon, then the following equation can be
used to estimate the flying altitude:
0.55894170
Flying Altitude ≈
tan ⁡( IMU error)
√( Lidar Horizontal Error ( RMSEr ))2−¿¿ ¿
Table B.10 can be used as a guide to estimate the horizontal errors to be expected from lidar data at
various flying altitudes, based on estimated GNSS and IMU errors.
Guidelines for testing the horizontal accuracy of elevation data sets derived from lidar are outlined in
Annex C.
Horizontal accuracies at the 95% confidence level, using NSSDA reporting methods for either “produced
to meet” or “tested to meet” specifications should be reported for all elevation data sets.
For technologies or project requirements other than as specified above for photogrammetry and airborne
lidar, appropriate horizontal accuracies should be negotiated between the data provider and the client.
Specific error thresholds, accuracy thresholds or methods for testing will depend on the technology used
and project design. The data provider has the responsibility to establish appropriate methodologies,
applicable to the technologies used, to verify that horizontal accuracies meet the stated project
requirements.
3
The method presented here is one approach; there other methods for estimating the horizontal accuracy of lidar
data sets, which are not presented herein. Abdullah, Q., 2014, unpublished data.
10
7.6 Low confidence areas for elevation data
If the VVA standard cannot be met, low confidence area polygons shall be developed and explained in
the metadata. For elevation data derived from imagery, the low confidence areas would include
vegetated areas where the ground is not visible in stereo. For elevation data derived from lidar, the low
confidence areas would include dense cornfields, mangrove or similar impenetrable vegetation. The low
confidence area polygons are the digital equivalent to using dashed contours in past standards and
practice. Annex C, Accuracy Testing and Reporting Guidelines, outlines specific guidelines for
implementing low confidence area polygons.
7.7 Accuracy requirements for aerial triangulation and INS-based sensor orientation of digital
imagery
The quality and accuracy of the aerial triangulation (if performed) and/or the Inertial Navigation System –
based (INS-based) sensor orientations (if used for direct orientation of the camera) play a key role in
determining the final accuracy of imagery derived mapping products.
For photogrammetric data sets, the aerial triangulation and/or INS-based direct orientation accuracies
must be of higher accuracy than is needed for the final, derived products.
For INS-based direct orientation, image orientation angles quality shall be evaluated by comparing check
point coordinates read from the imagery (using stereo photogrammetric measurements or other
appropriate method) to the coordinates of the check point as determined from higher accuracy source
data .
Aerial triangulation accuracies shall be evaluated using one of the following methods:
1) By comparing the values of the coordinates of the check points as computed in the aerial triangulation
solution to the coordinates of the check points as determined from higher accuracy source data;
2) By comparing the values of the coordinates read from the imagery (using stereo photogrammetric
measurements or other appropriate method) to the coordinates of the check point as determined from
higher accuracy source data.
For projects providing deliverables that are only required to meet accuracies in x and y (orthoimagery or
two-dimensional vector data), aerial triangulation errors in z have a smaller impact on the horizontal error
budget than errors in x and y. In such cases, the aerial triangulation requirements for RMSE z can be
relaxed. For this reason the standard recognizes two different criteria for aerial triangulation accuracy:
 Accuracy of aerial triangulation designed for digital planimetric data (orthoimagery and/or digital
planimetric map) only:
RMSEx(AT) or RMSEy(AT) = ½ * RMSEx(Map) or RMSEy(Map)
RMSEz(AT) = RMSEx(Map) or RMSEy(Map) of orthoimagery
Note: The exact contribution of aerial triangulation errors in z to the overall horizontal error budget
for the products depends on ground point location in the image and other factors. The
relationship stated here for an RMSEz (AT) of twice the allowable RMSE in x or y is a
conservative estimate that accommodates the typical range of common camera geometries and
provides allowance for many other factors that impact the horizontal error budget.
11
 Accuracy of aerial triangulation designed for elevation data, or planimetric data (orthoimagery
and/or digital planimetric map) and elevation data production:
RMSEx(AT), RMSEy(AT)or RMSEz(AT) = ½ * RMSEx(Map), RMSEy(Map)or RMSEz(DEM)
Annex B, Data Accuracy and Quality Examples, provides practical examples of these requirements.
7.8 Accuracy requirements for ground control used for aerial triangulation
Ground control points used for aerial triangulation should have higher accuracy than the expected
accuracy of derived products according to the following two categories:
 Accuracy of ground control designed for planimetric data (orthoimagery and/or digital planimetric
map)production only:
RMSEx or RMSEy = ¼ * RMSEx(Map) or RMSEy(Map),
RMSEz = ½ * RMSEx(Map) or RMSEy(Map)
 Accuracy of ground control designed for elevation data, or planimetric data and elevation data
production:
RMSEx, RMSEy or RMSEz= ¼ * RMSEx(Map), RMSEy(Map) or RMSEz(DEM)
Annex B, Data Accuracy and Quality Examples, provides practical examples of these requirements.
7.9 Check point accuracy and placement requirements
The independent source of higher accuracy for check points shall be at least three times more accurate
than the required accuracy of the geospatial data set being tested.
Horizontal check points shall be established at well-defined points. A well-defined point represents a
feature for which the horizontal position can be measured to a high degree of accuracy and position with
respect to the geodetic datum. For the purpose of accuracy testing, well-defined points must be easily
visible or identifiable on the ground, on the independent source of higher accuracy, and on the product
itself. For testing orthoimagery, well-defined points shall not be selected on features elevated with
respect to the elevation model used to rectify the imagery.
Unlike horizontal check points, vertical check points are not necessarily required to be clearly defined or
readily identifiable point features.
Vertical check points shall be established at locations that minimize interpolation errors when comparing
elevations interpolated from the data set to the elevations of the check points. Vertical check points shall
be surveyed on flat or uniformly-sloped open terrain and with slopes of 10% or less and should avoid
vertical artifacts or abrupt changes in elevation.
12
7.10 Check point density and distribution
When testing is to be performed, the distribution of the check points will be project specific and must be
determined by mutual agreement between the data provider and the end user. In no case shall an NVA,
digital orthoimagery accuracy or planimetric data accuracy be based on less than 20 check points.
A methodology to provide quantitative characterization and specification of the spatial distribution of
check points across the project extents, accounting for land cover type and project shape, is both realistic
and necessary. But until such a methodology is developed and accepted, check point density and
distribution will be based primarily on empirical results and simplified area based methods.
Annex C, Accuracy Testing and Reporting Guidelines, provides details on the recommended check point
density and distribution. The requirements in Annex C may be superseded and updated as newer
methods for determining the appropriate distribution of check points are established and approved
7.11 Relative accuracy of lidar and IFSAR data
Relative accuracy assessment characterizes the internal geometric quality of an elevation data set
without regard to surveyed ground control. The assessment includes two aspects of data quality: within-
swath accuracy (smooth surface repeatability), and swath-to-swath accuracy. Within-swath accuracy is
usually only associated with lidar collections. The requirements for relative accuracy are more stringent
than those for absolute accuracy. Acceptable limits for relative accuracy are stated in Table 7.2.
For lidar collections, within-swath relative accuracy is a measure of the repeatability of the system when
detecting flat, hard surfaces. Within-swath relative accuracy also indicates the internal stability of the
instrument. Within-swath accuracy is evaluated against single swath data by differencing two raster
elevation surfaces generated from the minimum and maximum point elevations in each cell (pixel), taken
over small test areas of relatively flat, hard surfaces. The raster cell size should be twice the NPS of the
lidar data. Suitable test areas will have produced only single return lidar points and will not include abrupt
changes in reflectivity (e.g., large paint stripes, shifts between black asphalt and white concrete, etc.), as
these may induce elevation shifts that could skew the assessment. The use of a difference test
normalizes for the actual elevation changes in the surfaces. Acceptable thresholds for each accuracy
class are based on the maximum difference between minimum and maximum values within each pixel.
The use of a difference test normalizes for the actual elevation changes in the surfaces.
For lidar and IFSAR collections, relative accuracy between swaths (swath-to-swath) in overlap areas is a
measure of the quality of the system calibration/bore-sighting and airborne GNSS trajectories.
Swath-to-swath relative accuracy is assessed by comparing the elevations of overlapping swaths. As with
within-swath accuracy assessment, the comparisons are performed in areas producing only single return
lidar points. Elevations are extracted at check point locations from each of the overlapping swaths and
computing the root-mean-square-difference (RMSD z) of the residuals. Because neither swath represents
an independent source of higher accuracy, as used in RMSE z calculations, the comparison is made using
the RMS differences rather than RMS errors. Alternatively, the so called “delta-z” raster file representing
the differences in elevations can be generated from the subtraction of the two raster files created for each
swath over the entire surface and it can be used to calculate the RMSD z. This approach has the
advantages of a more comprehensive assessment, and provides the user with a visual representation of
the error distribution.
Annex C, Accuracy Testing and Reporting Guidelines, outlines specific criteria for selecting check point
locations for swath-to-swath accuracies. The requirements in the annex may be superseded and updated
as newer methods for determining the swath-to-swath accuracies are established and approved.
13
7.12 Reporting
Horizontal and vertical accuracies shall be reported in terms of compliance with the RMSE thresholds and
other quality and accuracy criteria outlined in this standard. In addition to the reporting stated below,
ASPRS endorses and encourages additional reporting statements stating the estimated accuracy at a
95% confidence level in accordance with the FGDC NSSDA standard referenced in Section 3. Formulas
for relating the RMSE thresholds in this standard to the NSSDA standard are provided in Annexes B and
D.
If testing is performed, accuracy statements should specify that the data are “tested to meet” the stated
accuracy.
If testing is not performed, accuracy statements should specify that the data are “produced to meet” the
stated accuracy. This “produced to meet” statement is equivalent to the “compiled to meet” statement
used by prior standards when referring to cartographic maps. The “produced to meet” method is
appropriate for mature or established technologies where established procedures for project design,
quality control and the evaluation of relative and absolute accuracies compared to ground control have
been shown to produce repeatable and reliable results. Detailed specifications for testing and reporting to
meet these requirements are outlined in Annex C.
The horizontal accuracy of digital orthoimagery, planimetric data and elevation data sets shall be
documented in the metadata in one of the following manners:
 “This data set was tested to meet ASPRS Positional Accuracy Standards for Digital Geospatial Data
(2014) for a ___ (cm) RMSEx / RMSEy Horizontal Accuracy Class. Actual positional accuracy was
found to be RMSEx = ___ (cm) and RMSEy = ___ cm which equates to Positional Horizontal
Accuracy = +/- ___ at 95% confidence level.” 4
 “This data set was produced to meet ASPRS Positional Accuracy Standards for Digital Geospatial
Data (2014) for a ___ (cm) RMSEx / RMSEy Horizontal Accuracy Class which equates to Positional
Horizontal Accuracy = +/- ___ cm at a 95% confidence level.” 5
The vertical accuracy of elevation data sets shall be documented in the metadata in one of the following
manners:
 “This data set was tested to meet ASPRS Positional Accuracy Standards for Digital Geospatial
Data (2014) for a___ (cm) RMSEz Vertical Accuracy Class. Actual NVA accuracy was found to
be RMSEz = ___ cm, equating to +/- ___ at 95% confidence level. Actual VVA accuracy was
found to be +/- ___ cm at the 95% percentile.”4
 “This data set was produced to meet ASPRS Positional Accuracy Standards for Digital
Geospatial Data (2014) for a ___ cm RMSEz Vertical Accuracy Class equating to NVA =+/-
___cm at 95% confidence level and VVA =+/-___cm at the 95% percentile 5
4
“Tested to meet” is to be used only if the data accuracies were verified by testing against independent check points of higher
accuracy.
5
“Produced to meet” should be used by the data provider to assert that the data meets the specified accuracies, based on
established processes that produce known results, but that independent testing against check points of higher accuracy was not
performed.
14
Annex A — Background and Justifications

(informative)
A.1 Legacy Standards and Guidelines
Accuracy standards for geospatial data have broad applications nationally and/or internationally, whereas
specifications provide technical requirements/acceptance criteria that a geospatial product must conform
to in order to be considered acceptable for a specific intended use. Guidelines provide recommendations
for acquiring, processing and/or analyzing geospatial data, normally intended to promote consistency and
industry best practices.
The following is a summary of standards, specifications and guidelines relevant to ASPRS but which do
not fully satisfy current requirements for accuracy standards for digital geospatial data:
 The National Map Accuracy Standard (NMAS) of 1947 established horizontal accuracy thresholds
for the Circular Map Accuracy Standard (CMAS) as a function of map scale, and vertical accuracy
thresholds for the Vertical Map Accuracy Standard (VMAS) as a function of contour interval –
both reported at the 90% confidence level. Because NMAS accuracy thresholds are a function of
the map scale and/or contour interval of a printed map, they are inappropriate for digital
geospatial data where scale and contour interval are changed with a push of a button while not
changing the underlying horizontal and/or vertical accuracy.
 The ASPRS 1990 Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale Maps established horizontal and vertical
accuracy thresholds in terms of RMSE values in X, Y and Z at ground scale. However, because
the RMSE thresholds for Class 1, Class 2 and Class 3 products pertain to printed maps with
published map scales and contour intervals, these ASPRS standards from 1990 are similarly
inappropriate for digital geospatial data.
 The National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy (NSSDA), published by the Federal Geographic
Data Committee (FGDC) in 1998, was developed to report accuracy of digital geospatial data at
the 95% confidence level as a function of RMSE values in X, Y and Z at ground scale,
unconstrained by map scale or contour interval. The NSSDA states, “The reporting standard in
the horizontal component is the radius of a circle of uncertainty, such that the true or theoretical
location of the point falls within that circle 95% of the time. The reporting standard in the vertical
component is a linear uncertainty value, such that the true or theoretical location of the point falls
within +/- of that linear uncertainty value 95% of the time. The reporting accuracy standard
should be defined in metric (International System of Units, SI) units. However, accuracy will be
reported in English units (inches and feet) where point coordinates or elevations are reported in
English units …The NSSDA uses root-mean-square error (RMSE) to estimate positional accuracy
… Accuracy reported at the 95% confidence level means that 95% of the positions in the data set
will have an error with respect to true ground position that is equal to or smaller than the reported
accuracy value.” The NSSDA does not define threshold accuracy values, stating, “Agencies are
encouraged to establish thresholds for their product specifications and applications and for
contracting purposes.” In its Appendix 3-A, the NSSDA provides equations for converting RMSE
values in X, Y and Z into horizontal and vertical accuracies at the 95% confidence levels. The
NSSDA assumes normal error distributions with systematic errors eliminated as best as possible.
 The National Digital Elevation Program (NDEP) published the NDEP Guidelines for Digital
Elevation Data in 2004, recognizing that lidar errors of Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) do not
necessarily follow a normal distribution in vegetated terrain. The NDEP developed Fundamental
Vertical Accuracy (FVA), Supplemental Vertical Accuracy (SVA) and Consolidated Vertical
Accuracy (CVA). The FVA is computed in non-vegetated, open terrain only, based on the
NSSDA’s RMSEz * 1.9600 because elevation errors in open terrain do tend to follow a normal
distribution, especially with a large number of check points. SVA is computed in individual land
15
cover categories, and CVA is computed in all land cover categories combined ─ both based on
95th percentile errors (instead of RMSE multipliers) because errors in DTMs in other land cover
categories, especially vegetated/forested areas, do not necessarily follow a normal distribution.
The NDEP Guidelines, while establishing alternative procedures for testing and reporting the
vertical accuracy of elevation data sets when errors are not normally distributed, also do not
provide accuracy thresholds or quality levels.
 The ASPRS Guidelines: Vertical Accuracy Reporting for Lidar Data, published in 2004,
essentially endorsed the NDEP Guidelines, to include FVA, SVA and CVA reporting. Similarly,
the ASPRS 2004 Guidelines, while endorsing the NDEP Guidelines when elevation errors are not
normally distributed, also do not provide accuracy thresholds or quality levels.
 Between 1998 and 2010, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) published
Guidelines and Specifications for Flood Hazard Mapping Partners that included RMSEz
thresholds and requirements for testing and reporting the vertical accuracy separately for all
major land cover categories within floodplains being mapped for the National Flood Insurance
Program (NFIP). With its Procedure Memorandum No. 61 ─ Standards for Lidar and Other High
Quality Digital Topography, dated September 27, 2010, FEMA endorsed the USGS Draft Lidar
Base Specifications V13, relevant to floodplain mapping in areas of highest flood risk only, with
poorer accuracy and point density in areas of lesser flood risks. USGS’ draft V13 specification
subsequently became the final USGS Lidar Base Specification V1.0 specification summarized
below. FEMA’s Guidelines and Procedures only address requirements for flood risk mapping and
do not represent accuracy standards that are universally applicable.
 In 2012, USGS published its Lidar Base Specification Version 1.0, which is based on RMSE z of
12.5 cm in open terrain and elevation post spacing no greater than 1 to 2 meters. FVA, SVA and
CVA values are also specified. This document is not a standard but a specification for lidar data
used to populate the National Elevation Dataset (NED) at 1/9 th arc-second post spacing (~3
meters) for gridded Digital Elevation Models (DEMs).
 In 2012, USGS also published the final report of the National Enhanced Elevation Assessment
(NEEA), which considered five Quality Levels of enhanced elevation data to satisfy nationwide
requirements; each Quality Level having different RMSE z and point density thresholds. With
support from the National Geospatial Advisory Committee (NGAC), USGS subsequently
developed its new 3D Elevation Program (3DEP) based on lidar Quality Level 2 data with 1’
equivalent contour accuracy (RMSEz<10 cm) and point density of 2 points per square meter for
all states except Alaska in which IFSAR Quality Level 5 data are specified with RMSE z between 1
and 2 meters and with 5 meter post spacing. The 3DEP lidar data are expected to be high
resolution data capable of supporting DEMs at 1 meter resolution. The 3DEP Quality Level 2 and
Quality Level 5 products are expected to become industry standards for digital elevation data,
respectively replacing the older elevation data in the USGS’ National Elevation Dataset.
A.2 New Standard for a New Era
The current standard was developed in response to the pressing need of the GIS and mapping
community for a new standard that embraces the digital nature of current geospatial technologies. The
following are some of the justifications for the development of the new standard:
 Legacy map accuracy standards, such as the ASPRS 1990 standard and the NMAS of 1947, are
outdated. Many of the data acquisition and mapping technologies that these standards were
based on are no longer used. More recent advances in mapping technologies can now produce
better quality and higher accuracy geospatial products and maps. New standards are needed to
reflect these advances.
16
 Legacy map accuracy standards were designed to deal with plotted or drawn maps as the only
medium to represent geospatial data. The concept of hardcopy map scale dominated the
mapping industry for decades. Digital mapping products need different measures (besides scale)
that are suitable for the digital medium that users now utilize.
 Within the past two decades (during the transition period between the hardcopy and softcopy
mapping environments), most standard measures for relating GSD and map scale to the final
mapping accuracy were inherited from photogrammetric practices using scanned film. New
mapping processes and methodologies have become much more sophisticated with advances in
technology and advances in our knowledge of mapping processes and mathematical modeling.
Mapping accuracy can no longer be associated with the camera geometry and flying altitude
alone. Many other factors now influence the accuracy of geospatial mapping products. Such
factors include the quality of camera calibration parameters, quality and size of a Charged
Coupled Device (CCD) used in the digital camera CCD array, amount of imagery overlap, quality
of parallax determination or photo measurements, quality of the GPS signal, quality and density
of ground control, quality of the aerial triangulation solution, capability of the processing software
to handle GPS drift and shift and camera self-calibration, and the digital terrain model used for
the production of orthoimagery. These factors can vary widely from project to project, depending
on the sensor used and specific methodology. For these reasons, existing accuracy measures
based on map scale, film scale, GSD, c-factor and scanning resolution no longer apply to current
geospatial mapping practices.
 Elevation products from the new technologies and active sensors such as lidar and IFSAR are
not considered by the legacy mapping standards. New accuracy standards are needed to
address elevation products derived from these technologies.
A.2.1 Mapping Practices During the Film-based Era
Since the early history of photogrammetric mapping, film was the only medium to record an aerial
photographic session. During that period, film scale, film-to-map enlargement ratio, and c-factor were
used to define final map scale and map accuracy. A film-to-map enlargement ratio value of 6 and a c-
factor value of 1800 to 2000 were widely accepted and used during this early stage of photogrammetric
mapping. C-factor is used to determine the flying height based on the desired contour interval from the
following formula:
flying altitude
c-factor =
contour interval
Values in Table A.1 were historically utilized by the mapping community for photogrammetric mapping
from film.
Table A.1 Common Photography Scales using Camera with 9" film format and 6" lens
1” = 300’ 1” = 600’ 1” = 1200’ 1” = 2400’ 1” = 3333’

Film Scale
1:3,600 1:7,200 1:14,400 1:28,800 1:40,000
Flying
1,800’ / 550 m 3,600’ / 1,100 m 7,200’ / 2,200 m 14,400’ / 4,400 m 20,000’ / 6,100 m
Altitude
1” = 50’ 1” = 100’ 1” = 200’ 1” = 400’ 1” = 1000’
Map Scale
1:600 1:1,200 1:2,400 1:4,800 1:12,000
17
A.2.2 Mapping Practices During the Softcopy Photogrammetry Era

When the softcopy photogrammetric mapping approach was first introduced to the mapping industry in
the early 1990’s, large format film scanners were used to convert the aerial film to digital imagery. The
mapping community needed guidelines for relating the scanning resolution of the film to the supported
map scale and contour interval used by legacy standards to specify map accuracies. Table A.2 relates
the resulting GSD of the scanned film and the supported map scale and contour interval derived from film-
based cameras at different flying altitudes. Table A.2 assumes a scan resolution of 21 microns as that
was in common use for many years. The values in Table A.2 are derived based on the commonly used
film-to-map enlargement ratio of 6 and a c-factor of 1800. Such values were endorsed and widely used by
both map users and data providers during and after the transition period from film to the softcopy
environment.
Table A.2 Relationship between film scale and derived map scale
Scanning Resolution
(um)
Common Photography Scales (with 9" film format camera and 6" lens)

1” = 300’ 1” = 600’ 1” = 1200’ 1” = 2400’

Photo Scale
1:3,600 1:7,200 1:14,400 1:28,800

Altitude
Flying
1,800‘ / 550 m 3,600’ / 1,100 m 7,200’ / 2,200 m 14,400’ / 4,400 m

Distance (GSD) of
Ground Sampling
Approximate
Scan
0.25' / 7.5 cm 0.50' / 0.15 m 1.0' / 0.3 m 2.0' / 0.6 m 21

Supported Map/Orthoimagery Scales and Contour Intervals
GSD 3" / 7.5 cm 6" / 15 cm 1.0’ / 30 cm 2.0’ / 60 cm
C.I. 1.0' / 30 cm 2.0' / 60 cm 4' / 1.2 m 8' / 2.4 m
1” = 50’ 1” = 100’ 1” = 200’ 1” = 400’

Map Scale
1:600 1:1,200 1:2,400 1:4,800
18
A.2.3 Mapping Practices during the Digital Sensors Photogrammetry Era

Since first introduced to the mapping community in 2000, digital large format metric mapping cameras
have become the main aerial imagery acquisition system utilized for geospatial mapping. The latest
generation of digital metric mapping cameras have enhanced optics quality, extended radiometric
resolution through a higher dynamic range, finer CCD resolution, rigid body construction, and precise
electronics. These new camera technologies, coupled with advances in the airborne GPS and
mathematical modeling performed by current photogrammetric processing software, make it possible to
extend the limits on the flying altitude and still achieve higher quality mapping products, of equal or
greater accuracy, than what could be achieved with older technologies.
Many of the rules that have influenced photogrammetric practices for the last six or seven decades (such
as those outlined in Sections A.2.1 and A.2.2 above) are based on the capabilities of outdated
technologies and techniques. For instance, standard guidelines like using a film-to-map enlargement
ratio value of 6 and a c-factor between 1,800 to 2,000 are based on the limitations of optical-mechanical
photogrammetric plotters and aerial film resolution. These legacy rules no longer apply to mapping
processes utilizing digital mapping cameras and current technologies.
Unfortunately, due to a lack of clear guidelines, outdated practices and guidelines from previous eras are
commonly mis-applied to newer technologies. The majority of users and data providers still utilize the
figures given in Table A.2 for associating the imagery GSD to a supported map scale and associated
accuracy, even though these associations are based on scanned film and do not apply to current digital
sensors. New relationships between imagery GSD and product accuracy are needed to account for the
full range factors that influence the accuracy of mapping products derived from digital sensors.
19
Annex B — Data Accuracy and Quality Examples

(normative)
B.1 Aerial Triangulation and Ground Control Accuracy Examples

Sections 7.7 and 7.8 describe the accuracy requirements for aerial triangulation, IMU, and ground control
points relative to product accuracies. These requirements differ depending on whether the products
include elevation data. Tables B.1 and B.2 provide an example of how these requirements are applied in
practice for a typical product with RMSEx and RMSEy of 50 cm.

Orthoimagery and/or Planimetric Data Only
Product A/T Accuracy Ground Control Accuracy

Accuracy
(RMSEx, RMSEy) RMSEx and RMSEy RMSEz RMSEx and RMSEy RMSEz
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
50 25 50 12.5 25

Orthoimagery and/or Planimetric Data and Elevation Data
Product A/T Accuracy Ground Control Accuracy

Accuracy
(RMSEx, RMSEy, RMSEx and RMSEy RMSEz RMSEx and RMSEy RMSEz
or RMSEz) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(cm)
50 25 25 12.5 12.5
B.2 Digital Orthoimagery Horizontal Accuracy Classes

This standard does not associate product accuracy with the GSD of the source imagery, pixel size of the
orthoimagery, or map scale for scaled maps.
The relationship between the recommended RMSEx and RMSEy accuracy class and the orthoimagery
pixel size varies depending on the imaging sensor characteristics and the specific mapping processes
used. The appropriate horizontal accuracy class must be negotiated and agreed upon between the end
user and the data provider, based on specific project needs and design criteria. This section provides
some general guidance to assist in making that decision.
Example tables are provided to show the following: The general application of the standard as outlined in
Section 7.3 (Table B.3); A cross reference to typical past associations between pixel size, map scale and
the 1990 ASPRS legacy standard (Table B.4); and, Typical values associated with different levels of
accuracy using current technologies (Table B.5).
Table B.3 presents examples of 24 horizontal accuracy classes and associated quality criteria as related
to orthoimagery according to the formula and general requirements stated in Section 7.3.
20
Table B.3 Common Horizontal Accuracy Classes according to the new standard 6
Horizontal Accuracy Orthoimage Mosaic
RMSEr Horizontal Accuracy at the
Class RMSEx and Seamline Maximum
(cm) 95% Confidence Level (cm)
RMSEy (cm) Mismatch (cm)
0.63 0.9 1.3 1.5
1.25 1.8 2.5 3.1
2.50 3.5 5.0 6.1
5.00 7.1 10.0 12.2
7.50 10.6 15.0 18.4
10.00 14.1 20.0 24.5
12.50 17.7 25.0 30.6
15.00 21.2 30.0 36.7
17.50 24.7 35.0 42.8
20.00 28.3 40.0 49.0
22.50 31.8 45.0 55.1
25.00 35.4 50.0 61.2
27.50 38.9 55.0 67.3
30.00 42.4 60.0 73.4
45.00 63.6 90.0 110.1
60.00 84.9 120.0 146.9
75.00 106.1 150.0 183.6
100.00 141.4 200.0 244.8
150.00 212.1 300.0 367.2
200.00 282.8 400.0 489.5
250.00 353.6 500.0 611.9
300.00 424.3 600.0 734.3
500.00 707.1 1000.0 1223.9
1000.00 1414.2 2000.0 2447.7
As outlined in Annex A, in the transition between hardcopy and softcopy mapping environments, user’s
and the mapping community established generally accepted associations between orthoimagery pixel
size, final map scale and the ASPRS 1990 map accuracy classes. These associations are based
primarily on relationships for scanned film, older technologies and legacy standards. While they may not
directly apply to digital geospatial data produced with newer technologies, these practices have been in
widespread use for many years and many existing data sets are based on these associations. As such, it
is useful to have a cross reference relating these legacy specifications to their corresponding RMSEx and
RMSEy accuracy classes in the new standard.
Table B.4 lists the most common associations that have been established (based on user’s interpretation
and past technologies) to relate orthoimagery pixel size to map scale and the ASPRS 1990 legacy
standard map accuracy classes.
6
For Tables B.3 through B.8, values were rounded to the nearest mm after full calculations were performed with all decimal places
21
Table B.4 Examples on Horizontal Accuracy for Digital Orthoimagery interpreted from ASPRS
1990 Legacy Standard.
Associated Horizontal
Accuracy According to
Legacy ASPRS 1990
Common ASPRS 1990 Standard
Associated
Orthoimagery Accuracy
Map Scale
Pixel Sizes Class RMSEx and
RMSEx and RMSEy in
RMSEy (cm) terms of
pixels
1 1.3 2-pixels
0.625 cm 1:50 2 2.5 4-pixels
3 3.8 6-pixels
1 2.5 2-pixels
1.25 cm 1:100 2 5.0 4-pixels
3 7.5 6-pixels
1 5.0 2-pixels
2.5 cm 1:200 2 10.0 4-pixels
3 15.0 6-pixels
1 10.0 2-pixels
5 cm 1:400 2 20.0 4-pixels
3 30.0 6-pixels
1 15.0 2-pixels
7.5 cm 1:600 2 30.0 4-pixels
3 45.0 6-pixels
1 30.0 2-pixels
15 cm 1:1,200 2 60.0 4-pixels
3 90.0 6-pixels
1 60.0 2-pixels
30 cm 1:2,400 2 120.0 4-pixels
3 180.0 6-pixels
1 120.0 2-pixels
60 cm 1:4,800 2 240.0 4-pixels
3 360.0 6-pixels
1 200.0 2-pixels
1 meter 1:12,000 2 400.0 4-pixels
3 600.0 6-pixels
1 400.0 2-pixels
2 meter 1:24,000 2 800.0 4-pixels
3 1,200.0 6-pixels
1 1,000.0 2-pixels
5 meter 1:60,000 2 2,000.0 4-pixels
3 3,000.0 6-pixels
Given current sensor and processing technologies for large and medium format metric cameras, an
orthoimagery accuracy of 1-pixel RMSEx and RMSEy is considered achievable, assuming proper project
22
design and best practices implementation. This level of accuracy is more stringent by a factor of two than
orthoimagery accuracies typically associated with the ASPRS 1990 Class 1 accuracies presented in
Table B.4.
Achieving the highest level of accuracy requires specialized consideration related to sensor type, ground
control density, ground control accuracies and overall project design. In many cases, this results in
higher cost. As such, the highest achievable accuracies may not be appropriate for all projects. Many
geospatial mapping projects require high resolution and high quality imagery, but do not require the
highest level of positional accuracy. This is particularly true for update or similar projects where the intent
is to upgrade the image resolution, but still leverage existing elevation model data and ground control
data that may originally have been developed to a lower accuracy standard.
Table B.5 provides a general guideline to determine the appropriate orthoimagery accuracy class for
three different levels of geospatial accuracy. Values listed as “Highest accuracy work” specify an RMSEx
and RMSEy accuracy class of 1-pixel (or better) and are considered to reflect the highest tier accuracy for
the specified resolution given current technologies. This accuracy class is appropriate when geospatial
accuracies are of higher importance and when the higher accuracies are supported by sufficient sensor,
ground control and digital terrain model accuracies. Values listed as “Standard Mapping and GIS work”
specify a 2-pixel RMSEx and RMSEy accuracy class. This accuracy is appropriate for a standard level of
high quality and high accuracy geospatial mapping applications. It is equivalent to ASPRS 1990 Class 1
accuracies, as interpreted by users as industry standard and presented in Table B.4. This level accuracy
is typical of a large majority of existing projects designed to legacy standards. RMSE x and RMSEy
accuracies of 3 or more pixels would be considered appropriate for “Visualization and less accurate work”
when higher accuracies are not needed.
Users should be aware that the use of the symbol ≥ in Table B.5 is intended to infer that users can specify
larger threshold values for RMSEx and RMSEy. The symbol ≤ in Table B.5 indicates that users can
specify lower thresholds at such time as they may be supported by current or future technologies.
The orthoimagery pixel sizes and associated RMSEx and RMSEy accuracy classes presented in Table
B.5 are largely based on experience with current sensor technologies and primarily apply to large and
medium format metric cameras. The table is only provided as a guideline for users during the transition
period to the new standard. These associations may change in the future as mapping technologies
continue to advance and evolve.
23
Table B.5 Digital Orthoimagery Accuracy Examples for Current Large and Medium Format Metric
Cameras
Recommended
Orthoimage
Common Horizontal
Accuracy Class RMSEx and
Orthoimagery Recommended use7
Pixel Sizes RMSEx and RMSEy in terms
of pixels
RMSEy (cm)
≤1.3 ≤1-pixel Highest accuracy work
1.25 cm 2.5 2-pixels Standard Mapping and GIS work
≥3.8 ≥3-pixels Visualization and less accurate work
5 cm 10.0 2-pixels Standard Mapping and GIS work
1 meter 200.0 2-pixels Standard Mapping and GIS work
2 meter 400.0 2-pixels Standard Mapping and GIS work
5 meter 1,000.0 2-pixels Standard Mapping and GIS work
≥1,500.0 ≥3-pixels Visualization and less accurate work
It should be noted that in tables B.4 and B.5, it is the pixel size of the final digital orthoimagery that is used
to associate the horizontal accuracy class, not the Ground Sample Distance (GSD) of the raw image.
When producing digital orthoimagery, the GSD as acquired by the sensor (and as computed at mean
average terrain) should not be more than 95% of the final orthoimage pixel size. In extremely steep
terrain, additional consideration may need to be given to the variation of the GSD across low lying areas
7
“Highest accuracy work” in Table B.5 refers only to the highest level of achievable accuracies relative to
that specific resolution; it does not indicate “highest accuracy work” in any general sense. The final
choice of both image resolution and final product accuracy class depends on specific project
requirements and is the sole responsibility of the end user; this should be negotiated with the data
provider and agreed upon in advance.
24
in order to ensure that the variation in GSD across the entire image does not significantly exceed the
target pixel size.
B.3 Digital Planimetric Data Horizontal Accuracy Classes
Table B.6 presents 24 common horizontal accuracy classes for digital planimetric data, approximate GSD
of source imagery for high accuracy planimetric data, and equivalent map scales per legacy NMAS and
ASPRS 1990 accuracy standards. In Table B.6, the values for the approximate GSD of source imagery
only apply to imagery derived from common large and medium format metric cameras. The range of the
approximate GSD of source imagery is only provided as a general recommendation, based on the current
state of sensor technologies and mapping practices. Different ranges may be considered in the future
depending on future advances of such technologies and mapping practices
Table B.6 Horizontal Accuracy/Quality Examples for High Accuracy Digital Planimetric Data
Equivalent to
ASPRS 2014
map scale in
Equivalent to
map scale in
NMAS
Horizontal Horizontal
Accuracy Accuracy at Approximate ASPRS ASPRS
Class RMSEr
the 95% GSD of Source 1990 1990
RMSEx and (cm) Confidence Imagery (cm) Class 1 Class 2
RMSEy (cm) Level (cm)
0.63 0.9 1.5 0.31 to 0.63 1:25 1:12.5 1:16
1.25 1.8 3.1 0.63 to 1.25 1:50 1:25 1:32
2.5 3.5 6.1 1.25 to 2.5 1:100 1:50 1:63
5.0 7.1 12.2 2.5 to 5.0 1:200 1:100 1:127
7.5 10.6 18.4 3.8 to 7.5 1:300 1:150 1:190
10.0 14.1 24.5 5.0 to 10.0 1:400 1:200 1:253
12.5 17.7 30.6 6.3 to12.5 1:500 1:250 1:317
15.0 21.2 36.7 7.5 to 15.0 1:600 1:300 1:380
17.5 24.7 42.8 8.8 to 17.5 1:700 1:350 1:444
20.0 28.3 49.0 10.0 to 20.0 1:800 1:400 1:507
22.5 31.8 55.1 11.3 to 22.5 1:900 1:450 1:570
25.0 35.4 61.2 12.5 to 25.0 1:1000 1:500 1:634
27.5 38.9 67.3 13.8 to 27.5 1:1100 1:550 1:697
30.0 42.4 73.4 15.0 to 30.0 1:1200 1:600 1:760
45.0 63.6 110.1 22.5 to 45.0 1:1800 1:900 1:1,141
60.0 84.9 146.9 30.0 to 60.0 1:2400 1:1200 1:1,521
75.0 106.1 183.6 37.5 to 75.0 1:3000 1:1500 1:1,901
100.0 141.4 244.8 50.0 to 100.0 1:4000 1:2000 1:2,535
150.0 212.1 367.2 75.0 to 150.0 1:6000 1:3000 1:3,802
200.0 282.8 489.5 100.0 to 200.0 1:8,000 1:4000 1:5,069
1:1000
250.0 353.6 611.9 125.0 to 250.0 1:5000 1:6,337
0
1:1200
300.0 424.3 734.3 150.0 to 300.0 1:6000 1:7,604
0
25
1:2000 1:1000
500.0 707.1 1223.9 250.0 to 500.0 1:21,122
0 0
1:4000 1:2000
1000.0 1414.2 2447.7 500.0 to 1000.0 1:42,244
0 0
26
B.4 Digital Elevation Data Vertical Accuracy Classes
Table B.7 provides vertical accuracy examples and other quality criteria for ten common vertical accuracy
classes. Table B.8 compares the ten vertical accuracy classes with contours intervals from legacy ASPRS
1990 and NMAS 1947 standards. Table B.9 provides ten vertical accuracy classes with the recommended
lidar point density suitable for each of them.
Table B.7 Vertical Accuracy/Quality Examples for Digital Elevation Data
Absolute Accuracy Relative Accuracy (where applicable)

Swath-to- Swath-to-
Vertical NVA Within-Swath
RMSEz VVA Swath Swath
Accuracy at 95% Hard Surface
Non- at 95th Non-Veg Non-Veg
Class Confidence Repeatability
Vegetated Percentile Terrain Terrain
Level (Max Diff)
(cm) (cm) (RMSDz) (Max Diff)
(cm) (cm)
(cm) (cm)
1-cm 1.0 2.0 3 0.6 0.8 1.6
2.5-cm 2.5 4.9 7.5 1.5 2 4
5-cm 5.0 9.8 15 3 4 8
10-cm 10.0 19.6 30 6 8 16
15-cm 15.0 29.4 45 9 12 24
20-cm 20.0 39.2 60 12 16 32
33.3-cm 33.3 65.3 100 20 26.7 53.3
66.7-cm 66.7 130.7 200 40 53.3 106.7
100-cm 100.0 196.0 300 60 80 160
333.3-cm 333.3 653.3 1000 200 266.7 533.3
Table B.8 Vertical accuracy of the new ASPRS 2014 standard compared with legacy standards
Equivalent Equivalent
RMSEz Equivalent
Vertical Class 1 contour Class 2 contour
Non- contour
Accuracy
Vegetated
interval per interval per
Class interval per
(cm) ASPRS 1990 ASPRS 1990
NMAS (cm)
(cm) (cm)
1-cm 1.0 3.0 1.5 3.29

2.5-cm 2.5 7.5 3.8 8.22
5-cm 5.0 15.0 7.5 16.45
10-cm 10.0 30.0 15.0 32.90
15-cm 15.0 45.0 22.5 49.35
20-cm 20.0 60.0 30.0 65.80
33.3-cm 33.3 99.9 50.0 109.55
66.7-cm 66.7 200.1 100.1 219.43
100-cm 100.0 300.0 150.0 328.98
333.3-cm 333.3 999.9 500.0 1096.49
27
Table B.9 Examples on Vertical Accuracy and Recommended Lidar Point Density for Digital
Elevation Data according to the new ASPRS 2014 standard
Absolute Accuracy
Vertical Recommended Recommended
Accuracy RMSEz NVA Minimum NPD8 Maximum NPS7
Class Non-Vegetated at 95% Confidence (pts/m2) (m)
(cm) Level (cm)
1-cm 1.0 2.0 ≥20 ≤0.22
2.5-cm 2.5 4.9 16 0.25
5-cm 5.0 9.8 8 0.35
10-cm 10.0 19.6 2 0.71
15-cm 15.0 29.4 1 1.0
20-cm 20.0 39.2 0.5 1.4

33.3-cm 33.3 65.3 0.25 2.0
66.7-cm 66.7 130.7 0.1 3.2
100-cm 100.0 196.0 0.05 4.5
333.3-cm 333.3 653.3 0.01 10.0
B.5 Converting ASPRS 2014 Accuracy Values to Legacy ASPRS 1990 Accuracy Values
In this section easy methods and examples will be provided for users who are faced with the issue of
relating the standard (ASPRS 2014) to the legacy ASPRS 1990 Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale
Maps. A major advantage of the new standard is it indicates accuracy based on RMSE at the ground
scale. Although both the new 2014 standard and the legacy ASPRS map standard of 1990 are using the
same measure of RMSE, they are different on the concept of representing the accuracy classes. The
legacy ASPRS map standard of 1990 uses Class 1 for higher accuracy and Classes 2 and 3 for data with
lower accuracy while the new 2014 standard refers to the map accuracy by the value of RMSE without
limiting it to any class. The following examples illustrate the procedures users can follow to relate
horizontal and vertical accuracies values between the new ASPRS standard of 2014 and the legacy
ASPRS 1990 Accuracy Standards for Large-Scale Maps.
Example 1: Converting the horizontal accuracy of a map or orthoimagery from the new 2014
standard to the legacy ASPRS map standard of 1990
8
Nominal Pulse Density (NPD) and Nominal Pulse Spacing (NPS) are geometrically inverse methods to measure the pulse density
or spacing of a lidar collection. NPD is a ratio of the number of points to the area in which they are contained, and is typically
expressed as pulses per square meter (ppsm or pts/m2). NPS is a linear measure of the typical distance between points, and is
most often expressed in meters. Although either expression can be used for any data set, NPD is usually used for lidar collections
with NPS <1, and NPS is used for those with NPS ≥1. Both measures are based on all 1st (or last)-return lidar point data as these
return types each reflect the number of pulses. Conversion between NPD and NPS is accomplished using the equation
NPS=1/ √ NPD and NPD=1/ NPS2 . Although typical point densities are listed for specified vertical accuracies, users
may select higher or lower point densities to best fit project requirements and complexity of surfaces to be modeled.
28
Given a map or orthoimagery with an accuracy of RMSE x = RMSEy = 15 cm according to new 2014
standard, compute the equivalent accuracy and map scale according to the legacy ASPRS map standard
of 1990, for the given map or orthoimagery.
Solution:
1) Because both standards utilize the same RMSE measure, then the accuracy of the map
according to the legacy ASPRS map standard of 1990 is RMSE x = RMSEy = 15 cm
2) To find the equivalent map scale according to the legacy ASPRS map standard of 1990, follow
the following steps:
a. Multiply the RMSEx and RMSEy value in centimeters by 40 to compute the map scale
factor (MSF) for a Class 1 map, therefore:
MSF = 15 (cm) x 40 = 600
b. The map scale according to the legacy ASPRS map standard of 1990 is equal to:
i. Scale = 1:MSF or 1:600 Class 1;
ii. The accuracy value of RMSEx = RMSEy = 15 cm is also equivalent to Class 2

accuracy for a map with a scale of 1:300;
Example 2: Converting the vertical accuracy of an elevation dataset from the new standard to
the legacy ASPRS map standard of 1990
Given an elevation data set with a vertical accuracy of RMSE z = 10 cm according to the new standard,
compute the equivalent contour interval according to the legacy ASPRS map standard of 1990, for the
given dataset.
Solution:
The legacy ASPRS map standard of 1990 states that:
“The limiting rms error in elevation is set by the standard at one-third the indicated contour interval for
well-defined points only. Spot heights shall be shown on the map within a limiting rms error of one-sixth
of the contour interval.”
1) Because both standards utilize the same RMSE measure to express the vertical accuracy, then
the accuracy of the elevation dataset according to the legacy ASPRS map standard of 1990 is
also equal to the given RMSEz = 10 cm
2) Using the legacy ASPRS map standard of 1990 accuracy measure of RMSE z = 1/3 x contour
interval (CI), the equivalent contour interval is computed according to the legacy ASPRS map
standard of 1990 using the following formula:
CI = 3 x RMSEz = 3 x 10 cm = 30 cm with Class 1,
Or CI = 15 cm with Class 2 accuracy
However, if the user is interested in evaluating the spot height requirement according to the
ASPRS 1990 standard, then the results will differ from the one obtained above. The accuracy for
spot heights is required to be twice the accuracy of the contours (one-sixth versus one-third for
the contours) or:
29
For a 30 cm CI, the required spot height accuracy, RMSE z = 1/6 x 30 cm = 5 cm
Since our data is RMSEz = 10 cm, it would only support Class 2 accuracy spot elevations for this
contour interval.
B.6 Converting ASPRS 2014 Accuracy Values to Legacy NMAS 1947 Accuracy Values
relating the new standard (ASPRS 2014) to the legacy National Map Accuracy Standard (NMAS) of 1947.
In regard to the horizontal accuracy measure, the NMAS of 1947 states that:
“Horizontal Accuracy: For maps on publication scales larger than 1:20,000, not more than 10 percent of
the points tested shall be in error by more than 1/30 inch, measured on the publication scale; for maps on
publication scales of 1:20,000 or smaller, 1/50 inch.” This is known as the Circular Map Accuracy
Standard (CMAS) or Circular Error at the 90% confidence level (CE90).
Therefore, the standard uses two accuracy measures based on the map scale with the figure of “1/30
inch” for map scales larger than 1:20,000 and “1/50 inch” for maps with a scale of 1:20,000 or smaller. As
for the vertical accuracy measure, the standard states:
“Vertical Accuracy, as applied to contour maps on all publication scales, shall be such that not more than
10 percent of the elevations tested shall be in error more than one-half the contour interval.” This is
known as the Vertical Map Accuracy Standard (VMAS) or Linear Error at the 90% confidence level
(LE90).
The following examples illustrate the procedures users can follow to relate horizontal and vertical
accuracy values between the new ASPRS standard of 2014 and the legacy National Map Accuracy
Standard (NMAS) of 1947.
Example 3: Converting the horizontal accuracy of a map or orthoimagery from the new ASPRS
2014 standard to the legacy National Map Accuracy Standard (NMAS) of 1947
Given a map or orthoimagery with an accuracy of RMSE x = RMSEy = 15 cm according to the new 2014
standard, compute the equivalent accuracy and map scale according to the legacy National Map
Accuracy Standard (NMAS) of 1947, for the given map or orthoimagery.
Solution:
1) Because the accuracy figure of RMSEx = RMSEy = 15 cm is relatively small, it is safe to assume
that such accuracy value is derived for a map with a scale larger than 1:20,000. Therefore, we
can use the factor “1/30 inch.”
2) Use the formula CMAS (CE90) = 2.1460 x RMSEx = 2.1460 x RMSEy
CE 90% = 2.1460 x 15 cm = 32.19 cm
3) Convert the CE 90% to feet
32.19 cm = 1.0561 foot
4) Use the NMAS accuracy relation of CE90% = 1/30 inch on the map, compute the map scale
CE 90% = 1/30 x (ground distance covered by an inch of the map), or
30
ground distance covered by an inch of the map = CE 90% x 30 = 1.0561 foot x 30 = 31.68 feet
5) The equivalent map scale according to NMAS is equal to 1” = 31.68’ or 1:380
Example 4: Converting the vertical accuracy of an elevation dataset from the new ASPRS 2014
standard to the legacy National Map Accuracy Standard (NMAS) of 1947
Given an elevation data set with a vertical accuracy of RMSE z = 10 cm according to the new ASPRS
2014 standard, compute the equivalent contour interval according to the legacy National Map Accuracy
Standard (NMAS) of 1947, for the given dataset.
Solution:
As mentioned earlier, the legacy ASPRS map standard of 1990 states that:
“Vertical Accuracy, as applied to contour maps on all publication scales, shall be such that not more than
10 percent of the elevations tested shall be in error more than one-half the contour interval.”
1) Use the following formula to compute the 90% vertical error:
VMAS (LE90) = 1.6449 x RMSEz = 1.6449 x 10 cm = 16.449 cm
2) Compute the contour interval (CI) using the following criteria set by the NMAS standard:
VMAS (LE90) = ½ CI, or
CI = 2 x LE90 = 2 x 16.449 cm = 32.9 cm
B.7 Expressing the ASPRS 2014 Accuracy Values according to the FGDC National Standard for
Spatial Data Accuracy (NSSDA)
relating the new standard (ASPRS 2014) to the FGDC National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy
(NSSDA).
Example 5: Converting the horizontal accuracy of a map or orthoimagery from the new 2014
standard to the FGDC National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy (NSSDA)
Given a map or orthoimagery with an accuracy of RMSE x = RMSEy = 15 cm according to new 2014
standard, express the equivalent accuracy according to the FGDC National Standard for Spatial Data
Accuracy (NSSDA), for the given map or orthoimagery.
Solution:
According to NSSDA, the horizontal positional accuracy is estimated at 95% confidence level from the
following formula:
Accuracy at 95% or Accuracyr = 2.4477 x RMSEx = 2.4477 x RMSEy
If we assume that:
RMSEx = RMSEy and RMSEr =√ RMSE x 2 + RMSE y 2 , then
RMSEr =√ 2 RMSE x 2 = √ 2 RMSE y 2 = 1.4142 x RMSEx = 1.4142 x RMSEy = 1.4142 x 15 = 21.21 cm
also
31
RMSE r
RMSEx or RMSEy =
1.4142
Then,
Accuracyr = 2.4477
( RMSE
1.4142 )
r
= 1.7308 ( RMSEr ) = 1.7308 (21.21 cm) = 36.71 cm
Example 6: Converting the vertical accuracy of an elevation dataset from the new ASPRS 2014
standard to the FGDC National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy (NSSDA)
Given an elevation data set with a vertical accuracy of RMSE z = 10 cm according to the new ASPRS
2014 standard, express the equivalent accuracy according to the FGDC National Standard for Spatial
Data Accuracy (NSSDA), for the given dataset.
Solution:
According to NSSDA, the vertical accuracy of an elevation dataset is estimated at 95% confidence level
according to the following formula:
Vertical Accuracy at 95% Confidence Level = 1.9600 ( RMSE z ) = 1.9600(10) = 19.6 cm
B.8 Horizontal Accuracy Examples for Lidar Data

As described in section 7.5, the horizontal errors in lidar data are largely a function of GNSS positional
error, INS angular error, and flying altitude. Therefore for a given project, if the radial horizontal positional
error of the GNSS is assumed to be equal to 0.11314 m (based on 0.08 m in either X or Y) and the IMU
error is 0.00427 degree in roll, pitch and heading the following table can be used to estimate the
horizontal accuracy of lidar derived elevation data.
Table B.10 provides estimated horizontal errors, in terms of RMSE r, in lidar elevation data as computed
by the equation in section 7.5 for different flying altitudes above mean terrain.
Table B.10 Expected horizontal errors (RMSE r) for lidar data in terms of flying altitude
Altitude Positional RMSEr Altitude Positional RMSEr

(m) (cm) (m) (cm)
500 13.1 3,000 41.6
1,000 17.5 3,500 48.0
1,500 23.0 4,000 54.5
2,000 29.0 4,500 61.1
2,500 35.2 5,000 67.6
Different lidar systems in the market have different specifications for the GNSS and IMU and therefore,
the values in Table B.10 should be modified according to the equation in section 7.5.
32
B.9 Elevation Data Accuracy versus Elevation Data Quality

In aerial photography and photogrammetry, the accuracy of the individual points in a data set is largely
dependent on the scale and resolution of the source imagery. Larger scale imagery, flown at a lower
altitude, produces smaller GSDs and higher measurement accuracies (both vertical and horizontal).
Users have quite naturally come to equate higher density imagery (smaller GSD or smaller pixel sizes)
with higher accuracies and higher quality.
In airborne topographic lidar, this is not entirely the case. For many typical lidar collections, the maximum
accuracy attainable, theoretically, is now limited by physical error budgets of the different components of
the lidar system such as laser ranging, the GNSS, the IMU, and the encoder systems. Increasing the
density of points does not change those factors. Beyond the physical error budget limitations, all data
must also be properly controlled, calibrated, boresighted, and processed. Errors introduced during any of
these steps will affect the accuracy of the data, regardless of how dense the data are. That said, high
density lidar data are usually of higher quality than low density data, and the increased quality can
manifest as apparently higher accuracy.
In order to accurately represent a complex surface, denser data are necessary to capture the surface
details for accurate mapping of small linear features such as curbs and micro drainage features, for
example. The use of denser data for complex surface representation does not make the individual lidar
measurements any more accurate, but does improve the accuracy of the derived surface at locations
between the lidar measurements (as each reach between points is shorter).
In vegetated areas, where many lidar pulses are fully reflected before reaching the ground, a higher
density data set tends to be more accurate because more points will penetrate through vegetation to the
ground. More ground points will result in less interpolation between points and improved surface
definition because more characteristics of the actual ground surface are being measured, not
interpolated. The use of more ground points is more critical in variable or complex surfaces, such as
mountainous terrain, where generalized interpolation between points would not accurately model all of the
changes in the surface.
Increased density may not improve the accuracy in flat, open terrain where interpolation between points
would still adequately represent the ground surface. However, in areas where denser data may not be
necessary to improve the vertical accuracy of data, a higher density data set may still improve the quality
of the data by adding additional detail to the final surface model, by better detection of edges for
breaklines, and by increasing the confidence of the relative accuracy in swath overlap areas through the
reduction of interpolation existing within the data set. When lidar intensity is to be used in product
derivation or algorithms, high collection density is always useful.
33
Annex C — Accuracy Testing and Reporting Guidelines

(normative)
When errors are normally distributed, accuracy testing can be performed with RMSE values, standard
deviations, mean errors, maximum and minimum errors, and unit-less skew and kurtosis values. When
errors are not normally distributed, alternative methods must be used. If the number of test points (check
points) is sufficient, testing and reporting can be performed using 95 th percentile errors. A percentile rank
is the percentage of errors that fall at or below a given value. Errors are visualized with histograms that
show the pattern of errors relative to a normal error distribution.
The ability of RMSE, 95th percentile, or any other statistic to estimate accuracy at the 95% confidence
level is largely dependent on the number and accuracy of the check points used to test the accuracy of a
data set being evaluated. Whereas100 or more is a desirable number of check points, that number of
check points may be impractical and unaffordable for many projects, especially small project areas.
C.1 Check Point Requirements

Both the total number of points and spatial distribution of check points play an important role in the
accuracy evaluation of any geospatial data. Prior guidelines and accuracy standards typically specify the
required number of check points and, in some cases, the land-cover types, but defining and/or
characterizing the spatial distribution of the points was not required. While characterizing the point
distribution is not a simple process and no practical method is available at this time, characterizing the
point distribution by some measure and, consequently, providing a quality number is undoubtedly both
realistic and necessary. ASPRS encourages research into this topic, peer reviewed and published in
Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing for public testing and comment.
Until a quantitative characterization and specification of the spatial distribution of check points across a
project is developed, more general methods of determining an appropriate check point distribution must
be implemented. In the interim, this Annex provides general recommendations and guidelines related to
the number of check points, distribution across land cover types, and spatial distribution.
C.2 Number of Check Points Required
Table C.1 lists ASPRS recommendations for the number of check points to be used for vertical and
horizontal accuracy testing of elevation data sets and for horizontal accuracy testing of digital
orthoimagery and planimetric data sets.
34
Table C.1 Recommended Number of Check Points Based on Area

Horizontal Accuracy
Vertical and Horizontal Accuracy Testing of Elevation
Testing of Orthoimagery
Project Area Data sets
and Planimetrics
(Square
Total Number of Static Number of Static Number of Total Number of
Kilometers)
2D/3D Check Points 3D Check Points Static 3D Check Static 3D Check
(clearly-defined points) in NVA9 Points in VVA Points
≤500 20 20 5 25
501-750 25 20 10 30
751-1000 30 25 15 40
1001-1250 35 30 20 50
1251-1500 40 35 25 60
1501-1750 45 40 30 70
1751-2000 50 45 35 80
2001-2250 55 50 40 90
2251-2500 60 55 45 100
Using metric units, ASPRS recommends 100 static vertical check points for the first 2500 square
kilometer area within the project, which provides a statistically defensible number of samples on which to
base a valid vertical accuracy assessment.
For horizontal testing of areas >2500 km2, clients should determine the number of additional horizontal
check points, if any, based on criteria such as resolution of imagery and extent of urbanization.
For vertical testing of areas >2500 km2, add 5 additional vertical check points for each additional 500 km 2
area. Each additional set of 5 vertical check points for 500 km 2 would include 3 check points for NVA and
2 for VVA. The recommended number and distribution of NVA and VVA check points may vary
depending on the importance of different land cover categories and client requirements.
C.3 Distribution of Vertical Check Points across Land Cover Types

In contrast to the recommendations in Table C.1, both the 2003 and the current FEMA guidelines
reference the five general land cover types, and specify a minimum of 20 check points in each of three to
five land cover categories as they exist within the project area, for a total of 60-100 check points. Under
the current FEMA guidelines, this quantity applies to each 5180 square kilometer (2000 square mile)
area, or partial area, within the project.
ASPRS recognizes that some project areas are primarily non-vegetated, whereas other areas are
primarily vegetated. For these reasons, the distribution of check points can vary based on the general
proportion of vegetated and non-vegetated area in the project. Check points should be distributed
generally proportionally among the various vegetated land cover types in the project.
C.4 NSSDA Methodology for Check Point Distribution (Horizontal and Vertical Testing)
The NSSDA offers a method that can be applied to projects that are generally rectangular in shape and
are largely non-vegetated. These methods do not apply to the irregular shapes of many projects or to
most vegetated land cover types. The NSSDA specifies the following:
9
Although vertical check points are normally not well defined, where feasible, the horizontal accuracy of lidar data sets should be
tested by surveying approximately half of all NVA check points at the ends of paint stripes or other point features that are visible and
can be measured on lidar intensity returns.
35
“Due to the diversity of user requirements for digital geospatial data and maps, it is
not realistic to include statements in this standard that specify the spatial distribution
of check points. Data and/or map producers must determine check point locations.
Check points may be distributed more densely in the vicinity of important features
and more sparsely in areas that are of little or no interest. When data exist for only a
portion of the data set, confine test points to that area. When the distribution of error
is likely to be nonrandom, it may be desirable to locate check points to correspond to
the error distribution.
For a data set covering a rectangular area that is believed to have uniform positional
accuracy, check points may be distributed so that points are spaced at intervals of at
least 10% of the diagonal distance across the data set and at least 20% of the points
are located in each quadrant of the data set. (FGDC, 1998)” 10
ASPRS recommends that, where appropriate and to the highest degree possible, the NSSDA method be
applied to the project and incorporated land cover type areas. In some areas, access restrictions may
prevent the desired spatial distribution of check points across land cover types; difficult terrain and
transportation limitations may make some land cover type areas practically inaccessible. Where it is not
geometrically or practically applicable to strictly apply the NSSDA method, data vendors should use their
best professional judgment to apply the spirit of that method in selecting locations for check points.
Clearly, the recommendations in sections C.1 through C.3 offer a good deal of discretion in the location
and distribution of check points, and this is intentional. It would not be worthwhile to locate 50 vegetated
check points in a fully urbanized county such as Orange County, California; 80 non-vegetated check
points might be more appropriate. Likewise, projects in areas that are overwhelmingly forested with only
a few small towns might support only 20 non-vegetated check points. The general location and
distribution of check points should be discussed between and agreed upon by the vendor and customer
as part of the project plan.
C.5 Vertical Check Point Accuracy
Vertical check points need not be clearly-defined point features. Kinematic check points (surveyed from a
moving platform), which are less accurate than static check points, can be used in any quantity as
supplemental data, but the core accuracy assessment must be based on static surveys, consistent with
NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NGS-58, Guidelines for Establishing GPS-Derived Ellipsoid Heights
(Standards: 2 cm and 5 cm), or equivalent. NGS-58 establishes ellipsoid height accuracies of 5 cm at the
95% confidence level for network accuracies relative to the geodetic network, as well as ellipsoid height
accuracies of 2 cm and 5 cm at the 95% confidence level for accuracies relative to local control.
As with horizontal accuracy testing, vertical check points should be three times more accurate than the
required accuracy of the elevation data set being tested.
C.6 Testing and Reporting of Horizontal Accuracies
When errors are normally distributed and the mean is small, ASPRS endorses the NSSDA procedures for
testing and reporting the horizontal accuracy of digital geospatial data. The NSSDA methodology applies
to most digital orthoimagery and planimetric data sets where systematic errors and bias have been
appropriately removed. Accuracy statistics and examples are outlined in more detail in Annex D.
Elevation data sets do not always contain the type of well-defined points that are required for horizontal
testing to NSSDA specifications. Specific methods for testing and verifying horizontal accuracies of
elevation data sets depend on technology used and project design.
10
Federal Geographic Data Committee. (1998). FGDC-STD-007.3-1998, Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards, Part 3:
National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy, FGDC, c/o U.S. Geological Survey,
www.fgdc.fgdc.gov/standards/documents/standards/accuracy/chapter3
36
For horizontal accuracy testing of lidar data sets, at least half of the NVA vertical check points should be
located at the ends of paint stripes or other point features visible on the lidar intensity image, allowing
them to double as horizontal check points. The ends of paint stripes on concrete or asphalt surfaces are
normally visible on lidar intensity images, as are 90-degree corners of different reflectivity, e.g., a sidewalk
corner adjoining a grass surface. The data provider has the responsibility to establish appropriate
methodologies, applicable to the technologies used, to verify that horizontal accuracies meet the stated
requirements.
The specific testing methodology used should be identified in the metadata.
C.7 Testing and Reporting of Vertical Accuracies

For testing and reporting the vertical accuracy of digital elevation data, ASPRS endorses the NDEP
Guidelines for Digital Elevation Data, with slight modifications from FVA, SVA and CVA procedures. This
ASPRS standard reports the Non-vegetated Vertical Accuracy (NVA) at the 95% confidence level in all
non-vegetated land cover categories combined and reports the Vegetated Vertical Accuracy (VVA) at the
95th percentile in all vegetated land cover categories combined.
If the vertical errors are normally distributed, the sample size sufficiently large, and the mean error is
sufficiently small, ASPRS endorses NSSDA and NDEP methodologies for approximating vertical
accuracies at the 95% confidence level, which applies to NVA check points in all open terrain (bare soil,
sand, rocks, and short grass) as well as urban terrain (asphalt and concrete surfaces) land cover
categories.
In contrast, VVA is computed by using the 95th percentile of the absolute value of all elevation errors in all
vegetated land cover categories combined, to include tall weeds and crops, brush lands, and lightly-to
fully-forested land cover categories. By testing and reporting the VVA separate from the NVA, ASPRS
draws a clear distinction between non-vegetated terrain where errors typically follow a normal distribution
suitable for RMSE statistical analyses, and vegetated terrain where errors do not necessarily follow a
normal distribution and where the 95th percentile value more fairly estimates vertical accuracy at a 95%
confidence level.
C.8 Low Confidence Areas
For stereo-compiled elevation data sets, photogrammetrists should capture two-dimensional closed
polygons for “low confidence areas” where the bare-earth DTM may not meet the overall data accuracy
requirements. Because photogrammetrists cannot see the ground in stereo beneath dense vegetation, in
deep shadows or where the imagery is otherwise obscured, reliable data cannot be collected in those
areas. Traditionally, contours within these obscured areas would be published as dashed contour lines.
A compiler should make the determination as to whether the data being digitized is within NVA and VVA
accuracies or not; areas not delineated by an obscure area polygon are presumed to meet accuracy
standards. The extent of photogrammetrically derived obscure area polygons and any assumptions
regarding how NVA and VVA accuracies apply to the photogrammetric data set must be clearly
documented in the metadata.
Low confidence areas also occur with lidar and IFSAR where heavy vegetation causes poor penetration
of the lidar pulse or radar signal. Although costs will be slightly higher, ASPRS recommends that “low
confidence areas” for lidar be required and delivered as two-dimensional (2D) polygons based on the
following four criteria:
1. Nominal ground point density (NGPD);
2. Cell size for the raster analysis;
3. Search radius to determine average ground point densities;
4. Minimum size area appropriate to aggregate ground point densities and show a generalized low
confidence area (minimum mapping unit).
37
This approach describes a raster-based analysis where the raster cell size is equal to the Search Radius
listed for each Vertical Data Accuracy Class. Raster results are to be converted into polygons for
delivery.
This section describes possible methods for the collection or delineation of low confidence areas in
elevation data sets being created using two common paradigms. Other methodologies currently exist, and
additional techniques will certainly emerge in the future. The data producer may use any method they
deem suitable provided the detailed technique is clearly documented in the metadata.
Table C.2 lists the values for the above low confidence area criteria that apply to each vertical accuracy
class.
Table C.2 Low Confidence Areas
Low
Recommended Recommended Search Radius
Vertical Confidence
Project Low Confidence and Cell Size
Accuracy Polygons
Min NPD (pts/m2) Min NGPD (pts/m2) for Computing
Class Min Area
(Max NPS (m)) (Max NGPS (m)) NGPD (m)
(acres (m2))
1-cm ≥20 (≤0.22) ≥5 (≤0.45) 0.67 0.5 (2,000)

2.5-cm 16 (0.25) 4 (0.50) 0.75 1 (4,000)
5-cm 8 (0.35) 2 (0.71) 1.06 2 (8,000)
10-cm 2 (0.71) 0.5 (1.41) 2.12 5 (20,000)
15-cm 1 (1.0) 0.25 (2.0) 3.00 5 (20,000)
20-cm 0.5 (1.4) 0.125 (2.8) 4.24 5 (20,000)
33.3-cm 0.25 (2.0) 0.0625 (4.0) 6.0 10 (40,000)
66.7-cm 0.1 (3.2) 0.025 (6.3) 9.5 15 (60,000)
100-cm 0.05 (4.5) 0.0125 (8.9) 13.4 20 (80,000)
333.3-cm 0.01 (10.0) 0.0025 (20.0) 30.0 25 (100,000)
Low confidence criteria and the values in Table C.2 are based on the following assumptions:
 Ground Point Density – Areas with ground point densities less than or equal to ¼ of the
recommended nominal pulse density (point per square meter) or twice the nominal pulse spacing
are candidates for Low Confidence Areas. For example: a specification requires an NPS of 1
meter (or an NPD of 1 ppsm) but the elevation data in some areas resulted in a nominal ground
point density of 0.25 point per square meter (nominal ground point spacing of 2 meters). Such
areas are good candidate for “low confidence” areas.
 Raster Analysis Cell Size – Because the analysis of ground point density will most likely be raster
based, the cell size at which the analysis will be performed needs to be specified. The
recommendation is that the cell size equals the search radius.
 Search Radius for Computing Point Densities – Because point data are being assessed, an area
must be specified in order to compute the average point density within this area. The standards
recommend a search area with a radius equal to 3 * NPS (not the Low Confidence NGPS). This
distance is small enough to allow good definition of low density areas while not being so small as
to cause the project to look worse than it really is.
 Minimum Size for Low Confidence Polygons – The areas computed with low densities should be
aggregated together. Unless specifically requested by clients, structures/buildings and water
38
should be removed from the aggregated low density polygons as these features are not true Low
Confidence.
Aggregated polygons greater than or equal to the stated minimum size as provided in Table C.2 should
be kept and defined as Low Confidence Polygons. In certain cases, too small an area will ‘checker board’
the Low Confidence Areas; in other cases too large an area will not adequately define Low Confidence
Area polygons. These determinations should be a function of the topography, land cover, and final use of
the maps.
Acres should be used as the unit of measurement for the Low Confidence Area polygons as many
agencies (USGS, NOAA, USACE, etc.) use acres as the mapping unit for required polygon collection.
Approximate square meter equivalents are provided for those whose work is exclusively in the metric
system. Smoothing algorithms could be applied to the Low Confidence Polygons, if desired.
There are two distinctly different types of low confidence areas:
 The first types of low confidence areas are identified by the data producer – in advance – where
passable identification of the bare earth is expected to be unlikely or impossible. These are areas
where no control or check points should be located and where contours, if produced, should be
dashed. They are exempt from accuracy assessment. Mangroves, swamps, and inundated
wetland marshes are prime candidates for such advance delineation.
 The second types of low confidence areas are valid VVA areas, normally forests that should also
be depicted with dashed contours, but where check points should be surveyed and accuracy
assessment should be performed. Such low confidence areas are delineated subsequent to
classification and would usually be identifiable by the notably reduced density of bare-earth
points.
Providing Low Confidence Area polygons allows lidar data providers to protect themselves from
unusable/unfair check points in swamps and protects the customer from data providers who might try to
alter their data.
If reliable elevation data in low confidence areas is critical to a project, it is common practice to
supplement the remote sensing data with field surveys.
C.9 Erroneous Check Points

Occasionally, a check point may be erroneous or inappropriate for use at no fault of the lidar survey.
Such a point may be removed from the accuracy assessment calculation:
 if it is demonstrated, with pictures and descriptions, that the check point was improperly located,
such as when a vertical check point is on steep terrain or within a few meters of a significant
breakline that redefines the slope of the area being interpolated surrounding the check point;
 if it is demonstrated and documented that the topography has changed significantly between the
time the elevation data were acquired and the time the check point was surveyed; or
 if (1) the point is included in the survey and accuracy reports, but not the assessment calculation,
with pictures and descriptions; (2) reasonable efforts to correct the discrepancy are documented,
e.g., rechecked airborne GNSS and IMU data, rechecked point classifications in the area,
rechecked the ground check points; and (3) a defensible explanation is provided in the accuracy
report for discarding the point.
 An explanation that the error exceeds three times the standard deviation (>3 * s) is NOT a
defensible explanation.
39
C.10 Relative Accuracy Comparison Point Location and Criteria for Lidar Swath-to-Swath
Accuracy Assessment
To the greatest degree possible, relative accuracy testing locations should meet the following criteria:
1) include all overlap areas (sidelap, endlap, and crossflights);
2) be evenly distributed throughout the full width and length of each overlap area;
3) be located in non-vegetated areas (clear and open terrain and urban areas);
4) be at least 3 meters away from any vertical artifact or abrupt change in elevation;
5) be on uniform slopes; and,
6) be within the geometrically reliable portion of both swaths (excluding the extreme edge points
of the swaths). For lidar sensors with zigzag scanning patterns from oscillating mirrors, the
geometrically reliable portion excludes about 5% (2½% on either side); lidar sensors with circular
or elliptical scanning patterns are generally reliable throughout.
While the RMSDz value may be calculated from a set of specific test location points, the Maximum
Difference requirement is not limited to these locations; it applies to all locations within the entire data set
that meet the above criteria.
C.11 Interpolation of Elevation Represented Surface for Check Point Comparisons
The represented surface of an elevation data set is normally a TIN (Figure C.1) or a raster DEM (Figure
C.2).
Figure C.1. Topographic surface represented as Figure C.2. Topographic surface represented as
a TIN a raster DEM
Vertical accuracy testing is accomplished by comparing the elevation of the represented surface of the
elevation data set to elevations of check points at the horizontal (x/y) coordinates of the check points. The
data set surface is most commonly represented by a TIN or raster DEM.
Vertical accuracy of point based elevation datasets should be tested by creating a TIN from the point
based elevation dataset and comparing the TIN elevations to the check point elevations. TINs should be
used to test the vertical accuracy of point based elevation datasets because it is unlikely a check point will
be located at the location of a discrete elevation point. The TIN methodology is the most commonly used
method used for interpolating elevations from irregularly spaced point data. Other more potentially more
40
accurate methods of interpolation exist and could be addressed by future versions of this standard as
they become more commonly used and accepted.
Vertical accuracy of raster DEMs should be tested by comparing the elevation of the DEM, which is
already a continuous surface, to the check point elevations. For most DEM datasets, it is recommended
that the elevation of the DEM is determined by extracting the elevation of the pixel that contains the x/y
coordinates of the check point. However, in some instances, such as when the DEM being tested is at a
lower resolution typical of global datasets or when the truth data has an area footprint associated with it
rather than a single x/y coordinate, it may be better to use interpolation methods to determine the
elevation of the DEM dataset. Vendors should seek approval from clients if methods other than extraction
are to be used to determine elevation values of the DEM dataset. Vertical accuracy testing methods listed
in metadata and reports should state if elevation values were extracted from the tested dataset at the x/y
location of the check points or if further interpolation was used after the creation of the tested surface (TIN
or raster) to determine the elevation of the tested dataset. If further interpolation was used, the
interpolation method and full process used should be detailed accordingly.”
41
Annex D — Accuracy Statistics and Example
(normative)
D.1 NSSDA Reporting Accuracy Statistics
The National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy (NSSDA) documents the equations for computation of
RMSEx, RMSEy, RMSEr and RMSEz, as well as horizontal (radial) and vertical accuracies at the 95%
confidence levels, Accuracyr and Accuracyz, respectively. These statistics assume that errors
approximate a normal error distribution and that the mean error is small relative to the target accuracy.
Example on the NSSDA Accuracy Computations:
For the purposes of demonstration, suppose you have five check points to verify the final horizontal and
vertical accuracy for a data set (normally a minimum of 20 points would be needed). Table D.1 provides
the map-derived coordinates and the surveyed coordinated for the five points. The table also shows the
computed accuracy and other necessary statistics. In this abbreviated example, the data are intended to
meet a horizontal accuracy class with a maximum RMSEx and RMSEy of 15 cm and the 10-cm vertical
accuracy class.
Table D.1 NSSDA Accuracy Statistics for Example Data set with 3D Coordinates
42
Computation of Mean Errors in x/y/z:
n
1
x́= ∑x
(n) i=1 i
where:
x iis the ith error in the specified direction
n is the number of check points tested,
i is an integer ranging from 1 to n.
Mean error in Easting:
−0.140−0.100+0.017−0.070+0.130
x= = -0.033 m
5
Mean error in Northing:
−0.070−0.100−0.070+ 0.150+0.120
y= = 0.006 m
5
Mean error in Elevation:
−0.070+0.010+0.102−0.100+0.087
z= = 0.006 m
5
43
Computation of Sample Standard Deviation:
n
1
sx=
√ ∑
(n−1) i=1
( x i− x́ )
2
where:
x iis the ith error in the specified direction,
x́ is the mean error in the specified direction,
Sample Standard Deviation in Easting:
s x=
2 2 2 2 2
√ ( −0.140−(−0.033 ) ) + (−0.100−(−0.033 ) ) + ( 0.017−(−0.033 ) ) + (−0.070−(−0.033 ) ) + ( 0.130−(−0.033 ) )

(5−1)
= 0.108 m
Sample Standard Deviation in Northing:
sy=
2 2 2 2 2
(−0.070−0.006 ) + (−0.100−0.006 ) + (−0.070−0.006 ) + ( 0.150−0.006 ) + ( 0.120−0.006 )
√ (5−1)
= 0.119 m
Sample Standard Deviation in Elevation:
s z=
√¿ ¿ ¿
= 0.091 m
44
Computation of Root Mean Squares Error:
n
1
√
RMSE x = ∑ (x i (map) −xi (surveyed ))2
n i=1
where:
x i(map)is the coordinate in the specified direction of the ith check point in the data set,
x i(surveyed ) is the coordinate in the specified direction of the ith check point in the independent source
of higher accuracy,
RMSE x =√ ¿ ¿ ¿ = 0.102 m
RMSE y =√ ¿ ¿ ¿ = 0.107 m
RMSE z=√ ¿ ¿ ¿ = 0.081 m
RMSEr =√ RMSE x 2 + RMSE y 2
RMSEr =√ ¿ ¿ = 0.147 m
45
Computation of NSSDA Accuracy at 95% Confidence Level:

(Note: There are no significant systematic biases in the measurements. The mean errors are all smaller
than 25% of the specified RMSE in Northing, Easting and Elevation.)
Positional Horizontal Accuracy at 95% Confidence Level =
2.4477
( RMSE
1.4142 )
r
= 1.7308 ( RMSEr ) = 1.7308 (0.147) = 0.255 m
Vertical Accuracy at 95% Confidence Level =
1.9600 ( RMSE z ) = 1.9600(0.081) = 0.160 m
46
D.2 Comparison with NDEP Vertical Accuracy Statistics

Whereas the NSSDA assumes that systematic errors have been eliminated as best as possible and that
all remaining errors are random errors that follow a normal distribution, the ASPRS standard recognizes
that elevation errors, especially in dense vegetation, do not necessarily follow a normal error distribution,
as demonstrated by the error histogram of 100 check points at Figure D.1 used as an example elevation
data set for this Annex.
In vegetated land cover categories, the ASPRS standard (based on NDEP vertical accuracy statistics)
uses the 95th percentile errors because a single outlier, when squared in the RMSE calculation, will
unfairly distort the tested vertical accuracy statistic at the 95% confidence level. Unless errors can be
found in the surveyed check point, or the location of the check point does not comply with ASPRS
guidelines for location of vertical check points, such outliers should not be discarded. Instead, such
outliers should be included in the calculation of the 95 th percentile because: (1) the outliers help identify
legitimate issues in mapping the bare-earth terrain in dense vegetation and (2) the 95 th percentile, by
definition, identifies that 95% of errors in the data set have errors with respect to true ground elevation
that are equal to or smaller than the 95th percentile – the goal of the NSSDA.
Example Elevation Data set
Figure D.1, plus Tables D.2 and D.3, refer to an actual elevation data set tested by prior methods
compared to the current ASPRS standard.
Figure D.1 Error Histogram of Typical Elevation Data Set,

47
Showing Two Outliers in Vegetated Areas.
Figure D.1 shows an actual error histogram resulting from 100 check points, 20 each in five land cover
categories: (1) open terrain, (2) urban terrain, concrete and asphalt, (3) tall weeds and crops, (4) brush
lands and trees, and (5) fully forested. In this lidar example, the smaller outlier of 49 cm is in tall weeds
and crops, and the larger outlier of 70 cm is in the fully forested land cover category. The remaining 98
elevation error values appear to approximate a normal error distribution with a mean error close to zero;
therefore, the sample standard deviation and RMSE values are nearly identical. When mean errors are
not close to zero, the sample standard deviation values will normally be smaller than the RMSE values.
Without considering the 95th percentile errors, traditional accuracy statistics, which preceded these
ASPRS Positional Accuracy Standards for Digital Geospatial Data, would be as shown in Table D.2.
Note that the maximum error, skewness (γ1), kurtosis (γ2), standard deviation and RMSEz values are
somewhat higher for weeds and crops because of the 49 cm outlier, and they are much higher for the fully
forested land cover category because of the 70 cm outlier.
Table D.2 Traditional Error Statistics for Example Elevation Data set
Land # of Mean
Cover Check
Min Max Mean
Absolute
Median
γ1 γ2
ѕ RMSEz
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
Category Points (m)
Open
20 -0.10 0.08 -0.02 0.04 0.00 -0.19 -0.64 0.05 0.05
Terrain
Urban
20 -0.15 0.11 0.01 0.06 0.02 -0.84 0.22 0.07 0.07
Terrain
Weeds &
20 -0.13 0.49 0.02 0.08 -0.01 2.68 9.43 0.13 0.13
Crops
Brush
20 -0.10 0.17 0.04 0.06 0.04 -0.18 -0.31 0.07 0.08
Lands
Fully
20 -0.13 0.70 0.03 0.10 0.00 3.08 11.46 0.18 0.17
Forested
Consoli-
100 -0.15 0.70 0.02 0.07 0.01 3.18 17.12 0.11 0.11
dated
The ASPRS standards listed in Table 7.5 define two new terms: Non-vegetated Vertical Accuracy (NVA)
based on RMSEz statistics and Vegetated Vertical Accuracy (VVA) based on 95 th percentile statistics.
The NVA consolidates the NDEP’s non-vegetated land cover categories (open terrain and urban terrain,
in this example), whereas the VVA consolidates the NDEP’s vegetated land cover categories (weeds and
crops, brush lands, and fully forested, in this example). Table D.3 shows ASPRS statistics and reporting
methods compared to both NSSDA and NDEP.
Table D.3 Comparison of NSSDA, NDEP and ASPRS Statistics for Example Elevation Data set
NSSDA Accuracyz at NDEP FVA, plus ASPRS

NDEP ASPRS
Land Cover 95% confidence level SVAs and CVA Vertical
Accuracy Accuracy
Category based on based on the 95th Accuracy
Term Term
RMSEz * 1.9600 (m) Percentile (m) (m)
Open Terrain 0.10 0.10 FVA
0.12 NVA
Urban Terrain 0.14 0.13 SVA
Weeds & Crops 0.25 0.15 SVA
Brush Lands 0.16 0.14 SVA 0.167 VVA
Fully Forested 0.33 0.21 SVA
Consolidated 0.22 0.13 CVA N/A N/A
48
49
D.3 Computation of Percentile
There are different approaches to determining percentile ranks and associated values. This standard
recommends the use of the following equations for computing percentile rank and percentile as the most
appropriate for estimating the Vegetated Vertical Accuracy.
Note that percentile calculations are based on the absolute values of the errors, as it is the magnitude of
the errors, not the sign that is of concern.
The percentile rank (n) is first calculated for the desired percentile using the following equation:
P
n=
((( )100
∗( N−1 ) +1 ) )
where:
n is the rank of the observation that contains the Pth percentile,
P is the proportion (of 100) at which the percentile is desired (e.g., 95 for 95 th percentile),
N is the number of observations in the sample data set.
Once the rank of the observation is determined, the percentile (Qp) can then be interpolated from the
upper and lower observations using the following equation:
Q p= A [ n w ] + ( n d∗( A [ nw +1 ] − A [ n w ]) )
( )
where:
Qp is the Pth percentile; the value at rank n,
A is an array of the absolute values of the samples, indexed in ascending order from 1 to N,
A[i] is the sample value of array A at index i (e.g., nw or nd). i must be an integer between 1 and N,
n is the rank of the observation that contains the Pth percentile,
nw is the whole number component of n (e.g., 3 of 3.14),
nd is the decimal component of n (e.g., 0.14 of 3.14).
50
Example:
Given a sample data set {X1, X2 … XN} =
{7, -33, -9, 5, -16, 22, 36, 37, 39, -11, 45, 28, 45, 19, -46, 10, 48, 44, 51, -27}
(N = 20),
calculate the 95th percentile (P = 95):
Step 1: Take the absolute value of each observation:
{7, 33, 9, 5, 16, 22, 36, 37, 39, 11, 45, 28, 45, 19, 46, 10, 48, 44, 51, 27}
Step 2: Sort the absolute values in ascending order:
A = {5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 16, 19, 22, 27, 28, 33, 36, 37, 39, 44, 45, 45, 46, 48, 51}
Step 3: Compute the percentile rank n for P=95:
P 95
n=
((( ) ( )) ) ((( ) (
100
∗ N−1 +1 =
100 ) )
∗ 20−1 ) +1 =19.05
The 95th percentile rank (n) of the sample data set is 19.05
Step 4: Compute the percentile value Qp by interpolating between observations 19 and 20:
Q p= A [ n w ]+ ( n d∗( A [ nw +1 ] − A [ n w ]) ) = ( 48+ ( 0.05∗(51−48 ) ) ) =48.15

( )
The 95th percentile (Qp) of the sample data set is 48.15.
51

ASPRS Positional Accuracy Standards For Digital Geospatial Data

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ASPRS Positional Accuracy Standards for

Digital Geospatial Data

EDITION 1, VERSION 1.0.0

5 Terms and definitions............................................................................................................. 3

6 Symbols, abbreviated terms, and notations.........................................................................5

Annex A - Background (informative)......................................................................................15

Annex B - Data Accuracy and Quality Examples (normative)..............................................20

Annex C - Accuracy Testing and Reporting Guidelines (normative)...................................33

C.6 Testing and Reporting of Horizontal Accuracies......................................................35

Annex D - Accuracy Statistics and Example (normative).....................................................41

ASPRS Positional Accuracy Standards for Digital Geospatial Data

1.1 Scope and applicability

4) Image quality factors, such as edge definition and other characteristics;

5) Robust assessment of check point distribution and density;

6) Alternate methodologies to TIN interpolation for vertical accuracy assessment.

1.3 Structure and format

No conformance requirements are established for this standard.

Federal Geographic Data Committee. (1998). FGDC-STD-007.2-1998, Geospatial Positioning Accuracy

Federal Geographic Data Committee. (1998). FGDC-STD-007.3-1998, Geospatial Positioning Accuracy

5. Terms and definitions

blunder – A mistake resulting from carelessness or negligence.

6. Symbols, abbreviated terms, and notations

ACCr – the horizontal (radial) accuracy at the 95% confidence level

ACCz – the vertical linear accuracy at the 95% confidence level

ASPRS – American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing

CVA – Consolidated Vertical Accuracy

DEM – Digital Elevation Model

DTM – Digital Terrain Model

FVA – Fundamental Vertical Accuracy

GSD – Ground Sample Distance

GNSS - Global Navigation Satellite System

GPS – Global Positioning System

IMU – Inertial Measurement Unit

INS – Inertial Navigation System

NGPS  Nominal Ground Point Spacing

NPD  Nominal Pulse Density

NMAS  National Map Accuracy Standard

NPS  Nominal Pulse Spacing

NSSDA  National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy

NVA  Non-vegetated Vertical Accuracy

RMSEx  the horizontal linear RMSE in the X direction (Easting)

RMSEy  the horizontal linear RMSE in the Y direction (Northing)

RMSEz  the vertical linear RMSE in the Z direction (Elevation)

RMSE  Root Mean Square Error

RMSDz  root-mean-square-difference in elevation (z)

SVA – Supplemental Vertical Accuracy

TIN – Triangulated Irregular Network

VVA  Vegetated Vertical Accuracy

x́  sample mean error, for x

ѕ  sample standard deviation

7.1 Statistical assessment of horizontal and vertical accuracies

Horizontal accuracy is to be assessed using root-mean-square-error (RMSE) statistics in the horizontal

7.2 Assumptions regarding systematic errors and acceptable mean error

7.3 Horizontal accuracy standards for geospatial data

Table 7.1 Horizontal Accuracy Standards for Geospatial Data

X-cm ≤X ≤1.414*X ≤2.448*X ≤ 2*X

7.4 Vertical accuracy standards for elevation data

Table 7.2 Vertical Accuracy Standards for Digital Elevation Data

X-cm ≤X ≤1.414X ≤2.448X ≤ 2*X

X-cm ≤X ≤1.96X ≤3.00X ≤0.60X ≤0.80X ≤1.60*X