5 2018 03 05!12 50 56 PM PDF
5 2018 03 05!12 50 56 PM PDF
5 2018 03 05!12 50 56 PM PDF
3-2. Heat
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between
two systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a
temperature difference. That is, an energy interaction is heat
only if it takes place because of a temperature difference (Fig. 3-
2).
𝑸
𝒒= (kJ/kg) (3-1)
𝒎
Sometimes it is desirable to know the rate of heat transfer (the
amount of heat transferred per unit time) instead of the total heat
transferred over some time
interval (Fig. 3-5).The heat
transfer rate is denoted 𝑸, and
has the unit kJ/s, which is
equivalent to kW.
3-2. Work
Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system and
its surroundings. As mentioned earlier, energy can cross the
boundary of a closed system in the form of heat or work.
Therefore, if the energy crossing the boundary is not heat, it
must be work (Fig. 3-7).
𝑾
𝒘= (kJ/kg) (3-2)
𝒎
The work done per unit time is called power and denoted
𝑾 (Fig.3-8). The unit of power is kJ/s, or kW.
2. Systems possess energy, but not heat or work. That is, heat
and work are transient phenomena.
Solution
For this problem the interior surfaces of the oven form the
system boundary, as shown in Fig. 3-13. The energy content of
the oven obviously increases during this process, as evidence
by a rise in temperature. This energy transfer to the oven is not
caused by a temperature difference between the oven and the
surrounding air. It is caused by negatively charged particles
called electrons crossing the system boundary and thus doing
work. Therefore, this is a work interaction.
Solution
This time the system boundary will include the outer surface of
the heating element and will not cut through it, as shown in Fig.
3-14. Therefore, no electrons will be crossing the system
boundary at any point. Instead, the energy generated in the
interior of the heating element will be transferred to the air
around it as a result of the temperature difference between the
heating element and the air in the oven. Therefore, this is a heat
transfer process.
𝑾e = 𝑽𝑵 (kJ)
𝑾𝒆 = 𝑽𝑰 (kW) (3-3)
𝑾 = 𝑭𝒔 (kJ) (3-6)
𝜹𝑾𝒃 = 𝑭 𝒅𝒔 = 𝑷𝑨 𝒅𝒔 = 𝑷 𝒅𝑽 (3-8)
𝟐 𝟐
Area = 𝑨 = 𝟏
𝒅𝑨 = 𝟏
𝑷 𝒅𝑽
A comparison of this equation with Eq. 3-9 reveals that the area
under the process curve on a 𝑷-𝑽 diagram is equal, in
magnitude, to the work done during a quasi-equilibrium
expansion or compression process of a closed system. (On the
𝑷-𝒗 diagram, it represents the boundary work done per unit
mass).
A rigid tank contains air at 500 kPa and 150℃. As a result of heat
transfer to the surroundings, the temperature and pressure
inside the tank drop to 65℃ and 400 kPa, respectively. Determine
the boundary work done during this process.
Solution
𝟎
𝟐
𝑾𝒃 = 𝟏
𝑷 𝒅𝑽 = 0
Solution
A sketch of the system and the 𝑷-𝑽 diagram of the process are
shown in Fig. 3-25. Even though it is not explicitly stated, the
pressure of the steam within the cylinder remains constant
during this process since both the atmospheric pressure and
the weight of the piston remain constant. Therefore, this is a
constant-pressure process, and from Eq. 3-9:
𝟐 𝟐
𝑾𝒃 = 𝟏
𝑷 𝒅𝑽 = 𝑷𝟎 𝟏
𝒅𝑽 = 𝑷𝟎 (𝑽𝟐 - 𝑽𝟏 )
= 96.4 Btu
The positive sign indicates that the work is done by the system.
That is, the steam used 96.4 Btu of its energy to do this work.
The magnitude of this work could also be determined by
calculating the area under the process curve on the 𝑷-𝑽
diagram, which is 𝑷𝟎 ∆𝑽 for this case.
Solution
A sketch of the system and the 𝑷-𝑽 diagram of the process are
shown in Fig. 3-26. At the specified conditions, air can be
considered to be an ideal gas since it is at a high temperature
and low pressure relative to its critical-point values (𝑻cr = –147℃,
𝑷cr = 3390 kPa for nitrogen, the main constituent of air). For an
ideal gas at constant temperature 𝑻0,
𝟐 𝟐𝑪 𝟐 𝒅𝑽 𝑽 𝑽
𝑾𝒃 = 𝑷 𝒅𝑽 = 𝟏 𝑽
𝒅𝑽 =𝑪 𝟏 𝑽
= 𝑪 𝐥𝐧 𝟐= 𝑷1𝑽1 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 (3-11)
𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏
𝐨.𝟏 𝟏𝐤𝐉
𝑾𝒃 = (100 kPa)(0.4 m3) 𝐥𝐧 = – 55.45 kJ
𝟎.𝟒 𝟏𝐤𝐏𝐚.𝐦𝟑
The negative sign indicates that this work is done on the
system, which is always the case for compression process.
Example 3-9.
Solution
A sketch of the system and the 𝑷-𝑽 diagram of the process are
shown in Fig. 3-27. The pressure for a polytropic process can be
expressed as:
𝑷𝑽n = 𝑪
−𝒏+𝟏 −𝒏+𝟏
𝟐 𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏 𝑷 𝑽 −𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏
𝑾𝒃 = 𝑷𝒅𝑽 = 𝑪𝑽−𝒏 𝒅𝑽 =𝑪 = 𝟐 𝟐 (3-12)
𝟏 𝟏 −𝒏+𝟏 𝟏−𝒏
Since 𝑪 = 𝑷1𝑽𝒏𝟏 = 𝑷2𝑽𝒏𝟐 . For an ideal gas (𝑷𝑽 = 𝒎𝑹𝑻), this equation
can also be written as:
𝒎𝑹( 𝑻𝟐− 𝑻𝟏 )
𝑾𝒃 = (kJ) (3-13)
𝟏−𝒏
The special case of 𝒏 = 1 is equivalent to the isothermal process
discussed in the previous example.
2 Gravitational work
The gravitational work can be defined as the work done
by or against a gravitational force field. In a gravitational
field, the force acting on a body is:
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈
Example 3-10.
Solution
𝑾g = 𝒎𝒈 (𝒛2 – 𝒛1)
𝟏 𝐁𝐭𝐮
𝑾g = (50 lbm)(32.174 ft/s2)(1 ft) = 0.064 Btu
𝟐𝟓.𝟎𝟑𝟕 𝐟𝐭 𝟐 /𝐬 𝟐
3 Accelerational work
The work associated with a change in velocity of a
system is defined as the accelerational work. The
accelerational work required to accelerate a body of mass 𝒎
from an initial velocity of 𝐕1 to final velocity 𝐕2 (Fig. 3-30) is
determined from the definition of acceleration and Newton’s
second law:
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 𝒅𝐕
𝒅𝐕 𝑭 = 𝒎
𝒂= 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕
The differential displacement 𝒅𝒔 is related to velocity 𝐕
𝒅𝒔
by: 𝐕= 𝒅𝒔 = 𝐕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕
Substituting the 𝑭 and 𝒅𝒔 relations into the expression
(Eq. 3-7), we obtain:
𝟐 𝟏
=𝒎 𝟏
𝐕 𝒅𝐕 = 𝒎 (𝐕𝟐𝟐 - 𝐕𝟏𝟐 ) (kJ) (3-15)
𝟐
Example 3-11.
= 222.2 kJ
𝑾𝐚 𝟐𝟐𝟐.𝟐 𝐤𝐉
𝑾𝒂 = = = 11.1 kW (or 14.9 hp)
∆𝒕 𝟐𝟎 𝐬
Where, kW = 1.341 hp
4 Shaft work
Energy transmission with a rotating shaft is very common in
engineering practice (Fig. 3-32). Often the torque 𝝉 applied
to the shaft is constant, which means that the force 𝑭
applied is also constant. For a specified constant torque,
the work done during 𝒏 revolutions is determined as
follows: A force 𝑭 acting through a moment arm 𝒓 generates
a torque 𝝉 (Fig. 3-33) which is determined from:
𝝉
𝝉 = 𝑭𝒓 𝑭=
𝒓
This force acts through a distance 𝒔 which is related to the
radius 𝒓 by:
𝒔 = (2𝝅𝒓) 𝒏
Then the shaft work is determined from Eq. 3-6:
Example 3-12.
𝟏 𝟏 𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝟏 𝐤𝐉
𝑾𝐬𝐡 = 2𝝅𝒏𝝉 = (2 𝝅)(4000 𝐦𝐢𝐧)(200N.m)
𝟔𝟎 𝐬 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐍.𝐦
= 83.7 kW (or 112.2 hp)
5 Spring work
It is common knowledge that when a force is applied on a
spring, the length of the spring changes (Fig. 3-35). When
the length of the spring changes by a differential amount
𝒅𝒙 under the influence of force 𝑭, the work done is:
𝜹𝑾spring = 𝑭 (3-18)
𝑭 = 𝒌𝒙 (kN) (3-19)
Where,
𝒙 = 0 when 𝑭 = 0
𝟏
𝑾spring = 𝒌( 𝒙𝟐𝟐 - 𝒙𝟐𝟏 ) (3-20)
𝟐
Where,
Example 3-13.
Solution
𝑽2 = 2 𝑽1 = (2)(0.05 m3)
= 0.1 m3
𝑭 = 𝒌𝒙 = (150 kN/m)(0.2 m) = 30 kN
𝑭 𝟑𝟎 𝐤𝐍
𝑷= = = 120 kPa
𝑨 𝟎.𝟐𝟓 𝐦𝟐
Under the effect of the spring, the pressure rises linearly from
200 kPa to:
𝟐𝟎𝟎+𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝐤𝐏𝐚 𝟏 𝐤𝐉
𝑾 = area = [(0.1 – 0.05) 𝐦𝟑 ] = 13 kJ
𝟐 𝟏 𝐤𝐏𝐚.𝐦𝟑
The sign of the work is positive, mean that work is done by the
system.
𝟏 𝟏 𝐤𝐉
𝑾spring = [(320 – 200) kPa] (0.05 m3) = 3 kJ
𝟐 𝟏 𝐤𝐏𝐚.𝐦𝟑
or this result could also be obtained from Eq. 3-20:
𝟏
𝑾spring = 𝒌( 𝒙𝟐𝟐 - 𝒙𝟐𝟏 )
𝟐
𝟏 2 2 𝟏 𝐤𝐉
= (150 kN/m)[(0.2 m) – 0 ] = 3 kJ
𝟐 𝟏 𝐤𝐍.𝐦
𝑸 = ∆𝑬.
𝑸 = ∆𝑬 when 𝑾 = 0 (3-21)
– 𝑾e = ∆𝑬. when 𝑸 = 0
The negative sign is due to the Figure 3-42. The work (electrical)
done on an adiabatic system is
Sign convention that work done equal to the increase in the
energy of the system.
on the system is negative.
– 𝑾pw = ∆𝑬.
Figure 3-43. The work (shaft) done on
an adiabatic system is equal to the
increase in the energy of the system.
– 𝑾b = ∆𝑬.
or 𝑸 – 𝑾 = ∆𝑬 (3-23)
where
𝟏
∆𝐊𝐄 = 𝒎(𝑽𝟐𝟐 –𝑽𝟐𝟏 )
𝟐
∆𝐏𝐄 = 𝒎𝒈(𝒛2 – 𝒛1)
𝒒 – 𝒘 = ∆𝒆 (kJ/kg) (3-28)
𝒅𝑬
𝑸–𝑾= (kW) (3-29)
𝒅𝒕
Where, 𝑸 is the rate of net heat transfer, 𝑾 is the power, and
𝒅𝑬 𝒅𝒕 is the rate of change of total energy.
𝜹𝑸 – 𝜹𝑾 = 𝒅𝑬 (kJ) (3-30)
or 𝜹𝒒 – 𝜹𝒘 = 𝒅𝒆 (kJ/kg) (3-31)
That is, the net heat transfer and the net work done during a
cycle must be equal (Fig. 3-48).
Example 3-14.
Solution
= ∆𝑼 = 𝑼2 – 𝑼1
𝑼2 = 400 kJ
Figure 3-49. Schematic for
Example 3-14.
Sample problem
A 0.1 m3 rigid tank contains steam initially at 500 kPa and 200℃.
The steam is now allowed to cool until its temperature drops to
50℃. Determine the amount of heat transfer during this process
and the final pressure in the tank.
(Table A-6)
(Table A-4)
(Table A-4)
= 12.349 kPa
kkkkkkPakP
a
= – 553.4 kJ
Example 3-15.
Solution
𝟎 𝟎
𝑸 – 𝑾other – 𝑾b = ∆𝑼 = 𝑼2 – 𝑼1
But
(𝒃) For our case, the only other form of work is the electrical
work which, which can be determined from Eq. 3-5:
𝟏 𝐤𝐉
𝑾e = 𝑽𝑰∆𝒕 = (120 V)(0.2 A)(300 s) = 7.2 kJ
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐕𝐀.𝐬
𝑷𝟏 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐤𝐏𝐚
State 1: 𝒉1 = 𝒉g @ 300KPa = 2725.3 kJ/kg (Table A-5)
𝐬𝐚𝐭. 𝐯𝐚𝐩𝐨𝐫
𝑸 – 𝑾e = 𝒎(𝒉2 – 𝒉1)
𝒉2 = 2865.3 kJ/kg
Example 3-16.
Solution.
A sketch of the system and the 𝑻-𝒗 diagram of the process are
given in Fig. 3-60.
(a) To find the mass, we need to know the specific volume of the
refrigerant at the initial state, which is determined from Table A-
13E:
𝑽 𝟑 𝐟𝐭 𝟑
Thus, m= = = 7.71 Ibm
𝒗𝟏 𝟎.𝟑𝟖𝟗 𝐟𝐭 𝟑 /𝐈𝐛𝐦
At 20℉:
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑸 – 𝑾 = ∆𝑼 + ∆𝐊𝐄 + ∆𝐏𝐄
𝑸 = ∆𝑼 = 𝒎(𝒖2 – 𝒖1)
𝒖2 = 𝒖f + x2𝒖fg
= 33.44 Btu/Ibm
= – 406.0 Btu
It yields
𝝏𝒉
𝑪𝒑 = (3-35)
𝝏𝑻 𝒑
𝒖 = 𝒖(𝑻) (3-36)
𝒉 = 𝒖 + 𝑷𝒗
𝒉 = 𝒖 + 𝑹𝑻
𝑷𝒗 = 𝑹𝑻
Since 𝑹 is constant and 𝒖 = 𝒖(𝑻), it follows that the enthalpy
of an ideal gas is also a function of temperature only:
𝒉 = 𝒉(𝑻) (3-37)
𝒅𝒖 = 𝑪𝒗 (𝑻) 𝒅𝑻 (3-38)
The specific heat values for some common gases are listed as a
function of temperature in Table A-2𝒃. The average specific
heats 𝑪𝒑,𝐚𝐯 and 𝑪𝒗,𝐚𝐯 are evaluated from this table at the
average temperature (𝑻2 + 𝑻1)/2, as shown in Fig. 3-71.
3-43.
𝒅𝒉 = 𝒅𝒖 + 𝑹𝒅𝑻
𝑪𝒑 = 𝑪𝒗 + 𝑹 [kJ/(kg.K)] (3-44)
𝑪p = 𝑪v + 𝑹u [kJ/(kmol.K)] (3-45)
𝑪𝒑
𝒌= (3-46)
𝑪𝒗
Example 3-18.
Solution.
(a)
(b)
∆𝒖 = 6447.15 kJ/kmol
∆𝒖 𝟔𝟒𝟒𝟕.𝟏𝟓 𝐤𝐉/𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥
∆𝒖 = = = 222.55 kJ/kg
𝑴 𝟐𝟖.𝟗𝟕 𝐤𝐠/𝐤𝐦𝐨𝐥
𝟐𝟐𝟐.𝟓𝟓−𝟐𝟐𝟎.𝟕𝟏 𝐤𝐉/𝐤𝐠
% error = x 100 ≅ 0.8 %
(𝟐𝟐𝟎.𝟕𝟏) 𝐤𝐉/𝐤𝐠
= 219.9 kJ/kg
This answer differs the exact result (220.71 kJ/kg) by only 0.4
percent:
Example 3-19.
Solution.
A sketch of the system and the 𝑷-𝒗 diagram of the process are
shown in Fig. 3-75. The helium gas at the specified conditions
can be considered to be an ideal gas since it is at a very high
temperature relative to its critical-point temperature (𝑻cr = -
451℉ for helium Table A-1E).
𝟐𝟓𝟒𝟓 𝐁𝐭𝐮/𝐡
𝑾pw = 𝑾pw ∆t = (– 0.02 hp)(0.5 h) = – 25.45 Btu
𝟏 𝐡𝐩
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑻2 = 102.5℉
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
Where 𝑽1 and 𝑽2 are identical and cancel. Then the final pressure
becomes:
𝟓𝟎 𝐩𝐬𝐢𝐚 𝑷𝟐
=
𝟖𝟎+𝟒𝟔𝟎 𝐑 𝟏𝟎𝟐.𝟓+𝟒𝟔𝟎 𝐑
𝑷𝟐 = 53.1 psia
Solution.
A sketch of the system and the P-V diagram of the process are
given in Fig. 3-76.
𝟏 𝐤𝐉
We = VI ∆t = (120 V)(2 A)(5 x 60 s) = – 72 kJ
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐕𝐀.𝐬
The negative sign is added because the work is done on the
system.
𝑸 – We – Wb = ∆U
𝒉2 = 9588 kJ/kmol
𝑪𝒑 = 𝑪𝒗 = 𝑪 (3-47)
∆𝒉 = ∆𝒖 +𝒗 ∆𝑷 (kJ/kg) (3-52)
𝒉2 – 𝒉1 = 𝒗(𝑷2 – 𝑷1)
Example 3-22.
Solution.
We take the iron block and water as our system. The inner
surfaces of the tank walls form the system boundary, as shown
in Fig. 3-81.
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
𝑽 𝟎.𝟓 𝐦𝟑
mwater = = = 500 kg
𝒗 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟏 𝐦𝟑 /𝐤𝐠
Solution.
𝑷 = 15 MPa
𝒉 = 430.28 kJ/kg (Table A-7)
𝑻 = 100℃
𝟏 𝐤𝐉
*
𝟏 𝐤𝐏𝐚.𝐦𝟑
≅ 434.60 kJ/kg