CHAPTER - III

STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK

IN TOURISM
 ST R A T E G IC M A N A G E M E N T F R A M E W O R K IN TO U R ISM

3.1 C onceptual P erspective o f Strategic M a n a g e m e n t:

Strategic m anagem ent has em erged as one o f th e m ost active areas o f

current m anagem ent practices. In the present day business environm ent, strategic

m anagem ent is very com m only practised to system atise the m ost im portant business

decisions. Every decision at corporate, SBU (Strategic B usiness U nits) and functional

level o f a business organisation is taken through strategic m anagem ent process.

Before w e proceed further w hat is all about strategic m anagem ent, let’s

take a look at the strategy itself. The w ord strategy is derived from the Greek w ord

‘Stratego’, w hich m eans the art or science o f being a General w ho gives the actual

direction to m ilitary force. T he concept o f strategy first gained currency in the area o f

military activity and it w as associated with th e planning o f wars, cam paigns and battles.

The concept as applied to business and m anagem ent is o f relatively recent origin. It was,

only after the publication o f C handler’s book on Strategy and Structure in 1962, that it

came to be w idely used in business and m anagem ent. Today, the concept o f strategy has

been defined by various experts in many ways.

Chandler, A.D. (1962) defines strategy as ‘T h e determ ination o f the basic

long-term goals and objectives o f an enterprise and the adoption o f the courses o f action

and the allocation o f resources necessary for carrying out these goals” . 1
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Here, he refers to three aspects in the strategy such as (a) determ ining long

term objectives and goals (b) adopting the courses o f action to achieve these goals, and

(c) allocating the resources necessary for accom plishing the courses o f action.

W hereas A nsoff, I (1965), in his book C orporate Strategy, identifies

strategy as the com m on thread am ong the organisations activities and product-m arkets as

above that defines the essential nature o f business that the organisation was or planned to

be in future.2 Here, A n so ff g iv es em phasis on the relationship betw een the organisational

activities and the product - m arket orientation w hich will bring the company from the

present position to the desired future.

Andrews, K ennth (1973) again defines strategy as “the pattern o f

objectives, purposes, goals and the major policies and plans for achieving these goals

stated in such a way so as to define w hat business the company is in o r is to be and the

kind o f com pany it is o r is to be”3 In this definition he refers to the understanding o f the

present and desired future conditions and the action plans required in taking the

organisation from the present situation where it wants to be in future.

A ccording to Glueck & Jauch (1984), “ A strategy is a unified,

comprehensive and integrated plan that relates the strategic advantages o f the firm to the

challenges o f the environm ent and that is designed to ensure that the basic objectives o f

the enterprise are achieved through proper execution by the organisation”.4 Here, the

emphasis is given to the interdependence and inter linkages o f all parts and major aspects

of the enterprise in a compatible manner to achieve the organisational objectives.

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M ichael P o rter (1996) view s strategy through today’s dynamic m arkets

and changing technologies w h en he says, “ Strategy is the creation o f a unique and

valuable position, involving a different set o f activities. The essence o f strategy is in the

activities - choosing to perform activities differently or to perform different activities than

rivals. O therw ise, a strategy is nothing m ore than a m arketing slogan that will not

withstand com petition.” 5

Sinha and R eddy (1991) also state that “ Strategy is the pattern or plan that

integrates an organisation’s m ajor goals, policies and action sequences into a cohesive

whole” 6

M intzberg (1987) identifies five Ps for strategy.7

1. Strategy as a Plan for action

2. Strategy as a p la y , a m anoeuvre to outwit opponents

3. Strategy as a pattern o f actions - plans may go unrealised but

patterns m ay appear.

4. Strategy as a position in an environment it is the link between the

organisation and the environment.

5. Strategy as a perspective - the character o r culture o f the

organisation; the ways o f acting and responding and what the

organisation stands for. This implies sharing and uniting

organisation members.
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It is relatively easy to change the first four Ps but to change the

perspective o f an organisation is much more difficult. Many strategies have failed

because of this factor.

To sum up, a strategy is a means to achieve ends. It links all parts and

covers all the major aspects o f an organisation. Strategy is a long-term plan and ensures

that all parts of the plan are compatible. It also identifies basic issues such as

• What is our business?

• What should it be?

• What are our products/services, functions, markets?

• What should we do to achieve our objectives and goods.

In a simplified manner, strategy is a pattern of purposes, goals and

objectives which determines what an organisation is and what it ought to be in future.

So, in defining strategy of a firm, it is essential to answer two basic

questions regarding the firm’s existence such as (a) What has to be done in order to

safeguard the firm’s long term survival? and (b) How has this to be achieved? In order to

give a sound and consistent answer to these questions, systematic approach to setting

strategy is needed. Thus strategic management has emerged as the answer.

3.1.1. Strategic Management Process:

In a successful business organisation, strategic management works as the

path-fmder to the various business opportunities; simultaneously it also acts as a defence

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mechanism w hich helps th e enterprise avoid deleterious mistakes. The successful

functioning o f the business enterprise depends highly on the quality o f strategic planning

i.e., the vision, insight, perception, sense o f realism , clarity o f thought and ideas and the

perfection o f m ethods and m easures that go into th e jo b o f strategic management. H ence,

the task o f form ulating a strategic plan and the jo b o f im plem enting and executing it will

encompass the vital portion o f th e job o f strategic m anagem ent.

The thrust o f th e theoretical developm ents in strategic m anagement have

been the content o f effective organisational strategies and the process o f formulating and

im plem enting organisational strategies. F or successful strategic management, decisions

have to be taken on four aspects such as “ steering elements, environm ent, the resources

and resource allocation pattern and the corporate values, norms and ethics”8. In doing so,

a desirable future is defined and steering elem ents provides what the m anagement wants

to achieve. It also concerns an analysis o f the firm ’s environm ent, w hich leads to defining

what the firm should achieve in the given environm ent. The third decision is on the

resources and their allocation pattern that determ ine w hat the firm can achieve.

The fourth decision is in regard to firm ’s norms, values and ethics through

which m anagement decides w hat is allowed to be achieved by the firm and its associates.

Fig ( 3 .1 ) shows the sum m ary o f the com ponents o f the field o f strategy making.

A conceptual definition o f strategic management, according to W illiam F.

d u e c k and Lawrence R. Jauch is that “Strategic management is a stream o f decisions

and actions which leads to the development o f an effective strategy or strategies to help
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achieve corporate objectives. T h e strategic m anagem ent process is th e way in w hich

strategists determ ine objectives and make strategic decisions” .9

Fie (3 .1 ): The Field o f S trategy M aking

A desirable future

/ WANT

N. Resource allocation
Managing the f iim -
environment fit
y^OULD
<
CAN N.

\ ALLOWED /
/ A competitive business ethics

Source : Aime Heene (1997) ,“The Nature of Strategic Management” Long Range Planning, Vol 30, No-6,'
Dec,. P-934

Further, they describe that “strategic decisions are m eans to achieve ends.

These decisions encom pass th e definition o f the business, product and markets to be

served, functions to be perform ed and m ajor policies needed for the organisation to

execute these decisions to achieve objectives.” 10

Peter D rucker (1974), defines strategic planning as “the continuous

process o f m aking present entrepreneurial (risk - taking) decisions system atically and

with the greatest know ledge o f th eir futurity; organising systematically the efforts needed

to carry out these decisions; and measuring the results o f these decisions against the
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expectations through organised, system atic feedback.” 11 Here, he covers the strategy

formulation, im plem entation and evaluation processes in the term strategic planning.

M ichael P orter (1980), a renow ned Consultant and Professor o f Harvard

Business School, puts fo rw ard that “Every firm com peting in an industry has a

competitive strategy, w hether explicit or im plicit. This strategy may have been developed

through planning process o r it m ay have evolved im plicitly through the activities o f the

various functional departm ents o f the firm ".12 Further, Porter (1985) states that

"Competitive strategy is th e search for a favourable com petitive position in an industry,

the fundam ental area in w hich com petition o ccu rs"13

A ccording to Coulter, M.K. (1998), "Strategic M anagem ent involves a

series o f steps in w hich organisational m em bers analyse the current situation, decide on

strategies, put those strategies into action, and evolved/m odify/change strategies as

needed. It entails all the basic m anagerial functions: Planning, organising, leading and

controlling".14 She further asserts that "the process o f strategic m anagem ent involves

strategy form ulation, strategy im plem entation and strategy evaluation” . 15

C oulter com es o u t three aspects o f strategic management, which

differentiate it from o th er types o f m anagem ent. First, strategic m anagement is

characterised by its em phasis on the interactions o f the organisation with its external

environment i.e. it has external focus. The second, it highlights the im portant interactions

of the organisation’s various functional areas and activities, i.e. it has an internal focus.
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I bird, it concerns the choice o f future direction o f the organisation i.e. it focuses on the

future.

Thompson & Strickland (1997) view the strategic management as a

process having stages o f strategy formulation, strategy implementation and strategy

evaluation. They present a model on strategic management process comprising the above

stages in five phases such as developing a strategic vision and business mission, setting

objectives, crafting and strategy to achieve the objectives, implementing and executing

the strategy and evaluating performance, m onitoring new developments and initiating

corrective adjustment.

Many authors view the strategic management as a process having stages o f

strategy formulation, strategy implementation and strategy evaluation. Various

management critics have developed different models o f strategic management. However,

Thompson & Strickland come out a comprehensive model on the strategic management

process comprising the five tasks as shown in Fig. 3.1.

Fig. 3.2. : Strategic Management Process:

Source : Adapted from Calingo, L.R. (1997), “Strategic Management in the Asian Context, ” New York, John Wiley and
Sons, p.8.
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Thus, various authors have com e out with different models o f strategic

management, however, a typical model o f strategic m anagem ent process is shown in fig

3.2.

3.2. C rafting W inning Strategy :

Crafting a w inning strategy m eans m aking decisions and im plementing

strategies that allow an organisation to develop and maintain com petitive advantage. So

competitive advantage is a key concept in strategic management process for building a

winning com petitive strategy o f a firm. W hen a firm has com petitive advantage, it has

some thing that other com petitors don’t or it does something better than other firms or

does something that others cannot. Hence, com petitive advantage is becom ing an

essential elem ent for long term success and survival o f a firm. H owever, the question is

what else will give com petitive advantage to a firm and how long the firm can sustain it

in the fast changing environm ent. Thus, system atic decision m aking in the light o f

strategic m anagement process becom es necessary for a firm to build its sustainable

competitive advantage so as to enable the firm to survive for long. A further look over

the competitive strategy will give an insight into the formulation o f w inning strategy. Fig

3 .3 depicts a typical model o f strategy formulation process.

Fig. 3.3. ; A M odel o f Strategy Form ulation Process:

Source: Adapted from Day, G.S. (1984) “Strategic Market Planning : The Pursuit o f Competitive Advantage ” New York, St. Paul, West
Publishing Co. p.49
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3.2.1. Competitive Strategy :

Porter (1980) describes that the essence o f form ulating com petitive

strategy is relating a com pany to its environm ent. A lthough the relevant environm ent is

broad, encom passing social as w ell as econom ic forces, the key aspects o f the firm ’s

environment is the industry or industries in w hich it competes. Industry structure has a

strong influence in determ ining th e com petitive rules o f the game as well as the strategies

potentially available to th e firm. Forces outside industry are significant primarily in a

relative sense since outside forces usually affect all firm s in the industry, the key is found

in the differing abilities o f firm s to deal with them. Further, he writes that the state o f

competition in an industry depends on five basic com petitive forces. They are threat o f

substitute products or services, threat o f new entrants, bargaining pow er o f suppliers,

bargaining pow er o f buyers, and rivalry am ong existing firm s in the industry.

Identification o f the forces w ill facilitate to determ ine the intensity o f industry

competition and profitability: Fig. 3.4 shows the P o rter’s model o f competition. This

model is regarded as one o f th e most com prehensive tools for building com petitive

strategies.
Source: Michael Porter (1980) “Competitive Strategy : Techniques for Analysing Industries and competitors”. New York, The Free
Press. P.4
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A ccording to M ichael Porter (1980), there are three generic com petitive

strategies that have been successful in outperform ing other firms in the industry. H e has

persuasively explained the th ree generic strategies: overall cost leadership, differentiation

and market focus.

C ost Leadership strategy aim s to m ake the firm an industry wide low est

cost position relation to com petitors. Thus, the firm attem pts to control cost o f

production, and cost o f sales so as to enable them to get substantial returns when the

prices are at low level. Som e im portant variables for cost leadership strategy are as

below:

a) Cost control m easures

b) M inim ise the costs o f m arketing and product developm ent

c) High capacity utilisation

d) High product quality

The strategy o f differentiation attem pts to develop distinctive abilities that

are perceived industry w ide as unique. These distinctive abilities may be along various

dimensions such as product quality, distribution, after sales service etc. that are widely

valued by the customers.

The differentiation strategy is o f two types

M a r k e t d iffe ren tiatio n and

In n o v a tiv e diffe rentiatio n

 M a r k e t i n g D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n e n ta ils c r e a t i n g a u n iq u e i m a g e o f the s e rv ic e

through m a r k e tin g t e c h n i q u e s It w ill be s tu d ie d t h r o u g h th e p a r a m e te r s s u c h as (a) e x te n t

of seg m e n ta tio n (b) P re s tig e p r i c i n g a n d (c) I n te n s ity o f a d v e rtis in g

In n o v a tiv e D ifferen tiatio n in v o l v e s creatin g the latest an d attra ctiv e

service o f f e r in g s in t e r m s o f q u a l i t y , e f f ic ie n c y , d e s ig n , style e tc It will be stu d ie d

through.

a) a s s e s s i n g s e r v i c e in n o v a tio n

b) e c o n o m y o f sc a le

F o c u s stra te g y a i m s at a specific m a rk e t s e g m e n t or n ic h e ch a ra c te ris e d by

a particular t y p e o f c u s t o m e r , a n a r r o w s e rv ic e ra n g e o r a limited g e o g r a p h ic a l co u rag e.

Porter (1 9 8 0 ) a s s e r t e d th at f o c u s s t r a t e g y a s s u m e s that th e firm is a b le to s e r v e its n a r r o w

target m a rk e t m o r e e f fe c tiv e ly o r e fficien tly th a n c o m p e tito rs w h o a re c o m p e tin g m o r e

broadly. As a re s u lt, th e firm a c h i e v e s either d iffe re n tia tio n for better m e e tin g the n e e d s

o f the p a rtic u la r ta rg e t, lo w e r c o s ts in s e rv in g this target o r both.

T h e r e is n o s in g le b e s t strategy that every com pany m u s t fo llo w . Over a

period o f tim e a firm m ay c h a n g e its g ene ric strategy. N o single s tra te g y is a p p r o p r ia te to

a com pany fo r all tim e to c o m e . A w ise re sp o n se to the c h a n g e s t a k i n g p la c e in th e

environment is o n e that w o u ld h e lp th e firm h arvest new o p p o rtu n itie s a n d a ls o d e fen d it

from threats T h u s , a c o m p a n y m u s t be able to anticipate c h a n g e and a d o p t strategies as

necessary.
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Linden B row n and M alcolm M cD onald (1994) have asserted that

differentiation strategy leads to perceived benefits advantage through innovation and cost

leadership, perceived price advantage through productivity. H ow ever, in practice, there

are trade o ff that occur betw een the two.

The im portant aspect o f P o rte r’s generic com petitive strategies that are

used to exam ine is the concept o f being ‘stuck in the m iddle’. It occurs when a firm is not

successfully pursuing either a low cost or a differentiation com petitive strategy. M ost

unsuccessful firm s are in this situation as its costs are too high to com pete with the low

cost leader o r its products and services are not differentiated well to cope with the

competitors. In order to becom e unstuck, a firm has to do system atic aligning o f

resources, capabilities and distinctive com petencies and make consistent strategic

decisions about w hat com petitive advantage to pursue.

3.2.2. O ther M odels o f C om petitive Strategies:

Porter in his w ork on com petitive strategies and com petitive advantage

maintained that a firm could not simultaneously pursue a low cost and a differentiation

strategy. I f it does so there is risk being stuck in the middle and not successfully

developing or exploiting either competitive advantage.

For describing firm ’s competitive strategies Porter’s generic com petitive

strategies fram ework is still widely practised. H ow ever, some new er perspectives on
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competitive strategies could b e discussed w hich probably can provide an expanded and

more realistic description o f w h at com petitive strategies firms are using.

In an attem pt to create a sustainable com petitive advantage, firm s are

looking for w ays to set th em selv es different from th e rivals. C om petitive strategy is all

about how an organisation ch o o ses to have a sustainable com petitive advantage over the

rivalry.

M iles and S n o w ’s A daptive Strategies also describes how an organisation

competes in an industry w here it operates. M iles and Snow ’s approach is based on the

strategies that organisations u se to successfully adopt to their uncertain com petitive

environments. A ccording to th is approach four possible strategic postures are proposed

such as prospector, defender, analyser and reacto r.16

In prospector strategy, organisation seeks innovation, dem onstrates ability

to survey dynam ic environm ent frequently and continually and develops new products

and services. Com petitors are uncertain about prospector’s future strategic decisions and

actions. D efender organisation searches for m arket stability, produces only a lim ited

product line for a narrow segm ent o f total product market. It seeks to protect its will

established business and does w hatever is necessary to aggressively prevent com petitors

from entering their turf. D efender can crave out and maintain niches within their

industries that com petitors find difficult to penetrate.

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O rganisation ad o pting analyser strategy thoroughly analyses new business

ideas such as products, services, m arkets before deciding to jum p in. It watches for and

copies the prom ising and successful ideas o f prospectors.

R eactors strategy simply reacts to environm ental changes and lacks

coherent strategic plan. It m akes strategic adjustm ents only when finally forced to do so.

Generally, such organisation are not able to respond quickly to environm ental changes

because they lack resources and capabilities and do not develop or exploit them properly.

D erek Abell suggested another approach for describing the competitive

strategies on the basis o f his business definition fram ework. A business according to

Abell can be defined along the th ree dim ensions -

a) Custom er groups - w ho we are going to serve

b) C ustom er needs - what custom er need w e are attempting to satisfy, and

c) A lternative technologies - how w e are going to meet that need.17

In this approach strong em phasis is given to understanding customers, not

in industry and its products or services. In the light o f the three dim ensions, we have

competitive m arket scope and the level o f com petitive market segment differentiation for

developing com petitive strategies o f a business.

Henry M intzberg (1988) developed an alternative typology o f com petitive

strategies that he believed better reflected in increasing complexity o f the com petitive

environment
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Fig. 3.5 show s the possible com petitive strategies proposed by M intzberg.

He asserted that having th e low est costs d o esn ’t provide a com petitive advantage by

itself, but the advantage can com e w hen the organisation is allow ed to charge below

average m arket prices. T hus, organisation follow ing this strategy according to M intzberg

is differentiating on the basis o f price. The undifferentiated strategy is that strategy w hen

firm has not basis for differentiation or w hen it deliberately follow s a copycat strategy.

Fig. 3.5:M intzberg’s G eneric C om petitive Strategies

Source : Mintzberg, Henry (1988), “Gcncric Strategies : Toward a comprehensive Framework"” in

Advances in Strategic Management, Vol.5,
We have seen various strategy alternatives, no m atter how we describe

them the major thing to rem em ber in crafting a winning strategy o f an organisation is that

its competitive strategy should exploit the com petitive advantage(s) the organisation has
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its competitive strategy should exploit the competitive advantage(s) the organisation has

developed. It will be extremely difficult for an organisation to compete successfully in

any situation without competitive advantage. Competitive advantage can be developed

from the organisation ability to use its resources optimally and create special capabilities,

which in turn are transformed into distinctive competences. These things take place

through the strategies being used in the various functional work units o f the organisation.

Thus, organisation’s functional strategy plays a pivotal role in implementing competitive

strategy.

3.3. Implementing Strategy:

The job of strategic management is far from complete if a chosen strategy

is not implemented. When a strategy is not translated into action, then it remains a mere

strategic plan or idea only. Strategy implementation is very important for any strategic

plan to be successful. However, strategy implementation is critical. Once a strategy is

implemented it must be evaluated and modified, if necessary.

For effective implementation o f strategy examining an organisations

existing structure, systems, staff, skills, style and shared values and making changes

made in each of these is inevitable.18 It gives a new strategic direction to the firm.

Thus, strategy implementation entails dealing properly with ‘hard’ issues

like structures and systems and ‘soft’ issues like skills, staff, style and shared values. For

tourism service organisation, to successfully implement its service concept and achieve
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the desired positioning in the m ind o f tourists it needs to pay special treatm ent to both

these hard and soft issues.

In service business, the successful o r failure o f w hich is very m uch

developed on the quality and com m itm ent o f em ployees and it is the reason w hy top

management in successful service organisations give utm ost priority in human resource

management.

Ranjan D as (1997) deals w ith certain key im plem entation issues such as

organisation structure, system s (including use o f IT); People; C ulture and leadership as

applicable to a service firm .19

A strategist, to im plem ent a strategy successfully has to bring his o r her

task a wide array o f know ledge, skills, attitudes and abilities to allocate resources, design

structures, form ulate functional policies, take into account the leadership styles required

and maintain internal consistency besides handling various other issues confronting the

organisation.

3.4: Relevance o f Strategic M anagem ent in Tourism Organisations:

W ith the increasing affluence o f people as a result o f grow th o f

economies, there has been greater desire for a better standard o f life and to explore m ore

of the world. People are w illing to spend m ore on leisure and holidays resulting in greater
 65

demand for recreation and entertainment facilities, adventure sports, tourist resorts and

other hospitality services.

Tourism being a service industry has some unique characteristics. Its

business has complex phenomenon. A typical tourism organisation offers a wide gamut

of services. Services cannot be touched, seen or tasted before consumption hence,

tourism service is intangible. Tourism services are highly perishable and cannot be

stored. They are to be produced and consumed simultaneously. Thus, a different set o f

strategies is required for the tourism organisations to face the competition and remain in

the business for long.

There may be more tourists to go around, but there is also more

competition between destinations as cities, countries, continents or unique places to pin

on the charms o f tourist revenue. The heat o f the contest is undoubtedly inevitable. To

develop competitive edge over others, like the consumer products tourist destinations

must persuade their customers that they have some combination o f benefits, which no

other can offer.

Tourist travel for business and leisure in both domestic and international is

showing increasing trends (Chapter-II). Moreover, as a result o f economic liberalisation,

introduction o f open sky policy and recognising tourism as an industry, competition in

this sector too becomes indispensable. In such a dynamic and competitive environment,
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References : (C h a p te r - III)

1 Chandler, A (1962), “Strategy and Structure - Chapters in the History o f the American
Enterprises'' Cambridge, Massa, MIT. P-13
2 Ansoff, I.H. (1965) “ Corporate Strategy” New York, McGraw Hill, p.
3 Andrews, K.R.(1973) “ The Concept o f Corporate strategy ”, Hane wood, Illinois, Jones Irwin,
p.28.
4 Glueck, W and Jauch, L (1984) “Business Policy and Strategic M anagement” Tokyo,
McGraw Hill Inc. p.8
5 Porter,M (1996) “What is Strategy” H arvard Business Review, Nov.-Dee. p.68.
6 Sinha, D P & Reddy, Y.R.K (1991): ’’Business Scenario fo r the 90s Strategic Management
Perspectives ” (Eds. Dr. D.P. Sinha and Dr. Y.R.K. Reddy). New Delhi, Vikas Publishing
House (P) Ltd. P. 130
7 Mintzbeg, H (1987) “ Five Ps for Strategy”, California Management Review in the Strategy
Process , Eds, H. Mintzberg and J.B. Quinn, New Jersy, Prentice Hall Inc.
8 Aime Heene (1997 ), “The Nature of Strategic Management” Long Range Planning, Vol. 30,
No.6, Dec. p.934.
9 Op. Cit, Glueck W. F. & Jauch L.R.(1984), p-5.
10 ibid, Glueck W. F. & Jauch L.R.(1984),
11 Drucker,P (19 ) “Management Task, Responsibilities and Practices” New York, Harper &
Row
12 Porter, (M (1980) “Competitive Strategy Techniques fo r Analysing Industries and
Compititors” New York, Free Press
13 Porter, M (1985) “ Competitive Advantage; Creative and Sustaining Superior Performance”
New York, Free Press, p . .
14 Coulter, M.K (1998) “Strategic Management in A ction ” New Jersey, Prentice Hall Inc., p. 6
15 Ibid Coulter, Mary K(1998), p-6
16 ibid PP. 209.
17 Darek Abell (1980), “Defining the Business (he Starting Point o f Strategic Planning” New
Jersey, Prentice Hall Inc. P.30.
18 Peters, Thomas J. & Waterman Jr. Robert, H (1984) “In Search o f Excellence” New York,
Worver Books Inc.
19 Das, Ranjan (1997) "Strategic Management o f Services; Framework and C ases” New Delhi,
Oxford University, Press p.82