6C/S Chemistry Revision Note

Part IV Acids and bases

Ch 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

 Common acids in the laboratory:
 Hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq))
 Sulphuric acid (H2SO4(aq))
 Nitric acid (NHO3(aq))
 These three acids are often called mineral acids
 Properties of dilute acids (e.g. HCl(aq), H2SO4(aq) and ethanoic acid):
Taste Sour
Action on blue litmus paper Turns pink
Electrical conductivity Conduct electricity because acids are
(which contain mobile ions e.g. H+(aq) ions)
Reaction with metals above Cu in the Metal + dilute acid  salt + hydrogen
reactivity series  Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Reaction with metal oxides Metal oxide + dilute acid  salt + water
 MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Reaction with metal hydroxides Metal hydroxide + dilute acid  salt + water
 NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Reaction with metal carbonates Metal carbonate + dilute acid  salt + water + carbon
dioxide
 Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)  2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) +
CO2(g)
Reaction with metal hydrogencarbonates Metal hydrogencarbonate + dilute acid  salt + water +
carbon dioxide
 NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) +
CO2(g)
 All dilute acids are irritant(刺激性的).
 Liberation of H2(g) from actions of metals with dilute acids is an indication of the existence of
hydrogen ions in dilute acid
 Nitric acid is not a typical acid. It reacts with metals to give nitrogen monoxide instead of hydrogen.
However, dilute nitric acid reacts with metal oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, and hydrogencarbonates
in a similar way as typical acids.

Role of water in exhibiting characteristic properties of acids

 Water must be present for an acid to show its acidic properties.
 Acid ionizes in water to give hydrogen ions. Hydrogen ions are responsible for all the acidic
properties.

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 The chemical structure of citric acid is:

 Water must be present for citric acid to show its acidic properties.

Test Solid citric acid Aqueous solution of citric acid

Electrical conductivity does not conduct electricity conducts electricity

Action on solid copper(II) solution becomes blue when the mixture is

no observable change
oxide warmed

Action on anhydrous colourless bubbles of carbon dioxide evolve

no observable change CO32–(aq) + 2H+(aq)  CO2(g) + H2O(l)
sodium carbonate

Action of solid sodium colourless bubbles of carbon dioxide evolve

no observable change HCO3–(aq) + H+(aq)  CO2(g) + H2O(l)
hydrogencarbonate

 Hydrogen ions are responsible for all the acidic properties of aqueous solution of citric acid.

 Hydrogen ion H+(aq) cannot exist alone in aqueous solution. It always combines with water molecule to
form hydronium ion (or hydroxonium ion) (H3O+(aq)).

Basicity of acid
 Basicity is the maximum number of ionisable H+(aq) ions produced by an acid molecule:

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 Acid Ionization Basicity
Hydrochloric acid HCl(aq)  H (aq) + Cl-(aq)
+
monobasic
Nitric acid HNO3(aq)  H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
Ethanoic acid

Sulphuric acid H2SO4(aq)  2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

Sulphurous acid H2SO3(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO32-(aq) Dibasic
Carbonic acid H2CO3(aq) 2H+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
Phosphoric acid H3PO4(aq) 3H+(aq) + PO43-(aq) tribasic

Bases and alkalis

 A base is a compound which reacts with an acid to give salt and water only. Bases are usually
metal oxides, metal hydroxides and ammonia.
 They react with acids to form salt and water only.
 Only a few bases are soluble in water. Bases that are soluble in water are called alkalis.

 Calcium hydroxide is only slightly soluble in water but it is usually considered an alkali.
 Examples of alkalis:
 Sodium hydroxide
 Potassium hydroxide
 Calcium hydroxide
 Sodium oxide
 Potassium oxide
 Ammonia

Characteristics and chemical reactions of alkalis

 Properties of dilute alkalis (e.g. KOH(aq), Na2O(aq) and ammonia solution):
Taste Sour
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 Action on red litmus paper Turns Blue
Feel Dilute alkalis usually have a slippery feel.

Electrical conductivity Conduct electricity because alkalis are electrolytes

(which contain mobile ions e.g. OH-(aq) ions)
Reaction with non-metal oxides Alkali + with non-metal oxides  metal carbonates + water
 Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g)  CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
 2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g)  Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Reaction with acids Dilute alkalis react with acids to form salt and water.
 NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
As ammonium compound reacts with alkali to give ammonia gas, we
Reaction with ammonium
can prepare ammonia gas in laboratory with the following set-up:
compounds

NH4Cl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)

heat
 The boiling tube is tilted downwards to prevent the condensed
water produced from flowing back which will crack the boiling
tube.
 Ammonia is less dense than air and is thus collected by upward
delivery
 Ammonia gas is the only gas which turns moist red litmus
paper blue. This is a test for ammonia gas..

 Reaction with metal ions in aqueous solution

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Role of water in exhibiting characteristic properties of alkalis
 Alkalis dissolve in water to give hydroxide ions, OH–(aq).
 Sodium hydroxide is an ionic compound which consists of Na+ and OH– ions.
This process is called dissociation.

 Aqueous ammonia is also known as ammonia water or ammonia solution.

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Corrosive nature of concentrated acids and alkalis
 Concentrated hydrochloric acid
 It has a concentration of about 11 mol dm–3 (or about 11 M)
 It is a volatile colourless liquid. It gives out acid mist and a strong smell in air.
 Its corrosive nature is due to its high concentration of hydrogen ions.

 Concentrated nitric acid

 It is about 16 M.
 It is a volatile colourless liquid.
 It gives out acid mist and a strong smell in air.
 It turns yellow on storage.

 The decomposition is speeded up by light, so concentrated nitric acid is usually stored in a brown
bottle.
 It attacks the skin and stains it yellow.
 Its corrosive nature is due to its oxidizing property.

 Concentrated sulphuric acid

 It is about 18 M and contains about 98% sulphuric acid by mass.
 It is a colourless oily liquid.
 As it is non-volatile, it does not give an acid mist when exposed to air.
 Its corrosive nature is due to its oxidizing and dehydrating properties.

 concentrated alkalis
 Concentrated NaOH(aq) and KOH(aq) are very corrosive especially when they are hot.
 The highly corrosive nature of these alkalis is due to their high concentration of hydroxide ions.

 Safety precautions in handling concentrated acids and alkalis

 Wear protective gloves and safety spectacles.
 Perform the experiments in fume cupboards to avoid breathing in any acid mist.
 In diluting concentrated acids or alkalis, add them slowly to a large amount of water with stirring,
but not vice versa. This is because when concentrated acids or alkalis are mixed with water, a large
amount of heat is given out. This can cause the liquids to splatter.

Ch 16 Indicators and pH
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 All aqueous solutions contain H+(aq) and OH–(aq) ions.
 An aqueous solution can be acidic, neutral or alkaline.
Solution Difference in H+(aq) and OH–(aq) concentrations
acidic H+(aq) concentration > OH–(aq) concentration, pH < 7
neutral H+(aq) concentration = OH–(aq) concentration, pH = 7
alkaline H+(aq) concentration < OH–(aq) concentration, pH > 7

 pH value is negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration.

pH = –log[H+(aq)]
 pH value usually ranges from 0 to 14.
 The pH values of some common substances:

Common acid-base indicators

 An acid-base indicator is a special dye whose colour depends on the pH of a solution.
 The most commonly used acid-base indicators are methyl orange, litmus and phenolphthalein.

Measurement of pH
 Litmus, methyl orange and phenolphthalein only indicate whether a substance is acidic or alkaline
but not its pH value.
 Common substances used in the laboratory to determine the pH value of a solution:
Remark
Universal indicator It is a mixture of acid-base indicators which gives
different colours at different pH values.
pH paper It contains universal indicator and thus can also be used to
measure pH value.
pH meter It is an electronic device to measure pH value accurately
pH sensor connected to data-logger It is an electronic device to measure pH value accurately.

 To measure the pH value more accurately, we use a pH meter or a data-logger with pH sensor.

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  Dip the pH sensor into the solution under test.
 The pH sensor is connected to a data-logger, which collects the pH reading and sends it to a
computer.
 Read the pH value directly from the computer screen.
 It is useful in measuring the changes in pH of a solution during an acid-alkali titration.

Ch 17 Strength of acids and alkalis

Strong acid and weak acid

 A strong acid is an acid which completely (100%) ionizes in water.
 A weak acid is an acid which only ionizes very slightly in water.
 Example of strong and weak acids:
Hydrochloric acid HCl(aq)  H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Strong acid Sulphuric acid H2SO4(aq)  2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
Nitric acid HNO3(aq)  H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)
Weak acid Sulphurous acid H2SO3(aq) HSO3-(aq) + H+(aq)
Carbonic acid H2CO3(aq) HCO3-(aq) + H+(aq)

14.1 Strong alkali and weak alkali

 A strong alkali is an alkali which completely (100%) dissociates in water to give hydroxide ions.
 A weak alkali is an alkali which ionizes only very slightly in water to give hydroxide ions.
 Examples of strong and weak alkalis:
Strong alkali Potassium hydroxide KOH(aq)  K+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Sodium hydroxide NaOH(aq)  Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Weak alkali Ammonia solution NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

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Methods to compare the strength of acids/alkalis
 By measuring the pH of their aqueous solutions

 Both hydrochloric acid and ethanoic acid have the same molar concentration but they have different
pH.
 Hydrochloric acid has a higher concentration of H+(aq). 
Hydrochloric acid has a lower pH than that of ethanoic acid.

 There is no direct relationship between the concentration and the strength of an acid / alkali.
 The strength of an acid / alkali refers to the degree of ionization of the acid / alkali. The concentration
of an acid / alkali refers to the quantity of the acid / alkali in the solution.

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Chapter 18 Salts and neutralization
 Neutralization is the reaction between an acid and a base (usually oxide or hydroxide), producing salt
and water as the only products.

 Neutralization is an exothermic reaction because heat is release during neutralization.

 Reaction between acid and carbonate is not neutralization because carbon dioxide is also produced
apart from salt and water.
 Although it seems that the reaction between acid and ammonia solution does not produce water, it is
still considered neutralization. NH3 + HCl  NH4Cl
NH4 + OH- + HCl  NH4Cl +H2O
 The rise in temperature in neutralization can be studied by the following experimental set-up:

 Expanded polystyrene cup is used because it reduces heat loss to the surrounding and it only
absorbs very little heat.
 The solution should be stirred thoroughly after mixing.

 Results and interpretations:

Experiment Temperature rise/C
(1) 25 cm3 of 1 M HCl + 25 cm3 of 1 M NaOH 7
3 3
(2) 25 cm of 1 M HNO3 + 25 cm of 1 M KOH 7
3 3
(3) 25 cm of 1 M CH3COOH + 25 cm of 1 M KOH <7
(4) 25 cm3 of 1 M CH3COOH + 25 cm3 of 1 M NH3 <<7
 For (1) and (2), the heat released is roughly the same because strong alkalis and strong acids
completely ionize in water, The reactions occur in (1) and (2) are the same:
H+(aq) + OH-(aq)  H2O(l).
 Heat released in (3) is smaller than that in (2) because some heat is used to ionize the weak acid
(CH3COOH).
 Heat released in (4) is smaller than that in (3) because more heat is used to ionize both weak acid
(CH3COOH) and weak alkali (NH3).

 In general, heat released (temperature rise) decreases in the order:

Strong acid + strong alkali > weak acid + strong alkali / strong acid + weak alkali > weak acid +
weak alkali

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Salt
 Salts are the compounds formed when all or part of the ionizable hydrogen atoms of an acid are
replaced by metal ions or ammonium ions. There are two types of salt:
Normal Salts All the ionizable hydrogen atoms of an acid are replaced, e.g.
 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
 2NH3(aq) + H2SO4(aq)  (NH4)2SO4(aq)
Acid Salts Part of the ionizable hydrogen atoms of an acid are replaced, e.g.
 NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)  NaHSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
 NH3(aq) + H2SO4(aq)  NH4HSO4(aq)

 An acid salt can react with excess base to give normal salt, e.g.
 NaHSO4(aq) + NaOH(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
 NH4HSO4(aq) + NH3(aq)  (NH4)2SO4(aq)
 Most acid salts are acidic. A few of them are alkaline, e.g. NaHCO3.
 Examples of salts formed from neutralization (acid salts are bolded):
Acid Base Salt formed
HCl NaOH NaCl,
HNO3 NH3 NH4NO3,
HNO3 Fe(OH)2 Fe(NO3)2,
HNO3 Fe(OH)3 Fe(NO3)3,
CH3COOH NaOH CH3COONa
H2SO4 NaOH NaHSO4,
Na2SO4,
H2SO4 NaOH NaHCO3,
Na2CO3,
 Note: A monobasic acid does not give acid salt. Acid salts can only be formed from dibasic or
tribasic acids.

15.1 Preparation of salt

1. Preparation of soluble salt (e.g. copper(II) sulphate) from acid and insoluble base / insoluble
carbonates / metals
i) Add excess copper(II) oxide to dilute sulphuric acid. Heat the solution if necessary.
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq)  CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Note: Excess CuO is used to ensure all sulphuric acid used up.
ii) Filter the mixture after the reaction has completed to remove excess copper(II) oxide. The
filtrate is copper(II) sulphate solution.

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 iii) Warm the solution in an evaporating dish until a saturated (or concentrated) solution is
obtained.

iv) Cool the solution slowly. Large crystals are obtained.

Note: if the copper(II) sulphate solution is not concentrated enough, no crystals will be
obtained even after cooling.
v) Filter off the crystals. Wash them with small amount of cold distilled water and dry the
crystals with filter paper.

2. Preparation of soluble salt (e.g. ammonium sulphate) from acid and alkali / soluble carbonate
NaOH + HCl  NaCl + H2O
i) Titrate a known volume, v1, of ammonia solution with dilute sulphuric acid (in the presence of
pH indicator) until end-point is reached, Record the volume, v2, of H2SO4 used.
ii) Mix another v1 of ammonia solution and v2 of dilute sulphuric acid without adding any
indicator (this is to prevent the indicator from contaminating(沾染) the salt solution formed).
iii) Warm the solution in an evaporating dish until a saturated (or concentrated) solution is
obtained.
iv) Cool the solution slowly. Large crystals are obtained.
v) Filter off the crystals. Wash them with small amount of cold distilled water and dry the
crystals with filter paper.

3. Preparation of insoluble salt (e.g. silver chloride) by precipitation of soluble reactants

i) Mix sodium chloride solution and silver nitrate solution.
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq)  AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
(Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)  AgCl(s))

ii) Filter off the precipitate. Wash the precipitate with distilled water and dry the precipitate with
filter paper.

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4. The solubilities of salts and bases are useful for determining the method of preparation of salt:
Compounds Solubility
Potassium
Sodium
Ammonium All are soluble.
Nitrate
Hydrogencarbonate
Halide (chloride, bromide and iodide) All are soluble except AgX and PbX2. (X = Cl/Br/I)
Sulphate All are soluble except
Carbonate All are insoluble except Na2CO3, K2CO3 and
(NH4)2CO3.
Oxide and hydroxide All are insoluble except K2O, Na2O, KOH and
NaOH.
CaO and Ca(OH)2 are slightly soluble in water.

15.2 Application of neutralization

5. Soil pH control
 If the soil is too acidic, calcium oxide (quicklime) or calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) can be
added to increase the pH.
 If the soil is too alkaline, acidic salt can be added to lower the pH.

6. Industrial waste treatment

 Acid effluent (廢水) (from electroplating industries) can be neutralized by calcium
hydroxide.
 Alkaline effluent (from dyeing industries) can be neutralized by sulphuric acid.
 If the effluent contains heavy metal ions, they can be removed by adding sodium hydroxide or
sodium carbonate, For example,
- Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-  Cu(OH)2(s)
- Cu2+(aq) + CO32-  CuCO3(s)
- Cu2+(aq) + 3OH-  Cr(OH)3(s)
Note: Heavy metal ions are removed before discharge( 排 放 ) because the ions may cause the
death of marine lives. Moreover, heavy metals can be recovered.
7. Anti-acids (Antacid)
 Excess acid (HCl(aq)) in stomach causes indigestion and pain.
 Anti-acid contains chemicals such as magnesium hydroxide or calcium carbonate which
neutralize the excess acid in stomach.
- Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
- CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
 Anti-acid tablets containing calcium carbonate are seldom used nowadays. It produces carbon
dioxide on reaction, which builds up pressure inside the stomach and causes discomfort.
Note: The anti-acid tablets should be chewed(咀嚼) to increase surface area. It increases the reaction
rate and brings faster relief of pain.
8. Baking powder
 Baking powder contains sodium hydrogencarbonate and solid acid.
 When dissolved in water, solid acid gives H+(aq) ions which react with HCO3-(aq) ions to give
CO2(g).
H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)  CO2(g) + H2O(l)
 Carbon dioxide makes the cakes rise and spongy (漲起和鬆軟).
 The baking powder should be stored in a dry place because the acid will react with
hydrogencarbonate ions in the presence of moisture.
9. Production of fertilizers
Many fertilizers are produced from neutralization, e.g. NH4NO3
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 HKDSE Past Papers (MCQ)
Part IV --- Acids and Bases

1. 2012 Paper 1A Q.2

2. 2012 Paper 1A Q.4

3. 2012 Paper 1A Q. 10

4. 2012 Paper 1A Q. 14

5. 2012 Paper 1A Q.19

14
6. 2012 Paper 1A Q.20

13. 2013 Paper 1A Q.3

14. 2013 Paper 1A Q.8

15. 2013 Paper 1A Q.9

15
16. 2013 Paper 1A Q.10

17. 2013 Paper 1A Q.11

18. 2014 Paper 1A Q.6

19. 2014 Paper 1A Q.7

16
20. 2014 Paper 1A Q.12

21. 2014 Paper 1A Q.13

22. 2014 Paper 1A Q.15

17
23. 2014 Paper 1A Q.18

24. 2014 Paper 1A Q.21

25. 2015 Paper 1A Q.4

26. 2015 Paper 1A Q.8

27. 2015 Paper 1A Q.9

18
28. 2016 Paper 1A Q.6

29. 2016 Paper 1A Q.7

30. 2016 Paper 1A Q.8

31. 2016 Paper 1A Q.18

19
32. 2016 Paper 1A Q.19

33. 2017 Paper 1A Q.2

34. 2017 Paper 1A Q.6

35. 2017 Paper 1A Q.10

20
36. 2017 Paper 1A Q.17

37. 2017 Paper 1A Q.21

21
 HKDSE Past Papers (LQ)
Part IV --- Acids and Bases

7. 2012 Paper 1B Q.6

22
8. 2012 Paper 1B Q.7

23
24
5. 2013 Paper 1B Q.4

25
26
6. 2014 Paper 1B Q.5

27
7. 2014 Paper 1B Q.7

28
29
8. 2014 Paper 1B Q.9a

9. 2015 Paper 1B Q.4d

30
10. 2015 Paper 1B Q.5

31
11. 2016 Paper 1B Q.6

32
12. 2016 Paper 1B Q.9

33
13. 2017 Paper 1B Q.1b, c

34
14. 2017 Paper 1B Q.2c

35
15. 2017 Paper 1B Q.6a, b

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 HKDSE Past Papers (MCQ)
Part IV --- Acids and Bases (Solutions)

9. 2011 Practice Paper 1A Q.8

C
10. 2011 Practice Paper 1A Q.9
B
11. 2011 Practice Paper 1A Q.13
A
12. 2011 Practice Paper 1A Q.18
A
5. 2011 Practice Paper 1A Q.20
C
6. 2011 Practice Paper 1A Q.24
D
7. 2012 Paper 1A Q.2
D
8. 2012 Paper 1A Q.4
C
9. 2012 Paper 1A Q. 10
C
10. 2012 Paper 1A Q. 14
B
11. 2012 Paper 1A Q.19
D
12. 2012 Paper 1A Q.20
A
13. 2013 Paper 1A Q.3
D
14. 2013 Paper 1A Q.8
C

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15. 2013 Paper 1A Q.9
A
16. 2013 Paper 1A Q.10
C
17. 2013 Paper 1A Q.11
A

18. 2014 Paper 1A Q.6

C
19. 2014 Paper 1A Q.7
B
20. 2014 Paper 1A Q.12
D
21. 2014 Paper 1A Q.13
C
22. 2014 Paper 1A Q.15
B
23. 2014 Paper 1A Q.18
B
24. 2014 Paper 1A Q.21
D
25. 2015 Paper 1A Q.4
D
26. 2015 Paper 1A Q.8
D
27. 2015 Paper 1A Q.9
B
28. 2016 Paper 1A Q.6
B
29. 2016 Paper 1A Q.7
A
30. 2016 Paper 1A Q.8
A
31. 2016 Paper 1A Q.18
A
32. 2016 Paper 1A Q.19
C
33. 2017 Paper 1A Q.2
D
34. 2017 Paper 1A Q.6
C
35. 2017 Paper 1A Q.10
A
36. 2017 Paper 1A Q.17
A
37. 2017 Paper 1A Q.21
C

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 HKDSE Past Papers (LQ)
Part IV --- Acids and Bases (Solutions)

13. 2011 Practice Paper 1B Q.1

14. 2011 Practice Paper 1B Q.4

15. 2012 Paper 1B Q.6

39
4. 2012 Paper 1B Q.7

40
5. 2013 Paper 1B Q.4

6. 2014 Paper 1B Q.5

41
7. 2014 Paper 1B Q.7

8. 2014 Paper 1B Q.9a

9. 2015 Paper 1B Q.4d

42
10. 2015 Paper 1B Q.5

11. 2016 Paper 1B Q.6

12. 2016 Paper 1B Q.9

43
13. 2017 Paper 1B Q.1b, c

14. 2017 Paper 1B Q.2c

15. 2017 Paper 1B Q.6a, b

44
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