Stone Walls

That Stay Built

A master waller shares how to dry-lay stone walls
that hold their ground for centuries

BY BRIAN POST

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 I
began my professional training as
a waller working under certified
Essential rules
craftsmen in Great Britain, a coun- Although there are many more techniques that can help you build a better-
try whose landscape is laced with looking wall or work more efficiently, those are grace notes to these five
stone walls that date back millenia.
rules. Following these steps will lead to walls that last centuries.
In New England, where I live, two-
century-old walls are common. While 1. Set the stones so
this may come as a surprise, that’s far their lengths go into
longer than most mortared walls last. the wall, not along it. Copestones
If you learn to properly lay dry stone, Like stacked firewood, only
you can build walls that outlast your the ends of the stones will
great-grandchildren. show. Placing the stones
this way maximizes the
Mortar hurts more than it helps friction and puts their
centers of mass closer to
While it can take years of practice to
the wall’s core. Placing
efficiently build a near-perfect wall, stones counter to this rule
building a good dry stone wall is quite is called tracing, and is a Hearting
easy. The process starts with forgetting primary reason walls fail.
what you think you know about the
importance of mortar. One reason for
2. Heart tightly. Through-
their longevity is that properly laid dry stones
stone walls flex as the ground moves, Hearting is key to a
whereas a mortared wall will crack. strong wall because it
adds many points of
This flexibility often allows dry stone
contact between stones
walls to be built directly on the native 5
to increase friction and
soil, while mortared work requires a keep them from moving Pinning
concrete foundation below the frost independently. Fill the stones
line. And while a dry stone wall allows voids with the biggest
water to pass through harmlessly, mor- pieces you can. Gravel or
tared walls can trap moisture that will anything you could read-
destroy the wall when it freezes. ily shovel is too small for 1
In a dry stone wall, the aim is to use hearting and will act like 2 4
ball bearings in the wall.
gravity to maximize friction. Friction
keeps the stones from sliding apart, and
their weight increases the friction. But Foundation 3
even the best built wall can fail if it is Stones
poorly designed.

Base the design on the site

and stone 3. Cross the joints.
When siting, think about what can Like brickwork, each stone
should span the joint in
damage a wall. In northern areas, set
the course below and sit
walls back from roads and driveways firmly on the two stones 4. Set stones level. 5. Build with the wall’s plane.
so that plows won’t push snow against on either side of that joint. Each stone needs to be able Set stones so their faces line up
them. Trees growing in girth can put Vertical joints that break to support the stones above. on the outside face of the wall
pressure on walls, and roots can shift this rule and run through The simplest way to achieve to create a smooth, even plane
or lift when a tree blows in the wind, multiple courses are called this is to set each stone so its without hollows or overhangs,
pushing a wall up from underneath. running joints. top is level. which can cause stones to tip.
A good practice is to stay back at least
10 ft. from trees and roads.
The foundation is the earth or gravel Essential tools
the stones rest on, and it should be dug
so that it is level from side to side. If • Braided mason’s string • 2-ft. level
you are building on a slope with less • Batter frames, made from • 6-ft. pry bar
than a 1-ft. elevation change in 20 ft., wood or rebar • 22-oz. brick or mason’s hammer
just run the wall parallel to the ground. • Shovel • 3-lb. hammer
On steeper slopes, dig the foundation in • Tape measure • 6-lb. to 10-lb. sledgehammer

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 Batter frames level steps like stairs. Otherwise, the stones will gradually slide downhill and
shape the wall.
This frame for a cause the wall to fail.
1:6 batter is being For stability, walls should be wider at the bottom than at the top. This taper
set with a level and is called batter. Expressed as a ratio of run to rise, batter typically ranges from
an angled wedge. 1:6 to 1:10. A 1:6 batter means that for every 6 in. of height, the wall narrows
A rotary hammer
with an electrician’s 1 in. on each side. So, a 3-ft.-tall wall with a batter of 1:6 would be 12 in. nar-
ground-rod driver rower (6 in. on each side) at its top. With flatter stones, a steeper batter like
pounds rebar 1:10 may be appropriate, while a batter of 1:6 makes a wider base that’s better
several feet deep for more irregular stone.
to ensure stability.
The width of a wall’s base depends on its height, the width of the top, and
the batter. Walls lower than 3 ft. lack enough area for the unevenness of
individual stones to blend visually into a smooth face. Narrower walls use
less stone, while wider walls make it easier to use larger stone and tend to be
sturdier. With these factors in mind, the top is typically 14 in. to 18 in. wide.
With smaller stone or flatter stone, you can make the wall
closer to 14 in. at the top. With larger or rounder stones,
make the wall closer to 18 in. at the top. The size of avail-
able capstones may also influence the top’s width.

Choosing the right stone

A 4-ft.-high wall takes about 1,000 lb. of stone per linear
foot, and the options vary by region. First, look for stones
of a size you can move, and keep in mind that those with
one longer dimension work better. Flat stone doesn’t nec-
essarily equal good stone, and round or irregular stone
doesn’t equal bad stone. Flat stone can make working with

As you start out, aim to

build 5 sq. ft. to 15 sq. ft. per
day. If you’re slower than that,
you are likely being too fussy.
thickness variations between adjacent stones harder; plus,
it’s often thin, meaning lots of courses and slower build-
ing. Rounded stone makes it easier to work with thickness
variations, and each course tends to be thicker, so building to
goes faster. With irregular stones, build a wall whose face S
stones fit more loosely. With flatter stones or ones that are eq
easy to shape, build a tighter wall. o
Stone from the ground right by the wall is the traditional fo
material to use. Old piles that were collected but never
built into walls and debris from construction sites can also an
be good sources. For reasons of historical preservation, ev
even with permission, harvesting stone from old walls or tr
structures is frowned upon and may be illegal. But taking ev
stones from walls in poor condition that aren’t visible from
a road and don’t mark property boundaries is more of an as
ethically gray area. th
Crushed stone quarries often produce an 18-in. and smaller b
size (referred to as “18 minus”) that can be used quite effec-
en
Tie strings to the frames. Set strings level with each
fi
other, just above course height. Sight between the string ap
and batter frame to locate the edges.

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 tively. Gravel-pit leftovers or tailings can also work well.
Stone from these sources may include a lot of unusable
shapes, but it is often available for as little as $20 per ton.
Another option is palletized stone from landscape yards,
but it often costs over $200 per ton. Usually meant for use
Start big. Roll foundation
as veneer, it tends to have either long side faces or large flat stones into place and level
surfaces rather than the end faces best for dry-laid walls. their tops by digging into
the soil or gravel below.
People worry too much about the foundation
With well-drained soil, foundation preparation can be as
simple as removing the topsoil and compacting the grade
below. If the soil is prone to settling or holding water—for
example, clay or silt—put in a foundation of 3⁄4 in. to 21⁄ 2 in.
of clean, crushed stone. The smaller stone shovels more
easily, but larger stone tends to be more stable. Crushed
stone has sharp, angular shapes that knit together and
work much better than rounded gravel. A 6-in. to 18-in.
foundation about a foot wider than the wall is typical, with
dense clay and other poorly drained soils at the upper end
of that range. Water that collects in the crushed stone
needs a 4-in. perforated pipe pitched to daylight for drain-
age. Otherwise, you’ve just made a pond under your wall.
Compact the foundation using a jumping-jack compac-
tor or by driving back and forth a few times with a loaded
pickup truck or tractor. A walk-behind vibratory plate
compactor does virtually nothing and is not worth using.
Before starting to lay stone, get organized. Walls should
be built with larger stones at the base, graduating to
courses of smaller stones near the top. Sorting the stone by
thickness beforehand will increase your speed and help to

If you’re faster than that,

you’re likely not being
-
careful enough.

ensure that each stone is used to its maximum benefit. Sort

the stones into big, medium, and small sizes. Place an equal
e amount of stone on each side of the wall, leaving 18 in.
of clear walking space, with the thickest stones near the
l foundation and smaller stones farther out.
Set pieces of the size and shape needed for through-
o stones and cap- or copestones aside, as well as any stones
that have even a possibility of being useful in a wall end.
r Ends are tricky, and a large selection of stone is important. Pile hearting near There will be
the wall every 6 ft. or so, moving it around in 5-gal. buckets. voids. Face
Although professional wallers can usually build 20 sq. ft. or more per day, stones don’t
have to meet
n as you start out, aim to build 5 sq. ft. to 15 sq. ft. per day. If you’re slower tightly inside the
than that, you are likely being too fussy. If you’re faster than that, you’re wall. Just pack
likely not being careful enough. the spaces full of
- Completing shorter sections of wall at a time is more efficient. Step back hearting stones.
the ends of each section so the next section of wall ties into the area you’ve
just finished. Define these sections by setting up sturdy batter frames 5 ft.
to 20 ft. apart. String is used as a guide to keep walls straight and level or
parallel to the ground. Tie strings to the inside edge of the batter frames on

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 each side of the wall, level with each other and just higher than the course
you’re laying.
Set foundation stones so that the top edges of their faces align with the string
(bumps may protrude past the string on this course). When sighting stones,
line the string up to the inside edge of the batter frame, or use two string
lines on each side of the wall, one about 8 in. higher than the other, and sight
down between the two. It’s usually easier to place the foundation stones along
one side at a time, and quicker to set stones from one end to the other rather
than working in from two ends and filling the middle with stone of an exact
width. It’s best to place stones so any sloped faces match the batter. A stone
face that angles down will cast shadows that make the wall look rougher.
Try to find stones whose faces mate with their neighbors, but don’t be too
fussy. Large stones tend to meet with larger gaps, and when looking at a fin-
ished wall your eye will focus on its top half, which will be built with smaller
Pin from within. Pinning stones shim the face stones level stones that tend to fit more tightly.
and solidify their placement. Never pin from the face of Thicker foundation stones can be dug into the foundation so that they sit
the wall because it will just fall out over time.
securely. Eyeball the stones so their tops are as level as
possible, and keep the tops of adjacent stones even. If the
top of a stone must slope, slope it toward a neighboring

A mouse might be able

to work its way through a well-
hearted wall, but a squirrel will
definitely not.

stone. Sloping it toward the face will cause stones placed

atop it to slide out, and sloping it toward the core will
push the wall apart over time. Stabilize stones as needed
with wedge-shaped pinning stones placed from within
the wall, leaving no large voids.
Don’t worry too much about how the stones fit inside
the wall, just pack voids tightly with hearting. Stones
that wobble are not properly hearted. A mouse might
be able to work its way through a well-hearted wall, but
a squirrel will definitely not.

Building upward, course by course

After finishing one course, move the strings up by the
thickness of the next. Ensure each stone meets the five
rules of walling, keeping the points of contact near the
stone’s face. If a stone tips when you push down near its
face, the contact points are too far back. Focus more on
following the five rules than fitting the stones’ faces like
puzzle pieces. A strong wall will look good, but an incor-
rectly built wall, no matter how tight-looking it starts
out, will fall down. Experience will develop your ability
to fit the stones tightly while still following the rules.
Once you’ve placed a few feet of stones on both sides
of a course, fill any voids between them up to the top of
the stones. Set hearting so it won’t move when the next
Tie the sides together. It’s typical to let through-stones course’s weight is added.
extend 11⁄ 2 in. past the wall face to allow for flexibility in their Unlike the foundation course, only the farthest point
length and for the wall to settle without slipping off them. of each stone from the second course to the top of the

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 wall should align with the string. Keep the strings just above the course you
are working on so stones won’t push on the string. When working with
smaller stones, set a few on the wall and move them until you find a place for
each rather than looking for stones to fit specific spots.
There is an exception to the rule about every stone sitting on the two below:
A smaller stone may sit entirely on a larger one. You may have situations
where two stones are needed to equal the thickness of a neighbor. This is also
acceptable, and creates a way of changing thicknesses within a course.

The faces need a strong connection

It’s vital to a wall’s structure to tie its sides together with through-stones
placed at mid-height. Arrange through-stones no more than 3 ft. apart along
the length of the wall and in good contact with the stones below, being care-
ful not to create running joints. Heart under each through-stone so no day-
light comes through or they may break from weight placed above. Walls over
5 ft. tall require additional rows of through-stones spaced no more than 2 ft.
apart vertically.
Ends must tie the two sides together and tie back into the wall (corners are
Build ends and corners like log cabins. Shaping is often
built much the same way). Ends are traditionally plumb to meet a gatepost, needed to fit end stones. Alternate stones that span the
but a slight batter such as 1:48 on the end face will increase the strength. wall width with long stones that tie back into each course.
The best stones for ends are long and large with flat
and parallel top and bottom surfaces. Cube-shaped
stones won’t tie back and will force the creation of a run-
Copestones protect the wall top.
ning joint in at least one direction on the next course.
Placed on end like books on a shelf, copestones
The contact points below each stone should be close to add height and weight to the wall and tie the
the outside corners. You will likely need to shape stones top together.
used in wall ends and corners, so plan to spend time on
these features.

d The top stones help hold the wall together

l Walls are topped with either capstones or coping to
d give it a finished look, to knit the sides together, and
to protect the stones below. Thick and flat, capstones
are laid across the width of the wall. Coping consists of
e flat stones set on edge like books on a shelf and is struc-
s turally the best way to top a wall. Coping provides the
t equivalent weight of very thick capstones without the
hassle of lifting massive stones to the wall top. They pro-
vide many points of contact with the last course, anchor-
ing it with lots of weight and friction. And because of
their height, copestones can substitute for one or more
upper courses.
Keep copestones as vertical as you can, make the end
pieces as big as possible so they won’t be pushed off, and
s make sure they don’t rock. For a refined finish, shape
n them uniformly before setting them on the wall. To get
e the tops even, tie a string at the top height of the copes
- on either side of the wall. Tighten the coping by ham-
s mering small wedges of stone between the copestones at
the top, and hammer pinning stones into any large gaps
at the bottom corners. This will build up a tremendous
s amount of friction between the copestones. When fin-
f ished, they shouldn’t wiggle at all. □
t
Landscape architect Brian Post is a DSWA-GB certified
t Master Craftsman and executive director of The Stone
Trust in Dummerston, Vt. Photos by Andy Engel.

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