Article 9 Customer Attitude
Article 9 Customer Attitude
Article 9 Customer Attitude
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Keywords: This study examined how individual health values influence interest in healthy foods, positive outcome
Value–Attitude–Behavior model expectations, hedonic expectations, and behavior intentions. A total of 1188 valid questionnaires were
Healthy foods collected from customers who had consumed healthy menu items at casual dining restaurants. The results
Healthy eating
indicated that health value was the key element that inspired customer interest in healthy eating and
Restaurants
aroused hedonic and positive outcome expectations, which in turn enhanced intentions to purchase
Expectations
Health value healthy food items. Restaurant managers are advised to establish creative marketing strategies to moti-
vate customer interest in healthy menu items and emphasize benefits of their healthy food items. Future
studies can extend the scope of research by examining differences in geographical areas or demographic
profiles.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction food choice process beyond the functional elements of food choices,
such as nutritional information and menu labeling. Value has been
Frequent and consistent eating out of certain meals may cause considered predictive of customers’ satisfaction and their inten-
health problems such as obesity (Ma et al., 2003). Restaurant tions to revisit a restaurant (e.g., Hutchinson et al., 2009; Petrick,
foods are perceived, in popular press, as contributors to obesity 2004). To the best of our knowledge, Kim et al. (2013) were the
rates because of the calorie and fat content, which increase cus- first to examine customer value in determining healthy food items
tomers’ total calorie consumption (American Cancer Society, 2014). in a restaurant context. Although Kim et al. (2013) attempted to
To avoid potential health-related problems, customer interest in connect value to health, value was conceptualized as the com-
healthy eating has increased, especially when consuming foods parison between price and quality, rather than the psychological
away from home (Jones, 2009). The U.S. National Restaurant Asso- aspects of value related to consumer health. The fundamental cus-
ciation reported that customers tend to select healthier menu tomer motivations to make healthy choices at restaurants remain
items (Kelso, 2012), control portion size, and prefer to visit restau- in question.
rants that offer such choices (e.g., brown rice, vegetarian dishes) Despite efforts to make healthy food choices at restaurants, cus-
(Anderson et al., 2007; Kim et al., 2013). tomers are still hesitant to choose healthy menu items if they need
With the increased concern about healthy eating behavior, to sacrifice taste (Harnack and French, 2008; Mills and Thomas,
researchers have focused on nutritional information on restaurant 2008; Raghunathan et al., 2006). Therefore, the availability of nutri-
menus (Hwang and Lorenzen, 2008; Sharma et al., 2011), qual- tional information does not directly explain customers’ healthy
ity of healthy food at restaurants (Kim et al., 2013), nutritional choices at restaurants. For this reason, it is necessary to explore
labeling (Carange et al., 2004), and visual icons for healthy items which customers are likely to choose healthy menu items and
(Jones, 2009). However, what drives the customer’s desire to look understand what motivates customers to make healthy choices.
for healthy options on restaurant menus has been overlooked. The To better understand customers’ healthy food choices, this study
present study focuses on the psychological aspect of customers’ employed the Value–Attitude–Behavior hierarchy (VAB) model,
which explains the influence of value on customer attitudes and
behaviors toward a certain object (e.g., Hansen, 2008; Honkanen
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 407 903 8138.
et al., 2006). Tudoran et al. (2009) employed this approach to eval-
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J. Kang), [email protected] (J. Jun),
uate the process of decision making on fish product purchases. In
[email protected] (S.W. Arendt). their study, hedonic expectations and perceptions of fish products
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2015.04.005
0278-4319/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Kang et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 48 (2015) 12–21 13
were used as a set of attitudes that influences customer intention nutritional content of restaurant foods and try to eat healthier
to purchase fish. Thus, this study employed these two variables as (Hwang and Lorenzen, 2008; Jones, 2009; Sharma et al., 2011;
secondary predictors of consumer behavior. Sualakamala and Huffman, 2010).
In summary, this study addresses the lack of research regarding According to the Keystone Forum Report (2006), individuals
the role of customers’ health values in food choices in order to who eat out frequently consume more calories and fewer fruits and
delineate why customers make healthier food choices when dining vegetables than those who eat out less frequently. An increased
out. It examines the relationships between health values, customer incidence of health problems contributes to developing public
expectations toward healthy food consumption, interest in healthy interest in healthy eating and increasing the demand for healthy
food, and behavior intentions. This study suggests a novel approach foods (World Health Organization, 2004). Although there is more
to understanding current trends of healthy food consumption. It public interest, the definition of healthy foods has not acquired
also provides practical implications for restaurants by offering ways consent in research and the industry because people perceive it
to segment target markets and strategies to address the expecta- differently. For example, some define healthy food as foods low in
tions of customers regarding healthy menu items. sugar or low sodium, whereas others may be referring to low-fat or
low-calorie foods. Because customers are mainly concerned about
fat and calories in menu items (Chen et al., 2006), the present study
2. Literature review
defines healthy foods as those that are low fat or low in calories.
achieve their goal of being healthy (through healthy diet or by con- H5. Interest in healthy food has a positive influence on positive
suming healthy foods) (Higgins et al., 2003). As a result, health value outcome expectations.
is likely to lead to positive outcome expectations in one’s health,
a positive appearance, and a healthy lifestyle. Based on the above
2.6. Behavioral intention to make healthy food choices
discussion, the following hypothesis is suggested:
H2. Health value has a positive influence on positive outcome Because of increasing health concerns, customers are willing to
expectations. give up foods that are high in fat or calories, even if they find them
tasty, in favor of healthy choices, which they expect to have a natu-
ral or light taste (Sualakamala and Huffman, 2010). Customers are
2.5. Interest in healthy food likely to choose healthy menu options, if they find healthy foods
to be tasty or enjoyable. Previous studies have shown that hedonic
Interest in healthy food is defined as an interest in eating foods expectations determine the likelihood of consuming healthy food
that are considered reduced-energy products, such as low-fat, low- (e.g., Saba et al., 2010; Steptoe et al., 1995). Tuorila et al. (1994)
calorie, or unsweetened foods (Roininen et al., 1999). Non-fat milk find repeat consumption or rejection of the food can be deter-
and reduced-fat cheeses are considered healthier foods (Zandstra mined by the level of enjoyment, thereby influencing choices in
et al., 2001). Because customers perceive that these foods posi- the future. Having awareness of the benefits of consuming healthy
tively affect their health, they feel less guilty when consuming these foods motivates customers to seek out nutritional information
foods, thereby increasing interest in eating healthy foods (Roininen, and further, persists in making healthy choices. Customers make
2001). According to Tudoran et al. (2012), how highly people value healthy choices because of the positive outcomes (e.g., maintaining
their health is the key element that determines whether they make their health and looking good) obtained from previously consum-
healthy food choices. The more highly they value health, the more ing healthy foods and/or the knowledge they have about healthy
likely they are to choose healthy foods (Kim et al., 2013). Customers foods (Trudeau et al., 1998; Varela et al., 2010). For example, the
who want to live a healthy lifestyle are more likely to be inter- amount of fat customers eat relates to positive outcome expecta-
ested in continuously eating healthy foods (Vazquez et al., 2009). tions (Anderson et al., 2007). Customer intentions to choose low-fat
Thus, increased concerns about health value intensify the need for food items are strengthened when they believe eating healthy food
healthy food on the market (Tudoran et al., 2012). Based on the is a way to achieve their health goals (e.g., maintaining or reducing
above discussion, the following hypothesis is proposed: their weight), thereby continuing healthy eating behaviors (Chen
et al., 2006). Based on the discussion above, the following hypothe-
H3. Health value has a positive influence on interest in healthy ses are proposed:
food.
H6. Hedonic expectations have a positive influence on healthy
Interest in healthy food relates to the benefits of eating healthy food choice intentions.
foods, for example, enjoying the natural flavor of foods and being
healthy (Roininen, 2001). Because hedonic expectation relates to H7. Positive outcome expectations have a positive influence on
taste aspects of a food, good taste plays a significant role in accept- healthy food choice intentions.
ing healthy food items (Roininen et al., 1999). When a healthy menu
Based on the proposed hypotheses above, the relationships
item seems to be attractive in terms of its smell, texture, or taste,
between constructs (i.e., health value, interest in healthy food,
customers may expect the menu item to taste flavorful. Moreover,
hedonic expectations, positive outcome expectations, and food
Radder and Roux (2005) argue that the acceptance of unfamiliar
choice intentions) are represented in Fig. 1.
foods is influenced by previous exposure. Pliner (1982) reports
that previous exposure to an unfamiliar food item (e.g. tropical
fruit juice) increased individuals’ preference for that food. Along 3. Methodology
the same line, frequent exposure to healthy foods can increase the
acceptability of the food item. If healthy foods are tasty and deli- 3.1. Survey instrument
cious, customers are likely to be attracted to the foods; thereby
leading to positive emotions such as pleasure and excitement when An Internet-based survey was developed based on a thor-
anticipating appetizing foods. At the same time, customers can be ough literature review. The questionnaire consisted of six sections:
assured that they will like the food (Kähkönen, 2000). five sections were for health value, positive outcome expectation,
In addition to a hedonic expectation, interest in healthy food hedonic expectation, interest in healthy food, and healthy food
contributes to customers’ beliefs that healthy eating is beneficial to choice intention; and the other section was for respondents’ demo-
their health. Customers eat healthy foods as a way to generate posi- graphic information. All items except hedonic expectation were
tive outcomes, such as losing weight, feeling better in their clothes, measured using a seven-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1
and living longer (Anderson et al., 2007). Customers are likely to (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).
look for health benefits of foods and have sufficient knowledge At the beginning of the questionnaire, a screening question was
about these benefits of healthy foods (Roininen, 2001). These cus- asked to determine whether respondents had ever chosen healthy
tomers recognize health risks associated with eating habits and the menu items when dining out. Respondents who chose “yes” to
importance of controlling fat intake. Customers already know what this question were given an opportunity to complete the question-
they eat influences their health (Steptoe et al., 1995; Wardle et al., naire. Those who had not eaten healthy menu items at restaurants
2000). Therefore, eating healthy foods may be directly linked to were excluded from this study. In the first part of the question-
perceived state of well-being such as maintaining good health and naire, respondents were asked to rate the extent of their agreement
quality of life (Roininen, 2001). Consequently, such benefits may with the three statements on health value: (a) “Having good health
help generate positive outcome expectations about healthy foods. means a lot to me,” (b) “I often think about my health,” and (c) “I
Therefore, the present study proposes the following hypotheses: think of myself as a person who is interested in healthful food.”
These items were adopted from Tudoran et al. (2009).
H4. Interest in healthy food has a positive influence on hedonic The other four sections consisted of questions related to healthy
expectations. menu items. In order to help respondents’ understanding, brief
J. Kang et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 48 (2015) 12–21 15
Hedonic
Expectation
H6
H1
H4
H3 Healthy
Health Interest in food choice
Value healthy food intention
H5
H2
H7
Positive
outcome
expectation
information about healthy menu items at restaurants was given people who had eaten out and selected healthy menu items at a
as below: casual dining restaurant. They were identified by asking previous
experience of eating healthy foods at casual dining restaurants. A
Take a moment to think about the restaurants listed on the pre-
total of 2155 responses were received, indicating a response rate
vious page and recall their healthful menus. These restaurants
of 6.1%. After deleting 967 incomplete responses, 1188 complete
may use health symbols to promote healthful foods. The fol-
responses were used for further analysis.
lowing symbols are used at some restaurants to indicate low fat
or low calorie foods among their healthful menu options. This
3.3. Data analysis
questionnaire will focus on the healthful foods indicated as low
fat or low calorie foods at casual dining restaurants.
This study employed a two-step approach suggested by
After reading this information, respondents were asked to rate Anderson and Gerbing (1988). First, confirmatory factor analy-
three contrasting adjective semantic differential items on hedonic sis (CFA) examines the measurement model, which validate the
expectation (see Appendix A). The anchors for these items were (a) pattern and reliability of observed variables representing specific
unappetizing/appetizing, (b) boring/exciting, and (c) expect to dis- constructs in the proposed model. Second, structural equation
like/like (Tudoran et al., 2009). The third part of the survey asked modeling analysis was utilized to assess the validity of the research
about respondents’ interests in healthy food items at restaurants. model and examine hypotheses. AMOS 13.0 software was used to
Three items were measured by asking about the consumption of test the hypothesized model.
low fat or low calorie menu items: (a) helps to keep the body in The present study used Barons and Kenny’s (1986) approach to
shape, (b) keeps cholesterol level under control, and (c) improves examine the mediating effect of interest in healthy food on two
health. These items were adapted from Roininen et al. (1999) and relationships proposed in the research model: (1) the relationship
modified to fit the context of casual dining restaurants. In the fourth between health value and hedonic expectations, and (2) the rela-
part of the survey, positive outcome expectation was measured tionship between health value and positive outcome expectations.
with four items from Anderson et al. (2007): (a) lose weight, (b) In addition, a median was used to classify subjects into two groups
live longer, (c) feel better in clothes, and (d) improve health. The (a high or low for income and an older or younger for age) based
fifth part of the survey measured three items to examine behav- on the results from descriptive analysis (Mangleburg et al., 1998).
ioral intention to make healthier food choices. Three items were Responses were recorded as group 1 if they were below than the
adopted from Zeithaml et al. (1996): (a) repurchasing healthy menu median value, whereas those which either equaled or were higher
items, (b) recommending healthy menus to others, and (c) spread- than the median value were identified as group 2. Chi-square differ-
ing positive word of mouth about the healthy menu items. The ence with one degree of freedom was used to test the moderating
last part of the survey included questions related to respondents’ effect on each path by comparing the constrained model against
demographic information (e.g., age, gender, education, and income) the unconstrained model (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988).
and their dining-out behaviors (e.g., frequency of eating low-fat or
low-calorie foods at casual dining restaurants). 4. Results
A pilot test was conducted with 18 graduate students and 7 The demographic profile of the respondents is described in
faculty and staff in the hospitality management department in a Table 1. More than half of respondents were female (68.8%),
Midwestern university. Based on their feedback, the questionnaire whereas 31.2% of respondents were male. More than half of respon-
was revised in order to improve clarity for the final questionnaire. dents (53.2%) were young adults, specifically between the ages of
During three months period from May to August, 2012, an invita- 18 and 34. With regard to the highest education level respondents
tion e-mail that included the questionnaire URL was sent to 35,300 achieved, 66.7% of respondents earned either bachelor’s or graduate
potential participants: 26,128 students, 6171 faculty and staff, and degree, while the rest (33.3%) accomplished a high school diploma,
3001 alumni at the same university. This study only included some college, or other type of degree/certificate. Caucasians were
16 J. Kang et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 48 (2015) 12–21
Table 1 Table 2
Demographic information. Item measurement properties.
the largest group in the sample (89.2%). In addition, 80.9% of the A structural equation modeling was estimated to empirically
respondents stated that they had eaten out at a restaurant in the validate the conceptual model in Fig. 1. The SEM results showed sat-
past two weeks prior to taking the survey. isfactory model fit with Chi-square (2 ) = 635.669 [df = 97, p < .001],
NFI = .957, TLI = .963, CFI = .963, RMSEA = .062. Fig. 2 shows the the-
4.2. Confirmatory factor analysis oretical hypotheses with each standardized coefficient.
Based on the SEM results, six of the seven hypotheses were
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was employed (a) to evalu- supported, with the exception of H2, which predicted a positive
ate whether the underlying structure was a rational measurement relationship between health value and positive outcome expecta-
model for the construct and (b) to validate the overall measurement tion and which was not supported (t = 1.21, p = .227).
model. The CFA results revealed that the overall fit of the con- H1, which predicted a positive relationship between health
ceptual model was acceptable at 2 = 516.876 [degrees of freedom value and hedonic expectation, was supported (ˇ = .402, t = 13.49,
(df) = 94, p < .001], Normed Fit Index (NFI) = .965, Tucker Lewis Index p < .001). H3, which predicted a positive relationship between
(TLI) = .958, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = .971, Root Mean Square health value and interest in healthy food, was supported (ˇ = .119,
Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = .055. The values for NFI, TLI, and t = 4.02, p < .001). H4, which predicted a positive relationship
CFI were higher than the suggested standard of .90 (Byrne, 1998). between interest in healthy food and hedonic expectation, was sup-
The RMSEA value between .04 and .07 supported an acceptable ported (ˇ = .267, t = 9.68, p < .001). H5, which predicted a positive
model fit (Turner and Reisinger, 2001). Table 2 shows the specific relationship between interest in healthy food and positive outcome
measurement items with standardized factor loadings, compos- expectation, was supported (ˇ = .668, t = 22.565, p < .001). H6, which
ite reliabilities, and Cronbach’s alpha estimates for each construct. predicted a positive relationship between hedonic expectation and
The factor loadings were equal to or higher than .678 at a signifi- healthy food choice intention, was supported (ˇ = .642, t = 23.63,
cant p < .001. Cronbach’s alpha estimates and composite reliability p < .001). H7, which predicted a positive relationship between
were greater than .70, indicating a satisfactory level of internal con-
sistency (Nunnally, 1978) and a high reliability for assessing each Table 3
construct (Hair et al., 1998). Latent variable correlation matrix.
Construct validity was proven based on the results of convergent
1 2 3 4 5
and discriminant validity (Shuttleworth, 2009). For convergent
validity, the average variance extracted (AVE) and latent construct 1. Healthy value .599a .014c .166 .011 .179
2. Interest in healthy food .119b .729 .088 .442 .240
correlations are reported in Table 3. The AVEs of all constructs
3. Hedonic expectation .407 .296 .649 .030 .454
ranged from .599 to .768, which is greater than the .50 thresh- 4. Positive outcome expectation .105 .665 .173 .660 .131
old (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988). With the high factor loadings on the 5. Healthy food choice intention .423 .490 .674 .362 .798
intended constructs (Table 2), this result indicates that a large a
Entries on the diagonal is AVE.
portion of variance was explained by the constructs. Thus, con- b
Correlations are below the diagonal.
c
vergent validity for the measurement-scale items was achieved Squared correlations are above the diagonal.
J. Kang et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 48 (2015) 12–21 17
positive expectation and healthy food choice intention, was sup- effect = .023, t-value = 9.54, p-value = .000). The results verified that
ported (ˇ = .259, t = 11.20, p < .001). “interest in healthy food” has a significant partial mediating role in
In summary, our empirical data confirmed that health value the relationship between “health value” and “hedonic expectation.”
is the foundation of healthy food choices. Moreover, interest When the path from “interest in healthy food” to “positive
in healthy food plays a significant role in increasing customer outcome expectation” (H5) was constrained to zero, the effect of
expectations of having healthy foods, which in turn increases cus- “health value” on “positive outcome expectation” (H2) was signif-
tomer intention to choose healthy menu options at restaurants. icant at p < .05 (ˇ = .118, t = 3.976). Thus, “Interest in health food”
In short, health value and interest in healthy foods are prerequi- fully meditated the path between “health value” and “positive out-
sites that influence customers’ intentions to choose healthy menu come expectation” (H2) in the model (Table 4).
items.
Table 4
Mediating effects of interest in healthy food.
Mediating path
Health value → Interest in healthy food → Hedonic expectation (partial mediation) 2 (1) = 91.126, p < .001
Health value → Interest in healthy food → Positive health outcomes (full mediation) 2 (1) = 627.515, p < .001
Note: numbers in parentheses indicate standardized estimates when the model is constrained (a: H4 is constrained; b: H5 is constrained).
*
p < .001
18 J. Kang et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 48 (2015) 12–21
Older customers are more likely to look for healthy food in order to Health-conscious customers have hedonic and/or positive out-
decelerate the aging process and reduce the risk of health related come expectations when ordering healthy menu items. Marketers
diseases (Sualakamala and Huffman, 2010), which in turn increases are advised to investigate what customers want from eating healthy
the frequency of choosing healthy options. Customers with higher foods. Knowing customer expectations can give marketers ideas
incomes tend to spend more on healthy foods. Higher income cus- about what aspects restaurants should emphasize in promotional
tomers may have higher social status and education levels (Kassem messages. For example, hedonic expectation is related to the
et al., 2003). This group is likely to have higher quality of life expec- pleasantness of eating healthy foods and can be strengthened
tations and greater desires to keep their bodies in shape, which if descriptions of food are presented on the menu. Describing
may cause them to eat more healthy (Darmon and Drewnoski, food characteristics (e.g., crispy, fresh) can be more effective in
2008). forming customer expectations than providing a list of healthy
ingredients. Thus, creative promotional efforts may provoke cus-
tomers to pay attention to the information given and imagine
6. Theoretical contributions its taste, which enhances hedonic expectations toward healthy
menu items. In addition, positive outcome expectations play an
As a theoretical framework, numerous studies have employed important role in encouraging healthy choices, especially when
the VAB approach to understand customer behavior in areas such customers have interest in healthy food. Restaurants could pro-
as selecting retail fish products (Tudoran et al., 2009) and functional mote positive outcome expectations about healthy menu items.
food products (Ares and Gaı́mbaro, 2007; Mialon et al., 2002). This For example, nutritional benefits would appeal to health conscious
study was the first to apply the VAB model to a restaurant context. customers.
It should be noted that few studies in the hospitality context con- It seems necessary that restaurants develop marketing strate-
sider “value” as a cornerstone of customers’ healthy food choice gies to arouse customer interest in healthy foods. First, restaura-
intentions (Kim et al., 2013). Moreover, this study suggests value teurs are advised to be creative in delivering messages on healthy
as a critical component in explaining why health value is impor- food items. For instance, a comparison of calories between healthy
tant and results in healthy food purchase. Although Licata (2009) menu items and regular menu items may make customers think
pointed out the unpopularity of healthy options, this study revealed about healthy options. Second, restaurants may consider pro-
that healthy foods are chosen when customers value their health motional events (e.g., competitions or tasting parties) in which
which leads to positive hedonic expectations and positive health customers can actively participate. For example, restaurants can
outcomes. Thus, this study adds new knowledge to the literature give random prizes to customers who select certain healthy menu
on customers’ healthy food choices and further strengthens the items and use celebrity chefs or famous spokespersons in their
foundation of the theoretical framework. commercials.
This research also found an important link between customers’ Aside from increasing interest in healthy foods, another
health value and food choice behaviors. Interest in healthy food approach may be to focus efforts on increasing health value.
played a crucial role in mediating the effect of health value on Although customers are less interested in promotional messages
food choice intention through hedonic expectations and positive about new menu items, they are likely to pay attention to non-
outcome expectations, which provides future research founda- promotional messages (Kotler et al., 1999). Thus, restaurants can
tion investigating customer motivations focusing on functional and use public relation campaigns to communicate the importance of
emotional aspects of eating healthy food items. health and wellness in one’s life, which may lead to increased atten-
tion toward healthy food menu items.
7. Practical implications
This study suggests critical implications to help restaurants 8. Limitations and future research
meet their goals – creating sales and satisfying customer needs.
Based on the findings, health value and interest in healthy food As with all studies, this study has limitations. First, this study
should be considered when developing marketing strategies for only focused on customers who had eaten healthy menu items
promotion of healthy menu items. Restaurant marketers must at restaurants, which may limit the generalization of the study
understand their current customer profile and these customers’ outcomes. Future studies should explore the perceptions of cus-
health values; thereby enabling them to identify whom they should tomers who have not eaten healthy menu items. Understanding
target and how they can attract those target customers. this customer group will help in developing marketing strategies
There might be differences in customers’ evaluation of food that appeal to this potential customer base. Second, the survey
item healthfulness and interest in healthy foods because of dif- was conducted in one U.S. region, therefore, it may lack gener-
ferences in quality of life expectations. Restaurant marketers are alizability. Future studies should consider more diverse samples,
advised to provide different healthy options to each segment. including consumers from big cities and suburban areas across the
For health conscious customers, providing nutritional informa- country. Because people in different geographical areas present
tion is more important than describing the taste of the healthy different patterns of purchasing behavior, they are likely to have
menu item, because their focus is health. Restaurant marketers different preferences and habits for food consumption. Third, the
may develop a healthy menu and exclusively provide it to cus- majority of the sample population in this study was female and
tomers who seek healthy options. On the other hand, customers was made up of young adults between 18 and 34 years old.
who are less willing to choose healthy options, may be given These customers are likely to be more concerned about their
several healthy options with nutrient information, allowing cus- body shape and appearance than long-term health consequences.
tomers to customize the amount of fat or calories. This customized Future studies can be expanded to other groups, especially cus-
approach may be effective, especially when customers prefer high tomers who are 35 years old or older. Fourth, the present study
calorie and/or high-fat menu items, but at the same time they did not measure actual purchasing behaviors because of the dif-
want to maintain their health. In this case, restaurants can mod- ficulties of observing and measuring them. However, if possible,
erately promote healthy options to encourage customers’ healthy future researchers could include actual purchase behavior into the
selections. model.
20 J. Kang et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 48 (2015) 12–21
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