Module 1

Basic Concepts

1.1 Evolution of Power Systems and Present Day Scenario

1.2 Structure of Power System: Bulk Power Grids and Micro grids
1.3 Generation: Conventional and Renewable Energy Sources, Distributed
Energy Resources and Energy Storage
1.4 Transmission and Distribution Systems: Line Diagrams , Transmission and
Distribution Voltage levels and Topologies
1.5 Synchronous Grid and Asynchronous Interconnections.
1.6 Review of Three Phase Systems . Analysis of simple three phase circuits
1.7 Power Transfer in AC circuits and Reactive Power
1.8 Skin effect and Ferranti effect

1.1 Evolution of Power Systems and Present Day Scenario

Electrical Technology was founded by the discovery of Faraday that a changing magnetic
flux creates an electric field. Out of that discovery, grew the largest and most complex
engineering achievement of man: the electric power system. Electric power systems form the
basic infrastructure of a country. Even as we read this, electrical energy is being produced at
rates in excess of hundreds of giga-watts (1 GW = 1,000,000,000 W).

Giant rotors spinning at speeds up to 3000 rotations per minute bring us the energy stored in
the potential energy of water, or in fossil fuels. While the basic features of the electrical
power system remained practically unchanged in the past century, there are some significant
milestones in the evolution of electrical power systems:

First complete DC power system built by Edison (1882):

Incandescent lamps supplied by steam driven DC generators (electrical cable system at

110V). 59 customers spread over an approximate area with 1.5 km radius.

Development of transformers led to supersession of DC systems by AC systems. Nikola

Tesla - polyphase induction motors: led to development of AC 3 phase systems.

Interconnection of systems led to standardization of frequency, 60 Hz in North America and

50 Hz in most other countries.

Use of higher and higher voltage levels (up to 1000 kV line-line rms AC). Standardization of
voltage levels.

Development of Mercury Arc Valves, and subsequently thyristors led to high voltage dc
transmission (HVDC):

DC transmission suited for very long- distance bulk transmission and underwater cable links.

First commercial DC link in 1954. Several new developments : Gas turbines, static excitation
systems, fast acting circuit breakers, microprocessor based relaying, use of communication
technologies etc.

Need for better utilisation and operation of AC transmission systems by use of high- power
electronic converters suggested.

Present day power systems are characterised by:

 o AC generation (3 phase synchronous machines using hydro, fossil and nuclear as
primary energy sources)
o AC transmission (a limited number of DC transmission links are present in some
systems)
o 3 phase AC utilization (some loads are single phase, but they are usually distributed
equally in all phases to obtain a balanced system)
o The transmission network consists of an extra high voltage (220 kV and above) lines
interconnecting large generators to major load centers.
o These lines can transmit large amounts of power over large distances (1000 km is not
unusual!).
o For example, several 400 kV lines may be required to transmit, say, 2000 MW from a
large thermal power plant to a distant load center.
o Generators, typically having terminal voltages of around 15 kV and are connected to
these EHV lines via transformers.

1.2 Structure of Power System: Bulk Power Grids and Micro Grids

The power system is the complex enterprise that is subdivided into the following sub-
systems.

Generating Substation
In generating station, the fuel such as coal, water, nuclear energy, etc. is converted into
electrical energy. The electrical power is generated in the range of 11kV to 25kV which is
step-up for long distance transmission. The power plant of the generating substation is mainly
classified into three types into thermal power plant, hydropower plant and nuclear power
plant.

The generator and the transformer are the main components of the generating station. The
generator converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy. The mechanical energy
comes from the burning of coal, gas and nuclear fuel, gas turbines, or occasionally the
internal combustion engine.

The transformer transfers the power with high efficiency from one level to another. The
power transfer from the secondary is approximately equal to the primary except for losses in
the transformer. The step-up transformer will reduce losses in the line which makes the
transmission of power over long distances.

Transmission Substation

The transmission substation carries the overhead lines which transfer the generated electrical
energy from generation to distribution substations. It only supplies the large bulk of power to
bulk power substations or big consumers.

The transmission lines mainly perform the two functions

1. It transports the energy from generating stations to bulk receiving stations.

2. It interconnects the two or more generating stations. The, neighbouring substations
are also interconnected through the transmission lines.

The transmission voltage is operating at more than 66kv and is standardised at 69kv, 115KV,
138KV, 161KV, 230KV, 345KV, 500KV, and 765KV, line-to-line. The transmission line
above 230KV is referred as extra high voltage (EHV).
The high voltage line terminated in substations are called high voltage substations, receiving
substations or primary substations. In high voltage substation, the voltage is step-down to a
suitable value for the next part of flow toward the load. The large industrial consumers may
be served directly to the transmission system.

Sub-transmission Substation

The portion of the transmission system that connects the high voltage substations through the
step-down transformer to the distribution substations is called the sub-transmission system.

The sub-transmission voltage level ranges from 90 to 138KV. The sub-transmission system
directly serves some large industries. The capacitor and reactor are in the substations for
maintaining the transmission line voltage.

The operation of the sub-transmission system is same as that of a distribution system. The
differences are in the following manner.

1. A sub-transmission system has a higher voltage level than a distribution system.

2. It supplies only bigger loads.
3. It supplies only a few substations as compared to a distribution system which supplies
some loads.

Distribution Substation

The component of electrical power system connecting all the consumers in an area to the bulk
power sources is called a distribution system. The bulk power stations are connected to the
generating substations by transmission lines. They feed some substations which are usually
situated at convenient points near the load centres.

The substations distribute the power to domestic, commercial and relatively small consumers.
The consumers require large blocks of power which are usually supplied at sub-transmission
or even transmission system.

Bulk power grid:

Transmission is the collection of networked high-voltage lines (above 100 kV) that tie
generation to load centers. High-voltage lines also connect utilities to one another, reduce
costs through sharing of resources, and provide enhanced reliability in case of events such as
the loss of a large generator. The high-voltage transmission system also enables the wholesale
marketplace for electricity. In general, the bulk or wholesale system refers to the network of
interconnected generation and transmission lines, while the distribution system refers to the
lower-voltage generally radial lines that deliver electricity to the final customer. The load—
created by the electrical equipment on the customer’s side of the meter—is electrically part of
the overall power system and affects its operation; load completes the system.

Micro Grid:

A microgrid is local energy grid with control capability, which means it can disconnect from
the traditional grid and operate autonomously.

To understand how a microgrid works, first understand how the grid works.

The grid connects homes, businesses and other buildings to central power sources, which
allow us to use appliances, heating/cooling systems and electronics. But this
interconnectedness means that when part of the grid needs to be repaired, everyone is
affected.

This is where a microgrid can help. A microgrid generally operates while connected to the
grid, but it can break off and operate on its own using local energy generation in times of
crisis like storms or power outages, or for other reasons.

A microgrid can be powered by distributed generators, batteries, and/or renewable resources

like solar panels.

A microgrid connects to the grid at a point of common coupling that maintains voltage at the
same level as the main grid unless there is some sort of problem on the grid or other reason to
disconnect. A switch can separate the microgrid from the main grid automatically or
manually, and it then functions as an island

1.3 Generation: Conventional and Renewable Energy Sources, Distributed Energy

Resources and Energy Storage
Conventional and Renewable Energy Sources:

When we cannot reuse a source of energy after using it once then we call them “conventional
sources of energy” or “non-renewable energy resources”. These include coal, petroleum,
natural gas and nuclear energy. Oil is the most widely used source of energy.  Coal, petroleum,
and natural gas account for 90% of world’s production of commercial energy and hydroelectric
and nuclear power account for 10%.

Renewable Energy Source:

Renewable energy sources also called non-conventional energy, are sources that are
continuously replenished by natural processes. For example, solar energy, wind energy, bio-
energy - biofuels grown sustainably, hydropower are some of the examples of renewable
energy sources.

A renewable energy system converts the energy found in sunlight, wind, falling-water, sea
waves, geothermal heat, or biomass into a form, we can use such as heat or electricity. Most
of the renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly from sun and wind and can never
be exhausted, and therefore they are called renewable.

Renewable energy sources are essentially flow of energy, whereas the fossil and nuclear fuels
are, in essence, stocks of energy. The various forms of renewable energy are

o Solar energy
o Wind energy
o Bio energy
o Hydro energy
o Geothermal energy
o Wave and tidal energy

Distributed Energy Resources

Distributed energy resources are small, modular, energy generation and storage technologies
that provide electric capacity or energy wherever you need it. It typically produces less than
10 megawatts (MW) of power, DER systems are usually sized to meet your particular needs
and installed on site.
DER systems may be either connected to the local electric power grid or isolated from the
grid in stand-alone applications.

DER technologies include wind turbines, photovoltaics (PV), fuel cells, microturbines,
reciprocating engines, combustion turbines, cogeneration, and energy storage systems.

DER systems are used in several ways. They help to manage energy bills and ensure reliable
power by augmenting current energy services.

DER systems also enable facility to operate independently of the electric power grid, whether
by choice or out of necessity.

Certain DER systems even lower emissions and improve fuel utilization on site. Utilities use
DER technologies to delay, reduce, or even eliminate the need to obtain additional power
generation, transmission, and distribution equipment and infrastructure. At the same time,
DER systems can provide voltage support and enhance local reliability

Energy Storage

The electricity grid is complex system in which power supply and demand are equal at any
given moment. Constant adjustments to supply are required for predictable changes in
demand, such as the daily patterns of human activity, as well as unexpected changes from
equipment overloads and storms.

Energy storage plays important role in this balancing act and helps to create more flexible
and reliable grid system. 

For example, when there is more supply than demand, such as during the night when low-
cost power plants continue to operate, the excess electricity generation is used to power
storage devices. When demand is greater than supply, storage facilities discharge their stored
energy to the grid. 

Energy storage becomes more important the farther you are from the electrical grid.

For example, when you turn on the lights in your home, the power comes from the grid; but
when you turn on a flashlight while camping, you must rely on the stored energy in the
batteries.
Similarly, homes that are farther away from the transmission grid are more vulnerable to
disruption than homes in large metropolitan areas. Islands and microgrids that are
disconnected from the larger electrical grid system depend on energy storage to ensure power
stability, just like you depend on the batteries in your flashlight while camping.

1.4 Transmission and Distribution System:

Line Diagrams
Single Line Diagram:
In single line representation of power system, the components of the system are represented
by standard symbols & the transmission lines are represented by straight lines.

Hence a single line diagram is diagrammatic of power system in which the components are
represented by their symbols and the interconnection between them is shown by straight
lines.

Transmission and Distribution Voltage levels

Transmission lines are a high voltage line that carries electricity from power plant to the
substation from it is further distributed to various areas for different purposes. Distribution
lines are low voltage lines that carry electricity from the substations to the end users for
residential and commercial use.

The Transmission line and Distribution line both are used to carry power or electricity from

one place to the other.
Topologies

The power system distribution topology include Secondary-Selective ‘Main-Tie-Main’

Arrangement, Main-Tie-Main topology, Ring Bus Arrangement, Primary Loop Arrangement, and
Composite Primary Loop/Secondary Selective Arrangement.

1.5 Synchronous Grid and Asynchronous Interconnections:

Synchronous Grid:

A synchronous grid implies that the rotors of all generators are spinning in exact
synchronization throughout the entire network.

Nearly all global electricity is produced by synchronous generators driven by rotary turbines;
in 2010, 96 % of global electricity was generated by thermal or hydro plant, with nearly all
being either steam, gas, or hydro turbines. The current issue around synchronous generation
is that wind and solar use non-synchronous inverters.
The synchronization of the network can be considered by imagining a road train of 100
vehicles of various sizes, which are tethered together in a long line, driven along an
undulating highway at constant speed.

In much the same way, generators become ‘locked’ by the interaction between the generator
magnetization and grid cycle when they are connected online and synchronized.

But maintaining the correct speed can be challenging and requires monitoring and feedback
loops to ensure stability of the entire 4,500 km-long machine.

Asynchronous Interconnections:

The DC interconnection system is asynchronous thus the system which is interconnected is

either of the same frequency or at the difference frequency. The DC link thus provides the
advantages of interconnection of two AC network at different frequencies. It also enables the
system to operate independently and to maintain their frequency standards.

1.6 Review of Three Phase Systems

The three-phase system consists of a three-phase voltage source connected to a three-phase

load by means of transformers and transmission lines. Two types of connections are possible,
namely delta (Δ) connection and star or wye (Y) connection. The load and the source can be
either in delta or star. The transmission line will be in delta connection. Normally the power
system is operated in balanced three-phase condition. Most of the bulk loads such as
industrial loads are three-phase balanced loads in nature. However, when there is a mix of
single-phase and three-phase loads such as residential loads, the load will be unbalanced.
Nevertheless, an unbalanced load can be resolved into a set of more than one balanced
system. 

Analysis of simple three phase circuits

The three-phase system has three live wires and one return the path. The three-phase system
is used for transmitting a large amount of power. The 3- phase system is divided mainly into
two types. One is a balanced three-phase system and another one is an unbalanced three-
phase system.

The balance system is one in which the load is equally distributed in all the three phases of
the system. The magnitude of voltage remains same in all the three phases and it is separated
by an angle of 120º.

In the unbalance system the magnitude of voltage in all the three phases becomes different.

Analysis of Balanced 3 Phase Circuit

When the three-phase supply voltage is given without reference to the line or phase value,
then it is the line voltage which is taken into consideration.

The following steps are given below to solve the balanced three-phase circuits.

Step 1 – First of all draw the circuit diagram.

Step 2 – Determine XLP = XL/phase = 2πfL.

Step 3 – Determine XCP = XC/phase = 1/2πfC.

Step 4 – Determine XP = X/ phase = XL – XC

Step 5 – Determine ZP = Z/phase = √R2P + X2P

Step 6 – Determine cosϕ = RP/ZP; the power factor is lagging when XLP > XCP and it is
leading when XCP > XLP.

Step 7 – Determine the V phase.

For star connection VP = VL/√3 and for delta connection VP = VL

Step 8 – Determine IP = VP/ZP.

Step 9 – Now, determine the line current IL.

For star connection IL = IP and for delta connection IL = √3 IP

Step 10 – Determine the Active, Reactive and Apparent power.

Analysis of Unbalanced 3 Phase Circuit

The analysis of the 3 Phase unbalanced system is slightly difficult, and the load is connected
either as Star or Delta. The topic is discussed in detail in the article named as Star to Delta
and Delta to Star Conversion.

Interconnection of 3 Phase System

In a three-phase AC generator, there are three windings. Each winding has two terminals at
start and finish. If a separate load is connected across each phase winding as shown in the
figure below, then each phase supplies as independent load through a pair of wires. Thus, six
wires will be required to connect the load to a generator.
Therefore, to reduce the number of line conductors, the three-phase windings of an AC
generator are interconnected.

1.7 Power Transfer in AC circuits and Reactive power

Maximum power transfer theorem states that AC voltage source will deliver maximum
power to the variable complex load only when the load impedance is equal to the complex
conjugate of source impedance.

Proof:

Replace any two terminal linear network or circuit to the left side of variable load resistor
having resistance of RL ohms with a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. We know that Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit resembles a practical voltage source.
The amount of power dissipated across the load resistor is

PL = I 2 R L ----------------------(1)

Substitute I = Vth / Rth + RL

PL = Vth / (Rth + RL ) 2 RL

PL = Vth 2 { RL / (RTH + RL) 2 ------------------------------(2)

Condition for Maximum Power Transfer

For maximum or minimum, first derivative will be zero. So, differentiate Equation 1 with
respect to RL and make it equal to zero.

dPL / d RL = V Th 2 { (Rth + RL) 2 x 1 -RL x 2(Rth + RL) / (Rth + RL) 4 } =0

(Rth + RL) 2 – 2RL (Rth + RL) = 0

(Rth + RL) (Rth + RL – 2 RL) = 0

Rth - RL = 0

Rth = RL or RL = Rth

Therefore, the condition for maximum power dissipation across the load is RL=RTh. That
means, if the value of load resistance is equal to the value of source resistance that is
Thevenin’s resistance, then the power dissipated across the load will be of maximum value.

Substitute RL = Rth and PL = PL,max

PL,max = V th 2 { Rth / (Rth + Rth ) 2 }

= V th 2 ( Rth / 4 Rth 2 )
= V th 2 / 4 Rth

PL,max = V th 2 / 4 RL [RL = Rth]

Efficiency of Maximum power transfer

= PL,max/ Ps

PL,max = maximum amount of power transferred to the load

Ps = amount of power generated by the source.

The amount of power generated by the source is

Ps = I2 Rth + I2 RL

Ps = 2 I2 Rth ; since RL = Rth

Substitute I = Vth / 2 Rth

Ps = 2(Vth / 2Rth) 2 Rth

Ps = 2(Vth / 4Rth) 2 Rth

Ps = Vth 2 / 2 Rth

Substituting with PL max and Ps

= (Vth 2 / 4 Rth) / (Vth 2 / 2 Rth)

max = ½

Problem:

Find the maximum power that can be delivered to the load resistor R L of the circuit shown
in the following figure.
Step 1 – Using Thevenin’s circuit we get

Thevenin’s voltage Vth = 200/3 and Thevenin’s resistance Rth = 40/3

Step 2 – Replace the left side of terminals A & B of the given circuit with the above
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. The resultant circuit diagram will be

Step 3 − We can find the maximum power that will be delivered to the load resistor, R L by
using the following formula.
 P L,max = Vth 2 / 4 Rth

Substitute VTh=200/3 and RTh=40/3Ω

P L,max = (200/3) 2 / 4 (40/3)

Therefore, the maximum power that will be delivered to the load resistor RL of the given
circuit is 250/3 .

Problem:

For the circuit shown find the value of RL that absorbs maximum power from the circuit
and the corresponding power under this condition.

Load resistance RL is disconnected from the terminals ‘a’ and ‘b’ and the corresponding
circuit diagram.

The above circuit is equivalently represented by a Thevenin circuit and the corresponding
Thevenin voltage VTh and Thevenin resistance RTh are calculated by following the steps
given below:

Considering 20V only

From the above circuit the current through ‘b-c’ branch =20/ 20 = 1𝐴 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎 𝑡𝑜 𝑏). whereas
the voltage across the ‘b-a’ branch vba =1 ×10 =10 volt . Since ’b’ is higher potential than
‘a’ ∴vab = − 10volt.

Considering only 10v source only

No current is flowing through ‘cb’-branch. Vab = 5v (‘a’ is higher potential than ‘b’).
Consider only 2 A current source only

To compute Rth

Replace all voltage and current sources by their internal resistance of the circuit.

Rth = Rab = ((5+5)||10) + (10||10) = 5+5 =10Ω

RL = Rth = 10Ω

The maximum power dissipated to RL is

Pmax = Vth 2 / 4 Rth = ¼ 25 /10 = 0.625 watts

Reactive Power

The power which flows back and forth that means it moves in both the directions in the
circuit or reacts upon itself, is called Reactive Power. The reactive power is measured in kilo
volt-ampere reactive (kVAR) or MVAR.

1.8 Skin effect and Ferranti effect

The phenomena arising due to unequal distribution of electric current over the entire cross
section of the conductor being used for long distance power transmission is referred as skin
effect in transmission lines.

Such a phenomena does not have much role to play in case of short line, but with increase in
the effective length of the conductors, skin effect increases considerably. So, the
modifications in line calculation needs to be done accordingly.

The distribution of electric current over the entire cross section of the conductor is quite
uniform in case of DC system. But what we are using in the present era of power system
engineering is predominantly an alternating electric current system, where the electric current
tends to flow with higher density through the surface of the conductors that is skin of the
conductor, leaving the core deprived of necessary number of electrons.

In fact, there even arises a condition when absolutely no electric current flows through the
core, and concentrating the entire amount on the surface region, thus resulting in an increase
in the effective electrical resistance of the conductor. This trend of an AC transmission
system to take the surface path for the flow of electric current depriving the core is referred to
as the skin effect in transmission lines

Ferranti effect
Ferranti effect is due to the charging current of the line. When an alternating voltage is
applied, the current that flows into the capacitor is called charging current. A charging current
is also known as capacitive current. The charging current increases in the line when the
receiving end voltage of the line is larger than the sending end.

On such transmission lines, the capacitance is not concentrated at some definite points. It is
distributed uniformly along the whole length of the line.

When the voltage is applied at the sending end, the current drawn by the capacitance of the
line is more than current associated with the load. Thus, at no load or light load, the voltage at
the receiving end is quite large as compared to the constant voltage at the sending end.

References

 Power System Analysis by P.S.R Murthy

 Modern Power Systems Analysis (Power Electronics and Power Systems)

 Electrical Power Systems Quality Book by Roger C. Dugan

 Power System Analysis and Design Book by J. Duncan Glover and Mulukutla S
Sarma