Geoscience Magazine GEO ExPro Vol. 17, No. 5

VOL . 17, NO.
5 – 2020
GEOSCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY EXPLAINED
geoexpro.com
EXPLORATION GEO PHYSICS
Underexplored
CSEM: Back from
the Brink
African Source
Rocks
ENERGY TRANSITION
Hydrogen and CCS in
Future Energy
GEO TOURISM
Sailing Through a
Subduction Zone
INDUSTRY ISSUES
Tackling the Local
Content Gap
GEOExPro October 2020 1

Previous issues: www.geoexpro.com
Contents
Vol. 17 No. 5
This edition of GEO ExPro focuses on Africa;

GEOSCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY EXPLAINED
Non-Seismic Geophysics; Carbon Capture,
Storage and Utilisation; and the Energy
Transition.
26
Lon Abbott and Terri Cook
The Irrawaddy River valley – a 5 Editorial

stunning mix of beautiful scenery
and ancient and modern culture. 6 Regional Update: A Bleak Year
8 Licensing Update: Norway Surprises
10 A Minute to Read
30 14 Cover Story: Exploration:

Imaging the subsurface with Enhanced Underexplored African Source Rocks
Full Tensor Gravity Gradiometry.
20 Seismic Foldout: Kwanza Shelf – New
AustinBridgeporth
3D Seismic Imaging
26 GEO Tourism: Sailing Through a
Subduction Zone
30 Technology Explained: Egypt’s Buried
48 Secrets
The role of the geoscientist is
an important one in the future 32 Energy Transition: Hydrogen and CCS
energy transition. in Future Energy
36 Hot Spot: The Hotspot That Keeps On
Giving
CMG
38 GEO Physics: CSEM – Back From the

52
Brink
CO2 is an unwanted gas but its effect
can be mitigated by using it for
42 Seismic Foldout: Offshore Somalia
enhanced oil recovery.
Could Reveal an Oily Surprise
48 Energy Transition: Geoscience in a Low
Carbon Future
52 Energy Transition: Ruminations on CO₂
56
The Onshore Kwanza Basin in 56 Exploration: Tantalising Opportunities
Angola is underexplored and in Angola
canstockphoto
offers tantalising potential.

60 Industry Issues: Tackling the Local
Content Gap
64 Seismic Foldout: Gabon – Staying
8 Ahead of the Herd
72 11 70 Exploration: A Global Exploration

75 Hotspot
30
26 74 72 GEO Media: Geological Tours of North
60
36 6
42
America’s Wonders
64
14 74 Exploration Update
56
20
12 70
76 FlowBack
74
GEOExPro September 2020 3

Editorial
Aiming for Net Zero GEOSCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY EXPLAINED
Many companies involved in www.geoexpro.com
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the oil industry are at pains to
explain how they are going to go GeoPublishing Ltd
green. Repsol, BP and Shell have 15 Palace Place Mansion
all announced plans to reach Kensington Court
London W8 5BB, UK
net zero by 2050, while Eni says
+44 20 7937 2224
it will cut its greenhouse gas
emissions by 80% in the same Managing Director
timescale. On the other side of Tore Karlsson
the Atlantic, ExxonMobil and
Editor in Chief
Chevron have not set long- Jane Whaley
term greenhouse gas emissions [email protected]
reduction targets, but they have
committed to reductions in Editorial enquiries
GeoPublishing
methane emissions and cuts in flaring and are involved in projects to develop low emissions
Jane Whaley
energy solutions. +44 7812 137161
But, as ExxonMobil’s Chairman wrote in the company’s 2020 Energy and Carbon [email protected]
Summary: “Energy is essential. Accessible and affordable supplies of energy support our www.geoexpro.com
ability to meet the basic requirements of life and fuel society’s progress around the world”.
Sales and Marketing Director
And therein lies the core of the issue: how to reduce emissions, transition to a low carbon Kirsti Karlsson
environment – and still manage to increase access to energy and electricity in the many parts +44 79 0991 5513
of the world that are only just beginning to appreciate the benefits that those of us living in [email protected]
the more developed countries have been enjoying for decades. There is an interesting picture
on the last page of our cover story that illustrates this admirably. Would digging holes in a
sandy river bed to grab a saucepan-full of fresh water be a thing of the past if these people had
access to electric pumps?
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To make that a possibility, it appears that all scenarios for the energy transition indicate
GeoPublishing Ltd
that fossil fuels, particularly gas, will be around for some time, as will be the inevitable CO₂ +44 20 7937 2224
emissions. In this edition we discuss how CO₂ can usefully be employed in enhanced oil 15 Palace Place Mansion
recovery, rather than just pumping it into the atmosphere. We also look at Kensington Court
London W8 5BB, UK
the idea of hydrogen as an energy source, which has been gaining ground
[email protected]
recently, but most techniques for making hydrogen require electricity, so
carbon capture and storage is needed if the power source is not green. GEO ExPro is published bimonthly
Reducing emissions is an important goal but it must be approached for a base subscription rate of GBP
globally. It is no use if one country or company claims to have reduced 60 a year (6 issues).
We encourage readers to alert us
its carbon footprint if the polluting industry or process has simply to news for possible publication
shifted elsewhere where there are less stringent environmental controls. and to submit articles for publication.
Jane Whaley Achieving net zero is a complex issue.
Editor in Chief Cover Photograph:
Main Image: Mike Rego
Inset: OFG Multiphysics
UNDEREXPLORED AFRICAN SOURCE ROCKS Layout: Mach 3 Solutions Ltd

Villagers carrying fruit to market along a road climbing the flank of the Print: Stephens & George, UK
Makonde Plateau in southern Tanzania. This escarpment represents the
westernmost onshore extent of the sediments that make up the Rovuma issn 1744-8743
Basin. The sandstones and shales here are currently interpreted to be
Lower Cretaceous in age and require examination for source potential,
since these sediments are the basin margin equivalents of those hosting
the supergiant gas discoveries of the Rovuma Basin.
Inset: CSEM is a proven technology that should be routinely considered to
help solve certain classes of E&P challenges, especially when seismic data
alone cannot provide a satisfactory answer.
© 2020 GeoPublishing Limited.

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to republish material from this publication for distribution should be sent to the Editor in Chief. GeoPublishing Limited does not guarantee the accuracy of the
information contained in this publication nor does it accept responsibility for errors or omissions or their consequences. Opinions expressed by contributors to
this publication are not necessarily those of GeoPublishing Limited.
GEO ExPro October 2020 5

Regional Update
A Bleak Year ABBREVIATIONS
2020 is the bleakest year in a decade for African oil and gas exploration.
Numbers
Expectations were high at the start of this year for some keenly anticipated oil and gas exploration (US and scientific community)
wells on the African continent. However, most of these high-impact wells have now been delayed M: thousand = 1 x 103
or deferred due to the twin impact of the oil price crash and the Covid-19 pandemic. MM: million = 1 x 106
B: billion = 1 x 109
Only 20 exploration wells have been drilled in Africa so far this year, and overall well
T: trillion = 1 x 1012
activity has dropped about 72% from last year. This means the continent will struggle even to
replicate 2018, which had the lowest number of African exploration wells (52) drilled in the
past decade. Across Africa barely 270 wells have been drilled in the past five years, which is Liquids
approximately equivalent to the total well count from 2014 alone. barrel = bbl = 159 litre
The search for new volumes through exploratory drilling has seen around 41.5 Bboe boe: barrels of oil equivalent
discovered in Africa over the past nine years. Gas dominates over liquids, with around 73% of bopd: barrels (bbls) of oil per day
the cumulative discovered resource during this period. Last year was the most successful since bcpd: bbls of condensate per day
2015 with about 3 Bboe of new volumes discovered. UK supermajor BP’s Orca gas discovery in bwpd: bbls of water per day
Mauritania was not only the deepest but also the largest discovery in Africa in 2019, and the
fifth-largest in the past nine years. In addition, 2019 expanded Africa’s exploration potential Gas
with Total’s basin-opening Brulpadda discovery in Block 11B/12B in South Africa. Brulpadda MMscfg: million ft3 gas
not only de-risked the additional prospects available within the block, but also ignited hopes in MMscmg: million m3 gas
South Africa that it would be able to reduce its overall gas imports. Tcfg: trillion cubic feet of gas
Discovered resources and year-on-year well activity change.
Ma: Million years ago
Rystad Energy ECube, Rystad Energy research and analysis

LNG
Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) is natural
gas (primarily methane) cooled to a
temperature of approximately -260 oC.
NGL
Natural gas liquids (NGL) include
propane, butane, pentane, hexane
and heptane, but not methane and
ethane.
Reserves and resources

This year has not turned out as anticipated, however, and the continent is yet to announce P1 reserves:
a major discovery. The only notable success is Eni’s twin discoveries from the Greater Nooros Quantity of hydrocarbons believed
Area in the Mediterranean Sea off Egypt, with cumulative resources of about 4 Tcfg. Total recoverable with a 90% probability
spudded its first African well of the year in late August with the Luiperd prospect in South
Africa, which will test the extension of the Brulpadda play.
A whole host of licensing rounds were scheduled to be held this year in African countries, P2 reserves:
including Algeria, Senegal, South Sudan, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Congo, Angola, Egypt, Sudan, Quantity of hydrocarbons believed
Uganda, Somalia, Liberia, Mozambique and Nigeria. Now most of these rounds are either recoverable with a 50% probability
suspended until further notice or delayed, and the Nigerian marginal field round is the only
one that has been able to attract significant interest. Some countries like Somalia and Liberia,
P3 reserves:
which are hosting their first-ever rounds, have already started accepting bids for offered
Quantity of hydrocarbons believed
blocks but have pushed back the deadline to the second quarter of 2021.
recoverable with a 10% probability
We also expect that the highly anticipated wells of 2020 that may be spudded by the end of
this year will be completed in 2021. This could include the likes of Total’s Venus prospect off
Namibia, considered to be largest prospect in the ultra-deep waters in Block 2913B. Similarly, Oilfield glossary:
the result of Total’s Ondjaba well in Angola’s Block 48 may also be deferred to early 2021. www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com
These wells hold significant importance, as Namibia looks to register its first success since the
Kudu field was found in 1974 and Angola searches for new volumes to reverse the decline in
the country’s hydrocarbon production.
Aatisha Mahajan, Rystad Energy
6 GEOExPro October 2020

Licensing Update
Norway Surprises
Quaternary
Neogene
Known for being a country with some of the greenest credentials 2.6
and policies in the world, Norway surprised many observers in Tertiary
Cenozoic
South Atlantic starts opening
June by announcing plans for a licensing round that signalled a 23
Paleogene
major expansion of the availability of areas for oil exploration in the
Norwegian sector of the Arctic Sea.
In preparation for the country’s 25th licensing round, which is
66*
Norwegian-Greenland Sea starts opening

scheduled for 2021, the Ministry of Petroleum and Energy sought
Alpine orogeny
public consultation on the proposal, which includes eight areas in Cretaceous
Laramide orogeny
the Arctic Barents Sea covering 125 blocks, as well as 11 blocks in the
Norwegian Sea. It has already made an assessment of the petroleum
potential of these areas, and after the inputs from the consultation
period, which ended in August 2020, have been assessed, the 25th
Pangaea breakup
145
licensing round is likely to be announced during the autumn of 2020.
Mesozoic
The deadline for applications is expected in the new year, with award Jurassic
announcements expected in the second quarter of 2021.
North Sea rifting

The announcement brought condemnation from environmental groups,
especially since about half of the suggested blocks lie in the northern part
Central Atlantic starts opening

201*
*The Big Five Extinction Events

of the Barents Sea between 73°N and 74°N, potentially some of the most
northerly offshore oil exploration in the world. Others are close to the Triassic
Svalbard zone and will therefore probably be disputed by Russia.
Over the years Norway has been vocal in its commitments to tackling
global warming and reducing its use of fossil fuels. The country’s sovereign 252*
Gulf of Mexico rifting

wealth fund, derived from the profits from its petroleum resources, Permian
Phanerozoic
recently said that it would divest itself of any stakes in companies that are
solely dedicated to oil and gas exploration and production.
299
Norway has a system with two forms of licence round. Numbered
Carboniferous
FORMATION OF PANGAEA
rounds, held every two years, are based on less well-known areas on the
Norwegian shelf, where there is greater risk but a higher chance of large
discoveries, while the annual allocations in predefined areas (APA), are
announced every year and comprise the mature parts of the shelf, with
known geology and good infrastructure. When the consultation period 359*
was announced the Norwegian Minister of Petroleum and Energy, Tina Devonian
Paleozoic
Bru, stated that “Regular access to new exploration areas is crucial to
maintaining activity on the Norwegian continental shelf. We need new
discoveries to uphold employment and value creation”.
Variscan orogeny
419
Silurian
443*
Ordovician
Caledonia orogeny
486
Cambrian
The Great Unconformity 541

Neoproterozoic
Precambrian
Proposed new blocks

Licensed areas
Areas not available for drilling
Pre-defined area for drilling

A Minute to Read… News from around the world
New Way and New Name

PetroMarker has over the summer gone
Allton
through a rebranding process and changed
the company name to Allton. As part of the
whole energy transition shift occurring in the
oil and gas industry it was a suitable time to
change the company name and technology
focus. Electromagnetics (EM) have primarily
been used for frontier exploration, regional
studies and drill or drop decisions. Allton will
focus the technology development not only
to improve frontier and near-field exploration
services; there will also be a strong technology
commitment to deliver EM services for 4D
oil and gas monitoring. The implementation
and use of 4D EM technology in oil and
gas production will in many cases increase
the recovery rate of existing and new fields,
improving the economics and reducing the carbon footprint. The increased focus on offshore CO₂ storage such as the Northern
Lights project in Norway will require a secure and reliable measurement, monitoring and verification tool. Allton’s EM
technology will be that tool, which can deliver on these promises to make sure that the CO₂ is stored safely.
OPEC Turns 60
September 14, 2020 marked the 60th anniversary of the founding of one of the
most influential global organisations ever: OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum
Exporting Countries). Until its formation, the price of oil was determined by the
major Anglo-American oil companies, including the forerunners of Exxon, Mobil,
Chevron, Shell and BP. Owning large swathes of concessions across the developing
world, these companies effectively controlled the exploration, production,
distribution and sale of oil in the non-Communist countries through informal (and
possibly not legal) agreements between themselves to limit production and thus
control prices.
At a conference in Baghdad in September 1960 the leaders of Iran, Iraq, Kuwait,
OPEC
Saudi Arabia and Venezuela agreed to form an intergovernmental organisation, the
aims of which were to “co-ordinate and unify petroleum policies among Member The Iraqi delegation to the OPEC founding
Countries, in order to secure fair and stable prices for petroleum producers; an conference.
eﬃcient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consuming nations; and a
fair return on capital to those investing in the industry”. These countries were later joined by Qatar, Indonesia, Libya, United Arab
Emirates, Algeria, Nigeria, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Angola and Congo, although some of the members have since left
the organisation, and there are 13 member states at present (see GEO ExPro Vol. 7, No. 5 for more on the history of OPEC).
OPEC came to prominence in October 1973, when, with oil at about $2 a barrel, the cartel increased its prices unilaterally,
at the same time reducing production. Oil prices rose and shortages were felt in oil-consuming countries, while the global
economy went into recession. From this point onwards, OPEC took a central role in the oil economy, with the biggest-producing
member, Saudi Arabia, often acting as a swing producer in efforts to control the market.
However, as more and more prolific non-OPEC regions, like Alaska, the North Sea and deepwater Brazil, were opened up, the
cartel effectively controlled a reducing percentage of the market. With the rise of shale oil production in the US – encouraged by
oil prices that peaked at $147.50 for Brent crude – OPEC finally lost the consensus that had operated between the member states,
which ultimately resulted in the dramatic price drops seen between 2014 and 2016. In the last few years it has joined forces with
a number of other countries, notably Russia, forming ‘OPEC+’ in efforts to manage global oil production and raise prices, but
with limited success.
In the changing world of the mid-20th century, with many countries being released by colonial powers to form independent
states, OPEC certainly had an important role to play. With a transformed petroleum landscape where different powers hold
influence, plus the emerging energy transition which also tilts the global power balance, OPEC now accounts for about 25% of all
oil produced globally; still a significant amount, and the organisation remains important, particularly for many of the member
states for whom oil is their primary source of revenue.

New Material for Carbon
Capture
Scientists from ExxonMobil, University of California,
Berkeley and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory have
discovered a new material that could capture more than 90%
of CO₂ emitted from industrial sources, such as natural gas-
fired power plants. Results of the research were published in
July in the international peer-reviewed journal, Science.
Laboratory tests indicate the patent-pending materials,
known as tetraamine-functionalised metal organic frameworks,
capture CO₂ emissions up to six times more effectively than
conventional carbon capture technology. By manipulating the
structure of the metal’s organic framework material, the team
of scientists and students demonstrated the ability to condense
a surface area the size of a football field into just one gram of
mass that acts as a sponge for CO₂. The materials have much
greater capacity for capturing CO₂ and can be regenerated
for repeated use by using low-temperature steam, requiring
less energy for the overall carbon capture process. This means
that the material has the potential to reduce the cost of the
technology and eventually support commercial applications.
Since 2000, ExxonMobil has invested approximately
$10 bn in projects to research, develop and deploy lower-
emission energy solutions and is working with more than 80
universities, five energy centres and multiple private sector
partners around the world to explore next-generation energy
technologies.
New Cloud Collaboration
Schlumberger, IBM and Red Hat have joined in a major
Virtual PROSPEX 2020 collaboration aimed to accelerate digital transformation
across the oil and gas industry. The joint initiative will provide
Join the Petroleum Society of Great Britain (PESGB) for global access to Schlumberger’s leading exploration and
#PROSPEX2020 – delivered as a fully virtual event! production cloud-based applications by leveraging IBM’s
Enjoy keynotes from the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, hybrid cloud technology, built on the Red Hat OpenShift
Westwood Global Energy and the event partner, Oil & Gas container platform, which will allow the deployment of
Authority; as well as presentations from companies with applications in Schlumberger’s DELFI* cognitive E&P
exciting prospects and investment opportunities across the environment across any infrastructure, from traditional data
two-day conference. You will also hear from leading experts as centres to multiple clouds, including private and public. This
they consider how the future may look for the industry in the new way of hosting will offer the possibility of using multiple
aftermath of this turbulent year. cloud providers and will address critical issues for customers,
This first-ever virtual PROSPEX will deliver a much facilitating in-country deployments in compliance with local
more diverse event and promote a broader set of investment regulations and data residency requirements.
opportunities to a worldwide audience for the first time. The DELFI environment incorporates cutting-edge data
You can immerse yourself on the dedicated PROSPEX event analytics and artificial intelligence, drawing upon multiple
platform and connect with the event sponsors, exhibitors data sources, automating workflows, and facilitating seamless
and fellow attendees through open discussion boards, ‘chat’ collaboration for domain teams.
dialogue and private messaging. There will also be a virtual Collaborative development will initially focus on two
exhibition to help facilitate those all-important business key areas: the private, hybrid or multi-cloud deployment of
negotiations and lots of additional networking opportunities DELFI, enabled by Red Hat OpenShift, to significantly expand
to get involved with! access for customers; and delivery of the first hybrid cloud
Registration Rates: PESGB Members: £145.00 + VAT; Non- implementation of the industry’s open data platform (OSDU™).
Members: £190.00 + VAT. The companies believe that a hybrid cloud foundation
Find out more about PROSPEX 2020, including exhibitor built on open source offers the flexibility, acceleration and
and sponsor opportunities, and book your place at the innovation that the digital transformation of the oil and gas
PROSPEX website. industry requires.

A Minute to Read… News from around the world
WiNG for Turkey

Leading designer and manufacturer of innovative seismic equipment
and reservoir monitoring instruments, Sercel, recently announced
that it had completed its first delivery of WiNGNT, its next-
generation wireless land nodal acquisition system. The purchaser
was the Turkish Petroleum International Company and the system
will be used for upcoming seismic acquisition projects in difficult-to-
access mountainous areas of Turkey.
WiNG is a fully integrated nodal land acquisition system designed
with a single data collection platform to manage operations more easily
and efficiently. It integrates Sercel’s most sensitive broadband sensor
Sercel
ever, QuietSeis®, to acquire high precision seismic data. The node has
been designed to minimise storage and transportation costs and, although weighing less that a kilogramme, it can record seismic
data for up to 50 days. The data is delivered via the Data Completion Manager, a unique central software platform that significantly
improves and automates the assignment of data collected in the field, while allowing for remote quality control and monitoring.
Onshore Argentina Explorers Package

Despite having an exploration history that goes back to the 1880s, the Neuquén and Cuyo Basins in the Mendoza province
of Argentina still have significant conventional and unconventional potential. To address this, global multi-client geoscience
provider Searcher recently announced the expansion of its Argentina data library with the Onshore Mendoza Explorers
Package, which includes seismic and well data specifically aimed at explorers in these two basins.
The package includes vintage 2D and 3D data to which Searcher has applied its proprietary post-stack reprocessing method
to rectify navigation, metadata, amplitude, phase, and time, thus creating a contiguous database that can be easily loaded into
any interpretation software. The dataset comprises about 40,000 km of
2D and 10,000 km2 of 3D seismic. Also included in the package is the
Mendoza Well Atlas, which consists of 50 wells for which Searcher’s
G&G team, Discover Geoscience, has undertaken a post-drill well
analysis of the key exploration and discovery wells across the basins.
The resulting well atlas covers both conventional and unconventional
plays. The data is accessed via a simple web interface, allowing
screening and downloading from anywhere in the world.
The presence of the Vaca Muerta world class source rock in the
Neuquén and Cuyo Basins, as well as proven prolific reservoirs with
many traps still undrilled, makes this is a very exciting province in
which to explore.
Delivering Greater Understanding with AI

AI interpretation delivers through the power of people, science
Geoteric
and technology. Software specialist Geoteric has combined over

30 years of geological experience with an in-depth knowledge
of AI to develop two new technologies that will help deliver
greater understanding of subsurface geology. The first is the new
Collaborative AI software that, while being closely aligned to
traditional interpretation techniques, can improve interpretation
and efficiently extract faults from seismic data at the click of a
button. It complements existing Geoteric workflows and can be
run directly from in-house laptops and PCs.
The second is Geoteric StratumTM, a new cloud-based AI
software that delivers simple usability and greater detail for fault
identification, reservoir compartmentalisation and well trajectory
planning. By adding an extra dimension of analysis, the software achieves outstanding results through an intuitive workflow,
giving the user access to critical information that will inform their exploration and development decisions. Delivery through the
cloud allows for scalable compute power appropriate to each task undertaken.

Cover Story: Exploration
Underexplored African Source

Rocks
The source possibilities offered by the Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic in coastal East
Africa are promising – but seriously underexplored.
NICK CAMERON, GeoInsight Ltd; MIKE REGO, Rego Exploration Ltd
Coastal and offshore East Africa youngest Middle Jurassic and embraces (mid-Aptian). Older Middle Jurassic
hosts a variety of long recognised and all but the inception of the separation of and earlier source records are excluded:
well described source rocks (Boote Madagascar from Africa by way of the information on them is available from
and Matchette-Downes, 2009) but Davie Fracture Zone (DFZ). Emphasis is Boote and Matchette-Downes (2009).
considerable additional potential may placed on the Rovuma Delta stradding International Chronostratigraphic
be available from Cretaceous and Upper the Tanzania–Mozambique border as Chart age attributions are used (Cohen
Jurassic sources. Though this interval this is where recent super-giant gas et al., 2013 updated).
remains poorly sampled for source discoveries lie and where there is most
rocks and no certain oil-to-source tie uncertainty over the hydrocarbon The Mozambique Basin
exists, the aggregated indications for the source(s). Loegering and Milkov (2017) suggested
development of effective sources within Elsewhere, limited East African that both the light oil in the Inhassoro
it are sufficient for this interval to be coastal onshore and nearshore success Field and the gases in Sasol’s fields
considered as potentially mainstream in terms of commercial hydrocarbon onshore southern Mozambique had
as any of the currently recognised ones. discoveries can largely be attributed Cretaceous sources. A weakness in
Until an unequivocal oil-to-source tie is to the dearth of published regional this conclusion was that, apart from
established, debate regarding the source fieldwork over the last 30 years, the Palmeira and Sunray wells in the
of some discoveries in this region will combined with the lack of wells drilled far south (Coster et al., 1989), quality
continue. Successful outcomes to the on other than sparse 2D seismic sources of this age remain to be found
ongoing bid rounds in offshore Somalia coverage of variable quality. This and an older, presumably richer, source
and Mozambique are likely to be lack of exploration success cannot could be more possible (Boote et al.,
assisted by progress on this debate. therefore be used as a reliable indicator 2017). Reconstructions by Mueller and
of the region’s remaining yet-to-be- Jokat (2019) imply that an older source
Tectonic Background discovered hydrocarbon potential or is unlikely, as they position ocean
The investigated succession occupies the distribution and quality of both crust or highly extended continental
the pre-Tertiary portion of the Indian mainstream and novel source rocks. crust beneath the region of the fields.
Ocean drift sequence, which began Figure 2 illustrates the Cretaceous Reeves (2020) shows the Bouvet Plume
with the tectonism and transgressions and Upper Jurassic source records and associated magmatism tracking
that ended Middle Jurassic carbonate and interpretations deemed credible southwards from 184 Ma following
platform deposition above the from the Mozambique Basin, while its first impact in the Beira region,
break-up unconformity (Figure 1) Figure 4 shows those from the Somali down the eastern side of what is now
during the Bathonian and Bajocian Basin. Both use the drift configuration the onshore Mozambique Basin and
stages (Kapilima, 2003). It includes the released by Reeves (2018) for 120 Ma clearing the present coastline at the
The Makonde escarpment in Tanzania.

Mike Rego
Mike Rego
Figure 1: The Cretaceous to Upper Jurassic potential source interval
and its relationship to East Africa’s established play stratigraphy and
sources. (BUU: break-up unconformity; RG: regression; TG: transgression).
Regressions during the transit of Madagascar occurred at the base of the
Cretaceous and within the Aptian.
end of the Lower Jurassic. In a personal communication,

Colin Reeves (2020) wrote: “there’s hardly a room big enough
for the elephant that was the Bouvet Plume so it’s hardly
meaningful to pin it down too precisely. My ‘star’ [see Figure
2] is nominally 1,000 km in diameter, but its effects were
experienced far away”.
Figure 2: Confirmed and interpreted Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic
Reeves (2020; 2018) also requires the existence of a sources in the Mozambique Basin. The pale-yellow shaded area is
continental fragment beneath the same portion of onshore southern Madagascar’s position at 136 Ma. The two active centres for the
Mozambique to ‘best fit’ the pre-break-up configuration of Bouvet Plume are positioned using Reeves (2020). Numbers refer to DSDP
Mozambique with Antarctica. This fragment, once part of coreholes. Locations are approximate.
Antarctica, which he names Limpopia, could theoretically
host pre-plume sources, but it is difficult to envisage how Upper Jurassic sources could be regionally significant in
a Limpopian source of this age could survive to contribute southern Mozambique and also in northern South Africa.
to Sasol’s fields because of the high heat flow, hydrothermal Strong support for offshore, Southern Ocean-positioned,
circulation and uplift tectonics commonly associated with source intervals of this age is provided by records of
large plume heads. It is reasonable therefore to concur with Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic sources at DSDP sites (see
Loegering and Milkov and to predict that Cretaceous and Figure 2). Other established examples are the mid-Cretaceous
Mike Rego

Mike Rego
Figure 3: Vista looking eastwards towards the coast from the crest of the Makonde Plateau escarpment along
the valley of the Lukuledi River, along with road-side detail of the escarpment viewed from the west. The shale/
sandstone interbeds are currently interpreted to be Lower Cretaceous in age. Little of this region, which during
Lower Cretaceous times was occupied by the Rovuma delta head, has been comprehensively ground mapped.
sources of the offshore south coast basins of South Africa simplest explanation to explain the offshore gas discoveries
and the likely Upper Jurassic-sourced oil of the Durban is to link it to a Cretaceous, lean, terrestrial kerogen source
Basin (Singh and McLachlan, 2003). Setoyama and Kanungo rock”. Johnstone (2016) suggested Lower Cretaceous might
(2020) in their review of the Southern Ocean’s DSDP/ODP be the source as his modelling indicated older sources were
results say: “probable high primary productivity in the Early fully matured before the young, gas-bearing structures were
Cretaceous in the Southern Ocean”. formed, although contributions from older sources cannot be
Using Spectrum’s ‘top soft kick/base hard kick’ seismic discounted.
interpretation methodology, Intawong et al. (2019) argued for Older Cretaceous, primarily gas-prone sources are
the development of both post- and pre-Turonian oil-prone known from the onshore Rovuma Delta in Mozambique
sources in the offshore Angoche Basin (central northern (Edwards, 2005; Hancox et al., 2002) and from the Rufiji
Mozambique), finding evidence for spatially associated oil Delta in the Songo Songo Field (e.g Kagya, 2000; Ntomola
slicks. and Abrahamsen, 1987). Associated condensates may have
originated from a humic marine shale or lacustrine source
Southern Somali Basin (Jarvie, 2003). Barremian mixed Type II–III affinity organic
Source attributions are complicated in this basin by the matter is identified by Einvit-Heitmann et al. (2016) from the
presence of established Middle Jurassic and earlier sources, onshore Mandawa Basin to the south between the Rovuma
the complexity of the geology associated with the transit of and Rufiji deltas.
Madagascar, and uncertainty offshore relating to younger Released seismic reveals the base Cretaceous surface
Tertiary thermal and tectonic events (Sayers, 2017). A further offshore forms a strong unconformity (Sansom, 2018)
complication is that the main gas source was not encountered overlain by multiple, eastward-flowing progrades, some
in the Rovuma Basin gas discovery wells. Mkuu (2018), of which became the gas field reservoirs. Google Earth
however, describes Cenomanian TOCs from the deepwater observations for the region between the Mandawa Basin
Zeta-1 well in the Rufiji Basin of just over 3%, associated with and the Rovuma River indicate the basal Cretaceous surface
amorphous organic matter at the base of the analysed section. onshore is cutting back westwards across the Jurassic to
Pyrolysis records were not included and it is unclear whether overlie Precambrian basement. Little is known about the
these kerogens are oil- or gas-prone. Vitrinite reflectance facies of the ensuing thick older Cretaceous cover, but the
values were 1.2–1.6% Ro. Deep section penetrations relief, as currently expressed in the strongly upstanding
everywhere are apparently age-limited, with company press escarpment of the Makonde Plateau (Figure 3), suggests
releases suggesting the oldest encountered section is no older that this delta head area was a further source of Type
than Valanginian. III kerogens of the type encountered just to the south in
Basin modelling allows source predictions but as usual northern Mozambique. The overall Somali Basin’s dip
in complex settings, multiple possibilities arise (Rego et al., configuration allows Makonde Plateau region sediments to
2019). Fortunately, modern, better quality seismic is exposing be drawn offshore during lowstands or flooding events to
the tectonic complexities and volcanicity associated with be incorporated into the overall reservoir succession. This
the DFZ (e.g. Sauter et al., 2018), suggesting as the most is analogous to the Indonesian Kutei Basin; here mangrove-
likely case the solution that yields the youngest modelled associated kerogens have been drawn down to mature in
and, therefore, the least perturbed kitchen. Preferred here is deepwater settings, subsequently expelling hydrocarbons
the opinion of Van Itterbeeck et al. (2019) who writes: “the with burial (Ito and Taguchi, 1990).

Equally little is known about the overall source content
Mike Rego
of the Lower Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic section of
the onshore Rufiji Delta, which had a long and complex
history with multiple river mouths. Inland, the source of
the Mambakofi-1 gas discovery is rumoured to be the Upper
Jurassic (Figure 4). Methane associated with a hot spring
further east is of thermal origin with a probable marine
source derivation (Kraml et al., 2014). Thick bituminous
Lower Cretaceous sandstones were intersected in the nearby
Wingayongo borehole (Mbede and Dualeh, 1997), though
both bitumen and methane could be products from an
older Jurassic, marine source. Oil seeps are present, but too
biodegraded to ascertain their source origin (Mpanju and
Phelp, 1994).
Northern Somali Basin and Conjugate Margins

Effective Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic sources are absent
from the coastal zone further north due to the thickness of
overlying Lamu Delta sediments until mid-Somalia, where
Rodriquez et al. (2019) found seismic indications of oil-prone
Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic sources developed in deep
water. Further north and north-west Middle East petroleum
systems predominate.
A deep water seismic profile from offshore Tanzania (Cope,
2000) displays bedding-parallel amplitudes in the interval
below the Upper Cretaceous resembling those attributed by
Spectrum to source horizons in Somalia. The location of this Figure 4: Confirmed and interpreted Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic
line is unknown, but the basin covers the region of the new sources in the Somali Basin. The pale-yellow areas identify Madagascar’s
Tanzanian deepwater gas finds. Should this source prediction  positions at 160 Ma and 136 Ma. Locations are approximate.

in Somalia result in success, it will rapidly define new areas hybrid petroleum systems, such as the oil seeps found along
of Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic source potential. Most the Tanzanian coast from the mouth of the Rovuma River
exciting for the region’s oil potential would be the opening of a northwards as far as the Songo Songo Field. This could also
new, younger Cretaceous, oil-prone source section should the explain the condensates at Songo Songo.
Angoche predictions from the post-Turonian succession be The East Africa-wide spread of potential Lower Cretaceous
found to be correct. and Upper Jurassic source possibilities was unexpected.
Given the concept that oil-prone source rock deposition
Unexpectedly Widespread can be enhanced by the nutrients supplied to sea life from
Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic sources are recorded in ash falls during major volcanic episodes (Parker, 2020), the
Antarctica, Sri Lanka, and the Seychelles, indicating source explanation may lie in the widespread volcanicity during this
rocks of this age to be regionally developed along both time, including large-scale volcanism in the Lower Cretaceous
margins during the Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic where and Upper Jurassic during the opening of the Mozambique
conditions allow them to accumulate. Collectively, these and Somali basins and along the DFZ (Sauter et al., 2018) and
records could outline a northern continuation towards the magmatism augmented in the Mozambique Basin by Africa’s
Middle East of the Lower Cretaceous region of “probable high passage northwards across the Bouvet Plume. A DSDP well on
primary productivity” in the Southern Ocean (Setoyama and the Mozambique Ridge suggests source rocks associated with
Kanungo, 2020). volcanic sediments (Girdley, 1974) – encouraging for Comoros
Figures 2 and 4 indicate that most of the gas records exploration as the entire country is underlain by Lower
attributed to the Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic are associated Cretaceous ocean crust.
with the interaction zone along the DFZ between Africa and
Madagascar. Two explanations are possible. The first is that More Investigation Needed
Lower Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic gas-prone sources A limitation for this projected source interval is that it will
are concentrated here because of hinterland uplift, which lie, except when fully developed and mature, in the nearshore
delivered abundant gas-prone kerogens via rejuvenated rivers, and onshore Mozambique and Rufiji basins, and possibly
diluting the oil-prone kerogens that would otherwise have additionally the Rovuma Basin, currently deepwater settings,
accumulated in a predominantly oil-prone basin (Figure 5). although hydrocarbons may have moved up-dip into shallower
The second possibility is that older sourced hydrocarbons waters. This deepwater region may be the true location of the
survived the events associated with the transit of Madagascar, Cretaceous charge into Sasol’s fields. Such migration could
enabling them to expel gas by pressure release as the pay- also explain the oil shows within the Cretaceous section
bearing, delta front collapse structures formed (Rego et al., penetrated by the Ironclad-1 well in the Mozambique portion
2019). This is considered less likely because of the risk of of the Rovuma Basin (Law, 2011).
losing earlier generated hydrocarbons to tectonism as the Much remains to be accomplished before the extent
DFZ developed. In less active tectonic settings onshore, and quality of the Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic source
older established sources could be involved giving rise to systems can be conclusively documented. Particularly
important is establishing
Figure 5: Villagers collecting fresh water from sandpits dug in the Lukuledi River. The abundance of sand originates the source quality of
from the Makonde Plateau.
onshore outcrops as
this will allow their
geochemistry to be related
Mike Rego
to the rapidly progressing

understanding of the
offshore sedimentary
fabric. This work has
begun in the Tanzanian
Mandawa Basin (Einvik-
Heitmann, 2016) but large
areas of older Cretaceous
and Upper Jurassic
outcrops remain devoid
of source-quality records,
while equivalent published
records for the offshore
wells barely exist.
References and an extended

version of this article
available online.

Kwanza Shelf:
The Kwanza Shelf is witnessing a resurgence in exploration interest with new insights indicating
that the potential of this misunderstood hydrocarbon system has been previously underestimated.
Historic exploration on the Kwanza Shelf has seen 23 exploration wells drilled, 18 of which were
spudded prior to 1993. Only two exploration wells were drilled on 3D data, with the remainder
New 3D Seismic Imaging

based on 2D data of various 1980s vintages. Analyses of well results demonstrate that the key
elements of a petroleum system are present, with successful reservoirs in both the pre- and
post-salt. However, historical wells were unlikely to be optimally positioned due to a limited
understanding of the 3D structure obtained from vintage 2D seismic data.
Reveals Pre- and Post-Salt Plays In partnership with Agência Nacional de Petróleo, Gás e Biocombustíveis (ANPG), PGS has acquired
a new multisensor GeoStreamer survey over the Kwanza Shelf. This new data provides enhanced
subsurface illumination through broadband acquisition and the use of modern processing
workflows tailored to the unique imaging challenges of shallow water and salt presence. This new
broadband 3D multiclient dataset will equip explorers with the tools to identify and unlock the pre-
and post-salt plays in this underexplored area of the Angolan offshore.
Figure 1: This full-stack PSDM strike line from the Kwanza Shelf survey demonstrates excellent pre- and post-salt resolution. Post-rift stacked turbidite
channel and fan systems are well imaged with increased high frequency content revealing detailed depositional features. Complex structures related
to halokinesis are unveiled with clear imaging of pre-salt rift basins and basement highs illustrating the prospective potential of the Kwanza Shelf.
20 GEOExPro October 2020 GEOExPro October 2020 22

Unlocking Prospectivity on
high where lacustrine carbonates
PGS
were trapped in a four-way dip-
closed structure. Denden-1 found
the Kwanza Shelf

an excellent dolomitised coquina
reservoir exhibiting porosities of up
to 15%, proving the pre-salt carbonate
play on the shelf. Pre-salt sandstone
New data shows that the evolution of the Kwanza Shelf demonstrates key elements of a plays have also been targeted across
prolific hydrocarbon system, ready for the 2021 licence round. the shelf. The Flamingo-1 well (1982)
encountered oil shows in Cuvo
GEORGINA KATZAROS and AVRIL BURRELL, PGS; JEAN AFONSO COLSOUL and NAIRE Formation sandstones confirming the
JUDITH RICARDO CAHUMBA QUENGUE, ANPG existence of a good quality pre-salt
reservoir sandstone on the shelf.
The Kwanza Shelf area has been overlooked in recent This prolific source rock was deposited in sequences
exploration cycles with the industry focused on the of fluviatile-lacustrine shales in deep lakes with anoxic Post-rift Transformation Phase:
Figure 3: Right: KPSDM dip line with full-stack impedance shown with a 3D seabed surface drape
offshore deepwater and ultra-deepwater basin trends. bottom waters and charges both pre- and post-salt Developing Petroleum System
above. Left: Seabed surface map view. DHIs in the shallow section show a clear correlation to faults
Operators looking to replicate the success of the traps. The syn-rift ended with the widespread deposition Elements. The post-rift shifts from which extend down to the salt weld, indicating a possible hydrocarbon migration route from a
Brazilian conjugate margin pre-salt play have made of carbonates and the Loeme Formation salt, which restricted evaporitic facies to open potential syn-rift source rock to post-rift reservoirs. Where faults extend to seabed, pockmarks are
a number of successful hydrocarbon discoveries in forms the primary pre-/syn-rift seal (Brownfield and marine deposition resulting in four also visible following these fault lines. These features are evidence that a working petroleum system
could be active on the Kwanza Shelf.
the equivalent deepwater Kwanza margin. The most Charpentier, 2006). main reservoir units: Albian Pinda
notable of these is the Orca field, drilled in 2014, which Three main syn-rift/pre-salt reservoir rocks have Formation shelf carbonates; Late Cretaceous Iabe Formation
discovered 75m of net oil pay in sag-phase and syn-rift been identified. These are the pre-rift Lucula Formation progradational shallow marine sandstones; Palaeocene/ to sufficient depths for hydrocarbon maturation. The
reservoirs. This field is estimated to be the largest alluvial sandstones, the syn-rift Red Cuvo Formation Eocene Landana Formation sandstones; and Oligocene/ majority of historical wells drilled on the shelf did not drill
pre-salt discovery made within the Kwanza Basin to alluvial sandstones and the Grey Cuvo Formation (Chela Miocene Quifangondo Formation sandstones. the pre-salt and of those which did, almost all encountered
date. Formation equivalent) fluvial to lacustrine sandstones In the post-salt Albian section, large carbonate rafts are basement after targeting poorly imaged pre-salt highs.
With a working petroleum system already proven in and limestones. well imaged and are likely sealed by regional shales. These The new broadband data images the pre-salt sediments
the deepwater pre-salt of the Kwanza Basin, and a licence The Denden-1 well (1983) was one of the earliest wells provide numerous untested leads analogous to the producing and basement structures with improved clarity, de-risking
round opening up the underexplored shelf in 2021, a new to make an oil discovery within Grey Cuvo Formation fields of the Sendji carbonate play in the Lower Congo Basin. exploration of the pre-salt plays in this area.
GeoStreamer 3D survey provides an unparalleled insight pre-salt carbonates. The well drilled a tilted fault block Tertiary Landana and Quifangondo Formation The importance of the connection between syn-rift
into the prospectivity of the basin, with sandstones provide promising reservoir targets in stacked source rocks and post-rift reservoirs is illustrated in
Figure 2: Top: Full-stack KPSDM seismic dip line. Bottom: Full-stack impedance highlighting
significant untapped potential in the DHIs. This figure highlights post-rift DHIs sitting above a salt weld, indicated by the turbidite and channel sandstones, trapped in structural and Figure 2. This seismic section and trace integration shows
pre- and post-rift plays being unveiled. pink dots. Mini-basin touchdown has created a possible pathway for hydrocarbons to stratigraphic traps and sealed by overlying Tertiary shales. a series of post-rift direct hydrocarbon indicators (DHIs)
migrate, indicated by the orange arrow, from a syn-rift source into post-rift reservoirs. This clearly located above a syn-rift graben where the post-rift
Promising Petroleum Systems connection may be key for understanding prospectivity across the Kwanza Shelf. Overcoming the Challenges of Historical Data mini basin has touched down on a salt weld. This suggests
The Kwanza Basin is located offshore The absence of adequate seismic data on the shelf has posed a potential pre-salt source could migrate from the syn- to
PGS
Angola and forms part of the larger significant challenges to exploration, with the imaging of post-rift through the salt weld and reveals the importance
West African Aptian salt basin. It complex salt and pre-salt basins being historically poor. of understanding these potential hydrocarbon migration
was initiated during Late Jurassic to Mapping of pre-salt grabens and their associated source and pathways. DHIs seen across the survey can be correlated
Early Cretaceous rifting of the proto- reservoir potential requires high quality 3D seismic data. to the occurrence of faults, and where these reach the
Atlantic and is the conjugate margin This is key in understanding the distribution of petroleum seabed pockmarks are also observed (Figure 3). Shallow
to the prolific hydrocarbon-bearing systems and is vital for accurate modelling of hydrocarbon amplitude anomaly DHIs and numerous pockmarks
Santos and Campos Basins, offshore migration pathways. The 3D GeoStreamer data acquisition demonstrate that a working petroleum system is active on
Brazil. In broad terms, the petroleum on the shelf reveals considerable uplift from vintage data, the Kwanza Shelf.
systems of Angola can be split into two greatly improving the understanding of depositional systems
main systems: pre- and syn-rift; and and reducing the risks associated with charge, hydrocarbon New Data for 2021 Round
post-rift. migration and trap integrity. The shallow water Kwanza Shelf is an exciting underexplored
Specialist PGS imaging technologies, including Separated area that can now be evaluated in detail using new
Pre- and Syn-rift: Building a Wavefield Imaging (SWIM), Full Wavefield Inversion (FWI) Kwanza survey seismic data. The new data presents
Foundation for Hydrocarbon and Q-Velocity Model Building, have been applied to deliver multiple undrilled opportunities and enables improved
Potential. The pre-/syn-rift is enhanced resolution imaging of the subsurface. These understanding of the geological fundamentals, key to
characterised by an extensional techniques resolve detailed features in shallow water, which unlocking the prospectivity of the shallow water shelf for the
phase which formed a series of horst is not achievable with traditional reflection seismic imaging. upcoming 2021 licence round.
and grabens perpendicular to the
coastline where mixed fluvial, alluvial Enhanced Imaging Reveals Prospectivity References:
and lacustrine facies were deposited. Figure 1 (foldout on previous page) shows a full-stack seismic Brownfield, M. E. and Charpentier, R. R. (2006). Geology
This included deposition of the main section from the Kwanza Shelf survey which highlights and Total Petroleum Systems of the West-Central Coastal
syn-rift/pre-salt source rock: the previously unseen syn-rift basins where key Bucomazi Province (7203), West Africa. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin
Barremian-aged Bucomazi Formation. Formation source rocks are probably deposited and buried 2207-B.
GEOExPro October 2020 23 24 GEOExPro October 2020

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GEO Tourism
Sailing Through a Subduction Zone

Floating down the Irrawaddy River is a wonderful way to appreciate both the geological and man-
made wonders of Myanmar.
LON ABBOTT and TERRI COOK
Highly oblique convergence where the Indian and Eurasian has occurred since the Mesozoic. Throughout the Early and
plates meet has blessed Myanmar with an unusual Middle Cenozoic, today’s central lowlands were home to the
geography that underpins the region’s rich history. There Popa volcanic arc and its accompanying forearc and back-arc
is no better way to experience this beautiful setting and basins. These were part of an east-dipping subduction zone
the country’s spectacular monuments than by floating that carried Indian plate oceanic lithosphere beneath Eurasia’s
down the Irrawaddy River from the old imperial capital of continental lithosphere.
Mandalay to Bagan’s extraordinary temple complex and the The margin’s strike-slip component of motion was, until
kaleidoscopic splendour of Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon. the Middle Miocene, distributed across several dextral strike-
From its headwaters in the easternmost Himalaya, the slip faults located in today’s eastern Myanmar and Thailand.
Irrawaddy River flows 2,200 km to its vast delta on the shores But during the Late Miocene, tectonic adjustments associated
of the Andaman Sea. It is along this central artery, which links with the extrusion of South East Asia eastward, out of India’s
the cultural centres of Mandalay and Bagan with Yangon, path, focused most of that dextral motion onto the 1,500
modern Myanmar’s largest city, that the region’s culture and km-long Sagaing Fault, which passes through Mandalay.
commerce has flowed since well before its inhabitants were Today it is one of the world’s longest and most active strike-
first united under the rule of the Bagan Empire in 1044 C.E. slip faults, accommodating more than half of the right-lateral
plate motion between India and Eurasia. Transtension
Complex Tectonic Story associated with the fault’s birth fragmented the former arc
The Irrawaddy is a product of the complex and rapidly complex into a series of north-north-west to south-south-east
evolving tectonic configuration in the borderland between trending, en-echelon sub-basins drained by the newly born
the Indian and Eurasian plates, where oblique convergence Irrawaddy River. Shortly after, the stress field at this dynamic
Sunset from the U Bein Bridge in Amarapura.

plate boundary changed again, shifting to

transpression. This motion inverted the
recently formed basins and built folds that
form the long, linear hills that parallel the
fault, putting the finishing touches on the
diverse landscape that today hosts more than
a hundred ethnic groups as well as thousands
of monuments honouring the region’s
unparalleled history.
We were drawn to visit by tales of
Myanmar’s extraordinary Buddhist temples
and elaborate pagodas built over many
centuries by the Bamar people, the majority
ethnic group that has long thrived on the
flat, arable land of the 200 km-wide lowlands
known as the Central Myanmar Basin. We
started our journey in Mandalay, which hosts
many monuments due to its long tenure
as the seat of government, and from there
sailed down the Irrawaddy to Bagan, where
thousands of temples from the Bagan Empire The Irrawaddy River flows past one of the many temples on Sagaing Hill near Mandalay.
are strewn across the semi-arid plain.
Bagan serves as a convenient base to explore not only If you time your visit right, you can also watch the sunset
temples but also the former subduction zone’s volcanic arc from the famous U Bein Bridge in nearby Amarapura, which
and accretionary wedge; the latter forms the stunning Indo- became the Konbaung Dynasty’s capital in 1783. The two
Myanmar Ranges that flank the Irrawaddy River on the west. cities vied as the region’s capital for the next 74 years until
These ranges are home to the Chin ethnic group, many of King Mindon shifted the seat of power to modern Mandalay
whose members still practise their traditional lifeways in in 1857. The palace was relocated, leaving comparatively little
remote hill villages. We completed our Irrawaddy adventure to see at Amarapura except the 1.2 km-long bridge, which is
by visiting two especially important Buddhist pilgrimage said to be the world’s oldest and longest one made of teak.
sites near Yangon: the world’s largest pagoda, Shwedagon, King Mindon undertook the expensive and arduous
and Kyaiktiyo, where a golden boulder remains precariously relocation of his capital city to the base of Mandalay Hill
perched on the edge of a cliff, defying the area’s numerous to fulfi l a prophecy that a thriving Buddhist city would be
violent earthquakes to knock it down. founded at that spot on the 2400th anniversary of Buddhism’s
founding. Today you can tour the royal grounds, ascend
Mandalay: Seat of Royalty to the hill’s temple-festooned summit, and visit nearby
The capital of successive kingdoms that flourished along the Kuthodaw Pagoda. Th is claims to be the world’s largest book
Irrawaddy River after the fall of the Bagan Empire remained because each of its 729 whitewashed kyauksa gu (stone-
within a 20-km radius of modern Mandalay from 1313 C.E. inscription caves) surrounding the central golden stupa
until 1885, when the British annexed what they called Burma contains a page of the Tripitaka, the holy canon of Theravada
into the British Empire and moved the capital to Yangon. Buddhism.
Today Mandalay, the country’s second city, stands at the While in Mandalay, it is also worth taking a ferry 11 km
southern end of an impressively linear 180 km-long reach up the Irrawaddy to Mingun to see the unfinished hulk of
of the Irrawaddy, whose arrow-straight course follows the what would have been the world’s largest stupa as well as
Sagaing Fault. the 90-tonne Mingun Bell that was meant to hang in it. The
Mandalay’s long tenure as the seat of royalty has endowed stupa was begun by King Bodawpaya in 1790, but was left
it with an embarrassment of riches, all easily explored on unfinished when an astrologer foretold that he would die
day trips from the city centre. A great place to start is to take as soon as it was completed. The massive structure is riven
the ferry south across the Myitnge River, a major Irrawaddy by huge cracks formed during the powerful Amarapura
tributary, and hop into a horse cart for a leisurely tour of Inwa. earthquake of 1839.
This rural area was the Kingdom of Ava’s capital city on and The long, linear Sagaing Hill rises 240m directly across
off for 360 years, starting in 1365 C.E. Repeated destruction the Irrawaddy from Mandalay. This large pressure ridge,
of the city by earthquakes, eight of which are recorded in developed by transpression along its namesake fault, is an
the kingdom’s history books, played an important role in its important religious centre that is adorned with pagodas
shifting fortunes. One Inwa highlight is the Bagaya monastery, and monasteries from base to summit. The best view of
which was originally built in 1593 but burned down in 1821. Sagaing Hill is from the Bagan ferry as it departs Mandalay.
The reconstructed teak monastery is still used as a place of Immediately downstream of the city’s two bridges, the river
prayer for Buddhist monks and other devout locals. bends west, leaving the Sagaing Fault behind it.

GEO Tourism
Bagan: Plain of 10,000 Temples
Cook
TerriCook
As the ferry drifts down the Irrawaddy to Bagan,
andTerri
it crosses a remnant of the Miocene tectonic
Abbottand
configuration: the old back-arc basin that lay
LonAbbott
east of the Popa volcanic arc. The pancake-flat
Lon
topography, however, offers no hint of its tectonic
origin. The highlight of the eight-hour trip is a
stop in the pottery-making village of Yandabo and
a demonstration of traditional pot throwing and
firing. Soon after departing the village, the ferry
reaches the confluence with the Chindwin River
and a short distance downstream, hills begin to
appear in the distance, signalling that you are now
crossing the axis of the Popa volcanic arc. The hazy
outline of Popa volcano, a 1,518m-high Quaternary
cone, is visible 60 km to the south. Geologists
disagree whether this Pleistocene volcano, which
lies on the Miocene Popa Arc trend, indicates
ongoing subduction or is instead associated with
Bagan’s temples are especially striking just before sunset.
local extension. As the boat continues westward,
the river crosses into the forearc basin before docking at
Nyaung-U, Bagan’s main town. A worthwhile day trip is to Popa volcano, the largest
This UNESCO World Heritage Site was the seat of the feature in the Popa volcanic arc, about 50 km south-east
Bagan Empire from 1044–1287 C.E. During those years, of Bagan. We spent a delightful day hiking through the
devout kings and noblemen constructed more than 10,000 rainforest, ascending 600m from the Mount Popa Resort to
shrines, from the 66m-high Thatbyinnnyu Temple, built by the summit and sharing the trail with Myanmarese school
King Sithu I in 1150 C.E., to small personal shrines funded groups and a team of mountain bikers from Yangon. We also
by royal officials and wealthy merchants. Reserve at least two toured the Taung Kalat, a precipitous volcanic plug crowned
days with a guide to explore some of the many highlights, by a Buddhist monastery that is reached by walking (barefoot,
which range from neglected ruins to carefully maintained as always in Buddhist shrines) up 777 stairs.
shrines still visited by thousands of believers each year.
Another highlight is Shwezigon, a miniature version of Crest of the Indo-Burman Ranges
Yangon’s gold-leafed Shwedagon Pagoda, as well as sunset Bagan, sitting as it does in the forearc basin, is the staging area
viewing of the temples aflame in the last orange rays of the for a trip up into the Indo-Myanmar Ranges, the homeland
day. One of our favourite sites was the 1113 C.E. Mayazedi of the Chin people and the subduction zone’s accretionary
Quadrilingual Stone. Housed in the Mayazedi Pagoda, it has wedge, which was uplifted during the Miocene. One not-to-
the same text inscribed in four different languages: Pali, Pyu, be-missed sight there is Mount Victoria, the tallest peak in the
Mon, and Myanmar, and its significance for translating Pali southern Indo-Myanmar Ranges at 3,063m. Tour agencies in
and Pyu is comparable to that of Egypt’s famous Rosetta Stone. Bagan can arrange a three-day excursion that allows enough
time to make the two to three-hour round-trip
The Buddhist monastery and temple complex of Taung Kalat is perched atop a volcanic hike through blooming rhododendron trees to
plug at Mt. Popa.
the mist-shrouded summit. While there, we
Luis Valiente
shared the mountain with several enthusiastic

groups of shutter-snapping Myanmarese
students who had come to see a wild side of
Myanmar that was utterly foreign to them.
Our trip also included visits to remote
villages, where we saw older Chin women with
faces scarred by elaborate tattoos and people still
living in ways that have barely changed since
pre-colonial times. Our friendly Chin driver,
who knew the roads and people intimately, took
us to a remarkable, out-of-the-way museum of
Chin culture in the hill town of Mindat. There
the proprietor showed us the accoutrements of
Chin warriors, played a song on a traditional
nose flute, and toured us through his extensive
collection of artefacts spanning the Indo-

Myanmar Range’s human history and even pre-history,
including mammoth teeth discovered in the region.
Yangon: Two Extraordinary Pagodas

One can take a boat all the way from Bagan to Yangon,
but since this takes several days, we chose a one-hour
flight instead and settled into our hotel, whose rooftop
restaurant had up-close views of 112m-tall Shwedagon
Pagoda’s gleaming golden stupa. Located just a few
blocks from the hotel, Myanmar’s most sacred Buddhist
site enshrines a variety of Buddha relicts. Thousands
of devout pilgrims dressed in their finest attire
circumambulate the stupa every day, praying in their
favourite spots along the route.
Accustomed though we were to the colourful and ornate
nature of Myanmar’s shrines, Shwedagon’s exuberant
architecture, adorned with gold, glass tiles, mirrors, and A Chin couple from Kyar Hto village in the Indo-Myanmar range.
flashing LED lights, was a sensory overload. The pagoda’s
central stupa has so much gold leaf (at least an estimated

nine tonnes) that during British rule it was said that
Shwedagon possessed more gold than the Bank of England!
As if that was not enough, the spire is encrusted with 5,500
diamonds and 2,300 rubies. Milling with the throngs of
Buddhist pilgrims, slowly circling clockwise around the
sparkling pagoda, is an unforgettable experience.
We rounded out our trip by travelling 200 km east of
Yangon, crossing the Sagaing Fault en route, to Kyaiktiyo
(Golden Rock) Pagoda, a small (7.3m) pagoda built atop
a massive granite boulder perched at the brink of a cliff.
The people of Myanmar are acutely aware of earthquake
hazard, so the improbability of this boulder precariously
perched at the edge of the abyss is not lost on them.
Legend holds that the rock is held in place by a strand of
Buddha’s hair, which makes it a major pilgrimage site;
another fascinating opportunity to explore the stunning
mix of beautiful scenery and ancient and modern
culture that characterises the Irrawaddy corridor.
Kyaiktiyo, the Golden Rock pagoda, sits atop a precariously perched boulder.

Technology Explained
Egypt’s Buried Secrets MARK DAVIES, and

GARY BARNES,
AustinBridgeporth
The first outing of the world’s most sophisticated airborne gravity gradiometer has
already yielded fascinating insights into the unexplored Egyptian subsurface.
In today’s rich smörgåsbord of ocean and after declassification were the survey area is three quarters the
exploration technology, we rarely get modified to acquire data in the more size of Florida; and thirdly, acquisition
to witness a significant leap forward dynamic airborne environment. With was to take no more than ten weeks.
in instrumentation advancement. the exception of some minor upgrades Quite the challenge for the first sortie
Nonetheless, this is exactly what and construction of a partial tensor into hydrocarbon exploration for the
Lockheed Martin achieved in system (rather than a truly full tensor instrument; a challenge the eFTG
developing their newest state-of-the-art system), little has changed over a overcame, surpassing all expectations.
gravity imaging system, aptly called quarter of a century. The Ganope Petroleum Company
the ‘Enhanced’ Full Tensor Gravity However, in August 2020, after manages and supervises all upstream
Gradiometer (or eFTG for short). five years of development and testing, and downstream oil and gas activities
Some explorationists will be forgiven the eFTG instrument was exclusively in Egypt between latitudes 28° and
for thinking that gravity imaging has released to AustinBridgeporth and 22°N. The Western Desert is a vast
been around ‘almost’ as long as some mobilised to acquire data over an kaleidoscope of rolling terrain and
of the ancient antiquities discovered underexplored region of the Egyptian sand dunes punctuated by rugged
by Howard Carter et al. So, what could Western Desert (Figure 1). This new ridges and a large north–south
possibly have changed so radically to instrument, with a reported fourfold trending valley (Figure 1). Exploration
revolutionise our world of exploration, improvement in signal to noise ratio in this remote landscape dates back
and more importantly, when do we on its closest competitor (i.e. the over 50 years, but little has been
get to see evidence that warrants such Lockheed Martin built FTG; note no undertaken of late, primarily because
superlatives. The answer is: a lot has ‘e’), was tasked with acquiring gravity three wells were drilled into shallow
changed and the data is available now! gradiometry data for a TGS-led multi- basement, condemning the area to
client programme, specifically designed the ‘not prospective’ bin. This analysis
A Challenging Environment to unlock the treasures that exist was reinforced by several incorrect
Lockheed Martin are the only beneath 120,000 km2 of the Western publications showing a shallow basement
manufacturer to have successfully built Desert. On the face of it, a routine to extend over much of Ganope’s
and commercialised full and partial survey until you factor in firstly, that Western Desert area. A particular blow
tensor gravity gradiometers. Based on acquisition would take place in summer was the West Kom Ombo (WKO) well,
1970s cold war technology, they were where the temperatures exceed 45°C, sited to detect the western extent of the
originally designed to operate in the generating fierce turbulence; secondly, Kom Ombo Basin, a proven hydrocarbon
basin with production to the east. The
Figure 1: Horus-1 eFTG survey area over the Western Dessert and the subsequent discovery of new
rift basins.
eFTG multi-client survey was to be the
first high resolution dataset to be flown
over this frontier area.
How Did eFTG Perform?

Fast-tracked processing results
are already available and the
survey is expected to complete by
the end of September. Although
AustinBridgeporth and TGS have only
just started preliminary processing and
interpretation, the results are already
exceeding expectations. The team have
identified pan-African and Arabian
shield trends, and the uplift from the
legacy gravity data to the eFTG data is
quite remarkable even when looking at
imagery on an 8-km line spacing (Figure
AustinBridgeporth
2). The images will only get better as we

move from 8-km to 2-km line spacing
and the processing is refined.

But what about the all-important with turbulence whilst
prospectivity of the upper Western eFTG noise is more linear.
Desert? The three wells would never Figure 3b gives the ratio
have been sited had eFTG data been of these trends and shows
available at that time, as they are located the noise improvement
on positive high anomalies indicative of factor of the eFTG over this
shallow basement. Even WKO, thought range of turbulence. The
to sit in the basin proper, was drilled minimum of this ratio for
into a shallow structure. However, what data acquired in reasonable
is far more exciting is the discovery of conditions is approximately
a previously unknown rifted section three and close to the
beneath a carbonate/marl platform. theoretical prediction
The rift is about 75 km to the east of based on just the scaled-
the Qusur-1 and Bulaq-1 wells, which up size of the instrument.
are located in the modern-day valley, More unexpected, however,
assumed to be the surface manifestation is the significant relative
of the subsurface rifted section. improvement of the eFTG
Three wells, three mistakes, data for higher levels of
and three decades of exploration turbulence, where the noise
AustinBridgeporth
abandonment for the Ganope Western ratio approaches a factor
Desert region. of 8. However, FTG data
would rarely be collected
eFTG in the Exploration Toolkit in levels of turbulence
It is clear that the eFTG is adding greater than 0.9 ms-2 due Figure 2: Legacy terrain corrected (TC) gravity vs, Horus-1 eFTG
value to the exploration workflow at to the known deterioration TC gravity data. The eFTG highlights poor well locations and
discovers new rift basins (R1,2,3).
every stage, from regional mapping of the data quality. The
and de-risking acreage to enabling more modest increase in noise with
accurate design and implementation turbulence seen in the eFTG data has, need to be nine-times tighter to reduce
of future seismic surveys. The data is however, allowed data to be collected the noise to the same level as seen in the
also providing constraint to processing in much higher levels of turbulence, eFTG. Since survey cost increases with
and interpretation of seismic data that leading to exceptional productivity rates the line kilometres flown, the eFTG is
is rendered opaque by the presence in excess of 1,000 km (accepted) per therefore capable of imaging targets
of salts, carbonates and volcanics. flight. that would have been prohibitively
Future 3D seismic surveys are already Over typical survey turbulence levels, expensive to survey with the previous
being planned with well siting, hazard the noise offered by the eFTG is three instrumentation. Simply put, Horus-1
detection and reservoir mapping all to five times lower than the FTG – and and the eFTG instrument have exceeded
derived from the acquired eFTG data. a three-times reduction in noise is all expectations.
In isolation, the imagery is equivalent to a nine-times increase in
impressive, especially given the efficiency. Consider an anomaly whose References available online.
regional survey's wide line spacing. gravity signal amplitude places it at
As we move to a 2-km footprint, more the detection threshold of eFTG noise. The Authors would like to thank Ganope
details will emerge from the geological To see this anomaly within FTG noise and TGS for allowing publication of
understanding. However, away from levels, the survey line spacing would Horus-1 survey data.
the unfolding geological story, what
Figure 3: (a) Noise level versus turbulence level for FTG (dots) and eFTG (stars); (b) Ratio of FTG and
has truly impressed the team is the eFTG noise levels over a range of turbulence. Dashed ends of lines represent sections of extrapolation.
advancement in performance of
Lockheed’s latest system. a) b)
Now that eFTG has been in airborne
operation for the first time, it is possible
to draw realistic comparisons between
it and older FTG instruments under
actual survey conditions. Figure 3a
shows the noise levels for several survey
lines from FTG and eFTG surveys,
both acquired in a range of turbulence
levels. The solid lines represent visually
fitted trend curves and suggest that
FTG noise varies roughly quadratically AustinBridgeporth AustinBridgeporth

Energy Transition
Hydrogen and CCS in Future

Energy CORIN TAYLOR, DNV GL
What is the role of hydrogen together with carbon capture and storage in enabling a
net zero carbon energy system?
Hydrogen as a clean energy source and carrier has rapidly but increasingly with reference to the associated carbon
moved centre stage in recent years. It is estimated to comprise footprint. Most of the hydrogen made today is used in the
75% of all mass in the universe and has the highest chemical petroleum refining process or as one of the main chemical
energy content, by mass, of all gaseous and liquid fuels. It is ingredients in fertilisers.
abundant everywhere on Earth and there are a number of At the moment, the most common method of making
ways in which hydrogen can be both produced and used with hydrogen is by using natural gas and a technique called
a low carbon footprint, with few detrimental environmental steam methane reformation. This combines methane from
consequences such as pollution or climate warming gas with water at very high temperatures (approximately
emissions. 900°C) to produce a mix of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide
However, on Earth hydrogen occurs naturally only as a and hydrogen. By controlling the amount of air, water and
compound, predominantly in water, but also in hydrocarbons, methane in the reaction, it is possible to change the amount
so in order to be used it needs to be released from its bonds of energy required and the waste gases produced. Hydrogen
with other chemical elements like oxygen and carbon. This produced in this manner has a carbon footprint of about
requires energy – and how to do that safely, in a cost-effective 10–12 kg CO₂e per kilogram of hydrogen, unless carbon
way that does not increase CO₂ and other emissions, is the capture and storage (CCS) is used to dispose of the CO₂.
crux of the issue. Another method of obtaining hydrogen is to use electricity
to split water into hydrogen and oxygen through electrolysis,
Yellow, Blue and Green the water typically heated to between 20° and 100°C. This
Hydrogen can be produced in a variety of ways and from a technique is capable of producing hydrogen at a range of
number of sources, dependent partly on the final application, scales and uses, from small electric car refuelling stations to
A visualisation of a coal power plant equipped with a CO₂ capture facility.
DNV GL

DNV GL
Main hydrogen production options.
major offshore electrolysis projects. is used for hydrogen produced through

Obviously, the most important factor electrolysis that has the same level of Explaining Acronyms
from the point of view of CO₂ emissions emissions. The phrase ‘blue’ hydrogen A greenhouse gas (GHG) is any
in this case is how the electricity used describes hydrogen produced from gas in the atmosphere which
in the procedure is made; only if the fossil fuels when CCS is used, although absorbs and re‐emits heat,
electricity has a carbon footprint of not applicable when the CO₂ is used and thereby keeps the planet’s
less than 250 kg CO₂e/MWh (roughly for enhanced oil recovery, and ‘yellow’ atmosphere warmer than it
half the emission intensity of a modern (sometimes ‘grey’) is used for hydrogen otherwise would be. The main
combined cycle natural gas-fired power produced from fossil fuels when CO₂ is GHGs in the Earth’s atmosphere
plant) is hydrogen from electrolysis released into the atmosphere. are water vapour, carbon dioxide
less emissions-intensive than hydrogen (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous
production from natural gas. And How Different Sectors Use Hydrogen oxide (N₂O) and ozone.
in order to be genuinely low carbon, Blue hydrogen is currently estimated Carbon dioxide equivalent
hydrogen from electrolysis needs to use to be the cheapest option for producing (CO₂e) is a term for describing
renewable or nuclear electricity. hydrogen gas in a low-carbon way – but different greenhouse gases in a
Coal can also be used as a hydrogen what are the sectors in which this can common unit. For any quantity
source using a process called be useful towards zero carbon? The and type of greenhouse gas, CO₂e
gasification, by which a syngas is answer is that it has potential in all signifies the amount of CO₂ which
created using coal and water at high areas. would have the equivalent global
temperatures (>750°C). The coal is In manufacturing, for example, in warming impact. A quantity of
used to provide the heat needed for order to reach net zero, every furnace GHG can be expressed as CO₂e
the reaction to work, but this process and kiln will need to switch to clean by multiplying the amount of
obviously produces large quantities of electricity, hydrogen or bio sources and the GHG by its global warming
CO₂, so CCS is again needed to reduce the CO₂ emitted will need to be captured potential (GWP) e.g. if 1 kg of
its carbon footprint. from all industrial facilities. To achieve methane is emitted, this can
Hydrogen can also be made this, hydrogen could replace gas in be expressed as 25 kg of CO₂e
through heating biomass and mixing industrial processes requiring heating (1 kg CH₄ * 25 = 25 kg CO₂e).
it with steam and oxygen to produce and as feedstock, and several projects are CO₂e is a very useful term for a
hydrogen without combustion. If the underway to investigate the possibilities. number of reasons as it allows
heat source is ‘green’ and the process One such is HYBRIT, a Swedish initiative ‘bundles’ of greenhouse gases to
produces emissions of less than investigating using hydrogen produced be expressed as a single number;
8 kg CO₂e/kgH₂ then the resultant by electrolysis of water using fossil-free and it also allows different
hydrogen is also ‘green’; the same term electricity instead of coking coal in the bundles of GHGs to be easily
compared (in terms of their total
Blue hydrogen will pave the way. global warming impact). However,
when comparing CO₂e totals it is
DNV GL
important to know that the same

GHGs are included in the totals
being compared, in order to be
sure that like‐for‐like comparisons
can be made.
Ecometrica.com

Energy Transition
forward. China is actively investigating the use of hydrogen-

DNV GL
fuelled buses and there is also research in progress as to the

viability of using hydrogen as a fuel for ships.
Investment Required
For the examples above to be green, however, the source
electricity must be carbon net zero. In the future, solar and
wind will be providing increasing amounts of power, but
hydrogen also has a part to play; for example, when there is
excess of power from renewables, the extra can be used to
produce hydrogen, which can in turn provide power when the
intermittent sources are unavailable.
DNV GL predicts that oil demand has already peaked and
gas demand will do so in the early 2030s, but by 2050 half of
the world’s energy will still be sourced from hydrocarbons,
particularly gas. Since fossil fuels are therefore expected to
HyStreet: An experiment in using hydrogen in the home. remain in the energy mix for many years to come, increased use
of CCS in power supply, directly on industrial emissions, and to
steel-making process, which is one of the highest CO₂-emitting decarbonise hydrogen production is vital to decrease emissions.
industries, accounting for up to 7% of global emissions. The International Energy Agency Sustainable Development
In many cases, however, the process to convert existing Scenario 2050 suggests that 2.8 billion tonnes of CO₂ will need
industrial technologies to enable them to be powered by to be captured per annum, which would require 1,800 CCS
hydrogen is difficult, so the most appropriate route to reduce plants worldwide, each capturing 1.5 million tonnes per annum.
emissions in the short term is to use CCS. That is an ambitious and expensive proposition; how could
Buildings account for about a third of global final energy such a major investment be paid for? It will need some assistance
use and one fifth of GHG emissions, but few are heated – after all, wind and solar have benefitted from at least 15 years
or cooled in a low carbon way. Many homes use natural of price support, with different mechanisms used in different
gas for heating and cooking, and it is possible to blend up countries. Carbon pricing will play a part, although that will
to 20% hydrogen into the domestic input without having need some intergovernmental cooperation to avoid polluting
to alter appliances – or 100% hydrogen if the appliances operations just moving from a high to a low carbon pricing zone.
are changed. In the north of England the H21 project is The cost of wind and solar technologies is falling fast,
investigating ways to convert the gas supply of a number driven by economies of scale, technological progress,
of cities from natural gas to hydrogen, which will require including bigger turbines and floating operations, and reduced
replacing all gas appliances in commercial and residential cost of capital as investors see that these technologies can
building; a major undertaking, but one which was done work and embrace them as no longer risky. Hydrogen and
in the previous century to avail of natural, rather than CCS are where wind and solar were 15 years ago, and there
synthetic gas. The hydrogen would be supplied from is no reason why they should not make similar progress.
reforming natural gas, so CCS will be needed to deal with Introducing financial mechanisms to support deployment is
the resultant CO₂. key to the development of this sector.
Due to its combustibility, there are some questions
over the safety of hydrogen in the home. To analyse these References available online.
issues DNV GL has built a small street of terraced houses
Solar Hydrogen Station: The station is the first of its kind using solar
to establish if it is technically possible, safe and convenient energy from a solar PV array to make renewable hydrogen on-site and
to replace natural gas with hydrogen in residential and is the second of three UK stations to be deployed as part of the pan-
commercial buildings and gas appliances. Among other European HyFive Project.
things, the company is checking what happens if there is a
ITM
hydrogen gas leak either inside or outside the home, using

some 75 sensors fitted in the house to detect and measure
hydrogen concentrations at various heights in every room.
While battery electric vehicles are now a familiar sight
on our roads, hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles are less
common. Battery-powered vehicles are cheaper to fuel than
hydrogen equivalents (at present), but take longer to charge
and have a shorter range, so it is expected that there will be
greater uptake for hydrogen-fuelled systems in the heavy
truck and bus sectors. Since heavy goods vehicles account for
16% of transport CO₂ emissions in the UK, even though they
represent only 2% of vehicles, this would be an important step

Hot Spot
Brought to you in association with NVentures.
The Hotspot That Keeps

On Giving ROG HARDY and PETER ELLIOTT,
More success in Guyana–Suriname – and patterns are emerging. NVentures Ltd
Building on the sterling success at Kwaskwasi-1 in Suriname announced an astounding 18 discoveries and only two dry
Block 58 (GEO ExPro Vol. 17, No. 4) Apache are looking to go holes. In this clastic channel-fan stratigraphic trap complex
four for four – and extend this exciting trend to the south- some wells designated exploratory might turn out to be
east with Keskesi East-1. Along trend to the north-west on linked, but all seven appraisal wells have been successful, so
the Guyana Stabroek Block, ExxonMobil have reported their this is an extraordinary feat of AVO calibration – 27 of 29
18th discovery with the Redtail well, logging 70m light oil in wells have logged pay in this emerging basin.
sands with the usual high permeability, while appraisal well The successful wells have from 18m to 93m net pay from
Yellowtail-2 found a new zone logging 21m pay. In addition, multiple zones in the Upper Cretaceous, averaging 51m. The
Shell are re-entering the action by acquiring the Suriname oil is low-sulphur with APIs in the low 30°s, except Haimara-
interests of Kosmos. 1 on the south-east end of the trend, which encountered
gas condensate. No flow rates are noted, but Hess cites
Trends by the Numbers permeabilities ranging up to 4 Darcys and porosities
While operators are understandably keeping logs and seismic commonly over 30%. The group also made the Ranger
close to their chest, numerous press releases allow us to discovery in carbonates, which has now been successfully
characterise developments since the original Liza-1 discovery delineated.
in May 2015. Here are some takeaways: Estimates of recoverable hydrocarbons discovered is now
On the Stabroek Block the ExxonMobil group, which over 8 Bboe, increasing with E&A drilling from an initial
includes Hess and CNOOC, have drilled 29 exploration 1.4 Bboe. Given these factors, Hess touts a world-beating
and appraisal wells plus Liza development wells in between breakeven oil price of $25/bo for Liza Phase 2, or $7boe
1,150 and 2,200m of water about 180 km offshore in benign development costs, resulting in payback in five years for each
sea conditions. TDs have ranged from 4,225m to 6,450m, development at a $45/bo price. The Liza Phase 1 development
averaging about 5,450m. Excluding a few wells that had went online last December, just 55 months after discovery
extensive coring and logging, we estimate it takes 20 to – unheard of for a province-opening deepwater FPSO
100 days to reach TD, averaging about 50 days, although development. The group hopes to reach 750,000 bopd with
Hess reports that development wells are taking less than 30 five to six FPSOs by 2026, which would be another a world-
days, and now cost less than $60 million. ExxonMobil have class performance.
NVentures
Discovered fields
and prospects
(purple) offshore
Guyana and
Suriname. Black
triangles represent
‘wells to watch’ due
to be drilled in the
near future.

Apache’s high-profile success along trend on adjacent Block
58 in Suriname is in similar water depth, but TDs are a little
deeper, from 6,300m to 6,645m, taking an average of 82 days
to reach TD. Pay zones are presumably correlative to Stabroek
in the Upper Cretaceous, somewhat evenly distributed in the
Campanian and Santonian, but deeper and containing light
volatile oil and gas condensate. API gravities range from 34°
to 43° and gas–oil ratios from 967 to 1,178. The 278m net pay
in the Kwaskwasi-1 is high for the trend, and the three wells
average 160m of pay, compared to the 51m for Stabroek. At
the end of the day it will be really interesting to see which
block will have the best returns. Apache is logging more pay,
but the zones are somewhat deeper and under higher pressure,
so the wells are taking more time to drill, hence presumably
more expensive. Furthermore, can Apache and Total reach the
Stabroek initial development phases.
Turonian on Block 58 to test that play?
Upcoming Action
Both wells drilling now – ExxonMobil’s Tanager-1 (on a new
block, Kaieteur) and Apache’s Keskesi-1 – can potentially
extend the trend in both directions. An upcoming well by
Petronas could further extend the trend to the south-east
in Suriname. Also, BHP recently spudded Broadside-1 in
Trinidadian Block TTDAA 3, outboard of their recent gas
success in that country, targeting deeper oil zones that
may be part of the same petroleum system as on Stabroek.
ExxonMobil’s Ranger discovery is midway between Broadside
and Keskesi. The main challenge for exploration teams in
a number of companies is to now prioritise their prospect Cumulative wells drilled in the Stabroek Block, Guyana and recoverable
inventories with this growing database. resource growth (Bboe) between 2015 and 2020.

GEO Physics
CSEM: Back from the Brink

Controlled Source ElectroMagnetic is a proven technique that has a strong future,
especially when seismic data alone cannot provide a satisfactory answer.
RICHARD COOPER and LUCY MACGREGOR, OFG Multiphysics
Past, Present and Future the crust and mantle and were deployed a few years, both emgs and OHM IPO’d
Controlled Source ElectroMagnetic around the globe. Exxon was the first oil for stellar valuations (approximately
(CSEM) methods have been company to see the promise of CSEM US$1.5 billion and US$300 million
commercially available to the upstream methods for hydrocarbon exploration respectively) and AGO was sold
oil and gas industry for approximately and fi led a patent for the use of this to Schlumberger (WesternGeco).
20 years. Despite a promising start, the technology in oil and gas in 1981. Meanwhile PGS acquired the University
method has never been widely used and November 2000 marks the start of Edinburgh spin-out MTEM, along
its popularity has waxed and waned in of the modern era of CSEM. Statoil with its marine electromagnetic (EM)
lockstep with the ups and downs of the (now Equinor) funded a survey in technology, and developed this into a
oil industry. For this the CSEM industry Angola, employing receivers from new CSEM system in which both the
itself must bear some responsibility. Scripps (now under the direction of source and receivers are towed behind
There are, however, signs of renewed Professor Steve Constable) and using the survey vessel in a configuration
interest in CSEM methods even in an active CSEM source developed by similar to a standard seismic
these difficult times. As CSEM usage the team at Cambridge University acquisition. This innovation, one of
increases again it is important to in the UK, led by Professor Martin the most significant since Chip Cox’s
understand the lessons from the past to Sinha and Dr Lucy MacGregor. Also original surveys of the 1970s and 80s,
ensure a more sustainable future for the onboard were geoscientists from Statoil, allows rapid and efficient acquisition of
technology and to prevent a repeat of including Dr Svein Ellingsrud. This high quality marine CSEM data.
wasted effort and money. survey attempted to ‘locate’ a known
hydrocarbon reservoir, which it duly What Went Wrong?
Looking at the Past did, leading to a rapid expansion of the This activity should have been the
The origins of marine CSEM can be industry. start of a golden age of marine CSEM
traced back to the Scripps Institution Almost immediately following the – but alas not. Within a few years,
in California, where Professor Chip Angolan project the Norwegian team Schlumberger had shut down their
Cox and his team developed the first founded emgs, the Cambridge team CSEM business, emgs saw its market
marine source and receiver systems in formed Oﬀshore Hydrocarbon Mapping capitalisation collapse, and OHM’s
the 1970s. These tools were developed (OHM) and Scripps collaborated with acquisition capability was sold off
to investigate volcanic fluid systems in AOA geophysics to form AGO. Within to emgs, whilst OHM’s analysis and
Figure 1: CSEM brings most value when closely integrated with seismic. This example from the Barents Sea (courtesy PGS) demonstrates the improved
resistivity resolution that can be achieved by conditioning EM inversion with seismic structure. Multiphysics workflows can then be applied to determine
rock and fluid properties.
CSEM

CSEM
Figure 2: Three approaches to marine CSEM acquisition are now available. Left: Seafloor deployed receivers and a deep-towed EM source is the ‘classic’
approach to acquiring data. Centre: The towed streamer EM system allows rapid acquisition of data since both source and receivers are towed behind
the survey vessel. It is applicable in water depths less than about 500m. Right: The vertical dipole system uses seafloor deployed receivers and stationary
transmission stations. Figure redrawn from MacGregor and Tomlinson, 2014, Interpretation, 2, AH13–AH32.
interpretation capabilities were merged The marine seismic acquisition What Have We Learnt?
with Rock Solid Images. business is now a shadow of its CSEM is not a universal tool. If you can
What went wrong? A number of former self. To a large extent the answer your exploration and production
factors caused the erratic commercial CSEM industry has been affected by questions using seismic, then it is
performance of CSEM in upstream oil exactly the same challenges of low probably not necessary to consider
and gas. It appears that CSEM was “over service demand seen by the seismic adding CSEM into the interpretation
promised and underdelivered”– never industry. There have only ever been mix. However, we all know of many
a good recipe for success. The method a small number of CSEM acquisition cases when seismic data alone is
was sold as a magic bullet, even as a contractors to the oil and gas industry incapable of resolving interpretation
replacement for seismic (hence the initial and a variety of acquisition strategies risk associated with lithology or
huge valuations). In addition, CSEM have been applied (Figure 2), each with hydrocarbon charge. In such cases,
applications to reservoir mapping were at pros and cons which must be weighed the addition of CSEM data using
the start of their development. Expertise up when designing an acquisition carefully constructed multiphysics
resided in only a few commercial campaign. The remaining contractors workflows may substantially reduce this
organisations and universities and little include: interpretation risk.
or no commercial software was available • emgs: Though their vessels are The importance of pre-survey
for processing and interpreting CSEM cold-stacked, emgs retains the modelling cannot be overstated.
data. Patent wars also played a part. world’s largest fleet of seafloor CSEM data are under-sampled
The major players embarked on a series deployed CSEM receivers and owns both horizontally and vertically,
of tit-for-tat patent wars, which proved a sophisticated source technology and the technique works best when
enormously costly and confused and and also algorithms for inversion and focused to map the target of interest.
distracted clients – enriching no one but interpretation. It is important to understand the
the patent attorneys. • Allton (formerly Petromarker). Allton background geology so we can
However, perhaps the biggest promotes an alternative seabed nodal determine, ahead of the survey,
mistake was an unwillingness to accept system, using vertical source and whether we will be able to detect and
that CSEM works best when integrated receivers. interpret the resistivity features of
with seismic. In the early days of CSEM • Ocean Floor Geophysics. OFG has interest and how to optimise the survey
adoption, data were often analysed a long track-record in providing parameters.
in isolation, leading to ambiguous a basket of subsea geophysical Processing, interpretation and the
results. On survey after survey, careful measurements including towed, integration of seismic data all matter.
analysis has highlighted the value of nodal and AUV-mounted marine EM The CSEM industry has developed
the close integration of CSEM and for mapping hydrates and seafloor sophisticated products such as
seismic (Figure 1). This has not been massive sulphides. In 2020, OFG anisotropic 3D inversion and seismic/
well communicated by the providers of acquired the rights to the PGS towed- CSEM joint-inversion which have
CSEM data. streamer CSEM acquisition system, dramatically improved the quality
and related interpretation tools. and value of the information obtained
The Present On the client side, CSEM surveys are from CSEM data. These work best
Yet despite these both self-created under consideration in a number of when combined with information
and existential challenges, the CSEM areas including Australia’s North West from seismic data over the same area.
industry remains intact: the lights are Shelf, South East Asia, Southern Africa, It is important to realise that success
still on, even if dimmer than we would the Mediterranean and the Gulf of requires a commitment to doing a
like. What is the present state of play? Mexico. proper analysis.

GEO Physics
Future Outlook characteristics of the reservoir and its seismic in much the same way as a
Let’s go back to first principles. When a surroundings. petrophysicist would combine sonic
well is drilled and logged, we investigate When it comes to surface remote and resistivity data from well logs.
the borehole using a variety of different sensing methods, the tool of choice CSEM-derived resistivity data is
physical measurements including both is an acoustic method: seismic. “just another attribute” and can be
acoustic and electrical tools (Figure 3). However, we now have an option to used with seismic attributes (such
Indeed, the sonic and resistivity logs acquire CSEM data which, if properly as AVO and impedance attributes)
are two of the most important tools acquired and processed, yields a to constrain an interpretation of the
a petrophysicist will look to in order complementary resistivity section. saturation and pay of a target horizon.
to understand the lithology and fluid This can be interpreted alongside The caveats remain; there is no magic
Figure 3: Well log analysis is inherently a multiphysics process. Measurements of a range of physical properties are bullet, and interpretation
integrated in petrophysics and rock physics workflows in order to interpret the lithology and fluid properties of the uncertainties will always
subsurface. The advent of EM methods allows a similar multiphysics approach to be applied to geophysical data, exist (Figure 3).
leading to more robust interpretations of the subsurface. Further details of the example shown can be found in We need to move
Alvarez et al., 2017, Interpretation, 5, SE43–SE60.
away from the phrase “I
don’t believe in CSEM”.
CSEM is not a belief
system or a religion, it is
a scientific method built
upon Maxwell’s equations,
which underpin most of
the technology we use in
our modern world. Like any
tool, it can be misused, but
the CSEM industry is now
capable of delivering robust
resistivity data for a range
of oilfield applications.
CSEM data is real data;
it is different from and
complementary to seismic
data and can add significant
value.
Looking to the future,
CSEM is a proven
technology that should be
routinely considered to
help solve certain classes of
exploration and production
challenges, especially when
seismic data alone cannot
provide a satisfactory
answer. In areas where
seismic data already exists,
CSEM data can be added
to provide additional
information that helps
define the presence and
quality of hydrocarbons.
In such areas, CSEM and
legacy seismic data may
be more cost effective
than new seismic data
acquisition, and may offer
a lower environmental
footprint.
Here’s to another 20
CCSM: Data courtesy PGS years of CSEM!

Why Exploration
The licence round has been announced, the petroleum law ratified, and geoscientists are pouring
over the seismic. Are we finally set to see the undoubted exploration opportunities of one of the
world’s last true hydrocarbon frontiers finally realised?
Offshore Somalia Could

The seismic below is a dip line from southern offshore Somalia showing fold and thrust belt with
mainly Cretaceous deltaic and deepwater sediments involved in the thrusting. Good quality, Late
Cretaceous reservoirs are expected, with the sands having been derived from the erosion of quartz-
rich Precambrian hinterlands to the west.
Reveal an Oily Surprise The thrusts seem to have a common detachment surface which may be the organic rich shale of
Cenomanian–Turonian age. This may act as both a decollement surface and a source of oil to the
overlying structural closures.
Seismic line through Tertiary fold belt showing large high amplitude fold and thrust structures.
a nto nian
a nian/S
Camp R
R
R
S
S Turonian/Cenomanian
Albian – Aptian – Barremian S
Seismic attribute display of the same line: (Far – Near) * Far. The black colours indicate an increase in amplitude with offset (AVO) response.

A Reputable Publication | Quality Stories | Distributed Globally | Accessed Worldwide
One of the Last True Somalia undrilled reef play

was a long narrow basin orientated
TGS
Retain brand awareness
north–south; a shape not conducive
to oceanic circulatory patterns
Hydrocarbon Frontiers
that result in upwelling currents.
RICHARD HEDLEY,
A second reason could be related
TGS
during these challenging times!

to the presence of the Davie Ridge
Offshore Somalia has all the ingredients for finding big volumes of oil and gas, with reservoirs, Transform. This long linear feature is
an underwater high that parallels the
source rocks and seals and multiple play-types including large fold-belt structures and
continental slope offshore Tanzania
enormous reef closures. and Kenya which will have strongly
influenced oceanic currents in these
Succeed in your business & marketing goals with

In recent years the Government of Somalia has Southern and Central Somalia areas. Most of the wells offshore
made significant and sustained progress towards The seismic data reveals several large fold and thrust Kenya and Tanzania are drilled on
GEO ExPro Magazine - in print and online.

lasting stability within the country. Legitimate public belts including a predominantly Tertiary fold belt, the shelf and slope west of the Davie
institutions such as the Somali Petroleum Authority similar to offshore Mozambique in the Rovuma Basin. Ridge and therefore have not sampled
(SPA) have been established and legislation has been There is also an older Cretaceous fold belt involving the basinal facies to the east of the
passed by both the president and the representatives in Cenomanian to Maastrichtian shelf and slope sediments ridge. The jury is still out waiting for
the bicameral Somali parliament to pave the way for the that have been thrust up and folded into a plethora of concrete proof of a ubiquitous CT oil
announcement of the country’s First Licensing Round, large anticline structures. source rock in East Africa – but our
which has a closing date in March 2021. The interesting thing about this fold belt is that all the model provides some hope.
Ibrahim Ali Hussein, Chairman and CEO of SPA, thrust planes sole-out on a common detachment surface We can glean a lot of information
Malampaya Field
and his newly formed team at the Petroleum Agency that we interpret to be Cenomanian–Turonian (CT) shales. about source rocks by looking on
have been busy fi nalising the bid round protocols as It is well known that shales rich in organic carbon, and the opposite side of Africa. During
well as contractual and fi scal terms and these will be particularly those in the oil window, can act as regional Cenomanian–Turonian times, the
published on their website in the coming weeks detachment surfaces. The model predicts that the shales Central Atlantic was a wide basin
(http://somalialicensinground.com/). that act as slip surfaces for the thrusts can also be the with well-developed upwelling
Two regional seismic surveys have been acquired source rock that supplies the oil to the overlying structures. zones. Thick layers of organic rich
offshore. The first was shot in 2014 by SOMA Gas & The Cenomanian–Turonian was a period of intense shale were deposited in both the
Oil, a private oil company founded chiefly to explore global anoxia with euxinic conditions developed shelf/slope setting and also in the
for natural resources in Somalia and the second by throughout the ocean floor deep water as well as along deepwater setting. The thick oil
Spectrum (now part of TGS) in 2016. Both surveys are the upper continental slopes and outer shelves. The shales of Tarfaya in Morocco and
modern, high quality, long offset seismic. resulting CT sediments are rich in organic matter owing the La Luna Formation in Venezuela
to a combination of two factors: high phytoplankton are examples of thick, high quality
productivity source rocks deposited in a shelf/ Comparison of an undrilled Jurassic carbonate build-up in Somalia (top) with a similar looking (Tertiary)
Location map showing bid round blocks (light blue) and available 2D seismic data (orange lines). caused by slope setting. The recent Guyana carbonate build-up in the Philippines (bottom). The Malampaya field, operated by Shell, has reserves of 3
Tcfg and 85 MMbc. Giant reef closures are mapped off Somalia – some with up to 1,000 km2 closure.
increased and Suriname oil discoveries testify
TGS
nutrient supply to high quality oil-prone source rocks also deposited in the Within the Somalia Arch we can clearly see the Permo-
in upwelling deepwater basinal setting. We expect similar conditions were Triassic–Early Jurassic (Karoo) syn-rift fault blocks
zones and greater present in the deepwater Somali Basin during CT times. truncated by the break-up unconformity. Above the
preservation at The probability of finding good quality reservoirs is high. unconformity, and at good drillable depths, are monstrously
the seabed under Thick, quartz-rich sandstones of Cretaceous and Tertiary big Jurassic reefs with enormous four-way closures (see
anoxic conditions. age with high porosity are expected in the southern and image above). One mapped closure is more than 1,000 km2.
Geoscientists central Somalia basins as a result of erosion from largely On the conjugate margin in Madagascar, the Karoo has high
reading this article Precambrian granitic basement plus reworking of older quality proven source rocks in the Early Triassic (lacustrine
will rightly ask Karoo sandstones. The burial depths are not high, so we Type I) and Early Jurassic (marine Type II). The Early Triassic
why thick, high expect good porosity to be maintained. lacustrine source rock has sourced more than 22 Bbo in the
TOC source rocks All things considered, the fold belts have all the Bemolanga/Tisimoro oil fields of Madagascar. Similar aged
GEO ExPro 2021 Media Guide

of CT age have not ingredients for success in finding large volumes of oil and gas source rocks may be present in northern offshore Somalia.
been encountered in commercial quantities. Another possible source rock would be coeval Late
in wells drilled Jurassic shales on the basinward side of the reefs. These
in nearby Kenya Northern Somalia onlap and eventually drown the reefs – perhaps acting as
OUT NOW
and Tanzania. The northern part of offshore Somalia has a very different both intraformational source and seal.
There could be geology to that found to the south. The reason for this is related
several reasons to the creation of a huge uplifted structural arch, known as Exciting New Basin
for this, including the Somalia Arch, at the start of the Late Cretaceous. Strong Overall, the offshore Somalia Basin promises to be an exciting
the fact that transpressional forces in the crust were created as a result of new basin to explore in the years ahead. Hopefully, there will be
during CT times India separating from Madagascar and this produced long success there, and as a result future oil revenues will help Somalia
the Somali Basin wavelength buckle folds across a wide area of East Africa. continue its path of reform, bringing prosperity to its people.

www.geoexpro.com/advertise
Energy Transition
Geoscience in a Low Carbon Future

The role of a petroleum geoscientist is evolving with the energy transition, DEAN BAKER,
but it is still of vital importance to the future of energy. RISC Advisory
Recent events regarding the global Covid-19 pandemic have The Future of the O&G Industry
somewhat dominated media focus in the last six months or so, There are a multitude of forecasts available in the public
but for the 12–18 months prior to this the publicity and media domain for future global energy demand and energy sources
coverage of the global ‘climate emergency’ and the energy (see figure on facing page for BP’s 2020 forecast). Many
transition were very much a key focus area. As a geoscientist different scenarios are forecast by different organisations
in the oil and gas industry, I have found myself questioning with regards to the pace of technology development,
my role and that of my industry in our contribution to the population growth, electrification of transportation,
climate emergency, but more importantly, in the possible increased use of renewables etc. Irrespective of the scenario
solution. Three main questions come to my mind: does the modelled, most outcomes predict that oil and gas will
oil and gas industry have a future and how does this fit into still make up a very significant proportion of the global
the energy transition; how is the petroleum geoscientist’s role energy mix in 2040 and beyond: typically 40–60%, with
likely to change; and in what other ways could a geoscientist coal, renewables, hydroelectric and nuclear making up the
contribute to the energy transition? remainder.
In this article, I will avoid discussion on the science This suggests oil and gas as energy sources are here to stay
of climate change, government policy, politics, or related for some time yet, in particular gas which is seen as the key
social issues – there are people far better qualified than me ‘transition fuel’. It is plentiful in supply, reasonably cheap to
to comment on these topics. Instead, this article will focus produce and relatively clean in comparison to coal or oil. It
specifically on the future role of a geoscientist in the energy is widely accepted that gas use for energy production is key
transition world, sharing my opinion and the insights I have to bridge the gap between reduction in fossil fuels and the
gained from recent publicity and the many discussions I have increase in more sustainable renewable energy sources. In
had after working within the industry for the last 14 years. this regard, and perhaps counterintuitively, it is important
© Coatsey/Dreamstime.com

to consider the oil and gas industry is part of the solution
in moving towards a low carbon renewable energy future.
Quite simply, without the affordable and reliable energy
that oil and gas provide it would not be possible to
transition to renewable energy sources.
What does this mean for the petroleum geoscientist?
Well, more than likely these skills are still going to be
required for some time to come to explore for and produce
the hydrocarbons needed to fulfil global energy demand.
However, employment within the industry will likely shift
away from the majors towards national oil companies,
non-OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development) countries and smaller players as the majors
transition away from traditional oil and gas exploration to
becoming energy companies.
BP Energy Outlook 2020

For those companies still pursuing oil and gas, in my
opinion we are likely to see a much more rigorous project
selection criteria adopted by companies in line with an
increased focus on environmental, social and governance
policies, also heavily linked to the sources of financing
available. There will be a focus on projects that have the BP Energy Outlook 2020 forecasts for primary energy consumption by source.
potential for lower environmental and climatic impact,
reducing the pool of potential oil and gas development require the skills, experience, and knowledge of geoscientists.
projects. Furthermore, whilst majors and larger companies might
employ more modern technologies and analysis methods, the
Digitalisation Cannot Do Everything workflows and technologies we are familiar with today will
Digitalisation across the oil and gas industry is something continue to be used extensively so these skills will still be
that has received a lot of attention since the oil price crash required. Nevertheless, it will be important for geoscientists
in 2014/15 as companies sought to be more efficient and to evolve their skill set to adapt to more digitalisation,
save costs. This broad term, digitalisation, can be used supported by training across the industry and at university
to describe a variety of technological advancements and programme level.
new ways of working, including artificial intelligence, big
data, analytics, internet of things and electronic remote Critical Skills Still Required
monitoring – to name but a few. Many research projects, In addition to the need for continuing oil and gas exploration
particularly by the majors, are advancing the technologies to and production to fill future energy needs, the demand for
the point of implementation in everyday operations. In the geoscientists is likely to increase over the next decade and
next decade or so I believe we are likely to see large changes beyond in a number of other areas:
in the way the industry works, particularly in terms of data
processing and analysis and the monitoring of operations Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): This is a topic
and production systems. One of the key facilitators to this is receiving a significant amount of attention in the oil and
the continued uptake and advancement in ‘cloud computing’, gas industry and by governments as a potential solution to
with large increases in computing power and affordability reducing CO₂ emissions. The notion of injecting CO₂ into
now available. depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs has been around for well
For the geoscientist the increases in computing power over a decade now, but has never really made any major
available via the cloud are likely to greatly affect the steps forward; it has always been challenged in terms of
subsurface workflow giving them the ability to analyse economic viability, not to mention many other technical
larger quantities of data more quickly. This can optimise and aspects. Unless there are some major changes in government
automate significant parts of the subsurface workflow which policy, as well as incentives and increases in funding for
can in turn free the geoscientist to apply critical thinking research, we could still be decades away from viable CCS
and skills to subsurface challenges. One example might be projects being sanctioned and thus providing a notable
automated seismic screening and interpretation, with key contribution to reduction in greenhouse gases. However,
inputs from the geoscientist provided at the beginning to set some governments and major oil companies are conducting
up a project and quality control at the end to review, with active research projects and in the last 18 months or so
automation undertaking of the bulk of the process. there is a general feeling of slowly gathering momentum and
In this example, as in many others, despite significant interest in the subject. This progress is certainly welcomed,
automation the role of the geoscientist is still an important but we need to do a lot more. Indeed, some commentators
one to provide technical inputs, quality control and review of argue that if we continue to use fossil fuels in the quantities
results. The critical thinking and decision-making will still forecast over the next two to three decades and still want

Energy Transition
a) b)
BP Energy Outlook 2020

Global carbon emissions from energy use (a) and Carbon emissions by sector (b). Ranges show 10th and 90th percentiles of IPCC scenarios.
to achieve Paris climate change targets then CCS will be their flow behaviour, in addition to modelling and monitoring
essential and might need to capture more than 55% of reservoirs once injection and storage commences.
produced CO₂.
The role of geoscientists in this future industry will be Geothermal Energy: A clean and renewable energy
critical to identify carbon capture storage sites by analysing source, geothermal is likely to increase in popularity in the
hydrocarbon reservoirs and developing an understanding of future, particularly in those regions where the underlying
geology is supportive. The role of a geoscientist is varied
Belgium’s first offshore wind farm, Thornton Bank, under construction in the North Sea. Geoscience skills learnt in the oil industry are needed when
selecting wind farm sites.
Jan Oelker/Wikipedia

Freenzphotos.com
Wairakei Power Station is a geothermal power station near the Wairakei
Geothermal Field in New Zealand.
within this industry and geoscientists have a role to play

during exploration, development, and production phases of
geothermal projects. A geothermal geologist probably has
more in common with mineral exploration than petroleum
geology, but there are still a lot of similarities to the work
of a petroleum geoscientist including mapping geology and
geological features, sample analysis, examining cores and
cuttings, building subsurface models and siting and planning
wells.
Mineral Exploration: Mining and mineral exploration has

always been a popular career choice for many geologists
following graduation and provides an exciting and rewarding
profession for those involved. A career in mineral exploration
could offer a good avenue for petroleum geoscientists in
the energy transition as we move away from fossil fuels and
traditional petroleum geology roles. Continued electrification
of transport and energy storage will be supported with
improvements in battery technology which are predicted to
increase exponentially over the next couple of decades. This
will vastly increase the need for key minerals such as lithium
and exploration and mining for these minerals will be a major
industry employer for geoscientists.
Part of the Solution

My research and interactions with other industry
professionals had led me to the conclusion that the role
of a geoscientist is an important one in the future energy
transition, whether that be in continuing to support the
petroleum industry in exploration for oil and gas to meet
global energy demand; a switch in focus to gas as ‘the key
transition fuel’; or supporting new growth industries such
as CCS mineral exploration; or contributing towards
renewable energy industries such as geothermal and
wind. There are likely to be significant changes ahead and
adaptions required for our industry, but if we embrace
these and face them head-on with a focus on effective
communication with governments and the general public
then our industry can hopefully be viewed, quite rightly,
as part of the solution for energy transition rather than the
problem itself.

Energy Transition
Ruminations on CO₂
SUSAN FELLOWS,
Carbon dioxide: least wanted – or most wanted accessory? Computer Modelling Group Ltd
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is not a popular From the E&P side, that same flooding. As heavy industry seeks to
gas these days. Industry, governments injection well is a conduit into the capture CO₂, the E&P industry now
and even individuals are actively trying unknown, with highly corrosive CO₂ perceives a reliable future supply of CO₂
to reduce its production, and dispose of damaging piping and casing integrity; for EOR practice where the reservoir
what is produced, in such a way that it and the same highly reactive CO₂ formation and fluid characteristics are
disappears forever. Over the last decade entering the saline aquifer or depleted suitable. Are CO₂ storage and CO₂EOR
or more, the capture and disposal of gas reservoir and interacting with the competing concepts, or a mutually
CO₂ has created a whole new industry existing fluid and rock chemistry. In beneficial arrangement?
dedicated to finding ways of capturing contrast, if the reactive potential of
and storing the unwanted gas and CO₂ is to be utilised in EOR, it should Basics of CO₂ Storage
preventing it entering our atmosphere. be remarked that the injected CO₂ is CO₂ is trapped underground and
Meanwhile, E&P companies are re- used to sweep the reservoir, and thus contained therein by different
orientating themselves to become goes down the injection well, only mechanisms, each acting over a
waste-disposal services, by offering to subsequently come back up the different timescale. Reservoir simulation
existing infrastructure and ‘empty’ production well, where it needs to be is utilised to model, evaluate and
storage facilities. recaptured. manage the CO₂ injection strategy, and
Both in the North Sea arena and The objectives of CO₂ storage predict the movement of the gas in the
globally, much technical, logistical and and CO₂EOR are very different. The subsurface where it becomes trapped
planning effort is focused on the use motivation for CO₂ storage is to reduce and stored. The mechanisms include:
of carbon capture and storage (CCS) greenhouse gases utilising depleted Structural Trapping: The CO₂ is
methods to dispose of unwanted CO₂, oil and gas reservoirs and also saline trapped as a mobile gas (super critical
both in depleted gas fields such as those aquifers. CO₂ is highly soluble in the fluid) in the geological structure,
of the Southern North Sea Basin, or aqueous phase and saline aquifers by an impermeable cap rock. What
in saline aquifers such as exist in the have a large capacity to store it (Figure had applied as a physical trapping
Central North Sea Basin. There are also 1). The motivation for CO₂EOR, by mechanism for the hydrocarbons in a
enthusiastic advocates for the use of the contrast, is to increase the recovery depleted reservoir also applies to CO₂.
proposed unwanted volumes of CO₂ to factor of an oil reservoir subsequent to Continued injection of CO₂ increases
be used in CO₂ enhanced oil recovery primary depletion and secondary water the subsurface pressure, and careful
(EOR) from mature fields. The US has
employed CO₂EOR for over a decade Figure 1: Physics of CO₂ storage.
with good results, and there are those
who seek to replicate this in the North
Sea.
Who Uses What and Where?

CCS and CO₂EOR are both good ideas,
but good ideas do not always come with
all the practicalities nicely packaged.
The reality of the North Sea presents
specific constraints and considerations,
linked to water depths, well location and
well spacing; and in the northern North
Sea area particularly, extreme weather
conditions exist.
Beyond E&P, much of industry sees
the injection of CO₂ into ‘vast caverns
beneath the sea’, as a ‘cure-all’ to their
CO₂ problems. The perception of CO₂
disposal is too often an injection well
into an infinite hole below ground, and
CMG
preferably, beneath the sea….

CMG
Figure 2: Evolution of gas saturation in the aquifer and in overlaying formations due to leakage through caprocks. (SPE 125848 Nghiem et al 2009)
monitoring is required to ensure that the cap rock does not The Basics of CO₂EOR
fracture, resulting in the CO₂ leaking upwards and away CO₂ may be injected into a reservoir as a form of EOR process,
(Figure 2). typically either CO₂WAG (CO₂ plus high salinity water)
Residual Gas Trapping: Depending upon CO₂ movement, (Figure 4), or CO₂LSWAG (CO₂ plus low salinity water). Note
(drainage or imbibition), and hysteresis effects, CO₂ can be that in the US onshore unconventional plays, CO₂EOR takes
trapped as an immobile gas in the pore space. This method is the form of ‘huff and puff’, a process not applicable in the
most effective in low-permeability aquifers and is accelerated North Sea. Injected CO₂ develops miscibility through multiple
by water injection.
Solubility Trapping: CO₂ is highly soluble in brine and Figure 3: Security of CO2 storage versus time.
becomes a soluble component in the aquifer brine. Aquifers
Metz et al., ICCP Report 2005

‘flow’ underground, albeit on extended timescales, so there
is the potential for migration of the CO₂ -rich water out of
the designated injection or storage area.
Mineralisation: As the dissolved CO₂ content of
the aquifer brine increases, so does the acidity of the
brine. This leads to dissolution of some rock minerals,
and deposition of carbonate minerals such as calcite,
dolomite and siderite. In other words, the injected CO₂
is bound into a solid physical state. This is the safest
storage mechanism, but there are many uncertainties in
predicting when and where dissolution and precipitation
may take place in the subsurface.
Residual Gas Trapping and Solubility Trapping are
the most important CO₂ trapping mechanisms (Figure
3). High-permeability aquifers favour Solubility Trapping
while low-permeability ones favour Residual Gas Trapping.
Reservoir engineering techniques can be used to accelerate
and increase the amount of Residual Gas Trapping.
Reservoir simulation coupled with geomechanical
simulation must be undertaken to determine and manage
structural integrity, as demonstrated in Figure 2.

Energy Transition
Global CCS Institute

Figure 4: Enhanced oil recovery using CO2.
contacts with the reservoir oil. A certain pressure is needed to designing a CO₂EOR project, these parameters are also the
achieve miscibility, which is called the minimum miscibility focus, but for different reasons. Injection during CO₂ storage
pressure (MMP). is most likely to be continuous, (supply dependent), and will
Above its critical conditions (7,390 kPa, 31°C), the density continue for years or decades, with the aim of injecting in such
of CO₂ is in the range of the reservoir oil density, but its a way as to maximise trapping of the CO₂ in the reservoir. Thus
viscosity is less, which results in an unfavourable mobility injector location, and injection rate and pressure, are designed
ratio. Injecting CO₂ swells the oil and the saturation pressure to optimise residual gas trapping and solubilisation of the CO₂
changes. Increasing the CO₂ injection pressure above the in the reservoir brine. Conversely, in a CO₂EOR project, the
MMP increases the CO₂ density, resulting in better sweep CO₂ will not be injected continually, but in a series of pulses,
efficiency and a higher oil recovery. with the aim to recover as much of the injected gas as possible,
When designing a CO₂EOR project, there are multiple both for re-injection, (supply dependent), and because the less
considerations, including the reservoir formation; the PVT of CO₂ that is trapped in the reservoir, the more effective is the
the hydrocarbon fluid; the reservoir heterogeneity and thus hydrocarbon recovery process.
overall permeability distribution. Of particular importance is Storage of CO₂ and use of it as an EOR agent are different
the vertical permeability and associated potential for CO₂–oil subsurface processes. This does not mean that they cannot be
segregation. Offshore, inter-well distance is crucial, with the managed together, either as sequential field operations, or as
potential to fall below the miscibility pressure and lose the separate operations in different reservoir compartments. It is
flood efficacy. Other factors such as water blocking, viscous for those working on the projects to access accordingly. The
fingering, hysteresis and asphaltene precipitation must also discussion here is necessarily simplistic, with the intention
be considered. Reservoir simulation is an essential part of of raising some of the practicalities of injecting CO₂ into the
the design phase and subsequent evaluation of the success subsurface, whether to dispose of it in the long term, or to
of the miscible flood process; type of flood, flow mechanism, gain additional value in enhanced hydrocarbon recovery in
(vertical flood or gravity segregation), WAG or LSWAG and the short term.
slug size. Asphaltene deposition can lead to permeability
reduction and plugging especially around the well area, and References
as with infrastructure corrosion, is an undesirable effect of Metz, B., Davidson, O., de Coninck, H., Loos, M., and
injecting CO₂. Meyer, L. (eds), IPCC (2005). Carbon Dioxide Capture and
Storage. Cambridge University Press.
Competing – or Mutually Beneficial? Nghiem L., Shrivastava V., Tran D., Kohse B., Hassam M. and
When designing a CO₂ storage project, optimisation focuses Yang C. (2009). Simulation of CO2 Storage in Saline Aquifers.
on the location of the injector wells, the injector rate, injection 2009 SPE/EAGE Reservoir Characterization and Simulation
pressure and the duration of the injection period. When Conference.

Exploration
Tantalising Opportunities in Angola

Angola’s Onshore Kwanza Basin offers an underexplored basin with a world class petroleum system.
MATT TYRRELL and ALESSANDRO COLLA, Trois Geoconsulting BV; MIKE OEHLERS, Tectosat Ltd
Seasoned explorers of Africa and There are, however, onshore basins A key milestone occurred in 1955
the Atlantic margins will be familiar where this quandary is not so apparent; when the post-salt Benfica oil field was
with the quandary of choosing where extensive high quality datasets discovered just south of Luanda, after
between offshore and onshore acreage. are available and early exploration which exploration drilling peaked;
Offshore acreage typically offers large, has suitably de-risked proven pre- and by the late 1970s 133 wells had been
inexpensive seismic datasets with post-salt petroleum plays. One such drilled. This era of activity saw the
which to identify prospects, but the example is the Onshore Kwanza Basin discovery of 11 oil fields, as well as a few
costs of drilling and developing these of Angola – a Mesozoic salt basin with gas fields, with the largest containing
require significant inward investment. numerous undeveloped fields, a library more than 200 MMboe, made possible
Conversely, onshore acreage allows rich in accessible yet low-cost exploration by the availability of 11,500 line-km
numerous wells to be drilled at a low datasets and local refineries and markets of dynamite 2D seismic data. The last
cost, but the ability to locate and de-risk for hydrocarbons once they are produced. onshore field discovery was in 1972 and
prospects is limited by the expense Furthermore, a licence round that the last well was drilled in 1982, from
and paucity of exploration datasets, opens towards the end of 2020, supported when on interest in the onshore declined,
particularly seismic. by new oil and gas laws and fiscal in part due to socio-political stability
This quandary is particularly incentives, provides the opportunity for risks but more likely due to the early
apparent in the coastal basins of West oil companies to secure rights to this successes of offshore exploration. Only
Africa, where the Mesozoic sedimentary acreage, appraise discovered fields and nine oil fields have ever been reported as
successions, including salt, extend into potentially fast-track commercially viable having been put onto production, which
the onshore domain. In this basin, hydrocarbon production. include the Cacuaco and Puaca fields,
seasoned explorers will be tantalised both with pre-salt reservoirs.
by the opportunity to drill salt-induced Underexplored Pre-Salt Although at first it appears that the
prospects within a proven petroleum To understand the future potential of Onshore Kwanza has been considerably
system and will be seeking the necessary the Onshore Kwanza Basin, we must drilled, analysis of well penetrations
datasets with which to de-risk them. first understand its exploration history. and results tells a story of high success
The Miradouro da Lua near Luanda. The geology shows the building and uplift of the Late Neogene Paleo-Cuanza delta.
David Mark/Pixabay

rates in post-salt wildcats contrasted with a prospective
yet significantly underexplored pre-salt succession. Of
the 237 wells drilled, just 28 penetrated beneath the
salt; four pre-salt fields were discovered prior to 1971
(Cacuaco, Uacongo, Puaca and Morro Liso) despite
only three wells testing a meaningful section of pre-salt
stratigraphy. When our seasoned explorers analyse the
results of these pre-salt wells they must be left pondering
what might have been found had the operator drilled a
little deeper.
An initial observation is that the majority of pre-salt
penetrations were drilled from wellheads located for
post-salt prospects with only a handful of wells spudded
with a pre-salt objective. Furthermore, assumptions
about 1960s and 1970s technology and know-how
suggest that modern field appraisal methodologies
could reveal where discovered fields may actually
be commercial, whilst advanced well stimulation
techniques could lower the commercial threshold.
Updated Datasets Support Exploration

In 2010 and 2011, 2,581 line-km of high quality 2D
seismic data was acquired followed by the acquisition
of high resolution aeromagnetic data. A new GIS
GeoDatabase named KMAP-2020, commissioned by
Sonangol in 2015, was then completed as part of the
reassessment of the remaining oil potential ahead of
licence rounds. This product, available for the whole
onshore basin or for individual blocks, includes outcrop
information, petrographic studies and palaeontological
reports from recent field trips together with seismic
profiles, well stratigraphy panels and geosections.
The KMAP-2020 database has recently been further
refined by the inclusion of modern satellite imagery
supplied by specialist, Tectosat Ltd. Using Landsat
imagery, SRTM DEM, ASTER and PALSAR Radar data*,
the whole basin has been remapped at a much more
comprehensive 1:50,000 scale involving interpretation at
1:25,000 scale, with additional integration of lithological
detail from some 3,000 field sample points.
Trois
The resulting updates to the surface geology
maps within the KMAP-2020 database have positive Revised KMAP-2020 geological map derived from recent satellite imagery and
implications for de-risking the underlying petroleum field studies. Pre-salt well penetrations and 2020 License Round blocks are shown.
systems. Halokinetic activity is evinced in anomalous
domes and basins showing salt withdrawal and folding the pre-salt Cacuaco Field north-east of Luanda suggest that
adjacent to the main bounding faults of the Tertiary troughs. the sub-salt section should be suitably charged.
Fault expressions mapped at surface have been used to
understand structural controls related to various tectonic Underexplored Area in New Licence Round
episodes. Where it is shown that many of the Tertiary-aged An integration of past exploration results, available seismic
faults are soft-linked to deeper syn-rift structures, the charge and well datasets with the KMAP-2020 database (which
of post-salt reservoirs with pre-salt oil can be de-risked. includes the satellite imagery interpretation) demonstrate that
Similarly, areas of Tertiary uplift are observed in the vicinity the Onshore Kwanza Basin is a world class petroleum basin
of Blocks 11 and 12 where present-day river systems are seen that in recent decades has been considerably underexplored.
to have incised; this uplift may have hinged to the north at The post-salt section has numerous anticlinal closures that
the Cabo Ledo fault. These details are key in determining are untested; where these have been drilled the structures exhibit
long-distance migration paths from known source kitchens, good reservoir qualities and host viable oil fields, such as those
including the offshore, into pre-salt and post-salt structures; at Quenguela and Benfica. Where sampled, the pre-salt is shown
indeed, the presence of basin margin oil seeps together with to exhibit good quality carbonate reservoirs formed by coquina

Exploration
shoals with vuggy porosities

as well as fluvial-deltaic
sandstones. The hydrocarbons
encountered here are light oils
with gas and with no known
encounters of CO2 or high
sulphur content.
When the results of the
updated ArcGIS geological
study are combined with
available seismic and well
datasets, conclusions can be
drawn that suggest that the
upcoming licence round may
be the trigger for the first
commercial production of
oil from onshore Kwanza.
Recent announcements
Sonangol.
by the newly formed
ANPG (National Agency of
Simplified example well-section from the KMAP-2020 report; note the limited pre-salt penetration in the Bom Jesus well.
Petroleum, Gas and Biofuels)
have defined a strategy for
the allocation of petroleum concessions including open acreage Exceptional Opportunity
within all of Angola’s basins. Concessions will be awarded The history books of exploration bear witness to a multitude
through a process of public tender, restricted public tender and of junior exploration companies that secured onshore acreage,
direct negotiation over a period of seven years, starting in 2019 within a known petroleum province, yet were unable to
and culminating in 2025. The blocks offered by public tender successfully demonstrate to investors and potential farm-in
are those that are deemed exploration blocks that have not partners that they could cost effectively de-risk a drilling location.
formerly been abandoned and restored to the state. The Onshore Kwanza Basin is different in that it offers
The blocks of the Onshore Kwanza Basin have been the opportunity to secure acreage containing a post-salt field
announced as a part of the 2020 licensing round, which will or prospect that can potentially be appraised and brought
open in the fourth quarter of 2020. Blocks KON5, KON6, into production, providing cash-flow to fund further pre-salt
KON8, KON9, KON17 and KON20 are offered by public tender exploration where the prize may be bigger. The 2020 Angola
and these blocks all offer excellent potential for exploration as Licence Round should therefore be in the plans of all junior
well as opportunities to appraise and develop discovered fields. and mid-sized oil companies.
In August this year, the ANPG held a Clarification Session
as a precursor to the opening of the round; during this session * SRTM DEM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission – Digital
senior members of ANPG gave informative presentations and Elevation Mapping), ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal
clarified the timeline for the submissions of bids and signature Emission and Reflection Radiometer), PALSAR (Phased Array
of the contracts. type L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar)
KMAP-2020
PALSAR data
with shaded
DEM showing
the geological
structure around
the Cabo Ledo
fault; note the
differentiation
Tectosat Ltd
between deep-
seated and shallow
faulting.

Industry Issues
Tackling the Local Content Gap

E&P companies working in Africa have long faced political pressure to maximise
local content, but in today’s Covid world it makes more business sense than
ever to localise supply chains, increase the competitiveness of home-grown WILLIAM POLLEN,
businesses and thus contribute to sustainable economic development. Invest in Africa
Corporations working in Africa, including Ambitious Vision Oil, which was a founding partner,
those in the oil and gas sector, are under Invest in Africa (IIA) is a not-for-profit as well as other oil industry players
regulatory and reputational pressure to organisation with a simple yet ambitious such as Woodside, BP, Cairn, Kosmos,
create local jobs and opportunities. The vision: to create thriving African Baker Hughes and Shell, and also local
more astute of them also look for ways economies. It does this by helping and international law firms and banks
to ensure this approach where possible and management consultants like
complements the host EY, whilst donor funders include the
government’s long- African Development Bank, DFID and
term national Mastercard Foundation. IIA believes
development that by continuously creating strategic
plans. partnerships with corporate associates,
This local enterprise, government bodies
and donor agencies it will be able
to create more value, identify
new clients and markets
and thus create
prospering
African
economies.
Coordination
of objectives, time
‘nationalised’ or ‘local content’ approach
also makes business sense; the more
of your supply chain that is localised,
the less exposed your operations are to
Shutterstock
customs delays, import taxes, exchange

rate fluctuations – and Covid-19 has only
emphasised the further risks of relying on
international supply chains.
Meanwhile, African small to
medium-size enterprises (SME)
often lack skills and the business
understanding required to allow them
to compete in a new or international
market. They need access to finance frames and priorities is often lacking
that will enable them to scale up their between industry players and the
businesses, whilst reliable, fair and public sector, which is why IIA’s model,
transparent opportunities and market which bridges the private and public
information can be hard to find. Industry sector, is so important to its success.
level skills and standards pose another African SMEs to grow through enabling An informed and consistent dialogue
significant barrier to local businesses, them to gain better access to skills, between these parties is also critical
especially if foreign investors’ ethics, markets and finance. to building trust, avoiding tensions
compliance and environment, health and IIA is a collaboration that unites the and delays that too often spiral out
safety standards are imposed, top down, private sector, donors and governments of control, to everyone’s detriment,
without any explanation or support to in order to pool needs and resources especially the local businesses and
local businesses to understand and attain and thus create more timely, impactful economy who as a result are made to
these ways of working. and cost-efficient solutions than would wait for the project go ahead.
How can this shared challenge be be achieved if they each acted alone. The impact that IIA makes is
tackled? Private sector partners include Tullow measured by the number of jobs created,

IIA
any improvement in competitiveness The African Partner Pool was operational risks they might face, or
seen and the creation of new linkages to launched in Ghana in 2014 and Kenya analyse the key issues in logistics and
contracts and finance. Having started in 2016, with plans to extend it to other supply chains; in African businesses, the
in 2014 initially focused on Ghana and markets in the near future. One company challenge is not big data, as in developed
Kenya, by 2019 IIA had activities in that has benefitted from joining it is Edge countries, but simply finding the data
Senegal, Mauritania and Zambia and S&S, a Ghanaian sourcing and supply itself.
had helped connect SMEs in those company, which was frustrated by little
countries to contracts worth over $165m exposure to multinational companies Access to Skills and Finance
and access over $5m worth of finance operating in the country, with business Members of the African Partner
from banks to grow their businesses. limited to the ‘same old clients’. The Pool also have access to training
To date it has created approximately only way they could hear of tenders and coaching through IIA’s Business
65,000 jobs, all delivered by local teams. from multinational companies was by Linkage Programme, which offers
IIA has an ambitious target of enabling scanning through newspapers to find if coaching and mentorship interventions
the creation of 250,000 jobs and $1bn of any had been advertised. Within a few that assist SMEs to scale up and fast
contracts won by SMEs by 2027. weeks of signing onto the Portal, where track their businesses in order to
they could see many tenders from lots become globally competitive – giving
Finding Opportunities of businesses all in one place, they had them not just technical but also ‘life
These are ambitious plans – but how is responded to a tender request from skills’. The African Development Bank
this done in practice? UT Bank and eventually won a supply and the Dutch Development Bank
In order to improve access to contract from them. They have also been have provided funding of $4m for this
markets, IIA has developed an online able to engage with a number of other programme, which is delivered by
marketplace it calls the African Partner companies, including Tullow Oil. IIA and its partners. Recently IIA has
Pool, which allows SMEs to promote the For the international company rolled out a Covid Survival Toolkit
products and services they can deliver looking for local skills, the African in partnership with Mastercard
and the standards they can deliver to. Partner Pool provides access to Foundation, available on IIA’s website
They can also access information on businesses that have already been for free to African SMEs. This toolkit
industry fundamentals, project briefings independently validated from across features a series of live webinars with
and other materials to help them start a range of sectors. The system allows industry experts providing solutions to
their journey into a new sector. them to search and filter by service and the biggest problems Covid has created
Organisations coming into Africa a number of other key criteria, which for SMEs.
need to find local suppliers who will reduces the time and effort as well as
be able to work effectively with them, cost required
To date IIA estimates that $165m worth of deals have been done through
but local firms often find it difficult in finding the the African Partner Pool.
to access these opportunities, and the right supplier,
IIA
African Partner Pool makes it easier especially for a

for big companies to find the right local new entrant to an
suppliers to work with. Local businesses African country.
that register on it get the chance to IIA also supplies a
display their products and services to series of ‘Investor
both international and domestic buyers Guides’, available
and they can also view live tender through its
opportunities and register their interest website, that can
in them. In order to give the local help an incoming
suppliers the best chance to succeed, the company
portal includes practical guides on how understand
to work with big companies and what it the economic,
takes to gain a competitive advantage. financial and

Industry Issues
The aim of IIA’s model is to deliver
IIA
training at a much reduced price in
order to help African companies to
develop to the stage at which they can
win new clients, not just locally but also
regionally and internationally, enable
efficiencies to increase their profits, and
gain access to finance and thus create
new jobs. In order to benefit from this
programme, companies must be at
least two years old and have between
15 and 100 employees. A transparent
procurement system is also important
to ensure growth in African business,
so companies applying to the Business
Linkage Programme must be able to
demonstrate efforts to be transparent
and to embed governance standards.
Managers in one company that took
advantage of this capacity building Invest in Africa has partnered with various organisations to connect woman-owned businesses to
programme reported that they quickly opportunities.
saw clear positive results. Applying US$5m of credit has been disbursed to Thus it can be seen that IIA has
what they learnt, they changed the way SMEs through IIA’s banking partners. developed a coordinated industry-led
they worked, found that scrutinising solution, with public sector support
expenses more effectively ensured they Tracking Progress and organised funding, which links
got better value for money, and as a To monitor the impact of these multinationals and larger businesses with
result salaries have risen by 50%, staff programmes IIA have developed a local verified SMEs, that is demand-led
numbers have increased from twelve socio-economic impact model to assess and supports national development,
to eighteen, and they even acquired and understand how its work benefits improves the investment climate and
property which is being developed to local economies, looking at three major saves both parties time and money. The
serve as their new office and showroom. aspects: value retained in the local international companies have a cost-
Previously IIA ran a business economy, the number of jobs supported effective and efficient way of fulfilling
accelerator programme that gave SMEs and the increase in contracts won. For their local content requirements that will
access to senior consultants from EY at every deal that goes through the African leave a sustainable, impactful and scalable
a heavily subsidised rate to help them Partner Pool, the organisation captures legacy, while the SMEs gain access to
design and implement the key systems the value and the sector involved in the skills, contracts and finance to build long-
and structures that are necessary for tender and uses the socio-economic term capacity for both themselves and
greater efficiency and sustainable growth. model to track the value retained in their countries. A win-win situation!
IIA also provides an Access to the country through taxes, profits and And with the African Free Trade
Finance Programme for African Partner household income. It can also track Agreement (AfCFTA) – converting
Pool members which helps registered jobs created in various sectors and Africa’s 54 markets into one common,
SMEs to develop structures and ultimately calculate the overall impact tariff-free trading block worth over
protocols that will help them reduce risk on the economy through the purchasing $3 trillion – recently ratified, the
in order to encourage banks to advance of goods and services locally rather than opportunity for quality home-grown
them loans. So far, approximately from abroad. African businesses will only increase.
IIA

Gabon: Staying Ahead
CGG has been investing in Gabon since 1932. Since those early days, the company has
moved from the shallow waters, to the shelf and most recently to the thick sedimentary
section of the lower slope and abyssal plain. In 2015, CGG acquired 25,168 km2 of 3D
BroadSeis™ seismic and potential field data, followed by a further 9,595 km of long-offset
of the Herd in the

2D seismic data in 2018.
To complement its acquisition of geophysical data, CGG has conducted three independent,
regional, geological interpretation JumpStart™ projects. These highlight the prospectivity
Ultra-Deep Waters
of the targeted geological domain and benefit from the newly acquired geophysical data.
Open Blocks
Currently, the shallow water shelf plays of Gabon are considered mature. Explorationists AVO Models
have recently followed these plays into deeper waters and enjoyed some success with the Recent Discovery
Other Wells
drilling of the Boudji-1 and Ivela-1 wells. However, with declining production levels in Gabon Deep Water 2D (2,595 km)
and falling drilling prices, explorationists are now looking to open up the inferred ultra- Gabon South Basin 3D
BroadSeis (25,168 km2)
2D seismic dip line offshore Gabon. deepwater plays, which have the potential for giant accumulations of hydrocarbons.
Insert on main foldout line: AVO gradient intercept plot.
Twt
SW BSR NE
5
Albian/Turonian
7 Unconformity Surface
Insert
8 SALT DOMAIN
10

De-Risking Deepwater A seismic- and well-
based approach reduces
Plays Offshore Gabon

uncertainty over source
rocks to bring insight to
the final frontier.
JAKE BERRYMAN and GREGOR DUVAL, CGG
When CGG acquired its 3D deepwater Gabon structural and stratigraphic combination traps in the
South dataset in 2015, an extremely thick section post-rift series of the nearby basins (i.e. Gabon North
of discontinuous, bright-amplitude reflectors was Basin and Lower Congo Basin). A number of fields found
observed between the seabed and the Top Oligocene in those basins have proven post-rift source rocks, such
unconformity. This section originates from the Congo as the Turonian Azile Formation, the Cenomanian Cap
Fan and pinches out against the palaeoslope, within the Lopez Formation and the Albian Madiela Formation. In CGG
3D survey area. This sedimentary formation expands the Gabon South Basin only the syn-rift source rocks of
(Left) AVO models for the Top Cenomanian and Top Turonian; (right) AVO cross plot for the Top Cenomanian and Top Turonian.
towards the ultra-deepwater domain, where it thickens the Melania and Kissenda formations are proven, whilst
up to 4.5 km across the 2D ultra-deepwater survey the post-rift source rocks are inferred. rock intervals throughout CGG’s 2D seismic dataset. Our from key well logs (i.e. density, P-wave velocity and S-wave
that CGG acquired in 2018. The section is particularly data suggest that the inferred Albian source rock is confined velocity). This was used to test that the AVA response
important as it provides the overburden necessary to 2D Seismic Data Observations within small half grabens formed in Aptian-age crust, whilst calculated at the wells matches our seismic observations
mature the inferred, underlying source rocks. This Underlying what we interpret as an Eocene–Oligocene the Cenomanian–Turonian source rock interval is a much further offshore.
interval also contains key proven seal and reservoir unconformity there is a package of undulating, broader regional feature. Synthetic AVA curves were modelled for the top of the
units, as well as a direct hydrocarbon indicator, in the continuous, parallel reflectors that onlap against a main Cenomanian–Turonian source rock for two wells.
form of a Bottom Simulating Reflector (BSR). prominent unconformity surface. From our previous Reducing Uncertainty The results clearly demonstrate the anticipated Class IV
As discussed in our previous article Exploring the studies, this lower unconformity surface allows us to Studies of Jurassic source rocks from the North Sea anomaly, similar to previous work on Type II Jurassic source
Last Frontier: Offshore South Gabon (GEO ExPro 2019, date the package to the Cenomanian–Turonian, an (Løseth et al., 2011) have proven that the tops of organic- rocks in the North Sea. The slight variations observed
Vol. 16, No. 5), explorers have traditionally targeted interval in which the inferred Azile and Cap Lopez rich shales can exhibit Class IV Amplitude Versus Offset can be attributed to facies changes in the overburden and
post-rift source rocks are (AVO) anomaly responses, producing a large decrease of differences in average TOC over the bulk of the source rock
located. With the same impedance at zero offset that dims with increasing offsets. interval itself.
(Top) AI vs TOC plot for the Cenomanian–Turonian source rock interval; (bottom) AI vs TOC plot for
Albian source rock interval; (inset) AI vs TOC (Løseth) et al., 2011.
seismic stratigraphic The effect of this is noticeable with as little as 2% Total
approach, we are able to Organic Content (TOC). During CGG’s most recent studies Implications for Inferred Distal Sources
High identify the Albian Madiela offshore Gabon, it was noted that similar effects were With the rock physics models extracted from wells that
CGG
Formation which also has visible in the distal seismic data, at the level of the inferred penetrated the source rock intervals, we can now look back
potential as a source rock. source rock intervals. at our seismic data to search for a similar response. The
No well data are available It is also worth noting that the Jurassic source rocks intervals mapped as the Cenomanian–Turonian and Albian
Al
to make a direct tie to studied by Løseth et al. consist of a typical Type II kerogen sequences show both a prominent AI decrease through the
Al (ms * g/cm2)
these formation markers mixture of degraded terrestrial and planktonic marine top reflection and a clear Class IV AVA anomaly, as illustrated
0% TOC 20% in the main 2D seismic origin. These were deposited in a similar deepwater in the seismic foldout and insert on the previous page. These
survey area, but there marine environment to the Cenomanian–Turonian source results support the potential presence of good-quality source
are known calibration rocks encountered offshore Gabon and, based on their rocks at these levels. Given that deepwater marine conditions
points further to the east geochemistry, they are also commonly classified as Type II. prevailed throughout the region during the deposition of the
where selected lines were Hence, the work from Løseth et al. provides a good analogue. Cenomanian–Turonian, it is a fair assumption to extrapolate
Low extended for that purpose In order to validate our seismic observations the the response modelled from proximal wells to the more
0% TOC 4% (see map on main foldout Jeannette-1, Ika Marine-1 and Aulica Marine-1 wells distal areas where our 2D seismic data are located. However,
High page). were used to investigate the relationship between extrapolation of the Albian source rock information is more
In addition to acoustic impedance and TOC. Th is confi rmed an inverse speculative because shallower marine settings prevailed in
stratigraphic relationships, relationship between measured TOC and Acoustic the inboard locations of the well control at the time. As a
a bright, continuous Impedance (AI) for Cenomanian–Turonian and Albian result, the wells used for the rock physics models may not
negative amplitude source rocks offshore Gabon, in line with the analogue be representative of the more distal marine depositional
Al (ms * g/cm2)
reflector (indicative of provided by Løseth et al. Both intervals display inverse environment that prevailed over the 2D seismic survey area.
a significant decrease power trends, but the mudstone-dominated Turonian Azile The findings of our work show how targeted 2D seismic
of impedance) exists at and Cenomanian Cap Lopez formations provide a closer data acquisition, combined with geological and rock
the level of all inferred fit than the diagenetically altered carbonates of the Albian physics studies, can provide a low-cost, powerful tool for
source rock markers. Madiela Formation. explorationists to reduce the uncertainty associated with
This characteristic, along To provide further support for these observations, a series both source rock presence and quality in unexplored areas,
Low with pre-stack seismic of synthetic Amplitude Versus Angle (AVA) curves were such as the ultra-deep waters offshore Gabon.
attributes, helped us to produced to model the response of the top of the source
0% TOC 8% trace the potential source rock interface based on rock physics properties extracted References available online.

Exploration
A Global Exploration Hotspot

New pre-salt opportunities have been identified in the ultra- WEI MINGCHI, SHI KUITAI and
deepwater areas of the Santos Basin. GAO JING, BGP
In the past decade, a large number of major discoveries have been Large Pre-Salt Prospects
made in pre-salt plays in deepwater areas of the Santos Basin. During 2016 and 2018, BGP in partnership with Spectrum
These highlight the outstanding world class exploration potential (now TGS) acquired multiclient 2D seismic data in the
remaining within this basin, where the discovered fields have an outboard south-eastern part of this oil province in the ultra-
average reserve of more than 1 billion barrels of oil, making the deepwater areas of the Santos Basin, as shown on the map
Santos Basin an important global exploration hotspot. below. The survey consisted of 25,000 km of long-offset high
resolution seismic data with 12 km streamer length and 15
Geological Setting seconds recording length, which is designed to improve the
The Santos Basin is located in the south-east of Brazil deep imaging. Pre-stack time migration (PSTM) and pre-stack
and covers an area of 320,000 km2. It is a typical passive depth migration (PSDM) were undertaken and the results
continental margin basin and is acknowledged as one of the have been available since early 2019.
most prolific hydrocarbon-producing basins in the world. This survey was designed to make up for the shortage of
The formation of the Santos Basin is related to the seismic data in the ultra-deepwater areas in the Santos Basin,
breaking-up of Gondwana continent and the expansion of by providing high quality seismic data to identify favourable
the Atlantic Ocean, which has been taking place since the pre-salt plays. The survey area is believed to hold tremendous
Mesozoic. The tectonic evolution of the basin can be divided hydrocarbon potential and is expected to share the same play
into three stages: intracontinental rift, intercontinental rift elements as those associated with discoveries in the known
and a passive continental margin stage. These three periods Santos Basin oil province.
of tectonic evolution correspond to three major depositional Based on a comprehensive analysis on the discovered
sequences found in the basin. These are the continental oil province in the deepwater Santos Basin, a number of
sequence of the Guaratiba Group, which was deposited during conditions have been identified as crucial for pre-salt plays
the rift period; the Ariri Group salt rock sequence, which in the basin. These include an excellent salt cap rock, high
accumulated throughout the transitional period; and finally quality source rocks and large carbonate anticlines.
the marine sequence of continental margin carbonate and Combining both regional geological information and this
deepwater shales and turbidites, which developed during the new seismic data, comprehensive evaluation work has been
drift period. carried out and the distribution of pre-salt play elements in
BGP-TGS multiclient 2D seismic survey.
BGP/TGS

BGP/TGS
ultra-deepwater areas of the Santos
Basin have been identified. Aptian salt is
found to be widely developed and is very
thick over much of the area: up to 4 km
in places, although gradually becoming
thinner and eventually disappearing
when it reaches the south-eastern edge
of the basin. This thick and continuous
salt is an excellent cap rock for pre-salt
traps. The same set of lacustrine source
rocks is developed in the survey area
as in the oil province. This oil-prone Seismic section from BGP-TGS multiclient 2D seismic data.
Barremian source rock is verified by
wells with TOCs of 3–6% and kerogen of type I. Large rift this multiclient 2D seismic data will provide support for oil
sedimentary depressions that are thought to contain this companies looking for exploration opportunities in the ultra-
lacustrine source rock are recognised in the survey area, and deepwater areas of the Santos Basin.
these could provide high quality oil and gas source kitchens.
Carbonate reservoirs beneath the salt are shown as Significant Discoveries to Come?
relatively strong events on seismic sections. A large number of This brief overview shows that the ultra-deepwater of the
untested Aptian lacustrine carbonate anticlines with four-way Santos Basin is a frontier area over which there was very
dip closures – the main target for exploration in much of the little seismic information until the BGP-TGS multiclient
Santos Basin – have been recognised in the survey area, and 2D seismic surveys, the data from which will help
favourable analogues with pre-salt plays are identified on interested parties to gain a comprehensive understanding
seismic, as seen on the image above, highlighting the great of the region. The survey area shows great hydrocarbon
potential for oil and gas exploration that this area possesses. potential and is an excellent exploration opportunity for oil
Many oil giants, such as Total, Shell, Chevron and BP, companies, as a large number of pre-salt leads have been
entered the blocks in the 16th licensing round in 2019. The identified from this data. It will provide insight into this
17th licensing round scheduled for 2020 was delayed by the undrilled province and support oil companies entering into
Covid-19 pandemic and will now take place in 2021 and blocks in future licence rounds.

GEO Media
Geological Tours of North

America’s Wonders THOMAS SMITH
Geologic Tours of the World The city of Golden and the Colorado illustrated and explained. Thus far the
North America’s Natural Wonders (Two- School of Mines is the first stop. Gary route has taken us up to Stop 4 of a
Volume Set) offers some interesting titbits about transect that continues west through
By Gary L. Prost Golden and describes how Denver beat mining towns, across the Continental
CRC Press 2020 it to become the territorial capital. He Divide, to hot springs and finally
gives details on how and when to visit ending up at the Book Cliffs near Grand
Detailed, yet nontechnical, these the Mine’s incredible Geology Museum. Junction after another 19 stops and a
geologically oriented tours of some of Leaving Golden on I-70, we take a 17 number of side trips. I have driven this
North America’s most iconic landscapes minute (11.8 km) side trip along the same route several times; my next will
will certainly satisfy the most ardent Dakota Hogback to Red Rocks Park. be with this remarkable book at my side.
geoscientist as well as the curious Photos and cross-sections through the
layman. Rocky Mountain front help explain the Content
When I first received these two type of forces that formed this range The book comprises two volumes.
volumes, I was delighted to see as compared to some other areas he Volume 1 covers the Canadian Rockies,
that I have taken many of the tours covered across Idaho, Wyoming and the California, the Southwest, Great Basin,
represented here, and Tetons-Yellowstone
as well as having Country. Trips include
written about some iconic stops in Banff
of the places for GEO National Park, Alberta,
ExPro. Thus, being Canada; the California
very familiar with a wine country and gold
lot of the material I fields; the Grand Canyon
expected this to be a of Arizona; Zion, Bryce,
good review of things Arches, and Canyonlands
I already knew. Boy, of Utah; the impressive
was I wrong! These Grand Tetons of Wyoming
volumes are fi lled and the geysers and hot
with photos, maps, springs in Yellowstone
geology, history, and National Park.
details that would take Volume 2 covers the
considerable time and Appalachians, Colorado
effort to track down Rockies, Austin-Big Bend
for just one small area. Country and the Sierra
Gary has done that for Madre in northern Mexico.
us across some of the most interesting Canadian Rockies. This is all explained Trips detail the Central Appalachians
and exposed geological features in in a manner that just about anyone with in Virginia and West Virginia, Carlsbad
North America. a curious mind can understand. Caverns in New Mexico, Big Bend in
One of the highlights of these West Texas, Garden of the Gods, Aspen
An Example Transect books has to be the way Gary has used and the Maroon Bells in Colorado, and
Tour 3, for example, will take us from excellent photos along with cross- the giant salt-cored uplifts of the La
Denver, Colorado to Grand Junction, sections and very understandable Popa Basin of Mexico.
Colorado. Gary starts out with an explanations of just what is happening Along with all the iconic areas
overview of the entire transect giving geologically. For example, along this detailed above, an impressive number
the reader an opportunity to see this first side trip to Red Rocks Park he has a of lesser-known but very interesting
great country and what to expect along photo of the Great Unconformity where geological features, history, and other
the way. An itinerary from beginning a plaque marks a place where you can titbits will surely keep us all entertained.
to end, including stops and side trips, reach across a time gap of 1.4 billion A map at the beginning of both volumes
is listed. For this transect, he describes years. From the image of dinosaur shows where each transect is located
the geology and geological history of tracks at Dinosaur Ridge to the photo and labels each as to the volume and
the Denver Basin including information of the famous I-70 road cut through transect number. All this makes it easy
about the area’s mineral resources. the Dakota Hogback, all are brilliantly to plan your next road trip.

Exploration Update
Brought to you in association with NVentures.
Vietnam: New Offshore Gas Play

Eni, with partner Essar E&P, has appraised a large gas find with the
NVentures
Ken Bau-2X well in Block 114, offshore Vietnam. The well was drilled
2 km away from the discovery well Ken Bau-1X in 95m of water and
reached a TD of 3,658m in July 2020. Gas pay in excess of 110m was
logged in several intervals of Miocene sandstones. Eni carried out
‘mini’ DSTs as well as the usual logging and fluid samples. The results
of these suggest initial in-place volumes of between 7 and 9 Tcfg, along
with an impressive 400–500 MMb condensate. The 1X discovery well
was reported to have TD’d early, due to technical problems, and deeper
targets were due to be drilled, but the TD of the 2X well suggests it is
only 52m deeper.
The partners intend to continue the appraisal drilling as far as
possible, considering Covid-19 restrictions. The group also have a
second prospect, Dan Day, they plan to drill in due course on the same
block.
The discovery lies within the Song Hong Basin, and Eni also have
100% of Block 116 immediately to the south, where they are carrying
out seismic surveys. Eni reports that Vietnam is experiencing increased
gas demand, for both domestic consumption and GTP, and are
planning LNG imports, so the discovery comes at a good time for both
operator and host government.
Kris Energy, operator of the block east and adjacent to Block 115,
might have expected a fillip in its fortunes with this news of nearby
large gas reserves, but having suspended trading since August 2019 and entering into a 100% farmout on the block to an
undisclosed company (possibly Eni), the firm may not benefit from this drilling campaign.
South Africa: Once More into the Deep!

Total, with partners Africa Energy, Qatar Petroleum and CNR, have
NVentures
returned to the deepwater Block 11B/12B offshore South Africa to
spud the Luiperd-1 well. The wildcat is a long-anticipated sequel to
Brulpadda, which opened up the large Paddavissie mid-Cretaceous
submarine fan play in 2019. Apart from the usual subsurface
challenges of finding large clastic reservoirs with a high chance of
hydrocarbon pay, this play has further natural met-ocean hurdles in
the form of currents and swell that challenge even the most advanced
drilling rigs (Brulpadda itself was abandoned on the first attempt in
2014 under difficult drilling conditions). In this case Odfjell’s Deepsea
Stavanger is rising to the challenge, having successfully completed
the Brulpadda discovery last year. This play-opening gem logged 34m
of gas condensate and oil pay in mid-Cretaceous high net-to-gross
(N/G) sands, and 23m gas condensate in the Lower Cretaceous with
similarly high N/G and without encountering an oil-water contact.
Furthermore, the well appears to have lit up the Paddavissie AVO
trend, with Luiperd one of four main targets, the others being Blassop
and Woudboom.
Partners on the licence have released various updates, suggesting
the Luiperd prospect could be 50% larger than Brulpadda. Overall this play could prove up over 1 Bboe in basin floor Cretaceous
fans on this passive margin, finally delivering on the Jubilee promise of 2007. In the adjacent South Outeniqua Block, Total is
scoping a proposed work programme of drilling, VSP and CSEM, with reports of up to ten possible further wells. Elsewhere in
South Africa, Equinor and ExxonMobil recently exited the country, possibly for above-ground as well as geological risk reasons,
although Shell has strengthened its position, having bought Kosmos’ share in the ultra-deepwater North Cape Block. Total
maintain a strong acreage position from here north-west all the way to the border with Namibia, and also hold large blocks
offshore southern Namibia.

Turkey: A Prize Catch in the Black Sea
In Turkey the state oil and gas firm TPAO has announced a major
gas discovery at Tuna-1 in the western Black Sea. The firm was
drilling in 2,115m water depth on the Sakarya licence (Blocks C26,
NVentures
C27, D26 and D27) between July and August 2020. TPAO claim the
discovery shows potential for an impressive 11.3 Tcf of lean gas (in-
place), which would be the largest-ever gas discovery in the Black Sea
and make Turkey self-sufficient in gas over the next decades.
Given plans for further drilling in this area, along with a major
campaign offshore southern Turkey and Cyprus, the country could
swing the pendulum towards having major influence over the gas export
and transit policies of eastern and southern Europe and North Africa, a
role Ankara appears to be very enthusiastic about. As Greece struggles
to make important strides on their deepwater acreage (Repsol, Total and
ExxonMobil are either being restrained or showing restraint in kicking
off their campaigns offshore Greece and Crete), Turkey, Israel and Egypt
will vie for dominance in supplying an ever-richer gas mix into the
heated European markets.
The Tuna-1 discovery well penetrated over 100m gas column in
Mio-Pliocene sandstones, trapped in a major fan system probably
draped over a broad compression ridge, 60 km from the Domino
gas discovery in the Romanian sector of the Black Sea. TPAO will
appraise it with blockwide 3D seismic ahead of drilling, aiming for
first gas in 2023.
Turkey has the longest coastline on the Black Sea and controls the largest offshore portion of the Exclusive Economic Zone.
Since 2004 the state NOC has sponsored over 50,000 km of 2D and 14,000 km2 3D as operator or JV partner. In 2013 TPAO
mobilised the Leiv Eiriksson drillship after OMV and ExxonMobil discovered gas at Domino in the Bulgarian sector. Only now,
with a state-owned drillship Fatih, have they been able to venture beyond 2,000m water depth and test deeper Miocene targets.
TPAO have said previously they believe the Turkish sector of the Black Sea can hold up to 53 Tcfg (GEO ExPro Vol. 10, No. 1,
2013), leaving Ukraine, Georgia, Romania and Bulgaria to catch up.

FlowBack
Big Oil Needs Big Data Conversion Factors
While gathering my thoughts for FlowBack, two pieces of information recently Crude oil
flashed across my screen. First came the news that BP CEO Bernard Looney will 1 m3 = 6.29 barrels
again be a keynote speaker at next year’s International Petroleum (IP) Week in 1 barrel = 0.159 m3
London and then, perhaps predictably, we heard that the event will be digital. Mr
1 tonne = 7.49 barrels
Looney, no doubt, will stare out of our computer screens and tell us more about
his company’s transition to meet net carbon zero by 2050. He will also give us
more words of wisdom on the industry’s transition in areas like carbon intensity, Natural gas
diversification and indeed the digital arena. 1 m3 = 35.3 ft3
Data mining and data analytics are both buzz terms in the industry. Geologists 1 ft3 = 0.028 m3
and engineers now know more about oil prospects than ever. Decisions are backed
by hard evidence, whatever the uncertainties of the global economy. It is a bit like
Energy
governments around the world six months into the pandemic. They still have to
1000 m3 gas = 1 m3 o.e.
make challenging decisions involving brakes and accelerators, but they are better
informed about what will happen if different courses of action are followed. 1 tonne NGL = 1.9 m3 o.e.
By the same token Mr Looney and his fellow ‘Big Oil’ CEOs feel better informed
about what they need to do. They have the time and the reserves – even the Numbers
will – to turn their tankers around, although smaller companies may go to the Million = 1 x 106
wall. Mr Looney, we are to understand, believes in clean energy and thinks it is a
Billion = 1 x 109
lucrative market. How he is going to get there is less clear.
Trillion = 1 x 1012
In the short term at least, there is no shortage of mixed messages. At the time
of writing the oil price is up above $40 a barrel but the pandemic still rages. A
recovering oil price will bring more assets back into play but, to quote immediate Supergiant field
history, Rystad Energy reminds us that Covid-19 has brought about a 20% reduction Recoverable reserves > 5 billion
in economically recoverable oil. This brings us back to the beauty of sound data barrels (800 million Sm3) of oil
analysis and science-based decision-making. As the geologist Catriona Penman
equivalents
notes in a recent article in World Oil: “With the uncertainty caused by Covid-19, the
decision to bring back a shut-in well, or begin producing a drilled-but-uncompleted
well, will require a heightened level of analysis.” Giant field
Even in the six years since the last oil price crash, visualisation technology Recoverable reserves > 500 million
underpinned by sophisticated data analytics has improved exponentially. Concepts barrels (80 million Sm3)
like digital twinning add a new dimension to the way assets can be modelled over of oil equivalents
time. Digital IP Week will remind us remotely of these and other developments. Mr
Looney, you could argue, has the perfect platform for making his case.
Major field
Nick Cottam Recoverable reserves > 100 million
Bernard Looney, CEO of BP.
barrels (16 million Sm3)
BP.com
of oil equivalents
Historic oil price

Crude Oil Prices Since 1861
Nominal Real (2014 dollar)
140
120
US Dollars per barrel
100
80
60
40
20
140
1980
2010
1861
1870
1880
1890
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1990
2000
2016


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VOL . 17, NO.

GEOSCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY EXPLAINED

EXPLORATION GEO PHYSICS

GEOExPro October 2020 1

This edition of GEO ExPro focuses on Africa;

The Irrawaddy River valley – a 5 Editorial

30 14 Cover Story: Exploration:

38 GEO Physics: CSEM – Back From the

offers tantalising potential.

72 11 70 Exploration: A Global Exploration

GEOExPro September 2020 3

Aiming for Net Zero GEOSCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY EXPLAINED

Many companies involved in www.geoexpro.com

UNDEREXPLORED AFRICAN SOURCE ROCKS Layout: Mach 3 Solutions Ltd

© 2020 GeoPublishing Limited.

GEO ExPro October 2020 5

A Bleak Year ABBREVIATIONS

Rystad Energy ECube, Rystad Energy research and analysis

Reserves and resources

6 GEOExPro October 2020

Norwegian-Greenland Sea starts opening

North Sea rifting

Central Atlantic starts opening

*The Big Five Extinction Events

Gulf of Mexico rifting

The Great Unconformity 541

Proposed new blocks

8 GEOExPro October 2020

New Way and New Name

10 GEOExPro October 2020

GEOExPro October 2020 11

WiNG for Turkey

Onshore Argentina Explorers Package

Delivering Greater Understanding with AI

and technology. Software specialist Geoteric has combined over

12 GEOExPro October 2020

Underexplored African Source

The Makonde escarpment in Tanzania.

14 GEOExPro October 2020

end of the Lower Jurassic. In a personal communication,

GEOExPro October 2020 15

16 GEOExPro October 2020

Northern Somali Basin and Conjugate Margins

GEOExPro October 2020 17

to the rapidly progressing

References and an extended

18 GEOExPro October 2020

New 3D Seismic Imaging

20 GEOExPro October 2020 GEOExPro October 2020 22

the Kwanza Shelf

GEOExPro October 2020 23 24 GEOExPro October 2020

Find out more at mpmpr.com

GEOExPro October 2020 25

Sailing Through a Subduction Zone

Lon Abbott and Terri Cook

Sunset from the U Bein Bridge in Amarapura.

26 GEOExPro October 2020

Lon Abbott and Terri Cook

GEOExPro October 2020 27