Agriculture - Wikipedia

12/30/2020 Agriculture - Wikipedia
Agriculture
Agriculture is the science and art of cultivating plants and livestock.[1]

Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human
civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food
surpluses that enabled people to live in cities. The history of agriculture
began thousands of years ago. After gathering wild grains beginning at
least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers began to plant them around
11,500 years ago. Pigs, sheep and cattle were domesticated over 10,000
years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the
world. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture in the
twentieth century came to dominate agricultural output, though about
2 billion people still depended on subsistence agriculture into the twenty-
first.
Harvesting wheat with a combine harvester accompanied by a tractor and trailer
Modern agronomy, plant breeding, agrochemicals such as pesticides and
fertilizers, and technological developments have sharply increased yields,
while causing widespread ecological and environmental damage. Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly
increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about animal welfare and environmental damage. Environmental issues include
contributions to global warming, depletion of aquifers, deforestation, antibiotic resistance, and growth hormones in industrial meat production.
Genetically modified organisms are widely used, although some are banned in certain countries.
The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels and raw materials (such as rubber). Food classes include cereals
(grains), vegetables, fruits, oils, meat, milk, fungi and eggs. Over one-third of the world's workers are employed in agriculture, second only to the
service sector, although the number of agricultural workers in developed countries has decreased significantly over the centuries.
Contents
Etymology and scope
History
Origins
Civilizations
Revolution
Types
Contemporary agriculture
Status
Workforce
Safety
Production
Crop cultivation systems
Livestock production systems
Production practices
Crop alteration and biotechnology
Plant breeding
Genetic engineering
Environmental impact
Effects and costs
Livestock issues
Land and water issues
Pesticides
Climate change
Sustainability
Energy dependence
Disciplines
Agricultural economics
Agricultural science
Policy
See also
References
Cited sources
External links
Etymology and scope
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture 1/19
The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, "field", and cultūra, "cultivation" or "growing".[2] While
agriculture usually refers to human activities, certain species of ant,[3][4] termite and beetle have been cultivating crops for up to 60 million years.[5]
Agriculture is defined with varying scopes, in its broadest sense using natural resources to "produce commodities which maintain life, including
food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops, and their related services".[6] Thus defined, it includes arable farming, horticulture, animal
husbandry and forestry, but horticulture and forestry are in practice often excluded.[6]
History
Origins
The development of agriculture enabled the human population to grow many times larger than could
be sustained by hunting and gathering.[9] Agriculture began independently in different parts of the
globe,[10] and included a diverse range of taxa, in at least 11 separate centres of origin.[7] Wild grains
were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago.[11] From around 11,500 years ago, the eight
Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick
peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Rice was domesticated in China between 11,500 and
6,200 BC with the earliest known cultivation from 5,700 BC,[12] followed by mung, soy and azuki
beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago.[13] Cattle Centres of origin, as numbered by Nikolai Vavilov
in the 1930s. Area 3 (gray) is no longer
were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan some 10,500
recognised as a centre of origin, and Papua New
years ago.[14] Pig production emerged in Eurasia, including Europe, East Asia and Southwest
Guinea (area P, orange) was identified more
Asia,[15] where wild boar were first domesticated about 10,500 years ago.[16] In the Andes of South recently.[7][8]
America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca,
llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs. Sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New
Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago.
Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago,[17] and was independently domesticated in Eurasia. In
Mesoamerica, wild teosinte was bred into maize by 6,000 years ago.[18] Scholars have offered multiple
hypotheses to explain the historical origins of agriculture. Studies of the transition from hunter-gatherer to
agricultural societies indicate an initial period of intensification and increasing sedentism; examples are the
Natufian culture in the Levant, and the Early Chinese Neolithic in China. Then, wild stands that had previously
been harvested started to be planted, and gradually came to be domesticated.[19][20][21]
Han dynasty tomb brick showing

Civilizations workers rice husking
In Eurasia, the Sumerians started to live in villages from about 8,000 BC, relying
on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and a canal system for irrigation. Ploughs appear in pictographs around 3,000 BC;
seed-ploughs around 2,300 BC. Farmers grew wheat, barley, vegetables such as lentils and onions, and fruits including
dates, grapes, and figs.[22] Ancient Egyptian agriculture relied on the Nile River and its seasonal flooding. Farming
started in the predynastic period at the end of the Paleolithic, after 10,000 BC. Staple food crops were grains such as
wheat and barley, alongside industrial crops such as flax and papyrus.[23][24] In India, wheat, barley and jujube were
domesticated by 9,000 BC, soon followed by sheep and goats.[25] Cattle, sheep and goats were domesticated in
Mehrgarh culture by 8,000–6,000 BC.[26][27][28] Cotton was cultivated by the 5th–4th millennium BC.[29]
Archeological evidence indicates an animal-drawn plough from 2,500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilisation.[30] In China,
from the 5th century BC there was a nationwide granary system and widespread silk farming.[31] Water-powered grain
mills were in use by the 1st century BC,[32] followed by irrigation.[33] By the late 2nd century, heavy ploughs had been
Agricultural scenes of developed with iron ploughshares and mouldboards.[34][35] These spread westwards across Eurasia.[36] Asian rice was
threshing, a grain store, domesticated 8,200–13,500 years ago – depending on the molecular clock estimate that is used[37] – on the Pearl
harvesting with sickles, River in southern China with a single genetic origin from the wild rice Oryza rufipogon.[38] In Greece and Rome, the
digging, tree-cutting and major cereals were wheat, emmer, and barley, alongside vegetables including peas, beans, and olives. Sheep and goats
ploughing from ancient were kept mainly for dairy products.[39][40]
Egypt. Tomb of Nakht, 15th
century BC In the Americas, crops domesticated in Mesoamerica (apart from teosinte) include squash, beans, and cocoa.[41] Cocoa
was being domesticated by the Mayo Chinchipe of the upper Amazon around 3,000 BC.[42] The turkey was probably
domesticated in Mexico or the American Southwest.[43] The Aztecs developed irrigation systems, formed terraced
hillsides, fertilized their soil, and developed chinampas or artificial islands. The Mayas used extensive canal and raised field systems to farm
swampland from 400 BC.[44][45][46][47][48] Coca was domesticated in the Andes, as were the peanut, tomato, tobacco, and pineapple.[41] Cotton was
domesticated in Peru by 3,600 BC.[49] Animals including llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs were domesticated there.[50] In North America, the
indigenous people of the East domesticated crops such as sunflower, tobacco,[51] squash and Chenopodium.[52][53] Wild foods including wild rice
and maple sugar were harvested.[54] The domesticated strawberry is a hybrid of a Chilean and a North American species, developed by breeding in
Europe and North America.[55] The indigenous people of the Southwest and the Pacific Northwest practiced forest gardening and fire-stick farming.
The natives controlled fire on a regional scale to create a low-intensity fire ecology that sustained a low-density agriculture in loose rotation; a sort of
"wild" permaculture.[56][57][58][59] A system of companion planting called the Three Sisters was developed on the Great Plains. The three crops were
winter squash, maize, and climbing beans.[60][61]
Indigenous Australians, long supposed to have been nomadic hunter-gatherers, practised systematic burning to enhance natural productivity in
fire-stick farming.[62] The Gunditjmara and other groups developed eel farming and fish trapping systems from some 5,000 years ago.[63] There is
evidence of 'intensification' across the whole continent over that period.[64] In two regions of Australia, the central west coast and eastern central,
early farmers cultivated yams, native millet, and bush onions, possibly in permanent settlements.[65][21]
Revolution
In the Middle Ages, both in the Islamic world and in Europe, agriculture transformed with improved techniques and the diffusion of crop plants,
including the introduction of sugar, rice, cotton and fruit trees (such as the orange) to Europe by way of Al-Andalus.[66][67] After 1492 the
Columbian exchange brought New World crops such as maize, potatoes, tomatoes, sweet potatoes and manioc to Europe, and Old World crops such
as wheat, barley, rice and turnips, and livestock (including horses, cattle, sheep and goats) to the Americas.[68]
Irrigation, crop rotation, and fertilizers advanced from the 17th century with the British Agricultural Revolution,
allowing global population to rise significantly. Since 1900 agriculture in developed nations, and to a lesser extent
in the developing world, has seen large rises in productivity as mechanization replaces human labor, and assisted
by synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and selective breeding. The Haber-Bosch method allowed the synthesis of
ammonium nitrate fertilizer on an industrial scale, greatly increasing crop yields and sustaining a further increase
in global population.[69][70] Modern agriculture has raised or encountered ecological, political, and economic
issues including water pollution, biofuels, genetically modified organisms, tariffs and farm subsidies, leading to
alternative approaches such as the organic movement.[71][72]
Types
Pastoralism involves managing domesticated animals. In nomadic
pastoralism, herds of livestock are moved from place to place in search of The Arab Agricultural Revolution,
pasture, fodder, and water. This type of farming is practised in arid and semi- starting in Al-Andalus (Islamic
arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India.[73] Spain), transformed agriculture
with improved techniques and
In shifting cultivation, a small area of forest is cleared by cutting and burning the diffusion of crop plants.[66]
the trees. The cleared land is used for growing crops for a few years until the
soil becomes too infertile, and the area is abandoned. Another patch of land is
Reindeer herds form the basis of selected and the process is repeated. This type of farming is practiced mainly in areas with abundant rainfall
pastoral agriculture for several where the forest regenerates quickly. This practice is used in Northeast India, Southeast Asia, and the Amazon
Arctic and Subarctic peoples. Basin.[74]
Subsistence farming is practiced to satisfy family or local needs alone, with

little left over for transport elsewhere. It is intensively practiced in Monsoon Asia and South-East Asia.[75] An
estimated 2.5 billion subsistence farmers worked in 2018, cultivating about 60% of the earth's arable land.[76]
Intensive farming is cultivation to maximise productivity, with a low fallow ratio and a high use of inputs (water,
fertilizer, pesticide and automation). It is practiced mainly in developed countries.[77][78]
Contemporary agriculture
Spreading manure by hand in
Status Zambia
From the twentieth century, intensive agriculture increased productivity. It

substituted synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labor, but caused increased water pollution, and often
involved farm subsidies. In recent years there has been a backlash against the environmental effects of
conventional agriculture, resulting in the organic, regenerative, and sustainable agriculture movements.[71][80]
One of the major forces behind this movement has been the European Union, which first certified organic food
in 1991 and began reform of its Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in 2005 to phase out commodity-linked farm
subsidies,[81] also known as decoupling. The growth of organic farming has renewed research in alternative
technologies such as integrated pest management, selective breeding,[82] and controlled-environment
China has the largest agricultural
agriculture.[83][84] Recent mainstream technological developments include genetically modified food.[85]
output of any country.[79] Demand for non-food biofuel crops,[86] development of former farm lands, rising transportation costs, climate
change, growing consumer demand in China and India, and population growth,[87] are threatening food security
in many parts of the world.[88][89][90][91][92] The International Fund for Agricultural Development posits that
an increase in smallholder agriculture may be part of the solution to concerns about food prices and overall food security, given the favorable
experience of Vietnam.[93] Soil degradation and diseases such as stem rust are major concerns globally;[94] approximately 40% of the world's
agricultural land is seriously degraded.[95][96] By 2015, the agricultural output of China was the largest in the world, followed by the European
Union, India and the United States.[79] Economists measure the total factor productivity of agriculture and by this measure agriculture in the United
States is roughly 1.7 times more productive than it was in 1948.[97]
Workforce
Following the three-sector theory, the number of people employed in agriculture and other
primary activities (such as fishing) can be more than 80% in the least developed countries, and
less than 2% in the most highly developed countries.[98] Since the Industrial Revolution, many
countries have made the transition to developed economies, and the proportion of people
working in agriculture has steadily fallen. During the 16th century in Europe, for example,
between 55 and 75% of the population was engaged in agriculture; by the 19th century, this had
dropped to between 35 and 65%.[99] In the same countries today, the figure is less than 10%.[98]
At the start of the 21st century, some one billion people, or over 1/3 of the available work force,
were employed in agriculture. It constitutes approximately 70% of the global employment of
children, and in many countries employs the largest percentage of women of any industry.[100]
The service sector overtook the agricultural sector as the largest global employer in 2007.[101]
Safety
On the three-sector theory, the proportion of people
working in agriculture (left-hard bar in each group,
Agriculture, specifically farming, remains a hazardous industry, and farmers worldwide remain
green) falls as an economy becomes more developed.
at high risk of work-related injuries, lung disease, noise-induced hearing loss, skin diseases, as
well as certain cancers related to chemical use and prolonged sun exposure. On industrialized
farms, injuries frequently involve the use of agricultural machinery, and a common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in developed countries is
tractor rollovers.[102] Pesticides and other chemicals used in farming can also be hazardous to worker health, and workers exposed to pesticides may
experience illness or have children with birth defects.[103] As an industry in which families commonly share in work and live on the farm itself,
entire families can be at risk for injuries, illness, and death.[104] Ages 0–6 May be an especially vulnerable
population in agriculture;[105] common causes of fatal injuries among young farm workers include drowning,
machinery and motor accidents, including with all-terrain vehicles.[104][105][106]
The International Labour Organization considers agriculture "one of the most hazardous of all economic
sectors".[100] It estimates that the annual work-related death toll among agricultural employees is at least
170,000, twice the average rate of other jobs. In addition, incidences of death, injury and illness related to
agricultural activities often go unreported.[107] The organization has developed the Safety and Health in
Agriculture Convention, 2001, which covers the range of risks in the agriculture occupation, the prevention of
Rollover protection bar retrofitted to these risks and the role that individuals and organizations engaged in agriculture should play.[100]
a mid-20th century Fordson tractor
In the United States, agriculture has been identified by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda to identify and provide
intervention strategies for occupational health and safety issues.[108][109] In the European Union, the European Agency for Safety and Health at
Work has issued guidelines on implementing health and safety directives in agriculture, livestock farming, horticulture, and forestry.[110] The
Agricultural Safety and Health Council of America (ASHCA) also holds a yearly summit to discuss safety.[111]
Production
Overall production varies by country as listed.
Value of agricultural production, 2016[112]
Largest countries by agricultural output (in nominal terms) according to IMF and CIA World Factbook, at peak level as of 2018
Economy Countries by agricultural output (in nominal terms) at peak level as of 2018 (billions in USD)
(01) China 1,117
(02) India 414
(—) European Union 308
(03) United States 185
(04) Brazil 162
(05) Indonesia 141
(06) Nigeria 123
(07) Russia 108
(08) Pakistan 76
(09) Argentina 70
(10) Turkey 64
(11) Japan 62
(12) France 59
(13) Iran 57
(14) Australia 56
(15) Mexico 51
(16) Italy 50
(17) Spain 43
(18) Bangladesh 41
(19) Thailand 40
(20) Egypt 40
The twenty largest countries by agricultural output (in nominal terms) at peak level as of 2018, according to the IMF and CIA World Factbook.
Largest countries by agricultural output according to UNCTAD at 2005 constant prices and exchange rates, 2015[79]
Economy Countries by agricultural output in 2015 (millions in 2005 constant USD and exchange rates)
(01) China 418,455
(02) India 196,592
(03) United States 149,023
(04) Nigeria 77,113
(05) Brazil 59,977
Crop cultivation systems
Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available resources and constraints; geography and
climate of the farm; government policy; economic, social and political pressures; and the philosophy and culture
of the farmer.[113][114]
Shifting cultivation (or slash and burn) is a system in which forests are burnt, releasing nutrients to support
cultivation of annual and then perennial crops for a period of several years.[115] Then the plot is left fallow to
regrow forest, and the farmer moves to a new plot, returning after many more years (10–20). This fallow period
is shortened if population density grows, requiring the input of nutrients (fertilizer or manure) and some
manual pest control. Annual cultivation is the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This
requires even greater nutrient and pest control inputs.[115]
Slash and burn shifting cultivation,
Thailand
Further industrialization led to the use of monocultures, when one cultivar
is planted on a large acreage. Because of the low biodiversity, nutrient use is
uniform and pests tend to build up, necessitating the greater use of
pesticides and fertilizers.[114] Multiple cropping, in which several crops are grown sequentially in one year, and
intercropping, when several crops are grown at the same time, are other kinds of annual cropping systems
known as polycultures.[115]
In subtropical and arid environments, the timing and extent of agriculture may be limited by rainfall, either not
allowing multiple annual crops in a year, or requiring irrigation. In all of these environments perennial crops
Intercropping of coconut and
are grown (coffee, chocolate) and systems are practiced such as agroforestry. In temperate environments, where Mexican marigold
ecosystems were predominantly grassland or prairie, highly productive annual farming is the dominant
agricultural system.[115]
Important categories of food crops include cereals, legumes, forage, fruits and vegetables.[116] Natural fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and
flax.[117] Specific crops are cultivated in distinct growing regions throughout the world. Production is listed in millions of metric tons, based on FAO
estimates.[116]
Top agricultural products, by crop types

(million tonnes) 2004 data
Cereals 2,263
Vegetables and melons 866
Roots and tubers 715
Milk 619
Fruit 503
Meat 259
Oilcrops 133
Fish (2001 estimate) 130
Eggs 63
Pulses 60
Vegetable fiber 30
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization[116]
Top agricultural products, by individual crops

(million tonnes) 2011 data
Sugar cane 1794
Maize 883
Rice 722
Wheat 704
Potatoes 374
Sugar beet 271
Soybeans 260
Cassava 252
Tomatoes 159
Barley 134
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization[116]
Livestock production systems
Animal husbandry is the breeding and raising of animals for meat, milk, eggs, or wool, and for work and
transport.[118] Working animals, including horses, mules, oxen, water buffalo, camels, llamas, alpacas, donkeys,
and dogs, have for centuries been used to help cultivate fields, harvest crops, wrangle other animals, and
transport farm products to buyers.[119]
Livestock production systems can be defined based on feed source, as grassland-based, mixed, and landless.[120]
As of 2010, 30% of Earth's ice- and water-free area was used for producing livestock, with the sector employing
approximately 1.3 billion people. Between the 1960s and the 2000s, there was a significant increase in livestock
Intensively farmed pigs production, both by numbers and by carcass weight, especially among beef, pigs and chickens, the latter of
which had production increased by almost a factor of 10. Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and egg-
producing chickens, also showed significant production increases. Global cattle, sheep and goat populations are expected to continue to increase
sharply through 2050.[121] Aquaculture or fish farming, the production of fish for human consumption in confined operations, is one of the fastest
growing sectors of food production, growing at an average of 9% a year between 1975 and 2007.[122]
During the second half of the 20th century, producers using selective breeding focused on creating livestock breeds and crossbreeds that increased
production, while mostly disregarding the need to preserve genetic diversity. This trend has led to a significant decrease in genetic diversity and
resources among livestock breeds, leading to a corresponding decrease in disease resistance and local adaptations previously found among
traditional breeds.[123]
Grassland based livestock production relies upon plant material such as shrubland, rangeland, and pastures for
feeding ruminant animals. Outside nutrient inputs may be used, however manure is returned directly to the
grassland as a major nutrient source. This system is particularly important in areas where crop production is
not feasible because of climate or soil, representing 30–40 million pastoralists.[115] Mixed production systems
use grassland, fodder crops and grain feed crops as feed for ruminant and monogastric (one stomach; mainly
chickens and pigs) livestock. Manure is typically recycled in mixed systems as a fertilizer for crops.[120]
Landless systems rely upon feed from outside the farm, representing the de-linking of crop and livestock
production found more prevalently in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development member
Raising chickens intensively for
countries. Synthetic fertilizers are more heavily relied upon for crop production and manure use becomes a
meat in a broiler house
challenge as well as a source for pollution.[120] Industrialized countries use these operations to produce much of
the global supplies of poultry and pork. Scientists estimate that 75% of the growth in livestock production
between 2003 and 2030 will be in confined animal feeding operations, sometimes called factory farming. Much of this growth is happening in
developing countries in Asia, with much smaller amounts of growth in Africa.[121] Some of the practices used in commercial livestock production,
including the usage of growth hormones, are controversial.[124]
Production practices
Tillage is the practice of breaking up the soil with tools such as the plow or harrow to prepare for planting, for
nutrient incorporation, or for pest control. Tillage varies in intensity from conventional to no-till. It may
improve productivity by warming the soil, incorporating fertilizer and controlling weeds, but also renders soil
more prone to erosion, triggers the decomposition of organic matter releasing CO2, and reduces the abundance
and diversity of soil organisms.[125][126]
Pest control includes the management of weeds, insects, mites, and diseases. Chemical (pesticides), biological
(biocontrol), mechanical (tillage), and cultural practices are used. Cultural practices include crop rotation,
culling, cover crops, intercropping, composting, avoidance, and resistance. Integrated pest management
Tilling an arable field
attempts to use all of these methods to keep pest populations below the number which would cause economic
loss, and recommends pesticides as a last resort.[127]
Nutrient management includes both the source of nutrient inputs for crop and livestock production, and the
method of use of manure produced by livestock. Nutrient inputs can be chemical inorganic fertilizers, manure,
green manure, compost and minerals.[128] Crop nutrient use may also be managed using cultural techniques such
as crop rotation or a fallow period. Manure is used either by holding livestock where the feed crop is growing, such
as in managed intensive rotational grazing, or by spreading either dry or liquid formulations of manure on
cropland or pastures.[129][125]
Water management is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which

occurs to some degree in most regions of the world.[115] Some farmers use
irrigation to supplement rainfall. In other areas such as the Great Plains in the
Tractor and horsepower plowing
U.S. and Canada, farmers use a fallow year to conserve soil moisture to use for
in Nurmijärvi, Finland in 1954 growing a crop in the following year.[130] Agriculture represents 70% of
freshwater use worldwide.[131]
According to a report by the International Food Policy Research Institute, agricultural technologies will have the
greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other; using a model that assessed how
eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, the International A center pivot irrigation system
Food Policy Research Institute found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as
much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost half.[132]
Payment for ecosystem services is a method of providing additional incentives to encourage farmers to conserve some aspects of the environment.
Measures might include paying for reforestation upstream of a city, to improve the supply of fresh water.[133]
Crop alteration and biotechnology
Plant breeding
Crop alteration has been practiced by humankind for thousands of years, since the beginning of civilization. Altering crops through breeding
practices changes the genetic make-up of a plant to develop crops with more beneficial characteristics for humans, for example, larger fruits or
seeds, drought-tolerance, or resistance to pests. Significant advances in plant breeding ensued after the work of geneticist Gregor Mendel. His work
on dominant and recessive alleles, although initially largely ignored for almost 50 years, gave plant breeders a better understanding of genetics and
breeding techniques. Crop breeding includes techniques such as plant selection with desirable traits, self-pollination and cross-pollination, and
molecular techniques that genetically modify the organism.[134]
Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield, improved disease resistance and drought tolerance, eased harvest and improved the
taste and nutritional value of crop plants. Careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant
selection and breeding in the 1920s and 1930s improved pasture (grasses and clover) in New Zealand. Extensive X-ray and ultraviolet induced
mutagenesis efforts (i.e. primitive genetic engineering) during the 1950s produced the modern commercial
varieties of grains such as wheat, corn (maize) and barley.[135][136]
The Green Revolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization to sharply increase yield by creating
"high-yielding varieties". For example, average yields of corn (maize) in the US have increased from around 2.5
tons per hectare (t/ha) (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001. Similarly,
worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in 1900 to more than 2.5 t/ha in 1990.
South American average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, African under 1 t/ha, and Egypt and Arabia up to 3.5 to
4 t/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in countries such as France is over 8 t/ha. Variations
in yields are due mainly to variation in climate, genetics, and the level of intensive farming techniques (use of
Wheat cultivar tolerant of high
salinity (left) compared with non-
fertilizers, chemical pest control, growth control to avoid lodging).[137][138][139]
tolerant variety
Genetic engineering
Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are organisms whose genetic material has been altered by genetic
engineering techniques generally known as recombinant DNA technology. Genetic engineering has expanded
the genes available to breeders to use in creating desired germlines for new crops. Increased durability,
nutritional content, insect and virus resistance and herbicide tolerance are a few of the attributes bred into
crops through genetic engineering.[140] For some, GMO crops cause food safety and food labeling concerns.
Numerous countries have placed restrictions on the production, import or use of GMO foods and crops.[141]
Currently a global treaty, the Biosafety Protocol, regulates the trade of GMOs. There is ongoing discussion
regarding the labeling of foods made from GMOs, and while the EU currently requires all GMO foods to be
Genetically modified potato plants
labeled, the US does not.[142] (left) resist virus diseases that
damage unmodified plants (right).
Herbicide-resistant seed has a gene implanted into its genome that allows the plants to tolerate exposure to
herbicides, including glyphosate. These seeds allow the farmer to grow a crop that can be sprayed with
herbicides to control weeds without harming the resistant crop. Herbicide-tolerant crops are used by farmers
worldwide.[143] With the increasing use of herbicide-tolerant crops, comes an increase in the use of glyphosate-based herbicide sprays. In some
areas glyphosate resistant weeds have developed, causing farmers to switch to other herbicides.[144][145] Some studies also link widespread
glyphosate usage to iron deficiencies in some crops, which is both a crop production and a nutritional quality concern, with potential economic and
health implications.[146]
Other GMO crops used by growers include insect-resistant crops, which have a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which
produces a toxin specific to insects. These crops resist damage by insects.[147] Some believe that similar or better pest-resistance traits can be
acquired through traditional breeding practices, and resistance to various pests can be gained through hybridization or cross-pollination with wild
species. In some cases, wild species are the primary source of resistance traits; some tomato cultivars that have gained resistance to at least 19
diseases did so through crossing with wild populations of tomatoes.[148]
Environmental impact
Effects and costs
Agriculture imposes multiple external costs upon society through effects such as pesticide damage to nature (especially
herbicides and insecticides), nutrient runoff, excessive water usage, and loss of natural environment. A 2000
assessment of agriculture in the UK determined total external costs for 1996 of £2,343 million, or £208 per
hectare.[149] A 2005 analysis of these costs in the US concluded that cropland imposes approximately $5 to $16 billion
($30 to $96 per hectare), while livestock production imposes $714 million.[150] Both studies, which focused solely on
the fiscal impacts, concluded that more should be done to internalize external costs. Neither included subsidies in their
analysis, but they noted that subsidies also influence the cost of agriculture to society.[149][150]
Agriculture seeks to increase yield and to reduce costs. Yield increases with inputs such as fertilisers and removal of
pathogens, predators, and competitors (such as weeds). Costs decrease with increasing scale of farm units, such as
making fields larger; this means removing hedges, ditches and other areas of habitat. Pesticides kill insects, plants and
fungi. These and other measures have cut biodiversity to very low levels on intensively farmed land.[151]
Water pollution in a rural
stream due to runoff from In 2010, the International Resource Panel of the United Nations Environment Programme assessed the environmental
farming activity in New impacts of consumption and production. It found that agriculture and food consumption are two of the most important
Zealand drivers of environmental pressures, particularly habitat change, climate change, water use and toxic emissions.
Agriculture is the main source of toxins released into the environment, including insecticides, especially those used on
cotton.[152] The 2011 UNEP Green Economy report states that "[a]agricultural operations, excluding land use changes,
produce approximately 13 per cent of anthropogenic global GHG emissions. This includes GHGs emitted by the use of inorganic fertilizers agro-
chemical pesticides and herbicides; (GHG emissions resulting from production of these inputs are included in industrial emissions); and fossil fuel-
energy inputs.[153] "On average we find that the total amount of fresh residues from agricultural and forestry production for second- generation
biofuel production amounts to 3.8 billion tonnes per year between 2011 and 2050 (with an average annual growth rate of 11 per cent throughout the
period analysed, accounting for higher growth during early years, 48 per cent for 2011–2020 and an average 2 per cent annual expansion after
2020)."[153]
Livestock issues
A senior UN official, Henning Steinfeld, said that "Livestock are one of the most significant contributors to today's most serious environmental
problems".[154] Livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface of the planet. It is one of the largest
sources of greenhouse gases, responsible for 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO2 equivalents. By comparison, all
transportation emits 13.5% of the CO2. It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO2,)
and 37% of all human-induced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO2.) It also generates 64% of the ammonia emission. Livestock
expansion is cited as a key factor driving deforestation; in the Amazon basin 70% of previously forested area is now occupied by pastures and the
remainder used for feedcrops.[155] Through deforestation and land degradation, livestock is also driving
reductions in biodiversity. Furthermore, the UNEP states that "methane emissions from global livestock are
projected to increase by 60 per cent by 2030 under current practices and consumption patterns."[153]
Land and water issues
Land transformation, the use of land to yield goods and services, is the
most substantial way humans alter the Earth's ecosystems, and is
considered the driving force in the loss of biodiversity. Estimates of the Farmyard anaerobic digester
converts waste plant material and
amount of land transformed by humans vary from 39 to 50%.[156] Land
manure from livestock into biogas
degradation, the long-term decline in ecosystem function and
fuel.
productivity, is estimated to be occurring on 24% of land worldwide, with
cropland overrepresented.[157] The UN-FAO report cites land
management as the driving factor behind degradation and reports that 1.5 billion people rely upon the
degrading land. Degradation can be deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, mineral depletion, or
chemical degradation (acidification and salinization).[115]
Agriculture lead to rise in Zoonotic disease like the Coronavirus disease 2019, by degrading natural buffers
Circular irrigated crop fields in Kansas. between humans and animals, reducing biodiversity and creating big groups of genetically similar
Healthy, growing crops of corn and animals.[158][159]
sorghum are green (sorghum may be
Eutrophication, excessive nutrients in aquatic ecosystems resulting in algal bloom and anoxia, leads to fish
slightly paler). Wheat is brilliant gold.
Fields of brown have been recently kills, loss of biodiversity, and renders water unfit for drinking and other industrial uses. Excessive
harvested and plowed or have lain in fertilization and manure application to cropland, as well as high livestock stocking densities cause nutrient
fallow for the year. (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus) runoff and leaching from agricultural land. These nutrients are major
nonpoint pollutants contributing to eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems and pollution of groundwater, with
harmful effects on human populations.[160] Fertilisers also reduce terrestrial biodiversity by increasing
competition for light, favouring those species that are able to benefit from the added nutrients.[161] Agriculture accounts for 70 percent of
withdrawals of freshwater resources.[162][163] Agriculture is a major draw on water from aquifers, and currently draws from those underground
water sources at an unsustainable rate. It is long known that aquifers in areas as diverse as northern China, the Upper Ganges and the western US
are being depleted, and new research extends these problems to aquifers in Iran, Mexico and Saudi Arabia.[164] Increasing pressure is being placed
on water resources by industry and urban areas, meaning that water scarcity is increasing and agriculture is facing the challenge of producing more
food for the world's growing population with reduced water resources.[165] Agricultural water usage can also cause major environmental problems,
including the destruction of natural wetlands, the spread of water-borne diseases, and land degradation through salinization and waterlogging,
when irrigation is performed incorrectly.[166]
Pesticides
Pesticide use has increased since 1950 to 2.5 million short tons annually worldwide, yet crop loss from pests has
remained relatively constant.[167] The World Health Organization estimated in 1992 that three million pesticide
poisonings occur annually, causing 220,000 deaths.[168] Pesticides select for pesticide resistance in the pest
population, leading to a condition termed the "pesticide treadmill" in which pest resistance warrants the
development of a new pesticide.[169]
An alternative argument is that the way to "save the environment" and prevent famine is by using pesticides and
intensive high yield farming, a view exemplified by a quote heading the Center for Global Food Issues website:
'Growing more per acre leaves more land for nature'.[170][171] However, critics argue that a trade-off between the
Spraying a crop with a pesticide
environment and a need for food is not inevitable,[172] and that pesticides simply replace good agronomic
practices such as crop rotation.[169] The Push–pull agricultural pest management technique involves
intercropping, using plant aromas to repel pests from crops (push) and to lure them to a place from which they can then be removed (pull).[173]
Climate change
Climate change and agriculture are interrelated on a global scale. Global warming affects agriculture through
changes in average temperatures, rainfall, and weather extremes (like storms and heat waves); changes in pests
and diseases; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations; changes in the
nutritional quality of some foods;[174] and changes in sea level.[175] Global warming is already affecting
agriculture, with effects unevenly distributed across the world.[176] Future climate change will probably
negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries, while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or
negative.[176] Global warming will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups, such
as the poor.[177]
Winnowing grain: global warming Animal husbandry is also responsible for greenhouse gas production of CO2 and a percentage of the world's
methane, and future land infertility, and the displacement of wildlife. Agriculture contributes to climate change
will probably harm crop yields in low
latitude countries like Ethiopia. by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, and by the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forest
for agricultural use.[178] Agriculture, forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25% to global
annual emissions in 2010.[179] A range of policies can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on
agriculture,[180][181] and greenhouse gas emissions from the agriculture sector.[182][183][184]
Sustainability
Current farming methods have resulted in over-stretched water resources, high levels of erosion and reduced soil fertility. There is not enough water
to continue farming using current practices; therefore how critical water, land, and ecosystem resources are used to boost crop yields must be
reconsidered. A solution would be to give value to ecosystems, recognizing environmental and livelihood tradeoffs, and balancing the rights of a
variety of users and interests.[185] Inequities that result when such measures are adopted would need to be addressed,
such as the reallocation of water from poor to rich, the clearing of land to make way for more productive farmland, or
the preservation of a wetland system that limits fishing rights.[186]
Technological advancements help provide farmers with tools and resources to make farming more sustainable.[187]
Technology permits innovations like conservation tillage, a farming process which helps prevent land loss to erosion,
reduces water pollution, and enhances carbon sequestration.[188] Other potential practices include conservation
agriculture, agroforestry, improved grazing, avoided grassland conversion, and biochar.[189][190] Current mono-crop
farming practices in the United States preclude widespread adoption of sustainable practices, such as 2-3 crop
rotations that incorporate grass or hay with annual crops, unless negative emission goals such as soil carbon
sequestration become policy.[191]
According to a report by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI),[132] agricultural technologies will
have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other; using a model that assessed Terraces, conservation
how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, IFPRI found that the tillage and conservation
number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost buffers reduce soil erosion
half.[132] The caloric demand of Earth's projected population, with current climate change predictions, can be satisfied and water pollution on this
by additional improvement of agricultural methods, expansion of agricultural areas, and a sustainability-oriented farm in Iowa.
consumer mindset.[192]
Energy dependence
Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, due largely to the increased use of energy-
intensive mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides. The vast majority of this energy input comes from fossil fuel
sources.[193] Between the 1960s and the 1980s, the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe,
with world grain production increasing significantly (between 70% and 390% for wheat and 60% to 150% for
rice, depending on geographic area)[194] as world population doubled. Heavy reliance on petrochemicals has
raised concerns that oil shortages could increase costs and reduce agricultural output.[195]
Industrialized agriculture depends on fossil fuels in two fundamental ways: direct consumption on the farm and
Mechanised agriculture: from the
manufacture of inputs used on the farm. Direct consumption includes the use of lubricants and fuels to operate
first models in the 1940s, tools like a
farm vehicles and machinery.[195]
cotton picker could replace 50 farm
workers, at the price of increased
Indirect consumption includes the manufacture of Agriculture and food system share (%) of total energy
use of fossil fuel.
fertilizers, pesticides, and farm machinery.[195] In consumption by three industrialized nations
particular, the production of nitrogen fertilizer can Agriculture Food
Country Year
account for over half of agricultural energy usage.[199] (direct & indirect) system
Together, direct and indirect consumption by US farms accounts for about 2% of the nation's
United Kingdom[196] 2005 1.9 11
energy use. Direct and indirect energy consumption by U.S. farms peaked in 1979, and has
since gradually declined.[195] Food systems encompass not just agriculture but off-farm United States[197] 2002 2.0 14
processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consumption, and disposal of food and food- Sweden[198] 2000 2.5 13
related items. Agriculture accounts for less than one-fifth of food system energy use in the
US.[200][197]
Disciplines
Agricultural economics
Agricultural economics is economics as it relates to the "production, distribution and consumption of [agricultural] goods and services".[201]
Combining agricultural production with general theories of marketing and business as a discipline of study began in the late 1800s, and grew
significantly through the 20th century.[202] Although the study of agricultural economics is relatively recent, major trends in agriculture have
significantly affected national and international economies throughout history, ranging from tenant farmers and sharecropping in the post-
American Civil War Southern United States[203] to the European feudal system of manorialism.[204] In the United States, and elsewhere, food costs
attributed to food processing, distribution, and agricultural marketing, sometimes referred to as the value chain, have risen while the costs
attributed to farming have declined. This is related to the greater efficiency of farming, combined with the increased level of value addition (e.g.
more highly processed products) provided by the supply chain. Market concentration has increased in the sector as well, and although the total
effect of the increased market concentration is likely increased efficiency, the changes redistribute economic surplus from producers (farmers) and
consumers, and may have negative implications for rural communities.[205]
National government policies can significantly change the economic marketplace for agricultural products, in
the form of taxation, subsidies, tariffs and other measures.[207] Since at least the 1960s, a combination of trade
restrictions, exchange rate policies and subsidies have affected farmers in both the developing and the
developed world. In the 1980s, non-subsidized farmers in developing countries experienced adverse effects
from national policies that created artificially low global prices for farm products. Between the mid-1980s and
the early 2000s, several international agreements limited agricultural tariffs, subsidies and other trade
restrictions.[208]
However, as of 2009, there was still a significant amount of policy-driven distortion in global agricultural
product prices. The three agricultural products with the greatest amount of trade distortion were sugar, milk
In 19th century Britain, the and rice, mainly due to taxation. Among the oilseeds, sesame had the greatest amount of taxation, but overall,
protectionist Corn Laws led to high feed grains and oilseeds had much lower levels of taxation than livestock products. Since the 1980s, policy-
prices and widespread protest, such driven distortions have seen a greater decrease among livestock products than crops during the worldwide
as this 1846 meeting of the Anti- reforms in agricultural policy.[207] Despite this progress, certain crops, such as cotton, still see subsidies in
Corn Law League.[206] developed countries artificially deflating global prices, causing hardship in developing countries with non-
subsidized farmers.[209] Unprocessed commodities such as corn, soybeans, and cattle are generally graded to indicate quality, affecting the price the
producer receives. Commodities are generally reported by production quantities, such as volume, number or weight.[210]
Agricultural science
Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact, natural,
economic and social sciences used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. It covers topics such as
agronomy, plant breeding and genetics, plant pathology, crop modelling, soil science, entomology, production
techniques and improvement, study of pests and their management, and study of adverse environmental effects
such as soil degradation, waste management, and bioremediation.[211][212]
The scientific study of agriculture began in the 18th century, when Johann Friedrich Mayer conducted
experiments on the use of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulphate) as a fertilizer.[213] Research became more
systematic when in 1843, John Lawes and Henry Gilbert began a set of long-term agronomy field experiments at
Rothamsted Research Station in England; some of them, such as the Park Grass Experiment, are still
running.[214][215] In America, the Hatch Act of 1887 provided funding for what it was the first to call An agronomist mapping a plant
"agricultural science", driven by farmers' interest in fertilizers.[216] In agricultural entomology, the USDA began genome
to research biological control in 1881; it instituted its first large program in 1905, searching Europe and Japan
for natural enemies of the gypsy moth and brown-tail moth, establishing parasitoids (such as solitary wasps)
and predators of both pests in the USA.[217][218][219]
Policy
Direct subsidies for animal
Agricultural policy is the set of government decisions and actions relating to domestic agriculture and imports of foreign products and feed by
agricultural products. Governments usually implement agricultural policies with the goal of achieving a specific outcome in OECD countries in 2012,
the domestic agricultural product markets. Some overarching themes include risk management and adjustment (including in billions of US dollars[220]
policies related to climate change, food safety and natural disasters), economic stability (including policies related to taxes), Product Subsidy
natural resources and environmental sustainability (especially water policy), research and development, and market access
for domestic commodities (including relations with global organizations and agreements with other countries).[221] Beef and veal 18.0
Agricultural policy can also touch on food quality, ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality, food Milk 15.3
security, ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs, and conservation. Policy programs can range from
Pigs 7.3
financial programs, such as subsidies, to encouraging producers to enroll in voluntary quality assurance programs.[222]
Poultry 6.5
There are many influences on the creation of agricultural policy, including consumers, agribusiness, trade lobbies and Soybeans 2.3
other groups. Agribusiness interests hold a large amount of influence over policy making, in the form of lobbying and
campaign contributions. Political action groups, including those interested in environmental issues and labor unions, also Eggs 1.5
provide influence, as do lobbying organizations representing individual agricultural commodities.[223] The Food and Sheep 1.1
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) leads international efforts to defeat hunger and provides a forum for
the negotiation of global agricultural regulations and agreements. Dr. Samuel Jutzi, director of FAO's animal production and health division, states
that lobbying by large corporations has stopped reforms that would improve human health and the environment. For example, proposals in 2010
for a voluntary code of conduct for the livestock industry that would have provided incentives for improving standards for health, and
environmental regulations, such as the number of animals an area of land can support without long-term damage, were successfully defeated due to
large food company pressure.[224]
See also
Aeroponics Crofting
Agricultural aircraft Ecoagriculture
Agricultural engineering Hill farming
Agricultural robot List of documentary films about agriculture
Agroecology Pharming (genetics)
Building-integrated agriculture Remote sensing
Contract farming Subsistence economy
Corporate farming Vertical farming
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12/30/2020 Agriculture - Wikipedia

Agriculture is the science and art of cultivating plants and livestock.[1]

Etymology and scope

Han dynasty tomb brick showing

Subsistence farming is practiced to satisfy family or local needs alone, with

From the twentieth century, intensive agriculture increased productivity. It

Value of agricultural production, 2016[112]

Crop cultivation systems

Top agricultural products, by crop types

Source: Food and Agriculture Organization[116]

Top agricultural products, by individual crops

Source: Food and Agriculture Organization[116]

Livestock production systems

Water management is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which

Crop alteration and biotechnology

Effects and costs

Land and water issues

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture&oldid=996998633"

This page was last edited on 29 December 2020, at 15:17 (UTC).

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