Ed 101 Part 2

Chapter III.
DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES AND OTHER RELEVANT THEORIES

Lesson 6. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1. Explain Freud’s views about child and adolescent development.
2. Draw implications of Freud’s theory of education.
Introduction
Freud's Views about human development are more than a century old because of his very interesting theory about the
unconscious and also about sexual development. Although a lot of his views were criticized and some considered them
debunked, (he himself recanted some of his earlier views). Freud's theory remains to be one of the most influential in
psychology. His theory sparked the ideas in the brilliant minds of other theorists and thus became the starting point of many
other theories.
Discussion:
Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
Freud is the most popular psychologist that studied the development of personality, also
probably the most controversial. His theory of psychosexual development includes five distinct
stages. According to Freud, a person goes through the sequence of these five stages and along
the way there are needs to be met. Whether these needs are met or not, determines whether the
person will develop a healthy personality or not. The theory is quite interesting for many because
Freud identified specific erogenous zones for each stage of development. These are specific
“pleasure areas” that become focal points for the particular stage. If needs are not met along the
area, a fixation occurs. As an adult, the person will now manifest behaviors related to this
erogenous zone.
Oral Stage (birth to 18 months). The erogenous zone is the mouth. During the oral stage, the
child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too much or too little satisfaction can lead to an Oral Fixation or Oral
Personality which is shown in an increased focus on oral activities. This type of personality may be oral receptive, that is,
have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, overeat, or oral aggressive, that is, with a tendency to bite his or her nails,
or use curse words or even gossip. As a result, these persons may become too dependent on others, easily fooled, and lack
leadership traits. On the other hand, they may also fight these tendencies and become pessimistic and aggressive in relating
with people.
Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years). The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is the anus. The child finds satisfaction in
eliminating and retaining feces.
Through society’s expectations, particularly the parents, the child needs to work on toilet training. Let us remember that
between one year and a half to three years the child’s favorite word might be “No!”. Therefore, a struggle might exist in the
toilet training process when the child retains feces when asked to eliminate, or may choose to defecate when asked to hold
feces for some reason. In terms of personality, fixation during this stage can result in being anal retentive, an obsession with
cleanliness, perfection, and control; or anal expulsive where the person may become messy and disorganized.
Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6). The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals. During the preschool age, children become
interested. in what makes boys and girls different. Preschoolers will sometimes be seen fondling their genitals. Freud’s
studies led him to believe that during this stage boys develop unconscious sexual desire for their mother. Boys then see their
father as a rival for her mother’ s affection. Boys may fear that their father will punish them for these feelings, thus, the
castration anxiety. These feelings comprise what Freud called Oedipus Complex. In Greek Mythology, Oedipus
unintentionally killed his father and married his mother Jocasta.
ED 101-Child and Adolescent Development and Learning Principles-ggd2020 1

Psychoanalysts also believed that girls may also have a similar experience, developing unconscious sexual attraction
towards their father. This is ‘what is referred to as the Electra Complex.
According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of their father, boys eventually decide to
identify with them rather than fight them. By identifying with their father, the boys develop masculine characteristics and
identify themselves as males and repress their sexual feelings toward their mother. A fixation at this stage could result in
sexual deviancies (both overindulging and avoidance) and weak or confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts.
Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty). It’s during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed. The children’s focus is the
acquisition of physical and academic skills. Boys usually relate more with boys and girls with girls during this stage.
Genital Stage (puberty onwards). The fifth stage of psychosexual development begins at the start of puberty when sexual
urges are once again awakened. In the earlier stages, adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the opposite sex peers,
with the pleasure centered on the genitals.
Freud’s Personality Components

Freud described the personality structures as having-three components, the id, the ego and the superego.
The id. Freud says that, a child is born with the id. The id plays a vital role in one’s personality because as a baby, it works
so that the baby’s essential needs are met. The id operates on the pleasure principle. It focuses on immediate gratification
or satisfaction of its needs. So, whatever feels good now is what it will pursue with no consideration for the reality, logicality
or practicality of the situation. For example, a baby is hungry. Its id wants food or milk... so the baby will cry. When the
child needs to be changed, the id cries. When the child is uncomfortable, in pain, too hot, too cold, or just wants attention,
the id speaks up until his or her needs are met.
Nothing else matters to the id except the satisfaction of its own needs. It is not oriented towards considering reality nor the
needs of others. Just see how babies cry any time of day and night! Absolutely no regard of whether mommy is tired or
daddy is sleeping. When the id wants something, it wants it now and it wants it fast!
The ego. As the baby turns into a toddler and then into a preschooler, he/she relates more with the environment, the ego
slowly begins to emerge. The ego operates using the reality principle. It is aware that others also have needs to be met. It is
practical because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can result to negative consequences later, so it reasons and
considers the best response to situations. As such, it is the deciding agent of the personality. Although it functions to help
the id meet its needs, it always takes into account the reality of the situation.
The superego. Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of the phallic stage, the superego develops. The superego
embodies a person’s moral aspect. This develops from what the parents, teachers and other persons who exert influence
impart to be good or moral. The superego is likened to conscience because it exerts influence on what one considers right
and wrong.
The Three Components and Personality Adjustment

Freud said that a well-adjusted person is one who has strong ego, who can help satisfy the needs of the id without going
against the superego while maintaining the person’s sense of what is logical, practical and real. Of course, it is not easy for
the ego to do all that and strike a balance. If the id exerts too much power over the ego, the person becomes too impulsive
and pleasure-seeking behavior takes over one’s life. On the opposite direction, one may find the superego so strong that the
ego is overpowered. The person becomes so harsh and judgmental to himself and others’ actions. The person’s best effort
to be good may still fall short of the superego’s expectations.
The ability of a learner to be well-adjusted is largely influenced by how the learner was brought up. His experiences about
how his parents met his needs, the extent to which he was allowed to do the things he wanted to do, and also how he was

taught about right and wrong, all figures to the type of personality and consequent adjustment that a person will make. Freud
believed that the personality of an individual is formed early during the childhood years.
Topographical Model
The Unconscious. Freud said that most what we go through in our lives, emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses deep
within are not available to us at a conscious level. He believed that most of what influence us is our unconscious. The
Oedipus and Electra Complex mentioned earlier were both buried down into the unconscious, out of our awareness due to
the extreme anxiety they caused. While these complexes are in our unconscious, they still influence our thinking, feeling
and doing in perhaps dramatic ways.
The Conscious. Freud also said that all that we are aware of is stored in our conscious mind. Our conscious mind only
comprises a very small part of who we are so that, in our everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part of what
makes up our personality; most of what we are is hidden and out of reach.
The Subconscious. The last part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the part of us that we can reach if prompted,
but is not in our active conscious. Its 'right below the surface, but still “hidden” somewhat unless we search for it.
Information such as our telephone number, some childhood memories, or the name of your best childhood friend is stored
in the preconscious. Because the unconscious is so huge, and because we are only aware of the very small conscious at any
given time, Freud used the analogy of the iceberg to illustrate it. A big part of the iceberg is hidden beneath the water’s
surface. The water, may represent all that We are not aware of, have not experienced, and that has not been made part of
our personalities, referred to as the nonconscious.

Chapter III. Developmental Theories and other Relevant Theories
Name:____________________________________________ _Course&Yr&Sec:___________________Date:_______
ASSESSMENT (Part 1)
Recall a recent incident in your life when you had to make a decision. Narrate the situation below. Indicate what the
decision was about, the factors that were involved and how you arrived at your decision.
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Name:______________________________________________ Course&Yr&Sec:___________________Date:_______
ASSESSMENT (Part 2)
“Research Connection”
Read a research that is related to Freud’s Theory. Fill out the matrix below.
Problem Research Methodology
Source:
Findings Conclusions
Question: How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

ASSESSMENT (Part 3)
“5 Minute Non-Stop Writing”
From our lesson on Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory, I learned that…
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Chapter III. DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES AND OTHER RELEVANT THEORIES
Lesson 7. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Learning Outcomes:
1. Describe Piaget’s stages.
Introduction:
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of Development is truly a classic in the field of educational psychology. This theory fueled
other researches and theories of development and learning. Its focus is on how individuals construct knowledge.
Discussion:
For sixty years, Jean Piaget conducted research on cognitive development; His research
method involved observing a small number of individuals as they responded to cognitive
tasks that he designed. These tasks were later known as Piagetian tasks.
Piaget called his general theoretical framework “genetic epistemo-logy” because he was
interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms. Piaget was initially into
biology and he also had a background in philosophy. Knowledge from both these
disciplines influenced his theories and research of child development. Out of his
researches, Piaget came up with the stages of cognitive development. Piaget examined the
implications of his theory not only to aspects of cognition but also to intelligence and
moral development. His theory has been applied widely to teaching and curriculum design
specially in the preschool and elementary curricula.
Basic Cognitive Concepts
Schema. Piaget used the term “schema” to refer to the cognitive structures by which
individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. It is an individual’s way
to understand or create meaning about a thing or experience. It is like the mind has a filing cabinet and each drawer has
folders that contain files of things he has had an experience with. For instance, if a child sees a dog for the first time, he
creates his own schema of what a dog is. It has four legs and a tail. It barks. It’s furry. The child then “puts this description
of a dog ‘on file’ in his mind.” When he sees another similar dog, he “pulls? out the file (his schema of a dog') in his mind,
looks at the animal, and says, “four legs, tail, barks, furry.... That’s a dog!”
Assimilation. This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously created cognitive structure or
schema. If the child sees another dog, this time a little smaller one, he would make sense of ‘what he is seeing by adding
this new information (a different-looking dog) into his schema of a dog.
Accommodation. This is the process of creating a new schema. If the same child now sees another animal that looks a little
bit like a dog, but somehow different. He might try to lit it into his schema of a dog, and say, “Look mommy, what a funny
looking dog. Its bark is funny too!” Then' the mommy explains, “That’s not a funny looking dog. That’s a goat!” With
mommy’s further descriptions, the child will now create a new schema, that of a goat. He now adds a new tile in his filing
cabinet.
Equilibration. Piaget believed that that people have the natural need to understand how the world works and to find order,
structure, and predictability in their life. Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.
When our experiences do not match our schemata (plural of schema) or cognitive structures, we experience cognitive
disequilibrium. This means there is a discrepancy between what is perceived and what is understood. We then exert effort
through assimilation and accommodation to establish equilibrium once more.
Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the environment in terms of assimilation and
accommodation. In this sense, Piaget’s theory is similar in nature to other constructivist perspectives of learning like Bruner
and Vygotsky.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage. The first stage corresponds from birth to infancy. This is the stage when a child who is
initially reflexive in grasping, sucking and reaching becomes more organized in his movement and activity. The term
sensori-motor focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement through which the infant comes to learn about
himself and the world. Inworking with children in the sensori-motor stage, teachers should aim to provide a rich and
stimulating. environment with' appropriate objects to play with. Object permanence. This is the ability of the child to know
that an object still exists even when out of sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage.
Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage. The preoperational stage covers from about two to seven years old, roughly corresponding
to the preschool years. Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature. At this stage, the child can now make mental
representations and is able to pretend, the child is now ever closer to the use of symbols. This stage is highlighted by the
following:
Symbolic Function. This is the ability to represent objects and events. A symbol is a thing that represents something else.
A drawing, a written word, or a spoken word comes to be understood as representing a real object like a real MRT train.
Symbolic function gradually develops in the period between 2 to 7 years. Riel, a two-year old may pretend that 'she is
drinking from a glass which is really empty. Though she already pretends the presence of water, the glass remains to be a
glass. At around four years of age, however, Nico, may, after pretending to drink from an empty glass, turn the glass into a
rocket ship or a telephone. By the age of 6 or 7 the child can pretend play with objects that exist only in his mind. Enzo,
who is six, can do a whole ninja turtle routine without any costume nor “props.” Tria, who is seven can pretend to host an
elaborate princess ball only in her mind.
Egocentrism. This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that everyone also has his same
point of view. The child cannot take the perspective of others. You see this in five-year-old boy who buys a toy truck for
his mother’s birthday. Or a three-year-old girl who cannot understand why. her cousins call her daddy “uncle” and not
daddy.
Centration. This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing or event and exclude other aspects;
For example, when a child is presented with two identical glasses with the same amount of water, the child will say they
have the same amount of water. However, once. water from one of the glasses is transferred to an obviously taller but
narrower glass, the child might say that there is more water in the taller glass. The child only focused or “centered” only
one aspect of the new glass, that it is a taller glass. The child was not able to perceive that the new glass is also narrower.
The child only centered on the height of the glass and excluded the width in determining the amount of water in the glass.
Irreversibility. Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking. They can understand that 2 + 3 is
5, but cannot understand that 5-3 is 2.
Animism. This is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or characteristics to inanimate objects. When at
night, the child is asked, where the sun is, she will reply, “Mr. Sun is asleep.”
Transductive reasoning. This refers to the pre-operational child’s type of reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive.
Reasoning appears to be from particular to particular i.e., if A causes B, then B causes A. For example, since her mommy
comes home everyday around six o’ clock in the evening, when asked why it is already night, the child will say, “because
my mom is already home.”
Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage. This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only in
terms of concrete objects. This covers approximately the ages between 8-11 years or the elementary school years. The
concrete operational stage is marked by the following:
Decentering. This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations. No longer is
the child focused or limited to one aspect or dimension. This allows the child to be more logical when dealing with concrete
objects and situations.

Reversibility. During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now follow that ’certain operations can be done in
reverse. For example, they can already comprehend the commutative property of, addition, and that subtraction is the reverse
of addition. They' can also understand that a ball of clay shaped into a dinosaur can again be rolled back into a ball of clay.
Conservation. This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like. number, mass, volume, or area do not change
even if there is a change in appearance. Because of the development of the child’s ability of decentering and also
reversibility, the concrete operational child can now judge rightly that the amount of water in a taller but harrower container
is still the same as when the water was in the shorter but wider glass. The children progress to attain conservation abilities
gradually being a pre-conserver, a transitional thinker and then a conserver.
Seriation. This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one dimension such as weight, volume or
size.
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage. In the final stage of formal operations covering ages between 12 and 15 years, thinking
becomes more logical. They can now solve abstract problems and can hypothesize. This stage is characterized by the
following:
Hypothetical Reasoning. This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh
data in order to make a final decision or judgment. This can be done in the absence of concrete objects. The individuals can
now desk with “What if” questions.
Analogical reasoning. This is the ability to perceive the relationship in. one instance and then use that relationship to narrow
down possible answers in another similar situation or problem. The individual in the formal operations stage can make an
analogy. If United Kingdom is to Europe, then Philippines is to___. The individual will reason that since the UK is found
in the continent of Europe then the Philippines is found in what continent? Then Asia is his answer. Through reflective
thought and even in the absence of concrete objects, the individual can now understand relationships and do analogical
reasoning.
Deductive Reasoning. This is the ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular instance or situations.
For example, all countries near the north pole have cold temperatures. Greenland is near the North pole. Therefore,
Greenland has cold temperature.
From Piaget’s findings and Comprehensive theory, we can derive the following principles:
1. Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive development.
2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or assimilation and. accommodation).
3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or mental operations for a child of given
age; avoid asking students to perform tasks that are beyond their current cognitive capabilities.
4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges.

ASSESSMENT (Part 1)
Read the situations below and answer the following questions.
1. It's Christmas and Uncle Bob is giving “Aguinaldo” to the children. Three-year-old Karen did not want to receive the
one-hundred-peso bill and instead preferred to receive four 20
peso bills. Her ten-year-old cousins were telling her it's better to get the one hundred bills, but they failed to convince
her.
Question: Why do you think did Karen prefer the 20-peso bills?
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2. Siblings, Tria, 10; Enzo, 8; and Riel, 4 were sorting out their stuffed animals. They had 7 bears, 3 dogs, 2 cows and 1
dolphin. Mommy, a psychology teacher, enters and says, “Good thing you're sorting those do you have more stuffed
animals or more bears? Tria and Enzo says, "stuffed animals." Riel says, “Bears”
Question: Why do you think Reil answered “Bears?”. What does this say about how she thought to answer the
question?
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3. While eating on her high chair, seven-month old Liza accidentally dropped her spoon on the floor. She saw mommy
pick it up. Liza again drops her new spoon, and she does this several times more on purpose. Mommy didn’t like it at
all but Liza appeared to enjoy dropping the spoon the whole time.
Question: Why do you think baby Liza appeared to enjoy dropping the spoons?
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Name:______________________________________________ _Course&Yr&Sec:___________________Date:_______
ASSESSMENT (Part 2)
Read a research that is related to Piaget’s Theory. Fill out the matrix below.
Source:

Name:_______________________________________________ Course&Yr&Sec:___________________Date:_______
ASSESSMENT (Part 3)
From our lesson on Piaget’s Psychoanalytic Theory, I learned that…
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Lesson 8. Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development
Learning Outcomes:
1. Explain the eight stages of Life.
Introduction:
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development is a very relevant, highly regarded and meaningful theory. Life is a continuous
process involving learning and trials which help us to grow. Erikson’s enlightening theory guides us and helps to tell us
why.
Discussion:
Introduction to the 8 Stages:
1. Erikson’s ‘psychosocial’ term is derived from the two source words namely psychological
(or the root, ‘psycho’ relating to the mind, brain, personality, etc.) and social (external
relationships and environment), both at the heart of Erikson’s theory. Occasionally' you’ll
see the term extended to biopsychosocial, in which “bio” refers to life, as in biological.
2. Erikson’s theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud. But Erikson extended the theory
and incorporated cultural and social aspects into Freud’s biological and sexually-oriented
theory.
3. It’s also interesting to see how his ideas developed over time, perhaps aided by his own
journey through the “psychosocial crisis” stages model that underpinned his work.
4. Like other influential theories, Erikson’s model is simple and well designed. The theory is
a basis for broad or complex discussion and analysis of personality and behaviour, and also
for understanding and for facilitating personal development of self and others. It can help the teacher in becoming more
knowledgeable and at the same time understanding of the various environmental factors that affect his own and his
students’ personality and behavior.
5. Erikson’s eight stages theory is a tremendously powerful model. It is very accessible and obviously relevant to modern
life, from several different perspectives for understanding and explaining how personality and behavior develops in
people. As such Erikson’s theory is useful for teaching, parenting, self-awareness, managing and coaching, dealing with
conflict, and generally for understanding self and others.
6. Various terms are used to describe Erikson’s model, for example Erikson’s biopsychosocial or bio-psycho-social theory
(bio refers to biological, which in this context means life); Erikson’s human development cycle or life cycle, and
variations of these. All refer to the same eight stages psychosocial theory, it being Erikson’s most distinct work and
remarkable model.
7. The epigenetic principle. As Boeree explains, “This principle says that we develop through a predetermined unfolding
of our personalities in eight stages. Our progress through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of
success, in all the previous stages. A little like the unfolding of a rose bud, each petal opens up at a certain time, in a
certain order; which nature, through its genetics, has determined. If we interfere in the natural order of development by
pulling a petal forward prematurely or out of order; we ruin the development of the entire flower.” Erikson’s theory
delved into how personality was formed and believed that the earlier stages served as a foundation for the later stages.
The theory highlighted the influence of one’s environment, particularly on how earlier experiences gradually build upon
the next and result into one’s personality.

8. Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional forces. A helpful term used by Erikson for these
opposing forces is “contrary dispositions”. Each crisis stage relates to a corresponding life stage and its inherent
challenges. Erikson used the words “syntonic” for the first-listed “positive” disposition in each crisis (e.g., Trust) and
“dystonic” for the second-listed “negative” disposition (e.g. Mistrust). To signify the opposing or conflicting relationship
between each pair of forces or dispositions, Erikson connected them with the word “versus”.
9. If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial strength which will help us through the rest of
the stages of our lives. Successfully passing through each crisis involves “achieving” a healthy ratio or balance between
the two opposing dispositions that represent each crisis.
10. On the other hand, if we don’t do so well, we may develop maladaptation’s and malignancies, as well as endanger all
our future development. A malignancy is the worse of the two. It involves too little of the positive and too much of the
negative aspect of the task, such as a person who can’t trust others. A maladaptation is not quite as bad and involves too
much of the positive and too little of the negative, such as a person who trusts too much.
11. The crisis stages are not sharply defined steps. Elements tend to overlap and mingle from one stage to the next and to the
preceding stages. It’s a broad framework and concept, not a mathematical formula which replicates precisely across all
people and situations.
12. Erikson was keen to point out that the transition between stages is “overlapping”. Crisis stages connect with each other
like interlaced lingers, not like a series of neatly stacked boxes. People don’t suddenly wake up one morning and be in a
new life stage. Changes don’t happen in regimented clear-cut steps. Changes are graduated, mixed-together and organic.
13. Erikson also emphasized the significance of “mutuality” and “generativity” in his theory. The terms are linked. Mutuality
reflects the effect of generations on each other, especially among families, and particularly between parents and children
and grandchildren. Everyone potentially affects everyone else’s experiences as they pass through the different crisis
stages. Generativity, actually a named disposition within one of the crisis stages (Generativity vs. Stagnation, stage
seven), reflects the significant relationship between adults and the best interests of children - one’ s own children, and in
a way everyone else’s children the next generation, and all following generations.
Stage One
Psychosocial Crisis
The first stage, infancy, is approximately the first year or year and a half of life. The crisis is trust vs. mistrust. The goal is
to develop trust without completely eliminating the capacity for mistrust. If the primary caregivers, like the parents can give
the baby a sense of familiarity, consistency, and continuity, then the baby will develop the feeling that the world is a safe
place to be, that people are reliable and loving. If the parents are unreliable and inadequate, if they reject the infant or harm
it, if other interests cause both parents to turn away from the infant’s needs to satisfy their own instead, then the infant will
develop mistrust. He or she will be apprehensive and suspicious around people.
Maladaptation/Malignancy
Please understand that this doesn’t mean that the parents have to be perfect. In fact, parents who are overly protective of the
child, who are there the minute the first cry comes out, will lead that child into the maladaptive tendency which Erikson
calls sensory maladjustment: Overly trusting, even gullible, this person cannot believe anyone would mean them ham, and
will use all the defenses at their command to find an explanation or excuse for the person who did him wrong. Worse, of
course, is the child whose balance is tipped way over on the mistrust side. They will develop the malignant tendency of
withdrawal, characterized by depression, paranoia, and possibly psychosis.
Virtue
If the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue of hope, the strong belief that, even when things are not
going well, they will work out well in the end. One of the signs that a child is doing well in the first stage is when the child
isn’t overly upset by the need to wait a moment for the satisfaction 'of his or her needs: Mom or Dad doesn’t have to be
perfect; I trust them enough to believe that, if they can’t be here immediately, they will be here soon; things may be though

now, but they will work out. This is the same ability that, in later life, gets us through disappointments in love, our careers,
and many other domains of life.
Stage Two
Psychosocial Crisis
The second stage is early childhood, from about eighteen months to three or four years old. The task is to achieve a degree
of autonomy while minimizing shame and doubt. If mom and dad, or caregiver permits the child, now a toddler, to explore
and manipulate his or her environment, the child will develop a sense of autonomy or independence. The parents should not
discourage the child, but neither should they push. A balance is required. People often advise new parents to be “firm but
tolerant” at this stage, and the advice is good. This way, the child will develop both self-control and self-esteem. On the
other hand, it is rather easy for the child to develop instead a sense of shame and doubt. If the parents come down hard on
any attempt to explore and be independent, the child will soon give up with the belief that he/she cannot and should not act
on his/her own. We should keep in mind that even something as innocent as laughing at the toddler’s efforts can lead the
child to feel deeply ashamed and to doubt his or her abilities.
Maldaptation/Malignancy
Nevertheless, a little “shame and doubt” is not only inevitable, but beneficial. Without it, you will develop the maladaptive
tendency Erikson calls impulsiveness, a sort of shameless willfulness that leads you, in later childhood and even adulthood,
to jump into things without proper consideration of your abilities. Worse, of course, is too much shame and doubt, which
leads to the malignancy Erikson calls compulsiveness. The compulsive person feels as if their entire being rides on
everything they do, and so everything must be done perfectly. Following all the rules precisely keeps you from mistakes,
and mistakes must be avoided at all costs. Many of you know how it feels to always be ashamed and always doubt yourself.
A little more patience and tolerance with your own children may help them avoid your path. And give yourself a little slack,
too.
Virtue
If you get the proper, positive balance of autonomy and shame and doubt, you will develop the virtue of willpower or
determination. One of the most admirable -and frustrating things about two and three-year olds is their determination. “Can
do” is their motto. If we can preserve that “can do” attitude (with appropriate modesty-to balance it) we are much better off
as adults.
Stage Three
Psychosocial Crisis
Stage three is the early childhood stage, from three or four to five or six. The task is to learn initiative without too much
guilt. Initiative means a positive response to the world’s challenges, taking on responsibilities, learning new skills, feeling
purposeful. Parents can encourage initiative by encouraging children to try out their ideas. We should accept and encourage
fantasy and curiosity and imagination. This is a time for play, not for formal education. The child is now capable, as never
before, of imagining a future situation, one that isn’t a reality right now. Initiative is the attempt to make that non-reality a
reality.
Erikson is, of course, a Freudian, and as such, he includes the Oedipal experience in this stage. From his perspective, the
Oedipal crisis involves the reluctance a child feels in relinquishing his or her closeness to the opposite sex parent. A parent
has the responsibility, socially, to encourage the child to “grow up -you’re not a baby anymore.” But if this process is done
too harshly and too abruptly, the child learns to feel guilty about his or her feelings.
Too much initiative and too little guilt means a maladaptive tendency Erikson calls ruthlessness. To be ruthless is to be
heartless or unfeeling or be “without mercy.” The ruthless person takes the initiative alright. They have their plans, whether
it’s a matter of school or romance or politics or career. It’s just that they don’t care who they step on to achieve their goals.
The goals are the only things that matter, and guilty feelings and mercy are only signs of weakness. The extreme form of
ruthlessness is sociopathy.

Ruthlessness is bad for others, but actually relatively easy on the ruthless person. Harder on the person is the malignancy of
too much guilt, which Erikson calls inhibition. The inhibited person will not try things because “nothing ventured, nothing
lost” and, particularly, nothing to feel guilty about. They are so afraid to start and take a lead on a project. They fear that if
it fails, they will be blamed.
Virtue
A good balance leads to the psychosocial strength of purpose. A sense of purpose is something many people crave for in
their lives, yet many do not realize that they themselves make their purposes, through imagination and initiative. 1 think an
even better word for this virtue would have been courage, the capacity for action despite a clear understanding of your
limitations and past failings.
Stage Four
Psychosocial Crisis
Stage four is the school-age stage when the child is from about six to twelve. The task is to develop a capacity for industry
while avoiding an excessive sense of inferiority. Children must “tame the imagination” and dedicate themselves to education
and to learning the social skills their society requires of them. There is a much broader social sphere at work now: The
parents and other family members are joined by teachers and peers and other members of the community at large. They all
contribute. Parents must encourage, teachers must care, peers must accept. Children must learn that there is pleasure not
only in conceiving a plan, but in carrying it out. They must learn the feeling of success, whether it is in school or on the
playground, academic or social.
A good way to tell the difference between a child in the third stage and one in the fourth stage is to look at the way they
play games. Four-year-olds may love games, but they will have only a vague understanding of the rules, may change them
several times during the course of the game, and be very unlikely to actually finish the game, unless it is by throwing the
pieces at their opponents. A seven-year-old, on the other hand, is dedicated to the rules, considers them pretty much sacred,
and is more likely to get upset if the game is not allowed to come to its required conclusion.
If the child is allowed too little success, because of harsh teachers or rejecting peers, for example, then he or she will develop
instead a sense of inferiority or incompetence. Additional sources of inferiority, Erikson mentions, are racism, sexism, and
other forms of discrimination.
Too much industry leads ‘to the maladaptive tendency called narrow virtuosity. We see this in children who aren’t allowed
to “be children,” the ones that parents or teachers push into one area of competence, without allowing the development of
broader interests. These are the kids without a life: child actors, child athletes, child musicians, child prodigies of all sorts.
We all admire their industry, but if we look a little closer, it’s all that stands in the way of an empty life.
Much more common is the malignancy called inertia. This includes all of us who suffer from the “inferiority complexes”
Alfred Adler talked about. If at first you don’t succeed, don’t ever try again. Many of us didn’t do well in mathematics, for
example, so we’d die before we took another math class. Others were humiliated instead in the gym class, so we never try
out for a Sport or play a game of basketball. Others never developed social skills -the most important skills of all -and so
we never go out in public. We become inert.
Virtue
A happier thing is to develop the right balance of industry and inferiority -that is, mostly industry with just a touch of
inferiority to keep us sensibly humble. Then we have the virtue called competency.
Stage Five
Psychosocial Crisis
Stage five is adolescence, beginning with puberty and ending around 18 or 20 years old. The task during adolescence is to
achieve ego identity and avoid role confusion. It was adolescence that interested Erikson first and most, and the patterns he
saw here were the bases for his thinking about all the other stages.
Ego identity means knowing who you are and how you fit in to the rest of society. It requires that you take all you’ve learned
about life and yourself and mold it into a unified self-image, one that your community finds meaningful.
There are a number of things that make things easier: First, we should have a mainstream adult culture that is worthy of the
adolescent’s respect, one with good adult role models and open lines of communication.
Further, society should provide clear rites of passage, certain accomplishments and rituals that help to distinguish the adult
from the child.' In primitive and traditional societies, an adolescent boy may be asked to leave the village for a period of
time to live on his own, hunt some symbolic animal, or seek an inspirational vision. Boys and girls may be required to go
through certain tests of endurance, symbolic ceremonies, or educational events. In one way or another, the distinction
between the powerless, but irresponsible, time of childhood and the powerful and responsible time of adulthood, is made
clear.
Without these things, we are likely to see role confusion, meaning an uncertainty about one’s place in society and the world.
When an adolescent is confronted by role confusion, Erikson says, he or she is suffering from an identity crisis. In fact, a
common question adolescent in our society ask is a straight-forward question of identity: “Who am I?”
One of Erikson’s suggestions for adolescence in our society is the psychosocial moratorium. He suggests you take a little
“time out.” If you have money, go to Europe. If you don’t, burn around the Philippines. Quit school and get a job. Quit your
job and go to school. Take a break, smell the roses, get to know yourself. We tend to want to get to “success” as fast as
possible, and yet few of us have ever taken the time to figure out what success means to us. A little like the young Oglala
Lakota, perhaps we need to dream a little.
There is such a thing as too much “ego identity,” where a person is so involved in a particular role in a particular society or
subculture that there is no room left for tolerance. Erikson calls this maladaptive tendency fanaticism. A fanatic believes
that his way is the only way. Adolescents are, of course, known for their idealism, and for their tendency to see things in
black-and-white. These people will gather others around them and promote their beliefs and life-styles without regard to
others’ rights to disagree.
The lack of identity is perhaps more difficult still, and Erikson refers to the malignant tendency here as repudiation. To
repudiate is to reject. They reject their membership in the world of adults and, even more, they reject their need for an
identity. Some adolescents prefer to go to groups that go against the norms to form their identity; religious cults, militaristic
organizations, groups founded on hatred, groups that have divorced themselves from the painful demands of mainstream
society. They may become involved in destructive activities drugs, or alcohol or they may withdraw into their own psychotic
fantasies. After all, being “bad” or being “nobody” is better than not knowing who you are.
If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will have the virtue Erikson called fidelity. Fidelity means loyalty, the ability
to live by societies standards despite their imperfections and incompleteness and inconsistencies. We are not talking about
blind loyalty, and we are not talking about accepting the imperfections. After all, if you love your community, you will want
to see it become the best it can be. But fidelity means that you have found a place in that community, a place that will allow
you to contribute.
Stage Six
Psychosocial Crisis
If you have made it this far, you are in the stage of young adulthood, which lasts from about 18 to about 30. The ages in the
adult stages are much fuzzier than in the childhood stages, and people may differ dramatically. The task is to achieve some
degree of intimacy, as opposed to remaining in isolation.
Intimacy is the ability to be close to others, as a lover, a friend, and as a participant in society. Because you have a clear
sense of who you are, you no longer need to fear “losing” yourself, as many adolescents do. The “fear of commitment”
some people seem to exhibit is an example of immaturity in this stage. This fear isn’t always obvious. Many people today
are always putting off the progress of their relationships: I’ll get married (or have a family, or get involved in important
social issues) as soon as I finish school, as soon as I have a job, as soon as I have a house, as soon as.... If you’ve been
engaged for the last ten years, what’s holding you back?
Neither should the young adult need to prove him or herself anymore. A teenage relationship is often a matter of trying to
establish identity through “couple-hood.” Who am I? I’m her boyfriend. The young adult relationship should be a matter of
two independent egos wanting to create something larger than themselves. We intuitively recognize this when we frown on
a relationship between a young adult and a teenager: We see the potential for manipulation of the younger member of the
party by the older.
Erikson calls the maladaptive form promiscuity, referring particularly to the tendency to become intimate too freely, too
easily, and without any depth to your intimacy. This can be true of your relationships with friends and neighbors and your
whole community as well as with lovers.
The malignancy he calls exclusion, which refers to the tendency to isolate oneself from love, friendship, and community,
and to develop a certain hatefulness in compensation 'for one’s loneliness.
Virtue
If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will instead carry with you for the rest of your life the virtue or psychosocial
strength Erikson calls love. Love, in the context-of his theory, means being able to put aside differences and antagonisms
through “mutuality of devotion.” It includes not only the love we find in a good marriage, but the love between friends and
the love of one ’s neighbor, co-worker, and compatriot as well.
Stage Seven
Psychosocial Crisis
The seventh stage is that of middle adulthood. It is hard to pin a time to it, but it would include the period during which we
are actively involved in raising children. For most people in our society, this would put it somewhere between the middle
twenties and the late fifties. The task here is to cultivate the proper balance of generativity and stagnation.
Generativity is an extension of love into the future. It is a concern for the next generation and all future generations. As
such, it is considerably less “selfish” than the intimacy of the previous stage: Intimacy, the love between lovers or friends,
is a love between equals, and it is necessarily mutual. With generativity, the individual, like a parent, does not expect to be
repaid for the love he gives to his children, at least not as strongly. Few parents expect a “return on their investment” from
their children; If they do, we don’t think of them as very good parents!
Although the majority of people practice generativity by having and raising children, there are many other ways as well.
Erikson considers teaching, writing, invention, the arts and sciences, social activism, and generally contributing to the
welfare of future generations to be generativity as well -anything, in fact, that satisfies that old “need to be needed.”
Stagnation, on the other hand, is self-absorption, caring for no-one. The stagnant person stops to be a productive member
of society.
It is perhaps hard to imagine that we should have any “stagnation” in our lives, but the maladaptive tendency Erikson calls
overextension illustrates the problem: Some people try to be so generative that they no longer allow time for themselves,
for rest and relaxation. The person who is overextended no longer contributes well. I’m sure we all know someone who
belongs to so many clubs, or is devoted to so many causes, or tries to take so many classes or hold so many jobs that they
no longer have time for any of them.
More obvious, of course, is the malignant tendency of rejectivity. Too little generativity and too much stagnation and you
are no longer participating in or contributing to society. And much of what we call “the meaning of life” is a matter of how
we participate and what we contribute.
This is the stage of the “midlife crisis.” Sometimes men and women take a look at their lives and ask that big, bad question
“what am I doing all this for?” Notice the question carefully: Because their focus is on themselves, they ask what, rather
than whom, they are doing it for. In their panic at getting older and not having experienced or accomplished what they
imagined they would when they were younger, they try to recapture their youth. Men are often the most flambouyant
examples: They leave their long-suffering wives, quit their humdrum jobs, buy some “hip” new clothes, and start hanging
around singles’ bars. Of course, they seldom. find what they are looking for, because they are looking for the wrong thing.
Virtue
But if you are successful at this stage, you will have a capacity for caring that will serve you through the rest of your life.
Stage Eight
Psychosocial Crisis
This last stage, referred to delicately as late adulthood or maturity, or less delicately as old age, begins sometime around
retirement, after the kids have gone, say somewhere around 60. Some older folks will protest and say it only starts when
you feel old and so on, but that’s an effect of our youth-worshipping culture, which has even old people avoiding any
acknowledgement of age. In Erikson’s theory, reaching this stage is a good thing, and not reaching it suggests that earlier
problems retarded your development.
The task is to develop ego integrity with a minimal amount of despair. This stage, seems like the most difficult of all. First
comes a detachment from society, from a sense of usefulness, for most people in our culture. Some retire from jobs they’ve
held for years; others find their duties as parents coming to a close; most find that their input is no longer requested or
required.
Then there is a sense of biological uselessness, as the body no longer does everything it used to. Women go through a
sometimes-dramatic menopause. Men often find they can no longer “rise to the occasion.” Then there are the illnesses of
old age, such as arthritis, diabetes, heart problems, concerns about breast and ovarian and prostate cancers. There come fears
about things that one was never afraid of before the flu, for example, or just falling down. Along with the illnesses come
concerns of death. Friends die. Relatives die. One’s spouse dies. It is, of course, certain that you, too, will have your turn.
Faced with all this, it might seem like everyone would feel despair.
In response to this despair, some older people become preoccupied with the past. After all, that’s where things were better.
Some become preoccupied with their failures, the bad decisions they made, and regret that (unlike some in the previous
stage) they really don’t have the time or energy to reverse them. We find some older people become depressed, Spiteful,
paranoid, hypochondriacal, or deve10ping the patterns of senility with or without physical bases.
Ego integrity means coming to terms with your life, and thereby coming to terms with the end of life. If you are able to look
back and accept the course of events, the choices made, your life as you lived it, as being necessary, then you needn’t fear
death. Although most of you are not yet at this point in life, perhaps you can still sympathize by considering your life up to
now. We’ve all made mistakes, some of them pretty nasty ones; Yet, if you hadn’t made these mistakes, you wouldn’t be
who you are. If you had been very fortunate, or if you had played it safe and made very few mistakes, your life would not
have been as rich as is.
The maladaptive tendency in stage eight is called presumption. This is what happens when a person “presumes” ego integrity
without actually facing the difficulties of old age. The person in old age believes that he alone is right. He does not respect
the ideas and views of the young. The malignant tendency is called disdain, by which Erikson means a contempt of life,
one’s own or anyone’s. The person becomes very negative and appears to hate life.
Virtue
Someone who approaches death without fear has the strength Erikson calls wisdom. He calls it a gift to children, because
“healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear death.” He suggests that a person must be
somewhat gifted to be truly wise, but I would like to suggest that you understand “gifted” in as broad a fashion as possible.
I have found that there are people of very modest gifts who have taught me a great deal, not by their wise words, but by
their simple and gentle approach to life and death, by their “generosity of spirit.”

Name:___________________________________________ _Course&Yr&Sec:___________________Date:_______
ASSESSMENT (Part 1)
Write your own life story using the stages of psychosocial development as framework. Go through each of the stages that
apply to you (most probably, stages 1-6). Ask information from your parents and other significant persons in your life.
Look at your baby books and photo albums.
You may choose to have this in power point slides or in scrap book style.
For every psychosocial stage include pictures of yourself and significant person in your life.
Discuss your own psychosocial development using Erikson’s theory. Consider the crisis, maladaptation’s/malignancies
and the virtues.

Name:_____________________________________________ _Course&Yr&Sec:___________________Date:_______
ASSESSMENT (Part 2)
Read a research that is related to Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory. Fill out the matrix below.
Source:

ASSESSMENT (Part 3)
From our lesson on Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory, I learned that…
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Lesson 9. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Learning Outcomes:
1. Explain the stages of moral development
2. Analyze a person’s level of moral reasoning based on his responses to moral dilemmas.
3. Cite how the theory of moral development can be applied to your work as teacher later on.
Introduction:
Individuals, when confronted by situations where they need to make moral decisions, exercise their own ability to use moral
reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg was interested in studying the development of moral reasoning. He based his theory on the
findings of Piaget in studying cognitive development. Our ability to choose right from wrong is tied with our ability to
understand and reason logically.
Discussion:
Lawrence Kohlberg built on Piaget’s work, and set the groundwork for the present debate
within psychology on moral development. Like Piaget, he believed that children form ways
of thinking through their experiences which include understandings of moral concepts such
as justice, rights, equality and human welfare. Kohlberg followed the development of moral
judgment arid extended the ages covered by Piaget, and found out that the process of
attaining moral maturity took longer and occurred slower than Piaget had thought.
If Piaget designed specific tasks (Piagetian tasks) to learn about the cognitive development
of children, Kohlberg utilized moral dilemmas (Kohlberg dilemmas). The case you read in
the Activity part of this module was written for this module but was based on how Kohlberg
wrote his dilemmas. Like Piaget, he presented these, dilemmas to the individuals in his
research and asked for their responses. He did not aim to judge whether the responses were
right or wrong. He was interested in analyzing the moral reasoning behind the responses.
From his research, Kohlberg identified six stages of moral reasoning grouped into three major levels. Each level represents
a significant change in the social-moral reasoning or perspective of the person
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
According to Kohlberg, moral development occurs in six stages.
Level Stage Description

Preconventional Level Punishment/Obedience
Moral reasoning is based on the 1 One is motivated by fear of punishment. He
consequence/result of the act, not on the whether will act in order to avoid punishment.
the act itself is good or bad. Mutual Benefit
One is motivated to act by the benefit that one
2
may obtain later. You scratch my back, I’ll
scratch yours.
Social Approval
Conventional One is motivated by what others expect in
Moral reasoning is based on the conventions or behavior – good boy, good girl. The person acts
3
“norms” of society. This may include approval of because he/she will appear to others. He/she
others law and order. gives importance on what people will think or
say.
Post-conventional
4 Law and Order

Moral reasoning is based on enduring or One is motivated to act in order to uphold the
consistent principles. It is not just recognizing the law and order. The person will follow the law
law, but the principles behind the law. because it is the law.
Social Contract
Law that are wrong can be changed. One will
5
act based on social justice and the common
good.
Universal Principles
This is associated with the development of
one’s conscience. Having a set of standards that
6 drives one possess moral responsibility to make
societal changes regardless of consequences to
oneself. Examples of persons are Mother
Teresa, Martin Luther King, Jr.

Name:_____________________________________________ _Course&Yr&Sec:___________________Date:_______
ASSESSMENT(Part 1)
Identify the stage of moral development shown in the following:
_______1. Joy allows her classmates to copy her homework so that they will think she is kind and will like her to be their
friend.
_______2. Ricky does everything to get passing grades because his Mom will take his play station away if he gets bad
grades.
_______3. A civic action group protests the use of pills for family planning, saying that although the government allows
this, it is actually murder because the pills are abortifacient (causes abortion).
_______4. Jinky lets Hannah copy during their math test because Hannah agreed to let her copy during their sibika test.
_______5. Karen decides to return the wallet she found in the canteen so that people will praise her honesty and think she's
such a nice girl.
_______6. John decides to return the wallet he found in the canteen because he believes it's the right thing to do.
_______7. Lyka wears her ID inside the campus because she likes to follow the School rules and regulations.
_______8. A jeepney driver looks if there's a policeman around before he u-turns in a no u-turn spot.
_______9. Liza volunteers to tutor children-at-risk children in her community for free so they will learn to love school and
stay in school.
_______10. Little Riel behaves so well to get a star stamp from her teacher.

Name:____________________________________________ Course&Yr&Sec:___________________Date:_______
ASSESSMENT (Part 2)
Read a research that is related to Kohlberg’s Psycho-Social Theory. Fill out the matrix below.
Source:

Name:_______________________________________________Course&Yr&Sec:___________________Date:_______
ASSESSMENT (Part 3)
From our lesson on Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory, I learned that…
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Module 10. Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
Learning Outcomes:
1. Explain why Vygotsky’s theory is called “Socio-cultural” theory.
2. Differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky’s views on cognitive development.
3. Explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching a skill.
Introduction:
The key theme of Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays a very important role in cognitive development. He
believed that individual development could not be understood without looking in the social and cultural context within
which development happens. Scaffolding is Vygotsky’s term for the appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist
the learner accomplish a task.
Discussion:
When Vygotsky was a young boy, he was educated under a teacher who used the Socratic
method. This method was a systematic question and answer approach that allowed Vygotsky
to examine current thinking and practice higher levels of understanding. This experience,
together with his interest in literature and his work as a teacher, led him to recognize social
interaction and language as two central factors in cognitive development. His theory became
known as the Socio-Cultural Theory of Development.
Piaget and Vygotsky
Vygotsky worked on his theory around the same time as Piaget in between the 1920’s and 30’s
but they had clear differences in their views about cognitive development. Since Piaget was
taken up already in the preceding module, it would be easier now to see how his views compare
with Vygotsky’s.
Piaget Vygotsky
More individuals in focus More social in focus
Believed that there are universal stages of cognitive Did not propose stages but emphasized on cultural factors
development in cognitive development
Did not give much emphasis on language Stressed the role of language in cognitive development
Social Interaction. Piaget’s theory was more individual, while Vygotsky was more social. Piaget’s work on Piagetian’s
tasks focused heavily on how an individual’s cognitive development became evident through the individual’s own
processing of the tasks. Vygotsky, on the other hand gave more weight on the social interactions that contributed to the
cognitive development of individuals. For him, the social environment or the community takes on a major role in one’s
development.
Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in social activities, making the social context of
learning crucial; Parents, teachers and other adults in the learners’ environment all contribute to the process. They explain,
model, assist, give directions and provide feedback to the learner. Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and collaborate and
enrich the learning experience.
Cultural factors. Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that culture played on the cognitive development of children. Piaget
believed that as the child develops and matures, he goes through universal stages of cognitive development that allows him
to move from simple explorations with senses and muscles to complex reasoning. Vygotsky, on the other hand, looked into

the wide range of experiences that a culture would give to a child. For instance, one culture’s View about education, how
children are trained early in life all can contribute to the cognitive development of the child.
Language. Language opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have. Learners can use language
to know and understand the world and solve problems. Language serves ‘a social function but it also has an important
individual function. It helps the learner regulate and reflect on his own thinking. Children talk to themselves. Observe
preschoolers play and you may hear, “Gagawin ko itong airplane (holding a rectangular block), tapas ito ang airport (holding
two long blocks).” For Vygotsky, this “talking-to oneself” is an indication of the thinking that goes on in the mind of the
child. This will eventually lead to private speech. Private speech is a form of self-talk that guides the child’s thinking and
action.
Vygotsky believed in the essential role of activities in learning. Children learn best through hands-on activities than when
listening passively. Learning by doing is even made more fruitful when children interact with knowledgeable adults and
peers.
Zone of Proximal Development
When a child attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be immediately proficient at it. So, alone she may perform at a
certain level of competency. We refer to this as the zone of actual development. However, with the guidance of a More
Knowledgeable Other (MKO), competent adult or a more advanced peer, the child can perform at a higher level of
competency. The difference between what the child can accomplish alone and what she can accomplish with the guidance
of another is what Vygotsky referred to as zone of proximal development. The zone represents a learning opportunity where
a knowledgeable adult such as a teacher or parent or a more advanced peer can assist the child’s development. See the
illustration on the next page.
The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he cannot accomplish independently is called scaffolding.
Scaffolding is not about doing the task for the child while he watches. It is not about doing shortcuts for the child. Unzipping
the lunch bag, opening the food container and putting straw in the child’s tetrapack juice for him is not scaffolding.
Scaffolding should involve the judicious assistance given by the adult or peer so that the child can move from the zone of
actual to the zone of proximal development. When the adult unzips the zipper an inch or two, and then holds the lunch bag
still so that the child can continue to unzip the lunch bag is scaffolding. Loosening the food container lid just a bit and letting
the child open the lid himself is scaffolding. Leading the straw to the hole and letting the child put the straw through the
tetra pack hole is scaffolding.
The examples given above shows how a right amount of assistance can allow the child to accomplish the task. The instructor
should scaffold in such a way that the gap is bridged between the learner’s current skill levels and the desired skill level. As
learners become more proficient, able to complete tasks on their own that ' they could not initially do without assistance,
the guidance can be withdrawn. This is called scaffold and fade-away technique. Scaffolding, when done appropriately can
make a learner confident and eventually he can accomplish the task without any need for assistance.
When the MKO scaffolds, the process moves in four levels:
1. I do, you watch.
2. I do, you help.
3. You do, I help.
4. You do, I watch.
Learning will depend in the skill of the MKO, and the learner’s readiness and ability to learn and the difficulty of the skill
being learned.

Module 10. Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
ASSESSMENT (Part 1)
An exercise in scaffolding.
1. Choose a skill you are good in.

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2. Identify an individual to whom you can teach this skill. Somebody who will benefit from scaffolding.
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3. Break down the steps you will take in teaching the skill.
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4. Determine how you will use scaffolding. Describe the specific actions you will do to scaffold.
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Lesson 9. Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
ASSESSMENT (Part 2)
Read a research that is related to Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory. Fill out the matrix below.
Source:

Lesson 8. Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory of Development
ASSESSMENT (Part 3)
From our lesson on Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory, I learned that…
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UNIT III. DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES AND OTHER RELEVANT THEORIES
Module 11. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
Learning Outcomes:
1. Describe each of the layers of Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model.
2. Identify factors in one’s own life that exerted influence on one’s development.
3. Use the bioecological theory as a framework to describe the factors that affect a child and adolescent development.
Introduction:
Bronfenbrenner came up with a simple yet useful paradigm showing the different factors
that exert influence on an individual’s development. It points out the ever-widening
spheres on influence that shape every individual, from his/her immediate family to the
neighborhood, the country, even the world.
Discussion:
Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the Bioecological Systems theory presents child
development within the context of relationship systems that comprise the child’s
environment. It describes multipart layers of environment that has an effect on the
development of the child. Each layer is further made up of different structures. The term
“bioecological” points out that a child’s own biological make-up impacts as a key factor
in one’s development.
Through the child’s growing and developing body and the interplay between his
immediate family/community environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers his development. Changes or conflict
in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child’s development then, we must look not only at the child
and her immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as well.
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model: Structure of Environment
The microsystem. The microsystem is the layer nearest the child. It comprises structures which the child directly interacts
with. It includes structures such as one’s family, school and neighborhood. As such, the microsystem covers the most basic
relationships and interactions that a child has in his/her immediate environment. Does the child have strong and nurturing
relationships with the parents and family? Are his/her needs met? In this layer, relationship effects happen in two directions
both away from the child and toward the child. This means that the child is affected by people with whom he interacts, and
in turn these people are also affected by the child. For example, a mother’s deep affection for her child moves her to answer
to the baby’s needs and keep the baby safe. In turn the baby’s smiles and coos bring the mother feelings of warmth and an
affirmation that indeed she is a good mother. The child is affected by the behavior and beliefs of the parents, however, the
child also affects the behavior and beliefs of the parents. Bronfenbrenner calls these bi-directional influences, and he shows
how they occur among all levels of environment. This is quite similar to what Erikson termed as “mutuality” in his
psychosocial theory.
Bronfenbrenner’s theory looks into the interaction of structures within a layer and interactions of structures between layers.
At the microsystem level, the child is most affected by these bi-directional influences. However, interactions at outer layers
still influence the structures of the miscrosystem.
The mesosystem. This layer serves as the connection between the structures of the child’s microsystem. For example, the
meso~ system will include the link or interaction between the parents and teachers, or the parent and health services or the
community and the church.
The exosystem. This layer refers to the bigger social system in which the child does not function directly. This includes the
city government, the workplace, and the mass media. The structures in this layer may influence the child’s development by
somehow affecting some structure in the child’s microsystem. This includes the circumstances of the parents’ work like the
location, schedules. We see a change in the children’s routine when for example the mother works in a call center. That was
seen in that burger chain commercial where the mom and the children meet up at the fast food for breakfast just before the
children go to school and the mom going home from work in a call center. The child may not interact directly with what is
in the exosystem, but he is likely feel the positive or negative impact this system creates as it interacts with the child’s own
system.
The macrosystem. This layer is found in the outermost part in the child’s environment. The macrosystem includes the
cultural values, customs, and laws. The belief system contained in one’s macrosystem permeates all the interactions in the
other layers and reaches the individual. For example, in western countries like the US, most of the young people are expected
to be more independent by the time they end their teen-age years, while in Asian countries like ours, parents are expected
to support or at least want to support their children for a longer period of time. It is not uncommon to see even married
children still living with their parents. In China and also in other parts of the world, sons are more valuable than daughters.
This may pose challenges for girls as they are growing up. Because of differences in beliefs and customs, children from
different parts of the world experience different child-rearing practices and therefore differences in development as well.
The chronosystem. The chronosystem covers the element of time as it relates to a child’s environments. This involves
“patterns of stability and change” in the child’s life. This involves whether the child’s day is characterized by an orderly
predictable pattern, or whether the child is subjected to sudden changes in routine. We can also look into the pace of the
child’s everyday life. Is it a hurried or relaxed pace? This system can affect or influence the child externally, like the timing
of other siblings coming or the timing of parental separation or even death. Effect can also be internal, like in the bodily
changes that occur within the developing child, like the timing of menstrual onset for girls. As children get older, they may
react differently to environmental changes. The children may have also acquired the ability to cope and decide to what
extent they will allow changes around them to affect them.
No longer Nature vs. Nurture, but Nurturing Nature
The long debate may be coming to an end. For decades, if not for centuries, there was a long drawn debate on which had
more impact on child development, nature or nurture. Another way of putting it is, is.it heredity or environment that
influences child development more. More and more research now point out that both a child’s biology and his environment
play a role in the child’s growth and development. Development theories now stress on the role played by each and the
extent to which they interact in ongoing development.
The ecological systems theory focuses on the quality and context of the child’s environment. Bronfenbrenner pointed out
that as a child develops, the interplay within the layers of environment systems becomes more complex. This dynamic
interaction of the systems happens meantime, while the child’s physical and cognitive structures also grow and mature. This
bioecological theory helps us determine how the different circumstances, conditions and relationships in the world affect
the child as he or she goes through the more or less predictable sequence of natural growth and development.
The Role of Schools and Teachers
Bronfenbrenner co-founded Head Start, the publicly-funded early childhood program in the US; He concluded that “the
instability and unpredictability of family life is the most destructive force to a child’s development.” Researches tell us that
absence or lack of children’s constant mutual interaction with important adults has negative effects on their development.
According to the bioecological theory, “if the relationships in the immediate microsystem break down, the child will not
have the tools to explore other parts of his environment. Children looking for the affirmations that should be present in the
child/parent (or child/other important adult) relationship look for attention in inappropriate places. These deficiencies show
themselves especially in adolescence as anti-social behavior, lack of self-discipline, and inability to provide self-direction.
Bronfenbrenner’s theory reminds the school and the teachers of their very important role. If there is a lack of support, care
and affection from the home, if there is a serious breakdown of the basic relationships in a child’s life, what can the school,
the teachers in particular do? This theory helps teachers look into every child’s environmental systems in order to understand
more about the characteristics and needs of each child, each learner. The schools and the teachers can contribute stability
and long-term relationships, but only to support and not replace the relationships in the home. Bronfenbrenner believes that,
“the primary relationship needs to be with someone who can provide a sense of caring that is meant to last a lifetime. This,
relationship must be fostered by a person or people within the immediate sphere of the child’s influence.”

Schools and teachers’ crucial role is not to replace the lack in the home if such exists, but to work so that the school becomes
an environment: that welcomes and nurtures families. Bronfenbrenner also stressed that society should value work done on
behalf of children at all levels, and consequently value parents, teachers, extended family, mentors, work supervisors,
legislators.

Name:_____________________________________________Course&Yr&Sec:___________________Date:_______
ASSESSMENT (Part 1)
I. Looking Back. Recall the following questions. Recall your childhood. You may also ask your parents for some
information. Answer the following sentence completion items.
1. When I was 5 years old, my parents…

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2. As a child, my unforgettable playmates were…

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3. When I was in elementary, I regularly watched the television show

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5. I cannot forget my teacher who
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6. The most serious challenge our family experienced was
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7. The most important thing that I learned from my elementary and high school was
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II. Looking at your answers above (Part I), describe how these people or circumstances have influenced your attitudes,
behavior and habits.
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ASSESSMENT (Part 2)
Read a research that is related to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory. Fill out the matrix below.
Source:

ASSESSMENT (Part 3)
From our lesson on Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory, I learned that…
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Chapter IV. PRE-NATAL STAGES
Lesson 12. Pre-natal Development
Learning Outcomes:
1. Trace the course of the pre-natal developmental process that you went through.
2. Explain the most hazards to pre-natal development
3. Appreciate the give of life manifested in an anti-abortion stand.
Introduction:
All the developmental theories which we lengthily dwelt on the developmental process after birth. Nine of them was
concerned with what development went on before birth. To make the description of human development complete, it may
be good to understand the beginnings of the child and adolescent, the learners.
The Stages of Pre-natal Development
Pre-natal development is divided into three (3) periods germinal, embryonic and fetal.
1. Germinal Period (First 2 weeks after conception). This Includes the a) creation of the zygote, b) continued cell division
and c) the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall. The following are the details of development during this period:
a. 24 to 30 hours after fertilization - the male (sperm) and female (egg) chromosome unite
b. 36 hours - the fertilized ovum, zygote, divides into two (2); 2 cells
c. 48 hours - (2 days) 2 cells become 4 cells
d. 72 hours - (3 days) 4 cells become a small compact ball of 16-32 cells
e. 96 hours - (4 days) 'hollow ball of 64-128 cells
f. 4-5 days - inner cell mass (blastocyst) still free in the uterus
g. 6-7 days - blastocyst attaches to the wall of uterus
h. 11-15 days - blastocyst invades into uterine wall and becomes implanted in it (implantation)
In the germinal period, the differentiation of cells already begins as inner and outer layers of the organism are formed. The
blastocyst, the inner layer of cells that develops during the germinal period, develops later into the embryo. The trophoblast,
the outer layer of cells that develops also during the germinal period, later provides nutrition and Support for the embryo
(Nelson, Textbook of Pediatrics, 17th ed., 2004).
2. Embryonic Period (2-8 weeks after conception) In this stage, the name of the mass cells, zygote, become embryo. The
following developments take place:
a) cell differentiation intensities
b) life-support systems for the embryo develop and
c) organs appear
As the zygote gets attached to the wall of the uterus, two layers of cells are formed. The embryo’s endoderm, the inner layer
of cells, develops into the digestive and respiratory systems. The outer layer of cells is divided into two parts the ectoderm
and the mesoderm. The ectoderm is the outermost layer which becomes the nervous system, sensory receptors (eyes, ears,
nose) and skin parts (nails, hair). The mesoderm is the middle layer which becomes the circulatory, skeletal, muscular,
excretory and reproductive systems. This process of organ formation during the first two months of prenatal development
is called organogenesis.
As the three layers of the embryo form, the support systems for the embryo develop rapidly. These life-support systems are
the placenta, the umbilical cord and the amnion. The placenta is a life-support system that consists of a disk-shaped group
of tissues in which _small blood vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine but do not join. The umbilical cord
contains two arteries and one vein that connects the baby to the placenta. The amnion is a bag or an enve10pe that contains

a clear fluid in which the developing embryo floats. All these embryo life - support systems develop from the fertilized egg
and not from the mother’s body.
3. Fetal period (2 months to 7 months after conception) Growth and development continue dramatically during this period.
The details of the developmental process are as follows (Santrock, 2002)
a. 3 months after conception - fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about 1 ounce; fetus has become active, moves its
arms and legs, opens and closes its mouth, and moves its head; the face, forehead, eyelids, nose, chin can now be
distinguished and also the upper arms, lower arms, hands, and lower limbs; the genitals can now be identified as male
or female.
b. 4 months after conception - fetus is about 6 inches long and. weighs 4 to 7 ounces; growth spurt occurs in the body’s
lower parts; pre-natal reflexes are stronger; mother feels arm and leg movements for the first time.
c. 5 months after conception fetus - is about 12 inches long; weighs close to a pound; structures of the skin (fingernails,
toenails) have formed; fetus is more active.
d. 6 months after conception - fetus is about 14 inches long and weighs one and half pound; eyes and eyelids are
completely formed; fine layer of head covers the head; grasping reflex is present and irregular movements occur.
e. 7 months after conception - fetus is about 16 inches long and weighs 3 pounds
f. 8 and 9 months after conception fetus grows longer and gains substantial weight, about 4 pounds
Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development

Teratology is the held that investigates the causes of congenital (birth) defects. A teratogen is that which causes birth defects.
It comes from the Greek word “tera” which means “monster”.
Below are clusters of hazards to pre-natal development:

1. Prescription and nonprescription drugs - These include prescription as well as non-prescription drugs. Antibiotic is an
example of a prescription drug that can be harmful. Examples of harmful nonprescription drugs are diet pills, aspirin,
and coffee.
Remember the thalidomide tragedy in 1961? Many pregnant women took in thalidomide, a tranquilizer, to alleviate
their morning sickness that gave rise to several deformed babies.
Cocaine exposure during pre-natal development is associated with reduced birthweight, length and head circumference
(Hurt, et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002), impaired motor development (Arendt, et a1, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002),
impaired information processing (Singer, et a1, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002) and poor attention skills (Bandstra, 2000
cited by Santrock, 2002).
2. Psychoactive drugs - These include nicotine, caffeine and illegal drugs such as marijuana, cocaine and heroin.
Researchers found that pregnant women who drank more caffeinated coffee were more likely. to have preterm deliveries
and newborns with lower birthweight compared to their counterparts who did not drink caffeinated coffee (Eskanazi, et
al, 1999 quoted by Santrock, 2002).
Heavy drinking by pregnant women results to the so-called fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) which is a cluster of
abnormalities that appears in the children of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy. These abnormalities
include facial deformities and defective limbs, face and heart (Santrock, 2002). Most of these children are below average
in intelligence and some are mentally retarded (Olson, 2000 and Burgess, 1996 quoted by Santrock, 2002).

Fetal and neonatal deaths are higher among smoking mothers. There are also higher incidences of preterm births and
lower birthweights among children with smoking mothers (Wang, et a1, 2000 quoted by Santrock, 2002).
On the average, maternal heroin addicts deliver smaller than average size babies with more incidence of toxemia,
premature separation of placenta, retained placenta, hemorrhaging after birth, and breech deliveries.
3. Environmental hazards - These include radiation in jobsites and X-rays, environmental pollutants, toxic wastes, and
prolonged exposure to heat in saunas and bath tubs. Research found that chromosomal abnormalities are higher among
the offspring of fathers exposed to high levels of radiation in their occupations (Sehrag and Dixon, 1985 cited by
Santrock, 2002). Radiation from X-rays also can affect the developing embryo and fetus, with the most dangerous time
being the first several weeks after conception when women do not yet know that they are pregnant (Santrock, 2002).
Researchers found that toxic wastes Such as carbon monoxide, mercury and lead caused defects in animals exposed to
high doses. For instance, early exposure to lead affects children’s mental development. (Markowits, 2000 cited by
Santrock, 2002). Remember the action of the USA for the children’s toys with high lead content manufactured in China?
Prolonged exposure of pregnant mothers to sauna or hot tubs raises the mothers’ body temperature creating fever that
endangers the fetus. The high temperature due to fever may interfere with cell division and may cause birth defects or
even fetal death if the fever occurs repeatedly for prolonged periods of time (Santrock, 2002).
4. Other maternal factors such as Rubella (German Measles), syphilis, genital herpes, AIDS, nutrition, high anxiety
and stress, age, (too early or too late, beyond 30).
A rubella (German measles) in 1964-65 resulted in 30,000 pre-natal and neonatal (newborn) deaths and more than
20,000 affected infants who were born with malformations, including mental retardation, blindness, deafness and heart
problems (Santrock, 2002).
Syphilis damages organs after they have formed. These damages include eye lesions, which can cause blindness, and
skin lesions. When syphilis is present at birth, other problems involving the central nervous system and gastrointestinal
tract, can develop.
About one-third of babies delivered through a herpes-infected birth canal die; another one-fourth become brain-
damaged.
A mother can infect her child in three ways; 1) during gestation across the placenta, 2) during delivery through contact
with maternal blood or fluids, and 3) postpartum (after birth) through breastfeeding.
Studies show that increased stress during pregnancy leads to premature birth and reduced birth weight. Other studies
have shown that increased stress during pregnancy is related to ADHD even schizophrenia later in life.
Admittedly, more research on the effects of emotional states and stress needs to be conducted for more conclusive
findings.
It is recognized that maternal malnutrition during pregnancy may result to inadequate growth in the fetus. If a fetus does
not receive enough nourishment, the rate of cell division is seriously hampered. An extremely deprived fetus may have
20% fewer brain cells than normal. If an infant has been malnourished both in utero and infancy, the brain may be as
much as 60% smaller than that of the normal child.
Folic acid is necessary for pregnant mothers. Folic acid can reduce the risk of having a baby with a Serious birth defect
of the brain and spinal cord, called the ‘neural tube’. A baby with spina bifida, the most common neural tube defect is
born with a spine that is not closed. The exposed nerves are damaged, leaving the child with varying degrees of paralysis
and sometimes mental retardation.
As maternal age increases, the risks for numerical chromosomal abnormalities increase.
The mortality rate of infants born to adolescent mothers is double that of infants born to mothers in their twenties.
A baby with Down syndrome rarely is born to mother under age 30 but the risk increases after the mother reaches 30.
By age 40, the probability is slightly over 1 in 100, and by age 50 it is almost 1 in 10. The risk is also higher before age
18. (Santrock, 2002).

5. Paternal factors Fathers’ exposure to lead, radiation, certain pesticides and petrochemicals may cause abnormalities
in sperm that lead to miscarriage or diseases such as childhood cancer.
As in the case of ‘older mothers, older fathers also may place their offspring at risk for certain defects. (Santrock, 2002)
Human Life Begins at Conception

That which is in the mother’s womb is indeed a developing human being. An unborn baby of eight (8) weeks is not
essentially different from one of eighteen (18) weeks or twenty-eight (28) weeks. From conception the zygote, the embryo
and the fetus are undeniably human life.
Human life begins from the moment of conception. All that we have and all that we are have been there at the moment of
conception! The fact that you have brown eyes and black, straight or curly hair and the fact that you will turn bald at age 50
have been there already at the moment of conception. What were added in the process of development is nutrition.
I remember the film on abortion that I once saw, “The Silent Scream.” The mother submitted herself to a medical doctor for
abortion in her third month of pregnancy. When the abortionist inserted his scalpel into the woman’s womb to crush the
head of the fetus, very clearly in that film, the fetus had his/her mouth open like he was screaming for help as he evaded the
deadly scalpel of the abortionist. That’s why the film was given the title “The Silent Scream.” This only means that the
developing being in the womb is a human being not just a conglomeration of cells or tissues.
Based on these facts, it is wrong to do abortion. The womb is supposed to be the safest of all places for human development.
Unfortunately, however, with the scourge of abortion, it has become a tomb.
The development that takes place in 3 stages proves that the developing embryo in a mother’s womb is truly a human bein

Chapter IV. Pre-Natal Stages
ASSESSMENT (Part 1)
Give some hazards of pre-natal development. Use the given graphic organizer.
Prenatal
Development -
Zygote, Embryo,
Fetus

Name:___________________________________________ Course&Yr&Sec:___________________Date:_______
ASSESSMENT (Part 2)
Read a research that is related to one of the big ideas on pre-natal development. Fill out the matrix below.
Source:

ASSESSMENT (Part 3)
From our lesson on Pre-natal development, I learned that…
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Chapter V. INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD
Lesson 13. Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers
Learning Outcomes:
1. Trace the physical development that you have gone through as infants and toddlers.
2. Identify the factors that enhance the physical development of infants and toddlers
Introduction:
The period that comes after pre-natal or antenatal stage is infancy which, in turn, is followed by toddlerhood. Infancy and
toddlerhood span, the first two years of life.
Discussion:
Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns
The cephalocaudal trend is the postnatal growth from conception to 5 months when the head grows more than a body. The
cephalocaudal trend of growth that applies to the development of the fetus also applies in the first months after birth. Infants
learn to use their upper limbs before their lower limbs. The same pattern occurs in the head area because the top parts of the
head the eyes and the brain grow faster than the lower parts such as the jaw.
The proximodistal trend is the pre-natal growth from 5 months to birth when the fetus grows from the inside of the body
outwards. This also applies in, the first months after birth as shown in the earlier maturation of muscular control of the trunk
and arms, followed by that of the hands and fingers. When referring to motor development, the 'proximodistal trend refers
to the development of motor skills from the center of the body outward.
Height and Weight
▪ It’s normal for newborn babies to drop 5 to 10 percent of their body weight within a couple of weeks of birth. That is
due to the baby’s adjustment to neonatal feeding. Once they adjust to sucking, swallowing and digesting, they grow
rapidly.
▪ Breastfed babies are typically heavier than bottle-fed babies through the first six months. After six months, breastfed
babies usually weigh less than bottle-fed babies.
▪ In general, an infant’s length increases by about 30 percent in the first five months.
▪ A baby’ 3 weight usually triples during the first year but slows down in the second year of life.
▪ Low percentages are not a cause for alarm as long as infants progress along a natural curve of steady development.
Brain Development
Among the most dramatic changes in the brain in the first two years of life are the spreading connections of dendrites to
each other.
Myelination or myelinization, the process by which the axons are covered and insulated by layers of fat cells, begins
prenatally and continues after birth. The process of myelination or myelinization increases the speed at which information
travels through the nervous system.
▪ At birth, the newborn’s brain is about 25 percent of its adult weight. By the second birthday, the brain is about 75% of
its adult weight.
▪ Shortly after birth, a baby’s brain produces trillions more connections between neurons than it can possibly use. The
brain eliminates connections that are seldom or never used (Santrock, 2002). The infant’s brain is literally waiting for
experiences to determine how connections are made.
▪ A study on rats conducted by Mark Rosenzweig in 1969 revealed that the brains of rats that grew up in the enriched
environment developed better than the brains of the animals reared in standard or isolated conditions. The brains of the
“enriched” animals weighed more, had thicker layers, had more neuronal connections and had higher levels of
neurochemical activity. Such finding implies that enriching the lives of infants who live in impoverished environments
can produce positive changes in their development (Santrock, 2002).
Depressed brain activity has been found in children who grew up in a depressed environment (Circhetti, 2001, cited by
Santrock, 2002).
Motor development
Along this aspect of motor development, infants and toddlers begin from reflexes, to gross motor skills and fine motor skills.
Reflexes
▪ The newborn has some basic reflexes which are, of course automatic, and serve as survival mechanisms before they have
the opportunity to learn. Many reflexes which are present at birth will generally subside within a few months as the baby
grows and matures.
▪ There are many different reflexes. Some of the most common reflexes that babies have are:
Sucking Reflex: The sucking reflex is initiated when something touches the roof of an infant’s mouth. Infants have a strong
sucking reflex which helps to ensure they can latch unto a bottle or breast. The sucking reflex is very strong in some infants
and they may need to suck on a pacifier for comfort.
Rooting Reflex: The rooting reflex is most evident when an infant’s cheek is stroked. The baby responds by turning his or
her head in the direction of the touch and opening their mouth for feeding.
Gripping Reflex: Babies will grasp anything that is placed in their palm. The strength of this grip is strong, and most babies
can support their entire weight in their grip.
Curling Reflex: When the inner sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the infant responds by curling his or her toes. When the
outer sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the infant will respond by spreading out their toes.
Startle/Moro Reflex: Infants will respond to sudden sounds or movements by throwing their arms and legs out, and throwing
their heads back. Most infants will usually cry when startled and proceed to pull their limbs back into their bodies.
Galant Reflex: The galant reflex is shown when an infant’s middle or lower back is stroked next to the spinal cord. The
baby will respond by curving his or her body toward the side which is being stroked.
Tonic Neck Reflex: The tonic neck reflex is demonstrated in infant’s who are placed on their abdomens. Whichever side
the child’s head is facing, the limbs on that side will straighten, while the opposite limbs will curl.
Gross Motor Skills

It is always a source of excitement for parents to witness dramatic changes in the infant’s year of life. This dramatic motor
development is shown in babies unable to even lift their heads to being able to grab things off the cabinet, to chase the ball
and to walk away from parent.
Fine Motor Skills

Fine motor skills, are skills that involve a relined use of the small muscles, controlling the hand, fingers, and thumb. The
development of these skills allows one to be able to complete tasks such as writing; drawing, and buttoning.

The ability to exhibit fine motor skills involve activities that involve precise eye-hand coordination. The development of
reaching and grasping becomes more refined during the first two years of life. Initially, infants show only crude shoulder
and elbow movements, but later they show wrist movements, hand rotation and coordination.
What are some research findings regarding newborns visual perceptions? Can newborns see?
▪ The newborn’s vision is about 10 to 30 times lower than normal adult vision: By 6 months of age, vision becomes better
and by the first birthday, the infant’s vision approximates that of an adult. (Banks & Salapatek, 1983 cited by Santrock,
2002).
▪ Infants look at different things for different lengths of time. In an experiment conducted by Robert Fantz (1963 cited by
Santrock, 2002), it was found out that infants preferred to look at patterns such as faces and concentric circles rather than
at color or brightness. Based on these results, it is likely that “pattern perception has an innate basis” (Santrock, 2002).
Among the first few things that babies learn to recognize is their mother’s face, as mother feeds and nurses them.
Can newborns hear?

▪ The sense of hearing in an infant develops much before the birth of the baby. When in the womb, the baby hears his/ her
mother’s heartbeats, the grumbling of his/her stomach, the mother’s voice and music. How soothing it must have been
for you to listen to your mother’s lullaby.
▪ Infants’ sensory thresholds are somewhat higher than those of adult which means that stimulus must be louder to be
heard by a newborn than by an adult.
Can newborns differentiate odors?
▪ In an experiment conducted by MacFarlane (1975) “young infants who were breastfed showed a clear preference for
smelling their mother’s breast pad when they were 6 days old. This preference did not show when the babies were only
two days old. This shows that it requires several days of experience to recognize their mother’s breast pad odor.”
Can newborns feel pain? Do they respond to touch?
▪ They do feel pain. Newborn males show a higher level of cortisol (an indicator of stress) after a circumcision than prior
to the surgery (Taddio, et al, 1997 cited by Santrock, 2002).
▪ Babies respond to touch; In the earlier part of this Module on motor development, you learned that a newborn
automatically sucks an object placed in his/her mouth, or a touch of the cheek makes the newborn turn his/her head
toward the side that was touched in an apparent effort to find something to suck.
Can newborns distinguish the different tastes?
▪ In a study conducted with babies only two hour old, babies made different facial expressions when they tasted sweet,
sour, and bitter solutions (Rosentein and Oster, 1988, cited by Santrock, 2002).
▪ When saccharin was added to the amniotic fluid of a near term fetus, increased swallowing was observed.
▪ This indicates that sensitivity to taste might be present before birth.
Do infants relate information through several senses? In short, are infants capable of intermodal perception?
▪ Intermodal perception is the ability to relate, connect and integrate information about two or more sensory modalities
such as vision and hearing.
▪ In a study conducted by Spelke and Owsley (1979), it was found out that as early as at 3 1/2 months old, infants looked
more at their mother when they also heard her voice and longer at their father when they also heard his voice.
▪ This capacity for intermodal perception or ability to connect information coming through various modes gets sharpened
considerably through experience.

Chapter V. Infancy and Toddlerhood
Module 13. Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers
ASSESSMENT
Read the questions carefully and identify the correct answer. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which statement on physical development of infants and toddlers is TRUE?

The cephalocaudal growth pattern shows ______________________________________
A. development of the upper limbs before the lower limbs
B. development of the lower limbs before the upper limbs
C. simultaneous development of the upper and lower limbs
D. development of muscular control of trunk and arms before the fingers
2. As a normal infant and toddler, which physical development did you go through?
A. Development of motor skills from the body outward to the center
B. Development of motor skills from the center of the body outward
C. Development of the lower limbs before the upper limbs
D. Simultaneous development of the limbs and trunk body
3. Which factor according to research can impede the physical development of infants and toddlers?
A. Depressed environment
B. Early brain stimulation
C. Being the only child
D. Being a member of a big family
4. For healthy physical development of a toddler which should parents do?
I. Encourage your child to sit when eating.
II. Encourage free play as much as possible to develop motor skills.
III. Check toys for loose or broken parts.
A. II and III
B. I and III
C. I and II
D. I, II and III

Name: ___________________________________________Course&Year:__________________Date:___________
ASSESSMENT (Part 2)
Read a research on Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers. Fill out the matrix below.
Source:

Name: __________________________________________Course&Year:__________________Date:___________
ASSESSMENT (Part 3)
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ASSESSMENT (Part 4)
Reflection
Having learned the physical developmental of infants and toddlers and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, as a future parent or
as caregiver of children, reflect on:
▪ What you should do more often for infants and toddlers
▪ What you should refrain from doing to facilitate their growth and development.
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UNIT V. INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD
Module 14. Cognitive Development of Infants and Toddlers
Learning Outcomes:
1. Trace the cognitive development that you have gone through as infants and toddlers.
2. Identify the factors that enhance the cognitive development of infants and toddlers
Introduction:
Cognitive development in infancy refers to the development in a way a baby thinks. This includes his/her language,
communication and exploration skills. Examples of cognitive activities include paying attention, remembering’ learning to
talk, interacting with toys and identifying faces.
Discussion:
Sensorimotor stage
▪ An analysis of the 6 substages of the sensorimotor stage of Piaget’ s cognitive development shows that development
begins from reflexive behaviors to more refined and more coordinated activities. Cognitive development of infants
evolves in orientation from becoming focused on themselves to becoming object or world-oriented, from one that is
action-based to one that is mentally-based, from one that does not involve much of coordination of schemes to one
involving intentionality, novelty and curiosity and from a thinking that is purely sensorimotor to a symbolic one.
▪ Piaget’s substages are termed circular because the adaptive behavior to the world involves repeated actions. Circular
reactions are attempts to repeat an event that the baby likes. Circular reactions serve as the building blocks for intelligence
(Pasek, P and Golinkoff, R, 2003).
▪ Primary circular reactions are oriented toward the infant’s own body, whereas secondary circular reactions are aimed
toward the environment including others. Here is an example of a primary circular reaction:
At first, by accident, the baby gets her thumb in her mouth. But she doesn’t know how to do it again. She waves her hand
around and, after many attempts, eventually succeeds in doing it again. Gradually, she learns how to do it at will (Pasek,
K and R. Golinltoff, 2003).
▪ Secondary circular reactions are repetitive actions that involve recreating events which 4-10 month old babies observe
outside of their own bodies, such as making-their mobile crib shake. by kicking their legs (Pasek, K and R.Golinkoff,
2003).
▪ Tertiary circular reactions, seen from approximately 10 to 18 months, is when a baby does things over and over again,
just a little differently each time. e.g. When a baby seems to enjoy dropping the Spoon over and over again in many
different ways, a proof of the creation of novel variations in events. Piaget described the baby at this stage as “the
scientist.” When parents don’t understand their child’s behavior, they see this act as abusive and get frustrated.
▪ From dropping the spoon many times in many different ways, the baby discovers a pattern “objects fall down --not up.”
They create the patterns with their repetitive actions and then evaluate them. Babies are born pattern seekers (Pasek, K
and R. Golinkoff, 2003).
▪ “Acquiring the sense of object permanence is one of the infant’s most important accomplishments, according to Piaget.”
Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when the objects are not immediately
perceptible through the senses. Before the infant’s acquisition of the sense of object permanence, the principle that applies
is “out of sight, out of mind.”

There are some criticisms of Piaget’s theory on cognitive development. One criticism from other developmental theorists is
his fundamental assumption that cognitive development occurs in fixed sequence of discontinuous spurts across task
domains, tasks, and contexts. Many theorists (e.g. Brainerd, 1978) believe that cognitive development occurs as a continuous
process rather than in discontinuous stages of development. Recent studies in the cognitive development of infants support
the view that Piaget underestimated young infants’ cognitive ability. Furthermore, Piaget’s methods of research were said
to be quite loose, the fact that he simply observed his three children and a few others which were limited only to European
children.
Learning and Remembering

Do infants. learn and remember?
Yes! Pavlov’s classical conditioning and Skinner’s operant conditioning have been proven to apply to infants. We’ll ask
you to research on researches that prove this.
All of us experience infantile amnesia, the inability to recall events that happened when we were very young (Spear, 1979).
Generally, we can remember little or nothing that has happened to us before the age of about 5 years, and it is extremely
rare for someone to recall many memories before age 3 years. Reports of childhood memories usually involve memories of
significant events (e.g. birth of a sibling or the death of a parent; Fivush and Hammond, 1991). For example, some adults
have recalled their own hospitalization or the birth of a sibling as far back as age 2 years, and the death of a parent or a
family move may be recalled from as far back as age 3 years (Usher and Neisser, 1993).
I have vivid memories of my childhood as early as age 3. I remember the deaths of a baby brother and a baby sister in a
row. Before age 3, I have a vivid picture of my father carrying me home -in his arms after he was informed that I was
chilling due to very high fever in my grandmother’s house.
Language Development
From day one, infants appear to be programmed to tune in to their linguistic environment with the specific goal of acquiring
language. Infants clearly have remarkably acute language learning abilities even from an early age (Marcus, Vijayan. Bandi
Rao and Vishton, 1999; Pinker, 1997, 1999 cited by Stemberg, Robert, 2003).
Within the first years of life, we humans seem to progress through 'the following stages in producing language (Stemberg,
2003):
1. Cooing, which comprises largely vowel sounds
2. Babbling, which comprises consonant as well as vowel sounds; to most people’s ears, the babbling of infants growing
up among speakers from different language groups sounds very similar.
3. One-word utterances; these utterances are limited in both the vowels and the consonants they utilize (Ingram, 1999 cited
by Stemberg, 2003)
4. Two-word utterances and telegraphic speech
5. Basic adult sentence structure (present by about age 4 years) with continuing vocabulary acquisition.
The infant utters his /her first word. followed by one or two more, and soon after, yet a few more. The infant uses these one-
word utterances termed holophrases-to convey intentions, desires and demands. Usually, the words are nouns describing
familiar objects that the 'chi1d observes (e.g. book, ball, baby) or wants (e.g. Mama, Dada). By 18 months of age, children
typically have vocabularies of 3 to 100 words (Sieg1er, 1986). Because the young child’s vocabulary is very limited at this
point in the development process, the child overextends the meaning of words in his/her existing lexicon to cover things
and ideas for which a new word is lacking. For example, the genera1 term for any kind of four-legged animal may be
“doggie.” In linguistics this is ca11ed overextension error.
Gradually between 1.5 and 2.5 years of age, children start combining single words to produce two-word utterances. These
two-word or three-word utterances with rudimentary syntax but with articles and prepositions missing are referred to as
telegraphic speech.

Vocabulary expands rapidly, more than tripling from about 300 words at about 2 years of age to about 1,000 words at about
3 years of age. At about 4 years, incredibly children acquire the foundations of adult syntax and language structure
(Stemberg, 2003).
It is clear that no toddler blossoms all of a sudden into one capable of telegraphic speech. As the 5 stages above show, the
acquisition of language comes in stages beginning with cooing, then babbling, to one-word utterances, to two or three-word
utterances or even more but without articles and prepositions thus called telegraphic speech.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Noam Chomsky (1965, 1972), noted linguist, claims that humans have an innate language acquisition device (LAD). This
LAD is a “metaphorical organ that is responsible for language learning. Just as a heart is designed to pump blood this
language acquisition device is preprogrammed to learn language, whatever the language community children find
themselves in.”
This means that we, humans seem to be biologically preconfigured to be ready to acquire language.
Indeed, children seem to have a knack for acquiring an implicit understanding of the many rules of language structure, as
well as for applying those rules to new vocabulary and new contexts. This may partly explain why children are said to learn
language fast.
Professor Laura-Ann Petito of Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire and her colleagues conducted a recent study
that concluded that “by 5 months of age, babies are already specializing by using the left side of their brains for language
sounds and the right side for expression emotion... We all speak out from the right side of our mouths. Babies babble out
from the right side of their mouths.”
The right side of the body is controlled by the left side of the brain while the left side of the body is controlled by the right
side of the brain (connections in the brain are contralateral or crossed). Babies use the right side of their mouths for babbling,
then babbling is a language function controlled by the left side of the brain.

ASSESSMENT (Part 1)
Based on Piaget’s sensorimotor stage and the first year of pre-operational stage of cognitive development, reflect on how
you, as a future mother or teacher can:
a. enhance infant and toddlers’ cognitive development

b. impede infants and toddlers’ cognitive development
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ASSESSMENT (Part 2)
Read a research on Cognitive Development of Infants and Toddlers. Fill out the matrix below.
Source:

ASSESSMENT (Part 3)
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Chapter V. INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD
Module 15. Socio-emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers
Learning Outcomes:
1. Describe the socio-emotional development of infants and toddlers.
2. Identify factors that enhance/impede the socio-emotional development of infants and toddlers.
Introduction:
Socio-emotional development has something to do with the development of a person’s ability to master one’s emotion and
the ability to relate to others. It is necessarily to includes temperament, attachments and social skills.
Discussion:
The Formative Years
Much has been said about the importance of the first three years in human development. They are so-called the formative
years that is why, parents and other caregivers at this stage of human development play a significant role in the development
of infants and toddler.
As a poem “Children Learn What They Live” expresses the kind of home and school environment that parents and teachers
produce determines to a very great extent the quality of the development of children.
Children Learn What They Live
If a child lives with criticism, he learns to condemn...

If a child lives with hostility, he learns to fight...
[f a child lives with fear, he learns to be apprehensive...
If a child lives with pity, he learns to feel sorry for himself...
If a child lives with ridicule, he learns to be shy...
If a child lives with jealousy, he teams to feel guilt...
But...
If a child lives with tolerance, he learns to be patient...
If a child lives with encouragement, he learns to be confident...
If a child lives with praise, he learns to be appreciative...
If a child lives with acceptance, he learns to love...
If a child lives with honesty, he learns what truth is...
If a child lives with fairness, he learns justice...
If a child lives with security, he learns to have faith in himself and those about him...
If a child lives with friendliness, he learns the world is a nice place in which to live.
With what is your child living?
- Dorothy L. Nolte, Trained Family Counselor
Let us discuss those elements that have something to do with the wholesome socio-emotional development of children.
Attachment
▪ For healthy socio-emotional development, the infant needs to establish an enduring emotional bond characterized by a
tendency to seek and maintain closeness to a specific figure, particularly during stressful situation. This is the social
phenomenon of attachment.
▪ According to Dr. John Bowly, the father of attachment theory, the beginnings of attachment occur within the first 6
months of a baby’s life with a variety of built-in signals that baby uses to keep her caregiver engaged. The baby cries,
gazes into her mother’s eyes, smiles, etc. In the next few months, the baby develops in her degree of' attachment to her

parents. She smiles more freely at them than at any Stranger whom she seldom sees. This is what Bob Greene must have
experienced.
▪ The key to a good start in the social development of the baby is a lot of responsive interaction with the baby (K.Pasek
and R.Golinkoff, 2003). Babies thrive on social interaction when it is in response to their social bids. Babies seem to let
us know when they want to interact or not. The timing of the caregiver’s response to the baby is important.
▪ Other relevant and interesting research findings cited by K.Pasek and R. Golinkoff, (200 2) in their book “Einstein Never
Used Classcards” are given below:
❖ What is absolutely central to babies’ emotional well-being is not so much feeding but the consistent involvement
of caregivers. Being fed by your mother is not what attached you to her. It is consistent, close nurturing that
matters in early relationships.
❖ Children who have good attachment relationships as infants make better adjustments in a number of areas in
future life. But remember, having a good attachment in infancy gives you a great start but can’t carry you
through life. You have to be treated sensitively and responsibly as you grow up if you are to develop favorably.
❖ Infants attach to more than one caregiver and they are developing emotional relationships with multiple
caregivers at once.
❖ Even when children are in child care for more than 30 hours per week, the family contributes more to 'child’s
social and cognitive. well-being than does 'the child care arrangement. Parents matter and children are attached
to parents even when children are in child care.
❖ Parents and caregivers help children regulate their emotions by working with them and by serving as their
models.
Temperament
▪ Another factor related to the infant’s socio-emotional development is temperament. Temperament is a word that
“captures the ways that people differ, even at birth, in such things as their emotional reactions, activity level, attention
span, persistence, and ability to regulate their emotions” (K. Pasek and R. Golinkoff, 2003). Every baby expresses
personality traits we call temperament. How a child responds emotionally to objects, events, and people is a reflection
of his individual temperament.
▪ Researchers Thomas, Chess, and Birch described nine different temperament categories (Honig, 2010, Secure
Relationships: Nurturing Infant-Toddler Attachments in Early Care Settings.)
These include:
❖ Activity level
❖ Mood
❖ Threshold for distress
❖ Rhythmicity
❖ Intensity of response
❖ Approach-Withdrawal
❖ Distractibility
❖ Adaptability
❖ Persistence
To determine a child’s temperament, make the following observations:

Activity level. Some babies are placid or inactive. Other babies thrash about a lot and, as toddlers, are always on the move.
At this stage, they must be watched carefully.
The mood. Some babies are very smiley and cheerful. Although securely attached emotionally to their teachers, others have.
a low-key mood and look more solemn or unhappy.
Child’s threshold for distress. Some babies are very sensitive. They become upset very easily when stressed. Other babies
can. more comfortably wait When they need a feeding or some attention.
The rhythmicity of children. Some babies get hungry or sleepy on a fairly regular and predictable basis. Other babies sleep
at varying times, urinate or have bowel movements at unpredictable times, and get hungry at different times. They are hard
to put on a “schedule.”
The Intensity of response in each baby. When a baby’s threshold for distress has been reached, some babies act restless.
Others act cranky or fret just a little. Still others cry with terrific intensity or howl with despair when they are stressed. They
shriek with delight and respond with high energy when reacting to happy or challenging situations.
Approach to new situations. Some infants are very cautious. They are wary and fearful of new teachers, being placed in a
different crib, or being taken to visit a new setting. Other infants’ approach new persons, new activities, or new play
possibilities with zest and enjoyment.
Distraction. Some children can concentrate on a toy regardless of surrounding bustle or noise in a room. Others are easily
distracted.
Adaptability of each child. Some children react to strange or difficult situations with distress, but recover fairly rapidly.
Others adjust to new situations with difficulty or after a very long period.
Child’s attention span. Some children have a long attention span. They continue with an activity for a fairly long time.
Others hit from one activity to another.
▪ Based on these temperament traits, psychiatrists Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess studied babies’ temperament and
clustered temperaments into 3 basic types: 1) the easy child; 2) the difficult child; and 3) the slow to-warm -up child and
those that did not fall under any of the 3 basic types. The “easy child" easily readily establishes regular routines, is
generally cheerful, and adapts readily to new experiences. The “difficult child” is irregular in daily routines, is slow to
accept new experiences and tends to react negatively and intensely to new things while the “slow-to warm-up-child”
shows mild, low-~key reactions to environmental changes, is negative in mood, and adjusts slowly to new experiences.
The development of emotions
Here are the milestones of the baby and the toddler’ s emotional development and social development:
Early Infancy (birth-six months)

▪ It is not clear whether infants actually experience emotions, or If adults, using adult facial expressions as the standard,
simply superimpose their own understanding of the meaning of infant facial expressions.
▪ Between six and ten weeks, a social smile emerges, usually accompanied by other pleasure-indicative actions and sounds
including cooing and mouthing. This social smile occurs in response to adult smiles and interactions.
▪ As infants become more aware of their environment, smiling occurs in response to a wider variety of contexts. They may
smile when they see a toy they have previously enjoyed. Laughter, which begins at around three or four months, requires
a level of cognitive development because it demonstrates that the child can recognize incongruity. That is, laughter is
usually elicited by actions that deviate from the norm, such as being kissed on the abdomen or a caregiver playing peek-
a-boo. Because it fosters reciprocal interactions with others, laughter promotes social development.

Later infancy months (7-12)
▪ During the last half of the first year, infants begin expressing fear, disgust, and anger because of the maturation of
cognitive abilities. Anger, often expressed by crying, is a frequent emotion expressed by infants. Although some infants
respond to distressing events with sadness, anger is more common.
▪ Fear also emerges during this stage as children become able to compare an unfamiliar event with what they know.
Unfamiliar situations or objects often elicit fear responses in infants. One of the most common is the presence of an adult
stranger, a fear that begins to appear at about seven months. A second fear of this stage is called separation anxiety.
Infants seven to twelve months old may cry in fear if the mother or caregiver leaves them in an unfamiliar place.
Socialization of emotion begins in infancy. It is thought that this process is significant in the infant’s acquisition of cultural
and social codes for emotional display, teaching them how to express their emotions, and the degree of acceptability
associated with different types of emotional behaviors.
Another process that emerges during this stage is social referencing. Infants begin to recognize the emotions of others, and
use this information when reacting to novel situations and people. As infants explore their world, they generally rely on the
emotional expressions of their mothers or caregivers to determine the safety or appropriateness of a particular endeavor.
Toddlerhood years (1-2) During the second year, infants’ express emotions of shame or embarrassment and pride. These
emotions mature in all children and adults contribute to their development.
Emotional understanding
▪ During this stage of development, toddlers acquire language and are learning to verbally express their feelings. This
ability, rudimentary as it is during early toddlerhood, is the first step in the development of emotional self-regulation
skills.
▪ In infancy, children largely rely on adults to help them regulate their emotional states. If they are uncomfortable, they
may be able to communicate this state by crying, but have little hope of alleviating the discomfort on their own.
▪ In toddlerhood, however, children begin to develop skills to regulate their emotions with the emergence of language
providing an important tool to assist in this process. Being able to articulate an emotional state in itself has a regulatory
effect in that it enables children to communicate their feelings to a person capable of helping them manage their emotional
state. Speech also enables children to self-regulate, using soothing language to talk themselves through difficult
situations.
❖ Empathy, a complex emotional response to a situation, also appears in toddlerhood, usually by age two. The
development of empathy requires that children read others’ emotional cues, understand that other people are
entities distinct from themselves, and take the perspective of another person (put themselves in the position of
another).
Erikson’s Psychosocial theory
The first two stages (of the 8 stages of a person’s psychosocial development) apply at the periods of infancy and toddlerhood,
that is why they are discussed below:
Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, 0 to 1 year)
• Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust
• Virtue: Hope
The first stage of Erik Erikson’s centers around the infant’s basic needs being met by the parents. The infant depends on the
parents, especially the mother, for food, sustenance, and comfort. The child’s relative understanding of world and society
come from the parents and their interaction with the child. If the parents expose the child to warmth, regularity, and

dependable affection, the infant’s view of the world will be one of trust. Should the parents fail to provide a secure
environment and to meet the child’s basic need a sense of mistrust will result. According to Erik Erikson, the major
developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers, regularly satisfy basic
needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust that others are dependable
and reliable. If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust that the world is in an
undependable, unpredictable, and possibly a dangerous place.
Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years)
• Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
• Main Question: “Can I do things myself or must I always rely on others?”
• Virtue: Will
As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to explore their surroundings. The
parents still provide a strong base of security from which the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents’ patience
and encouragement help foster autonomy in the child. Highly restrictive parents, however, are more likely to instill in the
child a sense of doubt and reluctance to attempt new challenges.
As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable of satisfying some of their own needs.
They begin to feed themselves, wash and dress themselves, and use the bathroom. If caregivers encourage self-sufficient
behavior, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy a sense of being able to handle many problems on the own. But If caregivers
demand too much too soon, are capable, or ridicule early attempts at self-sufficiency, children may instead develop shame
and doubt their ability to handle problems.

ASSESSMENT (Part 1)
Answer the following questions. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. What does the social phenomenon of attachment mean in an infant’s and toddler’s healthy socio-emotional
development?
The infant/toddler _____________.
A. Wants to interact with people and the world
B. Understands that mother continues to exist even if she is not seen
C. Need to establish an enduring emotional bond manifested in a tendency to maintain closeness to a specific figure.
D. Thrives on social interaction
2. Which is/are TRUE of the infant and toddler socio-emotional?

I. Can self-regulate feelings/emotions
II. Capable of empathy
III. Develops healthy attachments to significant adults.
A. I and II C. I and III
B. II and III D. I, II, and III
3. Which does an infant learn when caregivers are neglectful or even abusive?
I. Learns mistrust
II. Learns trust
III. Learns that the world is hostile
C. I and II C. I and III
D. II and III D. I, II, and III

Name:____________________________________________ __Course&Yr&Sec:___________________Date:_______
ASSESSMENT (Part 2)
Read a research on Socio-emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers. Fill out the matrix below.
Source:

Name:_________________________________________ ___Course&Yr&Sec:___________________Date:_______
ASSESSMENT (Part 3)
From our lesson on Socio-emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers, I learned that…
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Chapter III.

DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES AND OTHER RELEVANT THEORIES

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Freud’s Personality Components

The Three Components and Personality Adjustment

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Problem Research Methodology

Question: How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

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Problem Research Methodology

Question: How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

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Problem Research Methodology

Question: How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

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Level Stage Description

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Problem Research Methodology

Question: How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

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1. Choose a skill you are good in.

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Problem Research Methodology

Question: How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

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1. When I was 5 years old, my parents…

2. As a child, my unforgettable playmates were…

3. When I was in elementary, I regularly watched the television show

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Problem Research Methodology

Question: How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?

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Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development

Below are clusters of hazards to pre-natal development: