Theories of Human

Development

Second lecture

Developed by:
Dr Khulood Shattnawi
What is a Theory?

 “An organized set of ideas that is designed to

explain development.”

 Developmental theories focus on changes in

physiology, psychology, and behavior that occur
normally at different stages in the lifespan.
 Why theories are important?
 Understanding what affects growth and
development, in both a positive and negative way,
helps nurses, health care workers, and educators
predict behaviors, as well as responses, at each
stage and therefore understand why adults may
behave in certain ways.
The Human Needs Theory

 Abraham Maslow
1908-1970
 If basic needs are met, then the individual can move to
higher levels of thought and self-fulfillment.

 The base of the triangle represents the basic

physiological needs of survival.

 Once basic needs are met, a person can move toward

self-actualization.

 Self-actualization is the realization of one’s own talent

and abilities and the achievement of satisfaction in life’s
goals and desires.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

-Self Freedom from self or cultural restrains,

being all one can be
Actualization
Needs
Competence, self-respect,
Esteem Needs independence

Social Needs Friends, family, romantic partners.

Shelter, security, freedom

Security Needs from fear

Physiological Needs Air, food, water, sleep

 Self-esteem needs : feelings of independence, competence,
self-respect, recognition ‫تقدير‬, respect, appreciation).

 Self-actualization ‫تحقيق الذات‬

 Sees life clearly and realistically & Accepts the world for what it is
 Open to new ideas
 Has superior perception
 Understand art, music, politics and philosophy
 Highly creative, flexible and courageous
 Dedicated to some work
 Self-confident and self respected
 Highly independent
 Friendly and loving
 Cognitive Theory

 Cognitive development refers to the manner in which

people learn to think, reason, and use language and other
symbols which progresses from simple to complex and
from understanding concrete ideas to abstract ones.

 Jean Piaget ( 1896- 1980) is the most well known cognitive

theorist.

 Piaget developed this theory by observing his own children

and testing children cognitively

 Piaget showed that young children think in different ways

compared to adults
The Cognitive Theory

 Jean Piaget
 Swiss Psychologist
(1896-1980)

 Cognition: the mental

activities involved in
thinking, knowing, &
remembering
 Piaget was interested in how the mind works and
organizes information.

 He believed that mental development is an

orderly, sequential process that begins the day the
infant is born.

 This process is same for all people but the rate of

progression is different.
 Our experiences are organized around mental
frameworks called schemas- concepts that help us
organize and interpret information

 2 processes occur in relation to our schemas:

1. Assimilation: we interpret new information in relation to
our existing schema - e.g., a toddler calls a buffalo a
“cow”

2. Accommodation: we revise or adapt our schemas to

accept new information - e.g., toddler realizes
difference between cows & buffalo
Stages of Cognitive Development
I. Sensorimotor Stage

 The construction of knowledge begins with the

child’s ability to perform actions on the world
through their senses and reflexes.

 As time passes, these actions become more

intentional, coordinated and planned. They
become purposeful movements.
 This means that the child’s intelligence and
knowledge about the world are limited to the
actions they perform on their environment.

 In this stage there is a shift from the sensorimotor

thinking to representational thinking.
  In this period (which has 6
substages), intelligence is
demonstrated through motor
Sensorimotor activity without the use of symbols.

stage  Knowledge of the world is limited

(birth-2 years) because it is based on physical
interactions/ experiences.

 It is characterized by the absence

of language and internal
representation.
  Children acquire object
permanence at about 7 months of
age.
Sensorimotor
stage  Physical development (mobility)
(birth-2 years) allows the child to begin
developing new intellectual
abilities.

 Some symbolic (language) abilities

are developed at the end of this
stage.
Sensorimotor substages

1. Use of reflexes(birth-1mon)

2. Primary circular reaction(1-4mon): Actions that

are at first random and activate a reflex are
attempted again to try and induce the
experience again. This is also the substage in
which object permanence begins to develop
and the active search for a hidden object begins
(fully developed around age of 8 months).
 Object permanence is the infant’s awareness of the existence of the a thing
even when it cannot be observed (around 8 months of age) It requires the
ability to form a mental representation (i.e. a schema) of the object. The
attainment of object permanence signals the transition to the next stage of
cognitive development
3. Secondary circular reaction(4-8mon):
 Secondary circular reactions are the first acquired
adaptations of behaviors that are not reflexive.
 The interesting events in this case are located in the
external world, in primary circular reactions the
interesting events are occurring within the body.
4. Coordination of secondary schemata(8-12mon):
 the need now precedes the act.
 Intentionality occurs in interactions with the environment
and the infant is moving towards goal directed behavior.
5. Tertiary circular reaction(12-18mon):
 process of active experimentation
6. Invention of new means(18-24mon)
 Symbolic function and mental representation first appear
during this stage, this runs parallel with the development
of language
  Intelligence demonstrated through the use of
symbols, language use matures, and
memory and imagination are developed.

Pre-operational  Thinking is done in a nonlogical,

stage nonreversable manner; intuitive thinking:
( 2-7 years) makes little use of reasoning and logic

 Egocentric thinking predominates.

 Animism: Inanimate objects have lifelike

qualities just like themselves
  This stage is characterized by 7 types of
conservation: number, length, liquid,
mass, weight, area, and volume.
Concrete
 Able to perform mathematical
operational stage operations (e.g., addition, subtraction)
(7-11 years)
 Intelligence is demonstrated through
logical and systematic manipulation of
symbols related to concrete objects

 Operational thinking develops (mental

actions that are reversible).

 Egocentric thought diminishes.

 Conservation – the ability to recognize that the physical
properties of an object remain the same, despite changes in
physical appearance.
 • Intelligence is demonstrated through
the logical manipulation of symbols
related to abstract concepts.
Formal
operational stage
• Children are capable of abstract
(11-15)
reasoning and logic.

• Early in this period there is a return

to egocentric thought.

• Many adults never attain this stage.

 Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Stage:
The infant constructs an understanding of the world
Birth to 2 by coordinating sensory experiences with physical
years of age actions: progressing from reflexive, instinctual action
at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward
end of the stage.
Preoperational Stage:
2 to 7 years The child begins to represent the world with words
of age and images. These words and images reflect
increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the
connection of sensory information and physical action.
Concrete Operational Stage:
7 to 11 years
of age The child can now reason logically about concrete
events and classify objects into different sets.
11–15 years Formal Operational Stage
of age
through The adolescent reasons in more abstract idealistic
adulthood and logical ways.
 Growth and Development Theories:
Psychosocial Theories

 Major theorists are:

1. Freud (1856–1939)
2. Erikson (1902–1994)
Personality and Identity

Erik Erikson
(1902-1994) pictured
with his wife, Joan.
 Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory:
 There are 8 stages of psychosocial development
 Each has a unique developmental task
 Developmental change occurs throughout life span

 Key points of psychoanalytic theories:

 Early experiences and family relationships are very
important to development
 Unconscious aspects of the mind are considered
 Personality is best seen as a developmental process
 Erikson’s view was that the social environment
combined with biological maturation provides each
individual with a set of “crises” that must be resolved.

 The individual is provided with a "sensitive period" in

which to successfully resolve each crisis before a new
crisis is presented.

 Successful resolution of these crises supports

healthy ego development. Failure to resolve the
crises damages the ego
  Child develops a
belief that the
Trust vs. environment can be
Infancy:
Mistrust counted on to meet
his or her basic
physiological and
social needs.
 Parents who are overly protective of the child, are
there the minute the first cry comes out, will lead
that child into the maladaptive tendency
:sensory maladjustment: Overly trusting

 malignant tendency of withdrawal,

characterized by depression, paranoia, and
possibly psychosis.
  Child learns what
he/she can control
Autonomy and develops a sense
Toddlerhood vs. Shame of free will and
& Doubt corresponding sense
of regret and sorrow
for inappropriate use
of self-control.
 Maladaptive tendency: impulsiveness (‫)مندفع‬

 Malignant tendency: too much shame and

doubt, compulsiveness.
  Childlearns to
begin action, to
Preschool Initiative explore, to
age vs. Guilt imagine as well
as feeling
remorse for
actions.
 Maladaptive tendency: too much initiative,
ruthlessness ( ‫)قاسي ال يرحم‬.

 Malignant tendency: too much guilt,

inhibition. "nothing ventured, nothing lost"
  Childlearns to do
Industry things well or
School age vs. correctly in
Inferiority comparison to a
standard or to
others
 Maladaptive tendency: Narrow virtuosity (‫)براعة فنية‬:

 Malignant tendency: Inertia (‫)قصور ذاتي‬. If at first

you don't succeed, don't ever try again!
 • Develops a sense
of self in
Identity vs. relationship to
Adolescence Role
others and to own
Confusion
internal thoughts
and desires
– social identity
– personal identity
 Maladaptive tendency: Fanaticism (‫ تعصب‬his
way is the only way ).

 Malignant tendency: Repudiation. They

repudiate their membership in the world of adults,
They may become involved in destructive
activities (‫ رفض‬،‫)جحود‬
  Develops ability to
give and receive
Young Intimacy love; begins to
adulthood vs. make long-term
Isolation commitment to
relationships
 Maladaptive tendency: Promiscuity, intimate
too freely. (getting too close too quick and
not sustaining it)

 Malignant tendency: Exclusion (rejecting

relationships): isolate oneself from love,
friendship, and community, and to develop a
certain hatefulness in compensation for one's
loneliness.
  Develops interest
in guiding the
Generativity
Middle
vs. development of
adulthood the next
Stagnation
generation
 too much stagnation can lead
to rejectivity and a failure to feel any
sense of meaning (the unresolved mid-life
crises), and too much generativity leads
to overextension (someone who has no
time for themselves because they are so
busy)
 • Develops a sense
of acceptance of
Ego-
life as it was lived
Late and the importance
integrity
adulthood of the people and
vs.
relationships that
Despair
individual
developed over the
lifespan
 Maladaptive tendency: Presumption, a person
"presumes" ego integrity without actually
facing the difficulties of old age ( ‫ جراءة‬،‫)إفتراض‬.

 Malignant tendency: disdain(‫)يزدري‬, contempt

of life,
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Approximate
age Stage Description of Task

Infancy Trust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants

(1st year) develop a sense of basic trust.

Toddler Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and

(2nd year) and doubt do things for themselves, or they
doubt their abilities.

Preschooler Initiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks

(3-5 years) and carry out plans, or they feel
guilty about efforts to be independent.

Elementary Competence vs. Children learn the pleasure of applying

(6 years- inferiority themselves to tasks, or they feel
puberty) inferior.
 Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Approximate
age Stage Description of Task

Adolescence Identity vs. role Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by

(teens into confusion testing roles and then integrating them to
20’s) form a single identity, or they become
confused about who they are.

Young Adult Intimacy vs. Young adults struggle to form close relation-
(20’s to early isolation ships and to gain the capacity for intimate
40’s) love, or they feel socially isolated.

Middle Adult Generativity vs. The middle-aged discover a sense of contri-

(40’s to 60’s) stagnation buting to the world, usually through family
and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose.

Late Adult Integrity vs. When reflecting on his or her life, the older
(late 60’s and despair adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or
up) failure.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development

 Level 1: Preconventional morality: believing

rules to be external to the self rather than
internal:
 Stage 1: punishment-and-obedience orientation:
an act’s consequences determine morality.
 Stage 2: Naïve hedonism: looking to gain
rewards or satisfy personal objectives.
 Kohlberg (2)

• Level 2: conventional morality: striving to

obey rules and social norms to win other’s
approval or to maintain social order.
– Stage 3: “Good-boy” and “Good-girl”
orientation: wanting to please others.
– Stage 4: social-order-maintaining morality:
conforming to the rules of legal authority
 Kohlberg (3)

 Level 3: Postconventional (or principled) morality:

defining right and wrong based on broad principles
of justice.
 Stage 5: the social-contract orientation: obeying laws
because laws express the will of the majority.
 Stage 6: morality of individual principles of conscience:
following self-chosen ethical principles whether there is a
conflict with written laws or not.
Stages of Moral Development
 Kohlberg’s Moral Ladder

Morality of abstract
Postconventional principles: to affirm  As moral
level agreed-upon rights and development
personal ethical principles
progresses, the
Morality of law and focus of concern
Conventional social rules: to gain
level approval or avoid
moves from the self
disapproval to the wider social
world.
Preconventional Morality of self-interest:
level to avoid punishment
or gain concrete rewards
 The Heinz Dilemma
 Scenario 1
A woman was near death from a unique kind
of cancer. There is a drug that might save her.
The drug costs $4,000 per dosage. The sick
woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he
knew to borrow the money and tried every legal
means, but he could only get together about
$2,000. He asked the doctor scientist who
discovered the drug for a discount or let him
pay later. But the doctor scientist refused.
Should Heinz break into the
laboratory to steal the drug for
his w ife?Why or why not?
• Scenario 2
Heinz broke into the laboratory and stole
the drug. The next day, the newspapers
reported the break-in and theft. Brown, a
police officer and a friend of Heinz
remembered seeing Heinz last evening,
behaving suspiciously near the laboratory.
Later that night, he saw Heinz was
running away from the laboratory.
Should Brown report what he
saw? Why or why not?
Scenario 3
Officer Brown reported what he saw. Heinz was
arrested and brought to court. If convicted, he
faces up to two years' jail. Heinz was found
guilty.

Should the judge sentence Heinz

to prison? Why or why not?
 Level One: Preconventional Morality

 Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation

Persons in this stage obey rules to

avoid punishment. A good or bad
action is determined by its physical
consequences.
Possible Stage 1 responses to
Heinz Dilemma:

• Heinz should not steal the drug because he might

be caught and sent to jail.

• Heinz should steal the drug because if he doesn't

then his wife might yell at him.
Level One: Preconventional Morality

 Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation

In this stage, personal needs

determine right or wrong. Favors are
returned along the lines of “you
scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours”.
Possible Stage 2 responses to
Heinz Dilemma:

 It is right for Heinz to steal the drug because it can

cure his wife and then she can cook for him.

 The doctor scientist had spent lots of money and

many years of his life to develop the cure so it’s
not fair to him if Heinz stole the drug.
Level Two: Conventional Morality

 Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation

To a person in this stage, good

means “nice”. One’s behavior
Is determined by what pleases and is
approved by others.
Possible Stage 3 responses to
Heinz Dilemma :
 Yes, Heinz should steal the drug. He probably will go to jail
for a short time for stealing but his in-laws will think he is a
good husband.
 Brown, the police officer should report that he saw Heinz
behaving suspiciously and running away from the laboratory
because his boss would be pleased.
 Officer Brown should not report what he saw because his
friend Heinz would be pleased.
 The judge should not sentence Heinz to jail for stealing the
drug because he meant well ... he stole it to cure his wife.
Level Two: Conventional Morality

• Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation

When deciding the punishment for a
given wrongdoing, laws are absolute.
In all cases, authority must be
respected and the social order
maintained.
Possible Stage 4 responses to
Heinz Dilemma:
 As her husband, Heinz has a duty to save his
wife’s life so he should steal the drug. But it’s
wrong to steal, so Heinz should be prepared to
accept the penalty for breaking the law.
 The judge should sentence Heinz to jail.
Stealing is against the law. He should not make
any exceptions even though Heinz’ wife is dying.
If the judge does not sentence Heinz to jail then
others may think it’s right to steal and there will
be chaos in the society.
 Level Three: Postconventional Morality

• Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation

Good is determined by socially

agreed upon standard of individual
rights. It is an understanding of
social support and a sincere
interest in the welfare of others.
Possible Stage 5 responses to
Heinz Dilemma:

• Heinz should steal the drug because everyone has

the right to life regardless of the law against
stealing. Should Heinz be caught and prosecuted
for stealing then the law needs to be reinterpreted
because a person’s life is at stake.

• The doctor scientist’s decision is despicable but

his right to fair compensation (for his discovery)
must be maintained. Therefore, Heinz should not
steal the drug.
 Level Three: Postconventional Morality
• Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation

What is “good” and “right” are matters of

individual conscience and involve abstract
concepts of justice, human dignity, and
equality. In this stage, persons believe
there are universal point of view on which
all societies should agree.
Possible Stage 6 response to
Heinz Dilemma:

 Heinz should steal the drug to save his wife

because preserving human life is a higher moral
obligation than preserving property.
TOOLS FOR ASSESSING GROWTH
& DEVELOPMENT

 GROWTH :
ANTHROPOMETRY.

 DEVELOPMENT :
 HISTORY OF MILESTONES
OF DEVELOPMENT.
 DIRECT OBSERVATION.

 DEVELOPMENT CHARTS.
Growth measurements

 Measurement of physical growth in children is a

key element in evaluating their health status.

 Values of these measures are plotted on

percentile charts, and compared with those of the
general population.
Anthropometry

• WEIGHT.

• LENGTH/HEIGHT.

• HEAD CIRCUMFERENCE.

• ARM CIRCUMFERENCE.
 Growth Charts.

• Growth charts are available for boys and girls of

various ages:
– Birth - 36 months: records wt. by age, length by age, wt.
for age, & H.C. by age.
– 2 - 18 years: records wt. by age, stature by age.
– Those whose wt. or ht. falls below the 5th percentile are
underweight or small in stature.
– Those whose measurements are above the 95th
percentile are overweight or large in stature.
Definitions

Percentiles of Growth:
 Percentile of growth is statistical representation
of 100 children and placement within the 100
members of comparison group.
TOOLS FOR ASSESSMENT OF
DEVELOPMENT

• PROPER HISTORY FOR MILESTONES OF

DEVELOPMENT.
• DIRECT OBSERVATION AND EVALUATION
OF THE CHILD.
• CHARTS:
• DENEVER DEVELOPMENTAL SCREENING TEST II
(DDST-II).
Denver Developmental Screening Test
(DDST)

 (Frankenburg & Dodds) Quick method for

checking a child’s developmental progress.

 Very commonly used screening tool

 Applicable for children from birth until 6 years of

age.

 10-20 minutes to administer

Denver Developmental Screening Test ( DDST)

 The test is divided into 4 scales:

1. Gross motor skills.
2. Language.
3. Fine motor adaptive.
4. Personal - social.
 4 areas of development

 Gross motor behavior: is a measure of maturation; it

generally deals with gross posture and various positions;
implications are mainly neurologic

 Language: includes all evidences of communication; facial

& manual cues as well as vocalization are measured

 Fine motor: adaptive behavior is an index of inherent

capabilities that deals with overall intelligence; it is of
broader scope than the limited functions measured in
intelligence tests (it is not an IQ test)

 Personal social skills reflects neurologic maturation as

well as sociocultural factors; feeding & sleep patterns,
play & work relationships are measured
 DDST (continued)
 Identifies children at 25, 50,75, and 90% completion
of task

 Scored as advanced if child completing task in the

right of the age line (area 25%)

 Scored as concern or caution if child completing

task in shaded area (75-90%)

 Scored as failure or delay if not completed by time

90% complete

 Referrals warranted for one failure or two concerns

Example:
15 MONTHS
Motor: Walks alone: crawls up stairs

Adaptive: Makes tower of 2 cubes; makes a line with crayon: inserts pellet in bottle

Language Jargon: follows simple commands: may name a familiar object (ball)

Social: Indicates some desires or needs by pointing: hugs parents

18 MONTHS
Runs stiffly; sits on small chair: walks up stairs with one hand held;
Motor:
explores drawers and waste baskets
Piles 3 cubes: imitates scribbling; imitates vertical stroke: dumps pellet
Adaptive:
from bottle

Language 10 words (average); names pictures: identifies one or more parts of body

Feeds self: seeks help when in trouble: may complain when wet or soiled;
Social:
kisses parent with pucker