INSTRUMENT AND CONTROL ENGINEERING COURSE

Flow measurement
Three basic laws
The continuity equation (Phương trình liên tục cho lưu chất)
This law covers the volume flowrate passing a given point in a pipe. It states that the volume
flow (QV) flowing through a pipe with cross section (A)in a unit of time is always constant if
density is constant.

The Bernoulli equation (Phương trình Bernoulli)

There are three types of energy:
- Position energy (Z): energy difference due to different elevation
- Pressure energy (P): pressure in the pipeline created by pump.
- Kinetic energy (K): flow energy, velocity

Bernoulli proved that the total energy at any point in a pipe is constant.
P + Z + K = constant

Conservation of Mass (định luật bảo toàn khối lượng)

The total mass flow rate at any given point in a pipe is constant
m = A . D . v = constant
m: mass flow ( = Density x Volume)
A: cross-sectional area
D: Density

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V: Flowvelocity

Remember: Speed increase will result decreased velocity, and vice versa.

Flow profile
The velocity profile of fluid in a pipe depends on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. A
fluid going "slow" behaves in layers (laminar), but at higher speed it becomes unstable with
a lot of mixing (turbulent). This is decided by the Reynold's Number (Re) - a ratio of scale
and velocity. The flow is laminar when Re < 2300, transient when 2300 < Re < 4000,
turbulent when 4000 < Re.

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Available technologies
Vortex flow measuring principle
This measuring principle is based on the fact that turbulence forms downstream of obstacles
in the flow, such as a bridge pier.

Inside each vortex flowmeter, a bluff body is therefore located in the middle of the pipe. As
soon as the flow velocity reaches a certain value, vortices form behind this bluff body, are
detached from the flow and transported downstream. The frequency of vortex shedding is
directly proportional to mean flow velocity and thus to volume flow.

The detached vortices on both sides of the bluff body generate alternately a local positive or
negative pressure that is detected by the capacitive sensor and fed to the electronics as a
primary digital, linear signal.

Benefits
 Universally suitable for measuring liquids, gases and steam
 Largely unaffected by changes in pressure, density, temperature and viscosity
 High long-term stability: no zero-point drift and lifetime K-factor
 Large turndown of typically 10:1 to 30:1 for gas/steam, or up to 40:1 for liquids
 Wide temperature range: –200 to +400 °C (+450 °C on demand)

Differential pressure measurement: Measuring Principle

In a differential pressure drop device the flow is calculated by measuring the pressure drop
over an obstruction inserted in the flow. The differential pressure flow meter is based on

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the Bernoulli Equation where the pressure drop and the further measured signal is a
function of the square flow speed.
dp = ρ v2 / 2 (1)
where
dp = pressure difference (Pa, psi)
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3, slugs/ft3)
v = flow velocity (m/s, in/s)
Note that it is common to use "head" instead of "pressure"
h = dp / γ (2)
where
h = head (m, in)
γ = specific weight (N/m3, lb/ft3)

Orifice Plate
With an orifice plate, the fluid flow is measured through the difference in pressure from the
upstream side to the downstream side of a partially obstructed pipe. The plate obstructing
the flow offers a precisely measured obstruction that narrows the pipe and forces the
flowing fluid to constrict.

The orifice plates are simple, cheap and can be delivered for almost any application and in
any material.
The Turn Down Ratio for orifice plates are less than 5:1.
Their accuracy are poor at low flow rates. A high accuracy depend on an orifice plate in good
shape, with a sharp edge to the upstream side. Wear will reduce the accuracy.

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Venturi Tube
Due to simplicity and dependability, the Venturi tube flowmeter is often used in applications
where it's necessary with higher Turn Down Ratios, or lower pressure drops, than the orifice
plate can provide.
In the Venturi Tube the fluid flowrate is measured by reducing the cross-sectional flow area
in the flow path, generating a pressure difference. After the constricted area, the fluid is
passes through a pressure recovery exit section, where up to 80% of the differential
pressure generated at the constricted area, is recovered.

With proper instrumentation and flow calibrating, the Venturi Tube flowrate can be reduced
to about 10% of its full scale range with proper accuracy. This provides a Turn Down
Rate 10:1. Note that the manometry for a venturi tube or orifice should be installed below
the hydraulic grade line or pipe.

Flow Nozzles
Flow nozzles are often used as measuring elements for air and gas flow in industrial
applications. The flow nozzle is relative simple and cheap, and available for many
applications in many materials.

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Benefits
 With silicon cell for process pressures up to 700bar (10,500psi)
 Small flush-mount process connections and guaranteed overload resistance silicon
cell
 With diaphragm seal process temperatures from -70 up to +400°C (-94 to +752°F)
 The electronic differential pressure system eliminates traditional mechanical issues
resulting in greater process availability and reliability. Also safety risks are minimized
with the electronic dp system architecture and design

Ultrasonic flow measuring principle

Swimming against the flow requires more power and more time than swimming with the
flow. This simple fact is the basis for ultrasonic flow measurement according to the
“differential transit time” method: This method uses two sensors, set opposite each other in
the measuring tube. Each sensor can alternately transmit and receive ultrasonic signals,
while simultaneously measuring the signal transit time.
As soon as the fluid in the tube starts to flow, the signals are accelerated in the direction of
flow but delayed in the opposite direction. The differential transit time, measured by the
two sensors, is directly proportional to the flow rate.

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Benefits
 Measurement independent of pressure, density, temperature, conductivity and
viscosity (for homogeneous fluids)
 Free pipe cross-section, no pressure loss
 No moving parts, minimum maintenance and upkeep
 Long service life, no abrasion or corrosion from the fluid
 In-line or clamp-on design for stationary or temporary flow measurements

Clamp-on sensors
 For retrofitted installation without interrupting the process
 Aggressive fluids can be measured without any problems, even under high pressure
 Suitable for pipes made of plastic, steel, cast iron composite materials
(lined/unlined)
 For pipe diameters up to DN 4000 (156")

In-line sensors
 Guaranteed accuracy thanks to traceable factory
calibration
 Robust industrial design in accordance with ASME and
EN
 Short inlet runs
 For pipelines up to DN 2000 (78")

Electromagnetic flow measuring principle

Faraday’s law of induction states that a metal rod moving in a magnetic field induces
electrical voltage. This dynamo principle also governs the way electromagnetic flowmeters
work.
As soon as the electrically charged particles of a fluid cross the artificial magnetic field
generated by two field coils, an electric voltage is induced. This voltage, tapped by two
measuring electrodes, is directly proportional to the velocity of flow and thus to the flow
volume.

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The magnetic field is generated by a pulsed direct current with alternating polarity.
This ensures a stable zero point and makes the flow measurement insensitive to multiphase
or inhomogeneous liquids, as well as low conductivity.

Benefits
 The measuring principle is virtually independent of pressure, density, temperature
and viscosity
 Even fluids with entrained solids can be metered, e.g. ore slurry or cellulose pulp
 Wide range of nominal diameters (DN 2 to 2400; 1/12 to 90")
 Free pipe cross-section: CIP/SIP cleanable, piggable
 No moving parts, maintenance-free

Coriolis flow measuring principle

Each Coriolis flowmeter has one or more measuring tubes which an exciter causes to
oscillate artificially. As soon as the fluid starts to flow in the measuring tube, additional
twisting is imposed on this oscillation due to the fluid‘s inertia. Two sensors detect this
change of the tube oscillation in time and space as the “phase difference.” This difference is
a direct measure of the mass flow.
In addition, the fluid density can also be determined from the oscillation frequency of the
measuring tubes. The temperature of the measuring tube is also registered to compensate
thermal influences. The process temperature derived from this is available as an additional
output signal.

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Benefits
 Universal measuring principle for liquids and gases
 Multivariable measurement – simultaneous measuring of mass flow, density,
temperature and viscosity
 High measuring accuracy: typically ±0.1% o.r., optionally: ±0.05% o.r. (PremiumCal)
 Measuring principle independent of the physical fluid properties and the flow profile
 No inlet/outlet runs necessary

Turbine flow meter

A liquid turbine meter is used for volumetric total flow and/or flow rate measurement and
has a relatively simple theory of operation. As fluid flows through the meter, it impinges
upon turbine blades that are free to rotate about an axis along the center line of the turbine
housing. The angular (rotational) velocity of the turbine rotor is directly proportional to the
fluid velocity flowing through the turbine. The resulting output is taken by an electrical
pickoff(s) mounted on the meter body.

Common Applications
Liquid turbine meters serve a variety of hydrocarbon applications, including fiscal and
custody transfer, check metering or blending/batching. The meters are often installed for
measurement during crude oil production, tank farm/storage inventory control, floating
production, storage and off-loading (FPSO) as well as refined product loading and
offloading. The repeatability of the meters ensures quality measurement over a wide range
of flow rates, temperatures, compositions and viscosities.

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Thermal flow measuring principle

This measuring principle is based on the fact that heat is drawn from a heated body when a
fluid flows past.
A thermal flowmeter contains two PT100 temperature sensors for this purpose. One sensor
measures the current fluid temperature as a reference. The second sensor is heated and has
a constant temperature differential relative to the first sensor at “zero flow.”
As soon as the fluid begins to flow in the measuring tube, the heated temperature sensor
cools off due to the fluid flowing past – the higher the flow velocity, the greater the cooling
effect. The electric current required to maintain the temperature differential is thus a direct
measure of mass flow.

Benefits
 Multivariable – direct measurement and display of mass flow and fluid temperature
 No pressure or temperature compensation required
 High turndown (100:1)
 Excellent low-end sensitivity
 Quick reaction to fluctuations in flow

The thermal measuring principle is widespread in industry and is being used successfully in
many applications with gas flow, for example:

 Compressed air (consumption, distribution)

 Carbon dioxide (for beverage production and chilling)
 Argon (in steel production)
 Nitrogen and oxygen (production)
 Natural gas (for burners and boiler feed control)
 Air and biogas measurement (e.g. in wastewater plants)

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