DESIGN MANUAL FOR ROADS AND BRIDGES

VOLUME 1 HIGHWAY STRUCTURES:

APPROVAL PROCEDURES
AND GENERAL DESIGN
SECTION 3 GENERAL DESIGN

PART 8

BA 57/01

DESIGN FOR DURABILITY

SUMMARY

The existing Standard and Advice Note (BD 57 and

BA 57) have been updated to include:

a) Lifting of the moratorium on internal grouted

post-tensioned construction (excluding internal
grouted post-tensioned segmental structures).

b) Improvements to durability that can be made by

the use of controlled permeability formwork,
dense near surface concrete, corrosion inhibitors
and other materials such as lightweight aggregate
concrete, and stainless steel reinforcement.

c) To include references to thaumasite sulfate

attack.

d) To rationalise references and terminology.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE

This revised Advice Note is to be incorporated in the

Manual.

1. This document supersedes BA 57/95, which is

now withdrawn.

2. Remove BA 57/95, which is superseded by

BA 57/01, and archive as appropriate.

3. Insert BA 57/01 in Volume 1, Section 3, Part 7.

4. Archive this sheet as appropriate.

Note: A quarterly index with a full set of Volume

Contents Pages is available separately from The
Stationery Office Ltd.

August 2001
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 DESIGN MANUAL FOR ROADS AND BRIDGES BA 57/01

THE HIGHWAYS AGENCY

SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT

THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY FOR WALES

CYNULLIAD CENEDLAETHOL CYMRU

THE DEPARTMENT FOR REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT

NORTHERN IRELAND

Design for Durability

Summary: The existing Standard and Advice Note (BD 57 and BA 57) have been updated
to include:

a) Lifting of the moratorium on internal grouted post-tensioned construction

(excluding internal grouted post-tensioned segmental structures).

b) Improvements to durability that can be made by the use of controlled

permeability formwork, dense near surface concrete, corrosion inhibitors
and other materials such as lightweight aggregate concrete, and stainless
steel reinforcement.

c) To include references to thaumasite sulfate attack.

d) To rationalise references and terminology.

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Volume 1 Section 3
Part 8 BA 57/01 Registration of Amendments

REGISTRATION OF AMENDMENTS

Amend Page No Signature & Date of Amend Page No Signature & Date of
No incorporation of No incorporation of
amendments amendments

August 2001
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Registration of Amendments Part 8 BA 57/01

REGISTRATION OF AMENDMENTS

Amend Page No Signature & Date of Amend Page No Signature & Date of
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August 2001
Volume 1 home page
 DESIGN MANUAL FOR ROADS AND BRIDGES

VOLUME 1 HIGHWAY STRUCTURES:

APPROVAL PROCEDURES
AND GENERAL DESIGN
SECTION 3 GENERAL DESIGN

PART 8

BA 57/01

DESIGN FOR DURABILITY

Contents

Chapter

1. Introduction

2. Factors Affecting Durability

3. Improved Durability - The Conceptual Stage

4. Improved Durability - Problem Areas

5. Improved Durability - Detailed Requirements

6. Detailed Requirements - Steel Bridges

7. References

8. Enquiries

August 2001
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Volume 1 Section 3 Chapter 1
Part 8 BA 57/01 Introduction

1. INTRODUCTION

Background Definition of Serviceability, Durability

1.1 Feedback from the inspection and maintenance 1.2 Serviceability is the ability of structures to fulfil,
programme of highway structures has highlighted without restriction, all the needs which they are
durability problems even where materials, specification designed to satisfy. In the design of a highway structure,
and construction practices have been satisfactory. These these needs include:
problems can often be linked to a design philosophy in
which minimising the initial cost was paramount. i) the ability to carry without restriction all normal
Inadequate consideration may have been given to the traffic permitted to use the structure;
long-term performance of the structure either in the
choice of structural form or in the design of ii) maintenance of user safety by provision of
construction details. This has, in too many cases, adequate containment, separation of classes of
resulted in maintenance problems requiring costly users, effective evacuation of surface water etc;
repair. Consequently the Overseeing Organisations are
keen to promote the concept of design for durability, iii) maintenance of user comfort by avoiding
thereby shifting the emphasis to a lowest whole life cost excessive deflections, vibrations, uneven running
design philosophy. surfaces etc;

Feedback from the assessment and strengthening iv) avoidance of public concern caused by excessive
programme has shown that some structures particularly deflections, vibrations, cracking of structural
dating from the 1960s and 1970s were substandard. In elements etc;
many cases the assessed capacity was not compromised
by any deterioration in condition, but was mainly v) maintenance of acceptable appearance by
influenced by the introduction of more onerous design avoiding unsightly cracking, staining, deflections
requirements in the period since their construction. etc.
However considerations of future changes to design
1.3 In the design of structures, however, the first of
standards are outside the scope of this Advice Note, and
the above needs is supplemented by a separate check on
are matters for evaluation as part of the design process
the maximum load carrying capacity, known as the
and technical approval procedures.
ultimate limit state. The ability to carry abnormal
The existing Standard and Advice Note (BD 57 and vehicles is also a need which the Overseeing
BA 57) published in 1995 have been updated to Organisations’ new structures must satisfy, but the
include: occurrence of such loading is deemed to be infrequent
and not relevant to the maintenance of the structure’s
a) Lifting of the moratorium on internal grouted serviceability.
post-tensioned construction (except for segmental
construction). 1.4 Durability is the ability of materials or structures
to resist, for a certain period of time and with regular
b) Improvements to durability that can be made by maintenance, all the effects to which they are subjected,
the appropriate use of controlled permeability so that no significant change occurs in their
formwork, dense near surface concrete, corrosion serviceability. In the design of highway structures the
inhibitors and other materials such as lightweight target period during which structures must remain
aggregate concrete and stainless steel rebar. durable, corresponds to the design life as defined in
BS 5400: Part 1.
c) To include references to thaumasite sulfate
attack. 1.5 Durability is influenced by the following factors:
i) design and detailing;
d) To rationalise references and terminology.
ii) specification of materials used in construction;
iii) quality of construction.

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Introduction Part 8 BA 57/01

1.6 The control of items (ii) and (iii) is achieved Implementation

through the use of accepted standards and procedures.
However the design of structures is not so readily 1.11 This Advice Note is to be implemented
associated with the achievement of durability, beyond forthwith for all schemes currently being prepared
such considerations as cover to reinforcement, crack provided that, in the opinion of the Overseeing
width limitation or minimum steel plate thicknesses. Organisation, this would not result in significant
This lack of attention to the durability aspect of design additional expense or delay progress. Design
has resulted in a premature loss of serviceability in organisations should confirm its application to
many highway structures. particular schemes with the Overseeing Organisation.

Objective of Advice Note

1.7 The objective of this Advice Note is to improve

the durability of highway structures by drawing to the
attention of designers aspects of design which are
relevant to the durability of structures, but not covered
adequately in the existing requirements for the design
of these structures.

Scope

1.8 The advice contained in this document, which

elaborates and supplements the requirements of BD 57
(DMRB 1.3.8), covers areas of design and detailing
which are relevant to design for durability. The Advice
Note considers various ways in which the design can
contribute to the durability of a structure and identifies
aspects of structural form and detail which require
special attention. Many items covered in this document
are acknowledged by designers as being good practice
but their use has not been as widespread as would be
desirable. Certain aspects of inspection, maintenance,
specification of materials and construction practices
relating to durability, which are dealt with in more
detail in the Specification for Highway Works
(MCHW 1) and the Notes for Guidance (MCHW 2), are
also briefly mentioned.

1.9 The main points of this Document concerning

improved durability are included in BD 57 (DMRB
1.3.8). It should be emphasised that this Advice Note is
not comprehensive and designers should use their
judgement and experience to ensure that durability
aspects are catered for adequately in new structures.

1.10 The figures incorporated in this Advice Note are

only indicative. Designers should satisfy themselves as
to the suitability of the suggested details to specific
designs.

1/2 August 2001

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Volume 1 Section 3 Chapter 2
Part 8 BA 57/01 Factors Affecting Durability

2. FACTORS AFFECTING DURABILITY

General 2.4 An observed source of damage in highway

structures is the splashing or spraying of salty water
2.1 A survey of 200 highway concrete bridges, from de-icing salts on to bridge abutments, piers,
commissioned by the Department of Transport, The parapet edge beams and deck soffits. Advice is given in
Maunsell Report (reference 1), identified a number of paragraph 5.18 on the provision of additional concrete
factors which contributed to the inadequate durability cover to reinforcement and impregnation to waterproof
of many of the Department’s structures. Most of them these areas.
were in areas where amendments to existing
specification requirements, or to inspection and Workmanship
maintenance procedures, should provide improved
durability of structures in the future. The most 2.5 A number of aspects of poor workmanship in
important of these are briefly discussed below. concrete bridges were highlighted in the Maunsell
However, there are a number of important aspects Report. The most critical of these, from the point of
relating to durability which need to be addressed by view of durability, was the failure to achieve the
improvements in conceptual design or in design specified concrete cover to steel reinforcement. This
detailing; these topics are often not adequately dealt was found to be an extremely frequent problem, and
with in BS 5400, and are discussed further in this was the cause of a great deal of deterioration, especially
document. when it occurred in association with joint leakage etc.
For further advice on concrete cover see paragraph 5.2.
Drainage, Joints and Waterproofing
2.6 Curing of concrete is probably the second most
2.2 By far the most serious source of damage is salty critical aspect of workmanship revealed by the survey.
water leaking through joints in the deck or service The vital role of curing in providing a dense concrete
ducts, and poor, faulty or badly maintained drainage cover to the steel reinforcement cannot be emphasised
systems. Of crucial importance is the provision of a too strongly. Problems of poor compaction,
positive, well designed, detailed and constructed honeycombing etc, were in themselves less significant
drainage system for managing water from the deck, and although they might compound the effects of other
into a drainage system. Particular attention should be inadequacies. Compliance with the Specification for
given to detailing through deck drainage, and to ensure Highway Works (MCHW 1) would eliminate these
that all systems can be maintained. Work undertaken by problems in future.
Highways Agency and the County Surveyor’s Society
and published by the Transport Research Laboratory Cracking
(reference 12) provides detailed guidance on water
management, and designers are strongly advised to 2.7 It was found that cracking due to early thermal
consult this document. Advice on the design of effects was a widespread problem. For advice on this
expansion joints is given in Chapter 5 and methods of see paragraph 5.3.
eliminating deck joints are suggested in Chapter 3.
2.8 Cracking and damage due to Alkali Silica
2.3 Also of crucial importance is the provision of an Reaction (ASR) was found to be rare.
effective waterproofing system on the bridge deck. The
most important properties of an effective waterproofing
system are its waterproofing ability and its bond to the
deck. It should be noted that if bonding is effective over
the whole deck area, then any local lack of
watertightness in the waterproofing layer is incapable
of causing significant damage to the deck. Further
advice is given in Chapter 5. Reference should be made
to BD 47/BA 47 ‘Waterproofing and surfacing of
concrete bridge decks’.

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3. IMPROVED DURABIITY - THE CONCEPTUAL

STAGE
General concrete structures, post-tensioned prestressed
structures and structural steel members, this poses no
3.1 The type of structure selected for a particular particular problem of design or detailing. In the case of
location can have an important bearing on its durability. composite bridge decks using precast prestressed beams
This section looks at certain types of construction the achievement of full continuity involves providing
which have performed well and considers their in-situ concrete over supports to the full depth of the
significance from the point of view of durability. beam and slab. Partial continuity is generally preferred
to full continuity in such structures because of the
difficulty in assessing the long-term effects of prestress-
Continuous bridge decks and Integral Abutments
induced deflection in full-continuity construction.
3.2 Continuous structures have been more durable 3.5 Figures 3.1 to 3.5 show five types of continuity
than structures with simply supported decks, primarily construction which have been used in the UK and have
because deck joints have allowed salty water to leak performed satisfactorily. These details may be modified
through to piers and abutments. In principle, continuous for use with structural steelwork. Continuity details
bridge decks should therefore be used wherever other than those shown may also be used providing the
possible. designers are satisfied with their past performance.
Designers must carefully assess the structural design
3.3 Traditionally, simply supported bridge decks implications of use of the different types of continuity
have been used in areas where large settlements, such joints, in terms of the joint itself, and imposed effects
as that due to compressible soil strata or mining, was on bearings. There are also implications for
likely to be a problem. In view of the durability maintenance operations such as bearing replacement.
problems associated with deck expansion joints,
consideration should be given to the use of continuous 3.6 Types 1, 2 and 3 have in-situ integral crossheads
structures even where large differential settlements are which may be designed to develop full continuity
anticipated. Due allowance should be made for the moments. Type 2 has been extensively used in North
predicted movement, including hogging off bearings, in America and details of this method of construction can
the design of deck elements. Wherever possible these be found in reference 2.
effects should be ‘designed out’ utilising methods such
as kentledge or ‘tie’down’ arrangements. The degree of 3.7 Types 4 and 5 provide partial continuity through
settlement which can be accommodated in continuous the deck slabs only. They are not designed to develop
structures must be individually evaluated. Where these the full live load continuity moment but rather to
effects cannot be catered for using full continuity, eliminate expansion joints between each span. In the
partial continuity as described in paragraph 3.7 should Type 4 detail, the various relative rotations and
be considered. The ability of continuous bridge decks to deflections at the support positions are accommodated
accommodate differential settlements is enhanced by within the connecting slab elements. This approach
the use of increased span/depth ratios, but care should retains the simplicity and economy of simply supported
be taken to avoid excessive liveliness, which may be construction whilst obtaining the various advantages of
induced by the use of very slender decks. deck slab continuity. The Type 5 detail, on the other
hand, does not accommodate support rotations and
Continuous decks using precast prestressed beams could be susceptible to cracking. These methods can be
modified for use in composite bridge decks with steel
3.4 There are two ways in which multi-span decks beams. A joint detail similar to that shown in Figure 3.4
can be made continuous, thereby reducing deck joints: has been promoted in the UK by Dr A Kumar; more
incorporating either full or partial continuity at details can be found in references 3 and 4. When
intermediate supports. Partial continuity is achieved by assessing the suitability of arrangements such as Types
providing continuity to the deck slab only, whereas full 4 and 5 designers should carefully consider design
continuity involves the provision of fully continuous issues such as tension/compression effects in the
main beams or girders. In the case of reinforced connecting slab and bearing translation due to in-span

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live load deflections and tension/compression effects ongoing maintenance problems when they have
and bending moments generated in the top slab due to cracked, tilted or collapsed through loss of support on
temperature variation and the effects of end restraint at the approach embankment. It has been found that
the abutments. Designers should also consider and ‘making up’ road pavements has generally been easier
develop method statements (based on calculation) for and less expensive where bridges have not utilised run-
inclusion in Maintenance Manuals for replacement or on slabs. On balance run-on slabs are not generally
adjustment of bearings taking due account of jacking/ recommended, although where it is essential to utilise
top slab effects and road traffic on the deck. them, careful design and construction is necessary.

Integral abutments 3.11 In North America, multi-span continuous bridges

with integral bank seats or short abutment walls are
frequently used. A typical arrangement of this type of
3.8 As an extension to the concept of deck integral construction is shown in Figure 3.6 and more
continuity, bridges can be designed with abutments details can be found in reference 5.
connected to the bridge deck without movement joints
for expansion or contraction of the deck. The form of
construction known as integral construction, should be Buried structures
adopted in all cases where predicted relative settlements
are sufficiently small to allow it, and where bridge 3.12 Rigid buried concrete box construction, which is
spans are not too long to incur unacceptable problems an extension of portal frame construction, may be
in the design of the structure for thermal effects. It preferable to a simply supported or a portal frame type
should be noted that the Overseeing Organisations’ bridge structure for short span bridges. In some
present bridge stock contains bridges of this type locations flexible designs incorporating corrugated steel
having overall lengths of up to 60m. In these situations structures may be suitable. In general, buried structures
both bearings and expansion joints can be eliminated have important maintenance and durability advantages
and maintenance requirements reduced. over conventional bridge structures. Being remote from
the immediate road construction, they are less sensitive
3.9 In designing a bridge with integral abutment to all road influences, including the effects of de-icing
walls, the load effects due to temperature changes, salts. Maintenance of the highway is also easier because
shrinkage and creep should be considered in the structure imposes fewer restraints on highway
conjunction with soil/structure interaction. maintenance operations. Where conditions are suitable,
their use is recommended.
3.10 When using integral (portal type) abutments at
the ends of long, including multi-span, bridges, thermal Box sections
and other movements may be large enough to induce
passive earth pressures behind the abutment walls,
especially near the top. Although the design against 3.13 The size of box sections in bridge decks,
these pressures may result in costly, heavily reinforced abutments and piers should be such that proper
sections, they are still preferable to the use of inspection and maintenance can be carried out within
conventional expansion joints, and give much less the box. Statutory provisions for access are contained in
trouble in service. There are some benefits in using the relevant Health and Safety legislation (reference 6).
slender abutment walls (“balanced” design), because This may dictate the minimum practical size of box
flexure of the walls tends to relieve the earth pressure sections. The minimum sizes of access openings
behind them. Further guidance on the design of integral required by the Act, or by other requirements, should be
bridges is provided in BA 42, ‘The Design of Integral treated as absolute minima; wherever possible
Bridges’. As a variation, so called ‘semi-integral’ substantially larger openings should be provided.
bridges have been built which have the advantages of
3.14 If voids are too small to afford reasonable
the elimination of deck surface expansion joints, but
access, exceptional care must be taken to ensure that
may retain bearings, and tend to minimise soil structure
they are adequately sealed to prevent water ingress and
interaction effects. They however require very careful
free from other durability problems. Consideration may
detailing to overcome potential future maintenance
be given to the use of foamed concrete, polystyrene
problems. Run-on slabs have also been utilised in the
void formers or other means to fill voids, subject to
past, and have some advantages in spanning areas of
dead load and other design constraints. Such voids
potential settlement of structural backfill behind the
should however be provided with adequate drainage
abutment. However they have tended to produce
holes.

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3.15 In catering for ventilation it is highly desirable, course provide a significant improvement in the
and often possible, to incorporate a level of natural durability of reinforced and prestressed concrete
illumination within boxes so that inspection is not structures. Non-ferrous rebar may also be suitable in
totally reliant on artificial lighting. some situations, particularly in vulnerable concrete
sections and inaccessible locations, which may be prone
Plain Concrete to unseen deterioration. However there is comparatively
little published research currently available, although
there are standards being developed in the United States
3.16 As ferrous reinforcement is susceptible to
and elsewhere. Any proposed use would require careful
durability problems, consideration should be given to
design consideration from first principles. It would be
the use of masonry or plain concrete construction by the
appropriate to consider these applications in whole life
choice of suitable types of structure.
cost terms.
3.17 Plain concrete or masonry arch structures may
3.22 Stainless steel reinforcement may also be
be feasible in some locations. In plain concrete arch
considered for use. Austenitic and duplex stainless
structures the need for reinforced cantilevered spandrel
steels can prevent chloride induced corrosion of
walls may be avoided by using mass concrete infill over
reinforcement and therefore improve durability. The
unreinforced arch vaults. Options open to designers
additional cost of using stainless steel may to some
include the use of precast unreinforced voussoirs (with
degree be offset by other design changes that may save
or without natural stone facing), unreinforced concrete
on initial construction costs without affecting durability.
arches incorporating shrinkage reducing additives and
Over the life of a structure the use of stainless steel can
similar structures with proprietary or other crack
be justified by a reduction in routine maintenance and
inducers at quarter points. Some designers have also
repair. Consideration should be given to the use of
constructed concrete arches utilising dispersed non-
stainless steel in particularly vulnerable areas, such as
ferrous fibres. Abutments and retaining walls in mass
below expansion joints, parapet edge beams, splash
concrete should also be considered.
zones and in substructures in marine environments,
3.18 External cladding may be necessary to mask any particularly on heavily trafficked roads that tend to be
unsightly cracking due to early thermal effects. The regularly salted during the Winter months. For a limited
fixing of such cladding should be done using corrosion number of structures, more extensive use of stainless
resistant materials of proven durability, for instance steel throughout all the structural elements may be
stainless steel, bronze or fibre reinforced polymer justified. Since this would mean that initial construction
(FRP) inserts. costs may be significantly greater, this approach must
be supported by a detailed whole life costing, and
3.19 Where possible, the detailing of cladding requiring the prior approval of the Overseeing
systems should be such that cladding panels can be Organisation. An Advice Note dealing with the use of
easily removed for the purpose of Principal Inspection stainless steel is in preparation, and will deal with the
of the structure, or for maintenance work. assessment of where to use the rebar, changes to normal
design rules and the selection of the appropriate grades
of stainless steel.
Reinforcement
3.23 Epoxy coated reinforcement is not currently
3.20 As an alternative to the above, the control of advocated for use in highway structures. Experience
early thermal cracking in plain concrete sections may from structures elsewhere and research evidence
be achieved by using corrosion resistant reinforcement. suggest that there have been some durability problems
The stresses in such reinforcement may be calculated associated with the use of epoxy-coated rebar. It is
using short-term properties of the materials and particularly prone to coating damage, which may lead
ignoring the phenomenon of long-term loss of strength to pitting corrosion.
through creep. Creep is often significant with such
reinforcement, but is not considered relevant to the Inspection and Maintenance
control of early thermal cracking which is reasonably
short term.
3.24 When considering structural forms, details and
3.21 For the design of primary structural members, any relevant aspects in the design procedure, designers
the use of non-ferrous reinforcement such as dispersed should ensure that the structure, as well as its
glass or aramid fibres in a resin matrix may in due components, can be effectively inspected and

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maintained. Inspection and maintenance considerations Bridge abutment galleries

should be assessed in the design and technical approval
procedures. Early identification of durability problems 3.29 Abutment details such as that shown in Figure
by inspection should prevent severe and costly damage 3.7 create inaccessible areas which are vulnerable to
to a structure. Areas which are likely to be affected by concrete contamination by de-icing salts through
de-icing agents or other corrosive elements must be leakage at joints, and are difficult to inspect and
accessible for inspection and, where necessary, be maintain. In paragraph 3.8 the use of integral abutments
designed and detailed to allow for repair or possible is recommended wherever possible, for new designs.
replacement. Designers should refer to BA 35 (DMRB However, there will still be some locations where
3.3) for further details. articulation at the ends of bridge decks is necessary. In
such cases abutment galleries should be provided to
3.25 It is often cost-effective to incorporate in a facilitate inspection and maintenance of both rotational
structure facilities for routine inspection and as well as expansion joints, bearings, abutment curtain
maintenance. In providing access, the general objective walls and deck ends. A typical arrangement of an
should be to give the inspector a dry, comfortable and abutment gallery is shown in Figure 3.8. The width and
pleasant environment in which to work. Experience has headroom clearance of such galleries should preferably
shown that, where access is difficult and where working be at least 1000 x 1800mm respectively and never less
spaces are cramped, badly lit and poorly ventilated, than 800 x 1500mm.
damp or otherwise uncomfortable to work in, inspection
tends to be less frequent and the inspector’s 3.30 Abutment galleries can be useful for the
observational efficiency may be significantly impaired. discharge and maintenance of drainage pipes through
bridge decks and waterproofing to relieve water
3.26 The following provisions for access should also pressure within surfacing at joints. They may also assist
be made at the design stage: bridge maintenance by facilitating access for future
deck jacking. In mining areas, ground movement can
a) Access for cleaning, maintenance and painting. close bridge expansion joint gaps and the provision of
abutment galleries should reduce the extent of any
b) Access to parts that may require maintenance or
remedial works which are necessary to free such joints.
replacement during the life of the bridge, for
instance, bearings, joints, anchorage locations, 3.31 Access to abutment galleries will be possible in
drainage, pipes, manholes, lubrication of moving some bridges between or alongside deck beams. Entry
parts, lighting systems etc. can also be arranged in some cases via secure lockable
doors in abutment or wing wall faces. Access through
c) Access for jacking at bearings and for their
decks should be avoided as it can create hazards and
removal and replacement.
cause maintenance problems. Abutment galleries in
d) Access to closed cells or box sections. most bridges will be permanently ventilated between
bearings. Where this is not the case, ventilation should
3.27 Access points should preferably be at each end be provided, particularly if gas mains exist or are likely
of the structure at points which are safe and easily to be present in the vicinity of the bridge.
accessible and do not require traffic control. Means of
access could include gantries, walkways, scaffolding
ladders, rails or ‘cherry pickers’. However permanent or
semi-permanent facilities such as gantries require
careful consideration, and assessment in whole life cost
terms. They have considerable implications for Health
and Safety issues and require special testing facilities
and trained staff to operate them.

3.28 Public use of any of these access facilities and

colonisation of the areas in question by plants, animals
and birds, should be prevented.

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4. IMPROVED DURABILITY - PROBLEM AREAS

General durability. Most post-tensioned bridges built to date

have been of the internally grouted duct type, and
4.1 It is apparent from recent surveys on bridges that problems have been encountered in a number of these,
there are some structural forms and elements which are largely due to the greater vulnerability to corrosion of
more susceptible to durability problems than others. tendons as a result of inadequate grouting of the ducts.
This section gives advice on the use of these forms and The reduced durability has caused particular concern
considers other areas which require special attention. since the deterioration often cannot be identified in the
course of regular bridge inspections; this means that
serious loss of carrying capacity may remain
Half-Joints and Concrete Hinges
undetected, with consequent risk to public safety. In
some instances there may be little or no warning of
4.2 Half-joints, both in steel and in concrete, usually collapse in post-tensioned bridges, and this makes the
present severe maintenance problems. They are difficult risk of undetected deterioration more serious.
to inspect and repair and should not be used for new
designs unless there is absolutely no alternative. Where 4.7 However, provided suitable safeguards are
half-joints are used, steel and concrete surfaces should adopted in the process of grouting, internal post-
be given additional protection. Adequate provision must tensioned grouted construction in non-segmental
be made for drainage, inspection and maintenance. bridges can be durable. Concrete Society Technical
Report TR47 ‘Durable Bonded Post-tensioned Bridges’,
4.3 Concrete hinges are highly stressed areas where, as outlined in Interim Advice Note 16 ‘Post-tensioned
because of the amount of reinforcement present, grouted duct concrete bridges’, details best practice and
compaction of concrete is difficult. The steel in the a specification for grouting, and these recommendations
hinges is vulnerable to corrosion from the ingress of should be adopted. The detailed guidance should ensure
salty water. Concrete hinges should not be used for new that ducts are fully grouted and post-tensioned systems
designs unless there is absolutely no alternative. Where are protected and will be durable.
concrete hinges are used, they should be visible for
inspection and maintenance. Deck hinge joints are
Segmental construction
particularly vulnerable to corrosion and they should not
be used in new designs.
4.8 Insitu joints between precast concrete segments
are the areas most at risk from penetration by water and
Pre-tensioned prestressed concrete construction
de-icing salts. This may lead to severe local corrosion
of pre-stressing strands. Although new systems are
4.4 Precast pre-tensioned concrete members have currently under development to ensure the continuity
generally proved to be durable. Apart from concern across the joint, and to provide greater protection, for
about occasional problems, for example, horizontal the time being such forms of construction using internal
cracking of the beam in the end zones, the poor grouted tendons are not permitted. Precast concrete
performance of some bridges constructed with these segmental construction utilising external post-tension
members has been associated with the use of simply systems are permitted.
supported spans. The remedies for that are discussed in
Chapter 3. 4.9 Another problem with segmental construction
which has not been widely recognised by designers is
4.5 De-bonded tendons at the ends of precast beams the additional prestress loss due to large elastic
should be adequately protected against corrosion. compression and subsequent creep deformation of the
joint material and closure of cracks at interfaces. As a
Post-Tensioned Concrete Construction result, the final level of prestress in segmental
construction may be somewhat less than normal post-
4.6 Unlike precast pre-tensioned concrete, tensioned members.
construction using post-tensioned members has not
proved to be particularly satisfactory in terms of 4.10 Shortening due to shrinkage may also occur at
the ends of each precast unit. This could cause

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additional opening at the joints prior to stressing and Risks, diagnosis, remedial works and guidance for new
hence reduce the compressive stresses at the interfaces construction’. In England this has been implemented by
and encourage cracking. the Highways Agency Interim Advice Note 25
‘Measures to minimise the risk of sulfate attack
External Post-tensioned Tendons (including thaumasite). New construction and structures
under construction’. The documents include options for
concrete mixes, and additional protective measures
4.11 Post-tensioned tendons positioned outside the
such as coatings for buried concrete and subsurface
concrete section have the advantage of being accessible
drainage where appropriate, which will minimise the
for inspection and replacement, and can be designed to
risk of all forms of sulfate attack. It is particularly
facilitate restressing. This must be balanced against
recommended that vulnerable design details such as
some concerns about increased exposure and
concrete hinges, joints and slender concrete sections are
vulnerability. Where external post-tensioned tendons
avoided by ‘designing out’ such features.
are used, they should be properly protected and have
adequate facilities and access for inspection, 4.15 Further research is underway at the Building
maintenance and replacement. The method and Research Establishment and elsewhere and it is
sequence of cable replacement should be allowed for at expected that BRE Digest 363 ‘Sulfate and acid
the design stage, and where possible designed to resistance of concrete in the ground’ will be updated or
eliminate the necessity for traffic restrictions. It should replaced and will incorporate the latest guidance to deal
be noted that the Concrete Society Technical Report with aggressive ground conditions. The 2001 edition of
TR47 ‘Durable Bonded Post-tensioned Bridges’ is the Specification for Highway Works and the Notes for
currently being updated and is due for republication, Guidance include requirements to minimise the risks of
and it is intended that it will include recommendations sulfate attack.
for best practice for external post-tension systems
which should be adopted. Further information on design
issues is available in BD 58 and BA 58 (reference 8). Concrete subject to freeze thaw and wetting and
drying cycles
Voided slabs
4.16 Concrete elements such as parapet upstands are
particularly vulnerable to freeze thaw action and
4.12 The adoption of pseudo-slab and similar wetting and drying cycles. They may also be vulnerable
structures using void formers to achieve the final cross- to chloride ingress. In accordance with the Specification
section has lead to some serious problems, usually for Highway Works Notes for Guidance clause 1703.3
related to the buoyancy of the formers during (ii), where concrete of Grade 40 or lower is being used,
construction and the difficulty of compaction under the then air entrainment should be adopted to increase
voids. Special precautions should be taken in the design durability to counteract freeze thaw action and wetting
and construction of this type of structure. and drying cycles. Concrete impregnation should also
be used to minimise chloride ingress. In Scotland air
Foundations and Buried Concrete Structures entrainment is adopted more widely for all exposed
concrete, including bridge decks, as a result of more
4.13 Foundations and other buried concrete structures onerous environmental conditions encountered.
in certain aggressive ground conditions have been
found to be susceptible to sulfate attack, leading to Services and service bays
eventual deterioration of the concrete. Although this
has been judged to be a serviceability issue, rather than 4.17 One of the areas where there are often durability
a short-term safety concern, it does have implications problems is in service bays. They are not easy to
for long term durability. Although buried concrete is not inspect, and are prone to leakage from ill fitting,
often or routinely inspected, most structures would be incorrectly replaced or damaged cover slabs. Water can
expected to exhibit above ground indications of below also enter the service bay via badly detailed or
ground concrete deterioration, before safety was constructed concrete through deck ends and ballast
impaired. walls, at joints or via the service ducts themselves.
Service bays should be provided with drainage holes,
4.14 A range of measures to minimise the risks of
and should have all exposed concrete surfaces carefully
sulfate attack are recommended in the DETR
waterproofed. In general it is not recommended to fill
publication ‘The thaumasite form of sulfate attack.
service bays with ‘lightweight fill’, but it is better to

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assume that they will leak and deal positively with the
water that enters. Service bays should also facilitate
access for authorised service providers.

4.18 Where possible it is recommended that drainage

pipes, ducts and sleeves penetrating through bridge
decks and ballast walls, should be provided with puddle
flanges cast monolithically into the deck, rather than as
a second operation with a concrete ‘box-out’. This will
require extremely careful positioning of the pipe or
duct, and in some cases will not be practical. Other
relevant information and details are contained in
reference 12.

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5. IMPROVED DURABILITY - DETAILED

REQUIREMENTS
General Reaction. Reference should be made to the
Specification for Highway Works and the Notes for
5.1 The life of a bridge can be considerably Guidance for specific requirements in concrete mix
enhanced at little additional expense by sound detailing design.
of structural elements. This section gives advice on
aspects of detailed design which should enhance 5.5 Where local cracking of the concrete may occur
durability. due to restraint from adjacent elements, eg at corners of
two-way slabs, reinforcement should be carefully
detailed to control such cracking. In some cases, a
Reinforced Concrete detailed investigation of the stresses in these areas may
be necessary.
5.2 BD 57 (DMRB 1.3.7), increases the concrete
cover to reinforcement specified in BS 5400: Part 4: Prestressed Concrete
Table 13. However, in sensitive or critical areas of the
structure such as in the region below expansion joints,
or where the reinforced concrete is in contact with 5.6 In post-tensioned structures, one location which
flowing water, serious consideration should be given to is of particular concern is the anchorage of tendons.
the use of concrete covers greater than those specified Designers should ensure that sufficient anti-bursting
in BD 57. It should be noted too that the requirements reinforcement is provided and that the layout of the
of BS 5400: Part 4, do not penalise the designer for anchorage zone reinforcement is not congested or likely
using greater cover than the Table 13 values with to cause difficulties in placing and compacting
respect to crackwidth calculations; the definition of cnom concrete. Increased concrete cover should be provided
in Clause 5.8.8.2 makes it clear that the designer may to ensure effective protection to the steel.
ignore extra cover in calculating crack widths. It should
be noted that as BS 5400: Part 4 already makes 5.7 Externally post-tensioned structures should be
provision for an additional 10 mm cover for lightweight detailed to facilitate replacement or re-stressing of an
aggregate concrete, the BD 57 requirement for individual tendon, without restricting traffic flow across
additional concrete cover does not apply. the bridge. The provision of special monitoring devices
to detect loss of pre-tensioning or corrosion should be
5.3 The minimum areas of main and secondary considered. External tendons should be positioned so
reinforcement given in BS 5400: Part 4 Clause 5.8.4 that they can be easily inspected and maintained,
are, in many instances, not adequate to limit the however this should be balanced against increased
cracking of concrete caused by the dissipation of heat exposure and vulnerability.
of hydration while the concrete is immature. Designers
should refer to the requirements given in BD 28 Drainage and Waterproofing Systems
(DMRB 1.3), Early Thermal Cracking of Concrete. In
designing reinforcement for early thermal effects the 5.8 Drainage and waterproofing play a vital role in
designer should bear in mind that the strength and the durability of structures. Designers should refer to
cement content of the as-built concrete may be a good BD 47 (DMRB 2.3.4) and BA 47 (DMRB 2.3.5) when
deal higher than that specified in the contract drawings. designing drainage and waterproofing of concrete
As the cement content has a significant effect on the bridge decks, and to reference 13.
heat evolution during hydration, the temperature effects
due to the likely maximum cement content should be 5.9 Drainage systems should be designed to
used. minimise the risk of blockage and be accessible for
cleaning. They should be robust enough to withstand
5.4 Cement replacements, such as pulverised fuel damage during cleaning, as this has been an important
ash and ground granulated blastfurnace slag, may cause of problems on many existing bridges. They
reduce early thermal effects and improve resistance to should also be resistant to damage from chemical
chloride ingress, sulfate attack and Alkali-Silica spillage on the road surface. The drainage of water from

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bridge decks and waterproofing layers should normally 5.13 The durability of a bridge can be improved by
be done using closed systems which lead the water taking the following precautions:
positively to the main highway drainage system.
Allowing water from deck drainage to fall freely from a) The top surface of bridge decks should have
open ended downpipes should be avoided for the adequate falls to avoid ponding especially in the
following reasons: vicinity of deck joints. Drainage outlets should
be formed using adequately sized products, at
i) In windy conditions such water may become regular intervals.
finely atomised and spray onto the structure, even
when downpipes project well below the soffit b) Additional measures, such as coating and extra
line. waterproofing layers etc, may be considered
necessary where a concentration of de-icing
ii) Freely discharged water may contaminate river agents is likely to occur.
courses.
c) Areas around kerbs, parapets and service traps
iii) Freely discharged water may cause local damage are most vulnerable to water seepage and should
to the soil surface below the bridge. be carefully detailed.

iv) Water from open-ended downpipes may fall onto d) Access holes should be located on the underside
a carriageway or footway beneath and freeze, of bridge decks to avoid water leakage into the
causing a hazard to both pedestrians and vehicles. deck. When this is not possible, properly sealed
There is also a danger that icicles can form on or/and positively drained manholes may be used,
open-ended downpipes and fall onto vehicles and but only with the agreement of the Overseeing
pedestrians. Organisation.

5.10 Drainage systems integral with the structure, for e) Drainage should be provided at piers and
instance gulleys cast into beams and pipes cast into abutments including the back of abutments.
columns, should not be used. Essential drainage runs
through deck slabs should be made as short as possible. f) Holes should be provided to drain the voids of
On short span bridges it may be preferable to collect bridge decks, such as box beams and cellular and
surface water off the bridge deck, although this will voided slabs, as water may find its way into these
require careful design of deck and carriageway falls and voids causing corrosion and deterioration.
detailing, to ensure that no ponding on or beneath the
surfacing occurs. On bridges with shallow falls kerb g) Box members should be provided with sealed
drainage may be used to good effect. access hatches or manhole covers to prevent
leakage into the box. Adequate and effective
5.11 Drainage systems should be provided with ventilation and drainage holes should also be
adequate facilities for rodding and cleaning operations. provided to reduce condensation and eliminate
Rodding access should be provided so that rodding any ponding inside the box as a result of a
lengths are straight or virtually straight, and do not possible ingress of water. Ventilation and
normally exceed 45m on straight runs, and should be drainage holes should be detailed to prevent
roddable from either end. Careful thought should be access and colonisation by birds and animals.
given to the practical needs of cleaning and
maintenance operations, and full details provided 5.14 The following concrete surfaces should be
accordingly. They should be designed to minimise the waterproofed using tar, cut back bitumen or appropriate
need for traffic management during cleaning operations. proprietary materials as allowed in the Specification for
All gullies should be fully trapped. Highway Works:

5.12 Surface water drainage of bridge decks should i) Vertical faces at deck ends and abutment curtain
never be directed into the drainage layers in the vicinity walls.
of piers and abutments since salty water from the bridge
ii) Top faces of piers and abutment bearing shelves.
deck may cause corrosion of the reinforcement in the
substructure. Moreover, accumulated road silts and iii) Inaccessible areas which may be subject to
debris may eventually clog the drainage layers. leakage; for instance beam ends.

iv) Buried concrete surfaces.

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Where waterproofing membranes may be directly such as copings to retaining walls, to prevent water
subject to foot traffic, they must be sufficiently robust from running back along horizontal surfaces. Where,
to withstand such use, and should not be slippery. for reasons of concrete cover, the provision of groove
Concrete surfaces in splash zones should be type drips is not practicable continuous unreinforced
impregnated as detailed in clauses 5.18 and 5.22. concrete downstands or continuous non-ferrous angle
sections properly fixed to deck edges, may be used as
Expansion Joints drippers. BA 33 (DMRB 2.4) shows a prefabricated
drip strip for use on existing structures.
5.15 Designers should refer to BD 33 (DMRB 2.3) 5.20 Bridge decks should be designed to project
and BA 26 (DMRB 3.3) when designing and detailing beyond the substructure to prevent salty water from
expansion joints and drainage provisions in bridge running down columns and abutments.
decks. Guidance is also given in TRL Application
Guide 29 (reference 13) and designers are strongly 5.21 The designer should always consider the ease of
advised to consult this document. construction and maintenance of the proposed details.
For example, adequate provision should be made for
5.16 To prevent salty water from penetrating compacting concrete and painting of structural steel.
downward to the substructure, expansion joints should
be watertight. However, these joints will eventually
leak and therefore designers should not only apply Impregnation of Concrete Surfaces
protective coating to surfaces at risk, but also provide
drainage under the joints in the form of abutment 5.22 Impregnation of concrete surfaces provides
galleries as described in paragraph 3.28. effective protection against the ingress of chlorides.
Requirements for impregnation procedures are given in
5.17 Careful detailing around expansion joints in BD 43 (DMRB 2.4) and BA 33 (DMRB 2.4), and other
bridge decks can make a major contribution to the aspects are dealt with in the Specification for Highway
durability of a structure. Failure of deck expansion Works and the Notes for Guidance. The material
joints often leads to severe corrosion of adjacent parts specified is monomeric alkyl (isobutyl) tri-alkoxy
of the structure. The areas around a joint should be silane, although other materials are permitted provide
detailed in such a way that they do not provide traps for they comply with the performance specification.
water and that an effective system is provided to
remove the water quickly. All the elements should be Other measures
detailed so that they are accessible for inspection and
maintenance.
5.23 Recent research carried out by the Transport
Research Laboratory for the Highways Agency has
Splash zones indicated that there can be benefits to durability by
producing good quality near surface concrete. Although
5.18 Designers should be aware that the splash zone the research looked at various materials and techniques,
of river or road piers and abutments are particularly the clearest benefits came from the use of concretes
susceptible to deterioration. In some situations salty with lower water cement ratios (incorporating the use of
water may be splashed up to the soffit of overbridges superplasticisers) and the adoption of controlled
causing deterioration and corrosion. In addition the permeability formwork (CPF).
spray may result in a retention of salt in the soil
adjacent to the carriageway thus causing severe Controlled Permeability Formwork
chloride attack to the concrete sub-structure. Special
precautions should be taken in these areas by the
5.24 CIRIA have published a report CB511
application of protective coating, for instance chemical
‘Controlled Permeability Formwork’, which has
impregnation, and additional cover to steel
comprehensively reviewed the technique and available
reinforcement should be provided (see paragraph 5.2).
materials. Whilst there are advantages in using CPF,
this must be balanced against additional costs, and
Other details some practical difficulties that may occur during
construction, particularly with complex shapes. The
5.19 It is essential to provide drip checks at all edge current position is that CPF may be used in specific
beams, deck ends over abutments and other locations new construction situations where there are:

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i) Concrete elements in close proximity to chloride levels are low. However for the present their
carriageways, which are heavily salted on a use is not advocated on high quality relatively
regular basis each Winter. impermeable structural concrete.

ii) Concrete elements having simple geometric 5.27 The benefits in using corrosion inhibitors as
shapes and plain finishes. concrete admixtures appears to lie in their use in
concrete elements which are in close proximity to
CPF must also be justified in whole life cost terms. carriageways, which are heavily salted on a regular
basis each Winter. Any proposal to use a corrosion
Silane impregnation will still be required in accordance inhibitor concrete admixture would need to be justified
with clause 1709 of the Specification for Highway in whole life cost terms. Silane impregnation will still
Works. For the time being the use of CPF will be be required in accordance with clause 1709 of the
regarded as an aspect not covered by Standards, and Specification for Highway Works, for areas of
Overseeing Organisation approval will be required, as structures as detailed in BD 43 and BA 33. For the time
part of technical approval procedures. being the use of cast-in corrosion inhibitors will be
regarded as an aspect not covered by the Standards.
Corrosion Inhibitors
Other additives
5.25 Research is being undertaken at TRL and
elsewhere, to assess the benefits of using corrosion 5.28 Research evidence and site experience indicates
inhibitors in concrete of different mixes, qualities and that there may be benefits in using proprietary materials
condition. There are a number of corrosion inhibitors that comprise both water reducing superplasticisers and
on the market today that claim to reduce chloride pore blockers to provide a dense concrete matrix with
generated corrosion in rebars by forming a protective hydrophobic properties. Although the capital costs of
layer around, and operating on the surface chemistry of such materials are relatively high compared to normal
the metal. These materials are soluble salts that are concrete, they may be justifiable in whole life cost
added to the concrete at the construction stage, to repair terms. Consideration may be given to their use in
concrete during refurbishment, or as surface extremely aggressive environments and structural
applications on mature concrete. The inhibitors are elements that are difficult to access for inspection and
classified as either cast-in or migrating types, with one maintenance.
supplier having a pelleted delivery system. A literature
review has shown that commercial materials sold under Lightweight concrete
various brand names contain calcium nitrite, borax,
zinc borate, sodium malonate, sodium
monofluorophosphate, amines or amino alcohol based 5.29 Structural Lightweight Aggregate Concrete
compounds and other formulations. Although there are (LWAC) is generally accepted as being more durable
many research papers examining the corrosion than normal weight concrete with good resistance to
inhibition properties of a number of these compounds, freeze-thaw cycles and corrosion of steel reinforcement
their long term efficacy in real structures with varying due to the effects of de-icing salts. LWAC typically with
concrete condition and subject to a range of a strength of 40N/mm2 and a density of around 75%
environmental conditions has yet to be fully proved. that of normal weight concrete, utilises aggregates
manufactured from the industrial by-products of
5.26 The TRL research, which was conducted with electricity generation (pulverised fuel ash - Lytag) and
reasonably good quality concrete, indicates positive steel manufacture (blast furnace slag -Pellite). It can
results for the effectiveness of inhibitors in the form of also be made from the processing of natural materials,
cast-in concrete admixtures based on calcium nitrite for example expanded clay, but these manufactured
and amino alcohols, used in new construction. The aggregates are not currently available in the UK.
results for the migrating surface applied and the
pelleted delivery system corrosion inhibitors tested is 5.30 TRL have carried out research into LWAC for
less encouraging. However other researchers have use in bridges. The research concluded that, although
found in tests conducted in lower quality concrete that LWAC is more expensive than normal weight concrete,
there may be some beneficial effects with these it may result in overall savings in construction cost,
migrating inhibitors. They may be considered for use mainly due to its reduced dead weight. LWAC bridge
when applied to concrete of poor quality, where the decks exhibit smaller thermal movements, and there are
therefore additional benefits associated with abutments

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of integral bridges. Construction cost savings of about

3% may be achievable, and can be higher where LWAC
facilitates modifications to the conceptual design; for
instance, the elimination of a pier or expansion joint.
There are however large regional variations in the cost
of LWAC, and some concrete production facilities may
not be able to supply LWAC. The results of the TRL
research suggest that there are clear durability benefits
from using LWAC made from pulverised fuel ash,
though the results are less encouraging for LWAC made
from blast furnace slag.

5.31 LWAC will also reduce the impact of bridge

construction on the environment and the demand on
future bridge maintenance. In view of its cost and
environmental benefits it should be considered at the
feasibility stage as an option for most structures with
spans of over 15m. If it is a viable option it will be
subject to Overseeing Organisation approval, as part of
technical approval procedures.

Electrochemical techniques

5.32 Electrochemical techniques such as cathodic

protection and electrochemical chloride removal
(desalination) are generally outside the scope of this
Advice Note, but can be considered as methods to
enhance the durability of in service structures. A
separate Advice Note dealing with cathodic protection
is in preparation.

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6. DETAILED REQUIREMENTS - STEEL BRIDGES

General Corrosion protection of steelwork

6.1 Where steels are welded in areas of high 6.7 The most common method of corrosion
restraint and where tensile stresses occur perpendicular protection of steelwork is by painting. Designers should
to a plate surface, eg in cruciform joints, corners of box refer to MCHW Volume 5 Section 2 for maintenance
sections and heavily welded sections, lamellar tearing painting and the Specification for Highway Works
could occur. In such situations, designers should pay (MCHW 1) and the Notes for Guidance (MCHW 2) for
proper attention to weld joint design and use steels with the Overseeing Organisations’ requirements on painting
guaranteed through-thickness properties. of steelwork.

6.2 Welds for temporary attachments can act as 6.8 Designers should be aware that the success of
stress raisers and increase the risk of fatigue. Such corrosion protection depends not only on the protective
welding should not be allowed in critical areas. system specified but also on the surface preparation,
Temporary attachments should be removed and welds quality control and the effectiveness of the painting
ground flush. (See 1800 NG 1801) operation. Steel components should therefore be
designed and detailed with the recognition that they
6.3 Transverse bracing members between parallel must be capable of being effectively prepared, painted,
girders are often subjected to stress reversal due to live inspected, cleaned and repainted. Particular attention is
loads. Therefore the effects due to fatigue at their required at plate edges where corrosion may initiate,
connections with main girders should be considered in where packing and shims are used, and for metallic
design. components such as bearings.

6.4 Simple connections and weld details, which are Metal coating of steelwork
easier to inspect and maintain, should be used wherever
possible.
6.9 Galvanising and suitable sprayed metal coatings
6.5 Intermittent fillet welds should not be used, can give effective corrosion protection to steelwork.
except in situations where the welded connections are Designers should refer to the Specification for Highway
completely protected from the weather, for example, Works (MCHW 1) and the Notes for Guidance
where they are wholly inside closed box structures; in (MCHW 2) for their use. Care must be observed when
such cases appropriate fatigue checks should be carried detailing steelwork for galvanising. Some details are
out. Intermittent welding, where one or both sides of the unsuitable for dipping and advice should be sought
connection are exposed to the outside atmosphere, from the Galvanisers Association.
cannot be properly protected against the ingress of
water into the welded joint by capillary action or 6.10 In specifying galvanising for high tensile steel
penetration of water through the connection. such as bolts, post-tensioning bars and cables which are
subjected to high fluctuating stresses, designers should
6.6 Steelwork should be detailed so that it is self- be aware of the danger of hydrogen embrittlement
draining and prevents the accumulation of water. Areas associated with galvanising.
where dirt and debris may collect should be avoided.
Particular measures that can be adopted are the Steel Box Sections
omission of stiffeners from the outer face steel girders,
provision of drainage ‘mouseholes’ at stiffener/bottom 6.11 The recommendations of Section 3.13 apply
flange connections and detailing for water runoff at equally to steel box sections.
piers and end supports. Attention is also required where
steel is used as packing material or as shims. 6.12 The interior of steel box sections should be
painted a light colour to improve visibility.

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Other considerations

6.13 Bridge deck enclosures may be considered for

use in particularly aggressive environments. They offer
the benefits of reduced maintenance liabilities in terms
of painting of steelwork, and may be appropriate to
consider where access to the superstructure is limited
eg major rail, river and road crossings. They must be
evaluated and justified on whole life cost grounds.
More detailed information and requirements are
contained in BD 67 and BA 67 (reference 8).

6.14 Weathering steel may be considered for use as

an alternative to conventional steel deck construction,
as it corrodes more slowly, and should minimise
maintenance liabilities. However there are some
restrictions on its application and these are detailed in
BD 7 (reference 8).

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7. REFERENCES

(1) The Performance of Concrete Bridges: BD 28 (DMRB 1.3), Early Thermal Cracking of
G Maunsell & Partners, HMSO. Highway Concrete.
Structures.
BD 33 (DMRB 2.3.6), Expansion Joints for Use
(2) National Corporative Highway Research on Highway Bridge Decks.
Program Synthesis of Highway Practice 322,
‘Design of Precast Prestressed Bridge Girders BD 43 (DMRB 2.4), Criteria and Material for the
Made Continuous’. Transportation Research Impregnation of Concrete Highway Structures.
Board, National Research Council, Bridges
Washington, DC 1990. BD 47 (DMRB 2.3.4), Waterproofing and
Surfacing of Concrete Bridge Decks.
(3) Kumar, A. Detailed Design of Composite
Concrete Bridge Superstructures. British Cement BD 57 (DMRB 1.3.7), Design for Durability.
Association, 1988.
BD 58 (DMRB 1.3.9), The Design of Concrete
(4) Kumar, A. Composite Concrete Bridge Supers Highway Bridges and Structures with External
tructures. and Unbonded Prestressing.
British Cement Association, 1988.
BD 67 (DMRB 2.2.7), Enclosure of Bridges.
(5) National Cooperative Highway Research
Program, Synthesis of Highway Practice 141, BA 26 (DMRB 2.3.7), Expansion Joints for Use
Bridge Deck Joints. Transportation Research on Highway Bridge Decks.
Board, National Research Council, Washington,
DC, 1989. BA 33 (DMRB 2.4), Impregnation of Concrete

(6) Health and Safety legislation relevant to BA 35 (DMRB 3.3), Inspection and Repair of
Overseeing Organisation Concrete Highway Structures.
Factories Act 1961
BA 42 (DMRB 1.3.1) The Design of Integral
Section 4 Approved Code of Practice (ACOP):
Bridges
Management of Health and Safety at Work.
BA 47 (DMRB 2.3.5), Waterproofing and
Northern Ireland
Surfacing of Concrete Bridge Decks.
Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare)
BA 58 (DMRB 1.3.10), The Design of Concrete
Regulations (NI) 1993
Highway Bridges and Structures with External
Confined Spaces Regulations (NI) 1999
and Unbonded Prestressing.
(7) BS 5400 Steel, Concrete and Composite Bridges:
BA67 (DMRB 2.2.8), Enclosure of Bridges.
Parts 1 and 4.
Interim Advice Note 16 Post-tensioned grouted
(8) The Design Manual for Roads and Bridges
duct concrete bridges.
BD 7 (DMRB 2.3.7), Weathering Steel for
Interim Advice Note 25 Measures to minimise
Highway Structures.
the risk of sulfate attack (including thaumasite).

(9) The Manual of Contract Documents for Highway

Works

Specification for Highway Works (MCHW.1)

Notes for Guidance on the Specification for

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Highway Works (MCHW.2)

Maintenance Painting of Steel Highway
Structures (MCHW 5.2)

(10) DETR publication ‘The thaumasite form of

sulfate attack. Risks, diagnosis, remedial works
and guidance for new construction’.

(11) CIRIA report CB511 Controlled Permeability

Formwork.

(12) Transport Research Laboratory Application

Guide 33 ‘Water management for durable
bridges’ by S.Pearson and J.R.Cuninghame
(funded by Highways Agency and County
Surveyor’s Society).

(13) Transport Research Laboratory Application

Guide 29 ‘Practical guide to the use of expansion
joints’ by C.P.Barnard and J.R.Cuninghame
(funded by Highways Agency and County
Surveyor’s Society).

(14) Concrete Society Technical Report TR47

‘Durable Bonded Post-tensioned Bridges’
published in 1996 is currently being updated and
is due for republication.

(15) BRE Digest 363 ‘Sulfate and acid resistance of

concrete in the ground’ published in 1996 will be
replaced in 2001.

7/2 August 2001

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Volume 1 Section 3 Chapter 8
Part 8 BA 57/01 Enquiries

8. ENQUIRIES
All technical enquiries or comments on this Advice Note should be sent in writing as appropriate to:

Head of Civil Engineering

The Highways Agency
St Christopher House
Southwark Street A J PICKETT
London SE1 0TE Head of Civil Engineering

Chief Road Engineer

Scottish Executive Development Department
Victoria Quay
Edinburgh J HOWISON
EH6 6QQ Chief Road Engineer

Chief Highway Engineer

The National Assembly for Wales
Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru
Crown Buildings
Cathays Park J R REES
Cardiff CF10 3NQ Chief Highway Engineer

Assistant Director of Engineering

Department for Regional Development
Roads Service
Clarence Court
10-18 Adelaide Street D O’HAGAN
Belfast BT2 8GB Assistant Director of Engineering

August 2001 8/1

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