Mapping altered & mineralized rocks

The “Anaconda Method”

Introduction
Color-coded mapping of key features of alteration/mineralization, augmented by quantitative estimates of
mineral/vein abundance, measurement of attitudes (strike & dip, or core-axis angle), and relative age between
features (different vein-types, or veins/intrusive contacts) is critical to successful exploration, mine develop-
ment, and development of accurate descriptions for a genetic understanding. This style of mapping should
be used to complement standardized numerical mapping designed for computer data hazes. A geologist who
draws what s/he sees in the rocks has greater flexibility and freedom of thought than one who is forced to
pigeon-hole everything into a numerical category. Further, at the stage of map compilation there is no substi-
tute for the detailed, color-coded, geological and mineralogical notes compiled on posting sheets (“fact maps”),
whose colour and textural distinctions allow quick visual correlation of common features between outcrops,
mine benches, or drill holes. The use of standardized colours allows a given exploration team or research group
to read and understand each other’s maps.
Although this tract focuses on mapping in igneous rocks of porphyry-type environments, the approach is
easily modified for application in any deposit type or any geological environment. The approach presented here
is a direct evolution of mapping schemes devised by Anaconda geologists at El Salvador, Chile, and Yerington,
Nevada during the 1960’s. What is written here represents in large parts a melding of ideas generated during
field work and discussions with John Proffett, John Hunt, Bill Atkinson, and John Dilles.

Mapping Vertical Faces: trenches, road cuts, tunnels, benches

General Aspects
The most efficient approach to mapping vertical walls is to project everything to a horizontal plane (for ex-
ample, at chest height). The hundreds of strike & dip measurements that are taken during a day’s mapping are
all plotted directly on the map, in other words, the map is being produced as you map. Confusion about strikes
of faults, contacts, etc. doesn’t arise as often as it does when drawing in vertical view of when recording data in
a notebook. You know exactly where to go in the next cross-cut or trench to find that fault, and geology can be
drawn across the drift from one wall to the other. (Note: (1) some features will not project to chest height, e.g.,
a flat fault at ankle level; these require notes, a quick sketch, or a projection (see below). (2) When mapping an
underground decline or a surface trench up a hill, continue to map at chest height; your map will be an inclined
plane, which later can be corrected to a different datum plane depending on the ultimate goal).
The essential idea is to record by means of a colour-code the various features of rock type, structure, veins,
alteration minerals, and ore minerals (seeFig. 1 & Fig. 2). Colour coding is a means of reducing note taking to
some degree, but more importantly, to force the geologist to look more critically at the rocks. Colour also helps
to visually stimulate the brain during mapping and afterwards during the compilation process.
Another important aspect of the mapping scheme is that in mapping altered wall rocks, you are mapping
minerals, not alteration types. This means that you are not classifying alteration types as you map (think of all
the variations on the theme of advanced argillic or of potassic alteration types!) and, therefore, you are coming
closer to the ideal of recording observations rather than interpretations. Map what you see.
Notes are used for those features that cannot be recorded in the drawing, such as rock descriptions, relative
ages between features (e.g., between faults, veins, veinlets, intrusive contacts), percent total sulphides, percent
magnetite, sulphide ratios, and veinlet abundance. Notes are written for intervals of the bench face or tunnel
where such features are relatively uniform in character (Fig. 1 & Fig. 2).
air side
include written notes mafic mineral alteration column Locality
Geologist
date
for observations on scale

N
rock textures, sulfide
ratios and abundance,
and qtz vn abundance feldspar alteration column

tonalite, 45% aplitic 0.05 mm g.m., 10% hbl

phenos, 3-5% qtz eyes, 40% 2-3mm plag
phenos; no qtz vnlts; tr cp; local fresh hbl;
tr ep in felds sites baseline
tonalite, as abv. A-B vnlts 0.1/6 wl

rock side
cp; overall 1-2 % cp; sec Ksp & mag
absent

tonalite, as abv; A vnlts 0.05/1; A-B vnlts

1/10; overall 10% cp1bn1, ksp halos on all include written notes
qtz-vnlts; tr mag in A; 4-5% mag overall.
for key observations relating
to structure, contacts, and veins
tonalite, as abv. A-B vnlts 0.2/4 wlcp; 56
overall 3-4 % cp, 1 % mag
22
tonalite, 50% aplitic g.m., 15% hbl phenos,
43 disseminated sulfides
no qtz eyes; 35 % 3-5mm plag phenos; 3%
py in /d-vns 1/10; tot py 5-8%; no mag
61 18 2m fault zone; W clay,
HW bx, normal offset of
25 intrusive contact

alteration halos on veins 88 72 irreg intrusive contact

tonalite, 45% aplitic g.m., 10% hbl

73 vein-fillings minerals
phenos. 5-6% qtz eyes, 40% 3-4 mm
plag phenos. A-B vnlts wl cp 0.1/20,
py D-vn swarm; 1/10; cp
D-vns offset B-vns; overall 5%
common,tr si; D-vns cut
cp1py2; no mag
73 intrusive contact; A-B qtz
85 vnlts cut by late porph`t
23
49
78
abundant structural information!
Fig. 1: Bench map in sulphide bearing rocks (unoxidized)

air side
include written notes mafic mineral alteration column Locality
Geologist
date
for observations on scale

N
rock textures, sulfide
ratios and abundance,
and qtz vn abundance feldspar alteration column

tonalite, 45% aplitic 0.05 mm g.m., 10% hbl

phenos, 3-5% qtz eyes, 40% 2-3mm plag
phenos; no qtz vnlts; tr goethite; local fresh hbl;
trace epidote in feldspar sites baseline
tonalite, as abv; A-B veinlets 0.1/6 with glassy
limonite; sec K-spar and mt absent
rock side
tonalite, as abv. A-veinlets 0.05/1; A-B veinlets 1/10;
veinlets glassy limonite + Cu-oxides; K-spar halos on all include written notes
qtz veinlets; trace mt in A-veinlets; 4-5% mt overall
for key observations relating
to structure, contacts, and veins
tonalite, A-B veinlets 0.2/4 with glassy limonite; trace 56
Cu-oxides; feldspars fresh; mafics biotitized & chloritized
22
tonalite,; no qtz-veinlets; D-veinlets 1/10;
43 disseminated limonites
local fresh hbl, but mostly sericitized; abundant
leached cavities with earthy hematite+goethite; 2m fault zone; W clay,
local jarosaite; no mt 61 18
HW bx, normal offset of
25 intrusive contact

alteration halos on veins 88 72 irreg intrusive contact

73 vein-fillings minerals
tonalite, A-B veinlets 0.1/20; D-veinlets D-vn swarm; 1/10; D-veins cut
offset A-B veinlets, goethite only, no mt intrusive contact, A-B-qtz-veinlets
73 cut by late porphyry
85
23
49
78
abundant structural information!
Fig. 2: Bench map in oxidized rocks (weathered)
Key Features of Mapping Scheme
Figure 1 and 2 illustrate the style of mapping being described here. Figure 1 represents a map of sulphide-
bearing rocks; whereas Figure 2 represents a map of the oxidized (weathered) equivalent the various aspects of
the mapping scheme are illustrated by these figures and discussed in the paragraphs that follow. Comparison
of the two figures (and Fig. 3 and Fig. 5) also will allow you to visualize the results of oxidation of hypogene
ores (discussed in a separate section below).
1. The “baseline” consists of the tape laid out at chest height along a drift or trench wall. This baseline is
surveyed by brunton and plotted on the field sheet (taking account of irregularities in the face relative to
the straight line of the tape).
2. Use gridded field sheets to enable rapid plotting of strikes and dips with a plastic scale/protractor. The
grids represent N-S and E-W lines, not lines parallel to the rock face you are mapping. Assign the E-W
line to the long dimension of your map sheet (the north arrow points toward the long dimension of your
sheet) for case of use of your clipboard and for internal consistency.
3. Locate your baseline in the centre of the field sheet to allow working room (notes and drawing) on all
sides. Start a new field sheet before you run out of room toward the edge of the sheet.
4. Before you start mapping, be sure to include coordinates, survey points, locality, scale, the date, and your
name.
5. Notes and sample locations are written directly on the mapping sheet, rather than in the field notebook.
This ensures that this information is never separated from the map. The baseline serves to separate your
map sheets into two areas: the “air side” and the “rock side” (see Fig. 1-Fig. 5).
6. The rock side is used to record faults, vein minerals, veinlet minerals, disseminations of “ore” minerals,
and lithologic contacts. All through-going features are plotted with true strike and the dip is indicated.
7. Because of the close relation between the distribution of quartz veins and Cu-Au grades in many porphy-
ry-type deposits, a method of quantifying the density (vol%) of these veins is highly useful. Experience
has shown that consistency between different geologists can be achieved by estimating (for a given set of
veins and a given bench interval where the veins are of relatively constant spacing and width): 1) the aver-
age width of the veins, and 2) the average spacing between centre lines. Write these down in your notes
as a fraction (e.g., “0.5/6” would indicate 0.5 cm average width and 6 cm average spacing between centre
lines). Dividing out the fraction yields percent of the rock that is constituted by this vein set (0.5/6 = 8 vol
%). This approach works well for porphyry deposits where veins occupy definite sets; the estimate is made
for each set. This approach also is better than counting vein widths along a tape, because such a count
has to be corrected for the true width and doesn‘t record vein widths and spacing. Clearly, the approach
is difficult to apply in rocks where the veins are truly random, but this is less common than is generally
believed. For A-B quartz veins, which most likely represent open-space filling, you are recording the vol-
ume percent of quartz that filled open spaces. For D veins (pyrite veins with quartz-sericite-pyrite (QSP)
halos), record the “vein width” as the distance between outer edges of the QSP halo: the fraction will
represent the vol% of the rock that is altered to QSP.
8. The air side is used to record alteration minerals and rock type. Alteration minerals are recorded by co-
lour code in two ways.
a. Background alteration: Narrow “imaginary columns” along the baseline (much as the columns
used for different minerals in logging core) are used to record “background” alteration minerals.
“Background” alteration is defined here as any alteration minerals that occur throughout a given
volume of rock and do not appear to be related as halos to individual veins. Pervasive biotization
of andesite at El Salvador is one example of background alteration.
b. Alteration halos: If distinct alteration halos are present on the margins of fractures and vein fill-
ings, these are shown as lines drawn along the strike of the particular vein, but on the air side of
 the map sheet. For example, a sericitic envelope on a pyrite vein would be shown as a brown line
on the air side.

Organizational hints for efficient mapping

1. Use a double-sided aluminium clipboard the size of the mapping with leather pencil holders riveted to
one or both sides. All pencils and scales are kept in this clipboard for easy access. Place rubber erasers on
the ends of each pencil for easy retrieval of pencils out of their leather sleeves!
2. The importance of a hard-lead colour pencils which can be sharpened to a fine point cannot be over-
emphasized. Pencils available in the U.S. which meet these standards include Eagle Verithin (or Berot
Verithin) and Staedtler Mars-Lumochrom. [Caveat: in tropical climates, leads tend to become soft; in
field mapping; rain obviously places severe limitations on the quality of your drawing even if water-proof
paper is used. But, try anyway! Keep a blotter in your aluminium clip-board facing your map sheet, and
keep the clipboard closed and in your mapping vest when not in use]. Sharpening pencils is an art: keep
a sharp knife (same one you use to scratch rocks) to expose a length of lead, tape a piece of sandpaper to
the back inside of your clipboard for sharpening the point and do final sharpening by rubbing the point
at a shallow angle on a piece of paper at the back of your clipboard.
3. Mapping vests that have pockets large enough for an aluminium clipboard to fit in loosely are critical to
the success of the mapping method described above. Loose fit is important because the mapping method
requires a constant back-and-forth between map sheet and rocks: every time you have finished marking
a feature on your map sheet, the clipboard is “dumped” back into its pocket your hands are free, and you
can get back to breaking rocks. Your vest “organizes” your work environment much as the “desktop” on
your computer. The clipboard is never dumped on the ground.
4. Applying colour. Features recorded on the rock side can become very densely spaced (especially in highly
mineralized zones) and great care needs to be taken to maintain colour separation with very sharp pen-
cils. A key technique in this regard is to map the youngest features first (e.g., post-ore faults, youngest
veins), then follow with mapping the older features. In this way, offsetting of older features by younger
features can be shown easily as you map and much less erasing is involved! Also, as you apply colour to
represent a vein, apply first the colour of the most abundant mineral as a dashed line; the lesser mineral
colours are then applied between the dashes of the first and no colour is applied on top of another.
5. Make several mapping passes for any given outcrop or length of bench face; in other words, partition
your work. I find that I need at least three passes to complete all the observations and note-taking that I
need. The first pass should be the one in which you get down on paper the major features of the outcrop:
descriptions of lithology, lithological contacts (indicate whether intrusive, conformable, stratigraphic, or
faulted), major faults, and major through-going veins. In subsequent passes you begin to add detail. In
a second pass, map veins and veinlets, diagrammatically showing the relative age of different vein types
(plot the youngest veins first), and add alteration haloes, and background alteration. The third pass can
be devoted to sulphide (or oxide) minerals, their abundance, and relative proportions.
6. Stand up, facing the rocks, while marking a feature on your map sheet. This reduces the odds of plotting
a wrong strike, because you are oriented with your rocks and your map sheet. Fast efficient and accurate
mapping is your goal; to achieve this goal; the best mappers do not sit down with their backs to the face,
(saves time and saves your pants!)
7. In regional exploration. I recommend that prior to commencing a mapping project at a small scale (say,
1:5.000) that some key representative outcrops be manned first at a large scale (say, 1:250). The reason is
that mapping at a large scale gives the geologist the opportunity to spend some time looking at the rocks
in detail and this enables him to develop an idea of the key features of a given prospect. Armed with this
information, he can then move out more confidently at higher speed at a smaller scale.
Mapping Outcrops: use multiple overlays
In mapping sub-horizontal exposures (i.e., outcrops), colour codes for alteration, veins, and ore minerals (li-
monites) are used as above but are applied to successive overlays. Colour separation is maintained by plotting:
• lithologic contacts, faults, veins, and other structure on a base map (Fig. 6, Base Map);
• pervasive (or background) alteration and alteration halos on the first overlay (Fig. 6, Overlay #1);
• and ore minerals or their oxidation products on a second overlay (Fig. 6. Overlay #2). Notes for
these various features are written on their respective overlays.

Base Map
The limit of outcrop is sketched first on the base map (along with any additional “culture” such as trenches,
paths, etc.) and the major features of structure and lithology are mapped in. Rock-type symbols can be as-
signed to various units, and these symbols can be applied in black pencil (rather than assigning a colour-code
to rock types) along the outer perimeter of the outcrop outline. Veins are plotted directly on the base map, us-
ing colour codes for dominant vein-filling minerals. Notes can be written outside the outcrop area

Alteration Overlay
On Overlay #1, lines are used to identify alteration halos on veins shown on the base map. Care should be
taken to ensure that the alteration colour-code is applied directly over the vein shown on the base. This points
out the need to plot the veins first on the base map, then quickly apply the alteration-halo colour over that vein
on overlay #1. For example, on Fig. 6, the NE-dipping qtz-(K-spar-mag) veins at the north end of the outcrop
(base map) have K-spar alteration halos (alteration overlay).
Background alteration not related to individual veins is shown next by color-coded dots for the minerals
present Because only one overlay is used for alteration, feldspar sites and mafic mineral sites are difficult to
keep separate. This turns out not to be a major disadvantage, because, for example, a mix of brown dots and
olive green dots implies clay in the feldspar sites and secondary biotite in the mafic mineral sites. The density
of dots should reflect the relative abundance of alteration minerals seen in the outcrop. For example, in Fig. 6
background sericite alteration increases in intensity south-westerly and then declines abruptly into a zone with
minor epidote and chlorite. As another example, an intensely silicified rock would be represented as a solid
orange colour on overlay #1 (but apply the colour of any minor minerals first as dots, then colour-in the orange
around the dots in order not to get superposition of colours).
An alternative approach (John Dilles. pers. comm., 1997) is to place major alteration halos (colour coded) on
the base sheet and save the alteration overlay for background alteration. This allows the distinction to be main-
tained between mafic and feldspar mineral site, in the following manner: 1) diagonal NE-SW lines represent
alteration of mafics, and 2) diagonal NW-SE lines represent alteration of feldspars. The lines are color-coded
following the normal codes. The degree of alteration of individual mineral sites are denoted by how heavily
you apply the colour: solid lines denote 100 to 80% of that mineral site is altered, dashed lines indicate 5-80%
of that mineral site is altered, and dotted lines indicate <5% to trace amounts of that mineral site are occupied
by hydrothermal alteration products.

Limonite Overlay
This is a key overlay, because ultimately it will allow you to draw a map that displays the distribution and
relative abundance of the oxidation products of sulphides. The key minerals whose distribution and abundance
need to be mapped include the green copper carbonates and silicates, black copper pitch (tenorite), glassy li-
monite (pitch limonite), goethite, earthy hematite, and jarosite. Together with the alteration and vein maps,
the distribution of these minerals will allow you to say something about original sulphide zoning and about
secondary dispersion of metals. Without such information and geological interpretation, geochemical assays,
of soil and rock chip samples cannot be properly interpreted.
The colour codes and symbols used in mapping limonite minerals are summarized on the right-hand-side
of Figure 3 and in Figure 6 and detailed in section IV.C and VI.B (below). An interpretation of the original
sulphide distribution pattern, based on the limonites and the style of alteration and veins (shown for the same
outcrop on Figure 4) is illustrated on the left-hand-side of Figure 3.

Colour Codes Fig. 3 & Fig. 4

The separation of the mapping sheet into air side and rock side (or overlays for outcrop mapping) allows for
efficient use of colours: in the list below, 12 colours are used to record some 40 different mineralogical features
and structural features. The list is instructive because it indicates those features that can be mapped continu-
ously by hand-lens inspection of freshly-broken rock surfaces in igneous rocks related to porphyry systems.
Colours are identified by “Eagle Verithin” (or “Berol Verithin”) numbers. Simplification of the colour coding
for regional mapping is discussed in Section VI below.

Lithologic contacts and structure (recorded on rock side, plot true strike, dip)
black 1. Lithologic contacts: use your lead pencil (black).
dark blue 2. Faults (breccias, clays, and shears) and fault contacts: use indigo blue (741).
black 3. Foliation, joints, bedding: use your lead pencil (black).

Hypogene mineralization (veins/veinlets & disseminations). (Plot on rock side).

Schematic representation of mineral distribution in appropriate colour (Fig. 3 & Fig. 4). Dots for dissemina-
tions, random short lines for random veinlets (e.g., A-veins) or fracture coatings, continuous lines for through-
going veins (e.g., B- and D-veins). Care should be taken to approximate relative vein densities and relative
abundance of disseminated sulphides/oxides along the face by the density of colour added to map. Plot veins
and veinlets with true strike and indicate dips. Veins are drawn with colour of dominant mineral; additional
minerals indicated by dots along line; a vein-filling consisting of 50% quartz and 50% chalcopyrite, would be
drawn as a dashed orange and red line.

Sulphides/oxides (Fig. 3)
purple 1. bornite: purple (752)
red 2. chalcopyrite: carmine red (745)
dark green 3. molybdenite: green (739)
med yellow 4. pyrite: canary yellow (735)
black 5. magnetite, hematite: mapping pencil)
grey 6. specular hematite

Veinlet/vein fillings other than sulphides/oxides (Fig. 4)

orange 1. quartz: orange (737)
dark green 2. chlorite: green (739)
olive green 3. biotite: olive green (739 1/2)
yellow-green 4. epidote: light green (738 1/2)
Leached/oxide/supergene sulphides (plot on rock side).
Schematic drawings of textures, abundance, mineralogy, and degree of leaching. (Fig. 3)

Mineralogy
red 1. glassy limonite (conchoidal fractures, red internal
reflections): cannine red (745)
pastel green 2. oxide Cu minerals (malachite, tenorite. etc.): true
green (751)
dark brown 3. goethite (orange streak): brown (756)
reddish brown 4. earthy hematite (red streak); Tuscan red (...)
med yellow 5. jarosite (yellow to honey yellow crystals; pale yel-
low streak): canary yellow (735)
med blue 6. supergene chalcocite: medium blue
Symbols for degree of leaching in former sulphide sites (the most useful minerals are glassy limonite, goe-
thite, and hematite: jarosite and Cu oxide generally are transported/exotic and less useful):

black 1. total leaching, empty leached cavities (no Fe-oxides

left): black circles
brown 2. moderate leaching (limonite-rimmed cavities):
brown circles
brown 3. weak leaching (limonite pseudomorphs and/or
boxworks): brown dots
red 4. very weak leaching of chalcopyrite sites (glassy li-
monite): red dots Exotic oxides on fractures are de-
noted by random, short lines (brown for goethite,
true green for copper oxides).

Alteration of hornblende
Alteration of hornblende (and/or biotite) sites, (recorded on air side in innermost column next to baseline; if
alteration occurs as a distinct halo on a fracture or veinlet plot the alteration colour as a line extending outward
from base line on air side, Fig. 4).

black 1. fresh hornblende (dark black, glassy, good cleavage visible): write lower
case h‘s
dark-green 2. chloritized hornblende (no shreddy texture that might imply that the
hbl had first been biotitized): green <739) (pervasive chloritization use
solid green line; partially chloritized use dashed green line; local chlorite
use dots).
yellow-green 3. epidotized hornblende: use light green (738 1/2)
olive-green 4. biotitized hornblende (shreddy biotite occupying the hbl site): olive
green (739 1/2) (solid, dashed and dotted to indicate degree of biotization).
dark-green 5. chloritized biotitized-hornblende (chloritic alteration superimposed on
biotitic; this is a tough call!): olive green (739 1/2) with dark green dots
(739)
dark brown 6. sericitized and/or argillized mafic minerals (tan- or white-coloured
pseudomorphs after mafic mineral sites including mixtures of sericite,
clays, leucoxene): brown (756)
black 7. mafic sites absent or only leucoxene visible: use lead pencil (black).
 „Ore“ Minerals
Plotted on Rock Side

Vein/Vnlt Diss‘d Sulfide Oxide Diss‘d Vein/Vnlt

pyrite jarosite

NONE earthy hematite

NONE goethite increased leaching

NONE copper oxides

chalcopyrite glassy limonite

bornite NONE

magnetite
magnetite (relict)

specular hematite
specular hm (relict)

Hypogene Sulphides Oxidized Equivalents

Rock Side Rock Side

glassy limonite,
chalcopyrite+ Cu-ox, gothite
bornite

goethite pseudo-
morphs & goethite-
pyrite+ lined cavities
chalcopyrite

pyrite

gothite-lined cavaties,
leached cavaties,
earthy hematite,
and jarosite

Fig. 3: Color Codes and styles for mapping “ore” minerals

Alteration of feldspar sites (recorded on air side, outer column)

Intensity of colour application in this column denotes degree of alteration; if alteration occurs as a distinct
halo on a fracture or veinlet, plot the alteration colour as a line extending outward from base line on air side,
Fig. 4.
 magenta 1. of plagioclase to secondary K-spar (pinkish-laven-
der hue in groundmass and in plagioclase sites): ma-
genta (759)
med yellow 2. of orthoclase and plagioclase to secondary Na-spar
(hard, white feldspars with cleavage preserved: yellow
(735)
NOTE: feldspar colour is not in every case diagnostic of feldspar type! Use
thin-sections as back-up. Even if that white feldspar turns out to be K-spar,
you will have recorded the attribution of white K-spar!
yellow-green 3. of feldspars to epidote: use light green (738 1/2)
dark brown 4. of feldspars to sericite and/or clays: use brown (756)
none 4a. fresh feldspars: if feldspar is hard, clear, glassy,
dark, good cleavage: leave column blank.
dark brown 4b. incipiently sericitized feldspars: if moderately
hard, pale-coloured, good cleavage (e.g., „bleached“,
but bard): sparse brown (756) dots.
NOTE: incipient alteration of feldspars to “clays” is difficult to distinguish
from albitization and these two alteration types can occur together; use
thin-section back-up.
dark brown 4c. moderately sericitized feldspars: if partially soft,
while to pale colours, cleavage present: closely spaced
brown (756) dots.
dark brown 4d. highly sericitized feldspars: if soft white to pale
colours, no cleavage, but outline of original feldspar
is preserved (rock-texture preserved): continuous
brown (756) line applied lightly
dark brown 4e. pervasive and total hydrolysis: if soft, white to pale
colours, rock texture largely obliterated: continuous
brown (756) line applied heavily.
NOTE: in rocks containing both plagioclase and orthoclase phenocrysts.
because these react differently to acidic solutions, keep track of orthoclase
sites separately (in a third column). This allows the distinction to be made
between intermediate argillic and advanced argillic alteration.

Weathering products: how to map and recognize them

In mapping altered rocks in surface exposures, most of the time we are struggling to read through surface
weathering to understand 1) the degree to which metals have been leached, transported, and redeposited by
surface waters, and 2) the original hypogene (hydrothermal) distributions of wall-rock alteration and ore min-
erals. How do we read through all that punky clay?

Distinguishing between Hypogene versus supergene alteration

It is especially difficult to differentiate between hypogene and supergene alteration types in weathered rocks
that contained abundant pyrite. This is because the sulphuric acid generated by oxidative weathering of pyrite
attacks minerals (especially plagioclase) and converts them to various new mineral assemblages that can be
similar to forms of hypogene intermediate argillic alteration (e.g., montmorillonite. kaolinite) or even acid-sul-
phate (advanced argillic) alteration (e. g.. kaolinite. alunite). The latter is especially true in rocks that originally
contained pyrite veins with qtz-ser-py halos (e.g., D-veins), but where the halos did not overlap. On weather-
ing, the rock in between the halos can be converted to a supergene qtz-kaolinite assemblage and alunite may
precipitate in open fractures. The end result, a rock containing quartz, kaolinite, sericite, and alunite, can be
mistaken for hydrothermal advanced argillic alteration. How, then, can one distinguish between hydrothermal
argillic alteration and argillic weathering? Although not in every case definitive, the following observations
can help in making the distinction:
1. In igneous rocks with original alkali-feldspar, the presence of relic cores of alkali feldspar phenocrysts
would suggest that the rock had not undergone pervasive advanced argillic (or even pervasive sericitic)
alteration. Alkali feldspar does not survive either pervasive sericitic alteration or advanced argillic al-
teration at hydrothermal temperatures. However, even in very acidic weathering environments, alkali
feldspar commonly survives (in contrast with plagioclase, which goes readily to montmorillonite or ka-
olinite). One always needs to consider veins halos and background alteration separately in making these
distinctions.
2. In igneous rock lacking alkali feldspar, the call is much more difficult. In such rocks, the presence of
moderate to abundant amounts of montmorillonite (rather than sericite-kaolinite) would indicate lack of
intense hypogene sericitic or advanced argillic alteration. The montmorillonite could be the result either
of hypogene intermediate argillic alteration or weathering. Again, make separate observations for halos
and background alteration.
3. The presence of magnetite in punky clay-rich rocks is suggestive of clay alteration due to weathering
because hypogene clay alteration (e.g., intermediate argillic) generally converts magnetite to hematite +
rutile and/or pyrite. This underlines the importance of mapping magnetite abundance in all outcrops
(also serves as a basis for interpretation of geophysical data).
4. In rocks that originally contained relatively coarse-grained biotite, the presence of fresh-looking brown
biotite in otherwise argillized rock is suggestive of weathering. Like magnetite, biotite can survive weath-
ering relatively unscathed, but is readily converted to chlorite + clays during intermediate argillic .altera-
tion, at hydrothermal temperatures.
5. Intense sericitic alteration occurring as halos generally can be recognized even in intensely weathered
outcrops. This is because the mixture of sericite and quartz in such halos is very resistant to weathering (it
is stable in acid environments) and stands out as resistant grey ribs in punky clay-altered rocks. On first
inspection, these ribs may look like grey quartz veins, but recognition of relict rock texture and the fact
that it can be scratched (though much harder than punky argillized rocks) gives them away.
The presence of high-temperature forms of clay minerals, such as dickite (well-crystallized kaolinite) and
pyrophyllite are diagnostic of hydrothermal advanced argillic alteration because they are stable only at tem-
peratures above about 270°C. This underlines the importance of submitting samples for mineral identification
(do your own preliminary mineral separation by plucking out clay-rich portions of the rock or actual feldspar
sites, rather than submitting a whole-rock for XRD).
6. Hypogene versus supergene alunite. Textures and association of alunite can be diagnostic of hypogene
versus supergene origin of this mineral:

Feature Supergene Hypogene

veins Alunite in open fractures without Alunite in association with hy-
other minerals (e.g., monominer- drothermal minerals in veins (e.g.
alic alunite. possibly with chalce- with quartz, pyrophyllite. barite,
donic or opaline silica & jarosite etc.)

alteration halos Lack of halos on alunite veins presence of hydrolytic alteration

halos on alunite-bearing veins
sulphides lack of evidence of former sul- evidence that sulphides were pres-
phides associated with alunite ent intergrown with alunite
textures massive, porcelanous fine- and coarse-grained
colour white, yellow, mixed with jarosite white, yellow, pink
 Non-Ore Minerals

Air Side Rock Side

Wall-Rock Alteration Minerals Vein-Filling Minerals
vein Halos Pervasive

silica quartz

biotite biotite
(secondary) (secondary)

K-feldspar K-feldspar
(secondary) (secondary)

Na-Feldspar Na-Feldspar
(secondary) (secondary)

epidote epidote

chlorite chlorite

sericite, clays sericite, clays

Pervasive Alteration & Halos Pervasive Alteration & Halos

Air Side Ks
ha par
epidote Rock Side
Kspar
lo
s
Outer Column:
alt‘n in f-spar-sites bio-mag-vnlts
se biotite clays, sericite
ha ricit halos
los e
qtz-mag-(Ksp)
chlorite veins

sericite, clays
Inner Column:
alt‘n in mafic-sites
qtz-veins
chlorite
shreaddy biotite

Fig. 4: Color Codes and styles for mapping alteration and vein minerals
 Hypogene
Notes
Air Side Rock Side
89

Notes
83

Notes
61

57
88
77

Notes

85

38
35 42

76

Oxidized/Weathered
Notes
Air Side Rock Side
89

Notes
83

Notes
61

57
88
77

Notes

85

38
35 42

76

Fig. 5: Examples of Color codes and styles for mapping unoxidized (hypogene) and oxidized (supergene) ex-
posures
Leached and oxidized outcrops
In addition to the factors outlined above, then: are techniques focused on the “limonites” that are very useful
in broadly outlining original, hypogene patterns of alteration and mineralization. These follow directly from
the geochemistry of leached and partly leached outcrops, as discussed in Kinaudi (1995).
7. Keeping track of the degree of leaching of primary sulphide sites is useful in order to reconstruct both
hypogene sulphide zoning and alteration zoning. Sericitic zones leach to a greater degree than potassic
zones. The degree of leaching can be recorded during mapping (see section „Leached/oxide/supergene
sulphides (plot on rock side).“): increasing degrees of leaching are recognized by the sequence:
• glassy limonite: lowest degree of leaching; copper still present in glassy limonite and in mala-
chite and/or tenorite; indicates absence of abundant pyrite and neutral surface waters; potassic or propy-
litic alteration typical.
• goethite pseudomorphs: low degree of leaching of Cu and Fe in near-neutral environments as-
sociated with potassic protores (or propylitic fringes, but these with less or no glassy limonite. lack of A,
B veins, etc.);
• goethite boxworks: leaching increasing
• partly leached cavities (rimmed with goethite or hematite): indicative of high pyrite to chalco-
pyrite ratios, likely that sericitic alteration is present; Cu-oxides and carbonates unlikely.
• partly leached cavities, increasing hematite to goethite ratios indicates increasingly acid condi-
tions; all Cu leached, most of the Fe leached.
• leached cavities (in some cases filled with jarosite or alunite) represent high degree of leach-
ing in very acid environments: sericitic or advanced argillic alteration, acid-sulphate zones, silica-pyrite-
alunite ledges, vuggy silica; Cu-oxides & carbonates absent
All of these forms of limonites (but mainly the goethites) are termed “indigenous”, on the basis of texture as
indicating in-situ oxidation of original sulphide sites.
8. “Glassy limonite” is a term applied to amorphous Fe-hydroxide that commonly contains copper; this
phase is important because it denotes very low degrees of leaching (copper still present) and is character-
ise of weathering of potassic protores (lots of K-spar and little or no pyrite. hence little acid generation).
Mapping the distribution of glassy limonite can help to delineate the chalcopyrite-(bornite) zone and
commonly this represents the zone of highest hypogene Cu-(Au) grade. It is an indigenous limonite.
Glassy limonite has the following characteristics:
• glassy looking, like obsidian
• conchoidal fracture
• dark blackish brown to black
• bright ruby-red internal reflections in sunlight
• grain size and morphology that mimics chalcopyrite.
9. Relict sulphides locked in unbroken quartz. An aid in delineating original distributions of sulphide as-
semblages is to make polished sections of quartz collected throughout the leached cap. Study under the
microscope in reflected light may reveal unoxidized sulphides that have survived the leaching process.
10. Exotic limonites are all the limonites that do not represent original sulphide sites. The iron has been
transported in solution in surface waters and precipitated along fractures in the rock. Exotic limonites
can be distinguished from indigenous limonites by the lack of pseudomorphs or boxworks after sulphide,
by their presence on random fractures that are part of the regolith and that cut all hydrothermal frac-
tures, and by their characteristic appearance as massive coatings and “paints”, commonly with botryoidal
and chatoyant surfaces (if goethite). Some exotic goethite takes on a glassy appearance, but it can be dis-
tinguished from glassy limonite by the fact that the glassy material is only on the surface of the coating
(you can‘t “see” into it).
 An important point is that mapping of total abundance of limonites does not reveal the original sulphide
content of the rock (a rock with 10% exotic limonite contained less sulphide than a rock with 1% indigenous
limonite); keep track of relative abundance of indigenous and exotic limonites and their mineralogy.

Reconnaissance: What to retain from the Detailed Mapping Scheme.

Reconnaissance mapping for porphyry-type deposits needs to focus on the standard features of lithology and
structure and on some additional key features. These are listed below in order of importance. The list largely
is based on those features that survive weathering, even in highly acid-generating environments. Wall-rock
alteration, especially the “argillic” types, needs to be de-emphasized! Recon mapping focused on porphyry
targets can be done efficiently with only five colour pencils: blue for faults, red for porphyries, orange for quartz
veins, green for shreddy biotite, and brown for limonites.

Rock description,
Especially “productive” porphyries, including colour, textures, and grain size and % of each mineral in the
rock. In porphyry exploration, the characteristics of the “productive porphyry” have to be understood and
looked for ~50% fine-grained (<0.2 mm) aplitic (more rarely aphanitic) groundmass. ~50% phenocrysts rang-
ing from 1 to 3 mm. If quartz phenos are present they are rounded and embayed (qtz eyes). The significance
and importance of this rock texture needs more emphasis. It is so important, that you could consider assigning
a special colour (red?) to this rock type!

Quartz veins and veinlets

Mapping Quartz veins and veinlets including their abundance and structural attitudes: At 1:5000-scale, one
obviously cannot “map all the veinlets”, but the key sets have to be identified and representative strikes and
dips plotted on the map. Abundance can be estimated and written down for each outcrop. The importance of
quartz veins and veinlets in regional recon stems from two factors: (1) we know the close correlation between
grade and quartz veins in porphyry-type deposits, and (2) quartz veins survive weathering and remain in
outcrop as unambiguous evidence of hydrothermal activity. Quartz veins are so important that they also are
worthy of a special colour during mapping (orange?).

Limonite assemblages
Limonite assemblages need to be emphasized. Each outcrop should be assessed for proportions of glassy
limonite, goethite, earthy hematite, jarosite, tenorite, and green Cu carbonates/silicates. Proportions can be
visually recorded by a colour code for each of these minerals, or by assigning ratios in pre-assigned order.
In recon, I would choose the latter approach. In mapping a prospect that is being drilled, I would use colour
codes. Limonites typically are well-zoned and represent an excellent targeting tool.

Relative abundance of indigenous and exotic Fe and Cu oxides

Relative abundance of indigenous and exotic Fe and Cu oxides also needs to be estimated. Each outcrop
needs to receive a number mat indicates the geologist‘s assessment of whether the Cu assays represent trans-
ported copper or “in-place” copper.

Biotite distribution patterns, especially of “shreddy biotite”

Biotite distribution patterns, especially of “shreddy biotite” are useful to delineate zones of potassic altera-
tion, which in many porphyry systems can represent the ore target. Biotite in fine-grained biotized andesite
may not out-live weathering, but coarser-grained biotite that has replaced hornblende in hornblende andesites
or in hbl-bearing tonalite porphyries commonly survives weathering. In the case of hbl sites, if the biotite
doesn‘t survive, its characteristic „shreddy“ texture may survive.
Magnetite abundance
Magnetite abundance needs to be recorded by visual estimate and magnetic susceptibility measurements.

Posting Sheets (Fact Maps) and Interpretations: The “Folio”

Field sheets are transferred to three separate posting sheets. A base posting-sheet serves as the basis for draw-
ing an interpretive geological map with lithologies, structure, and veins; an alteration posting-sheet serves as
the basis for drawing an alteration map, and a “limonite” or “ore” posting-sheet serves as the basis for drawing
a mineralization map. The posting sheets and the interpretive maps drawn from the posting sheets should re-
tain all of the structural information shown on the original field sheets. Transfer of dips of veins and faults to
the alteration and mineralization overlays is especially important, as this allows the geologist to document the
third dimension and to explore the structural control of alteration/mineralization patterns and the possibility
of post-ore offsets on faults. A map without any strike and dip symbols is not a geological map.

Posting sheets and follow-up Interpretation

Posting sheets and follow-up interpretation are two steps that go hand-in-hand with field mapping. Both of
these steps need to be taken routinely and in a timely fashion. The mapping project should not be considered
complete until such time as the posting sheet has been used to construct interpretive geologic base maps and
relevant overlays. A rough estimate is that 3 days of field mapping requires 1 day of transferring the mapping
to a posting sheet and doing the interpretive work.
1. Posting sheets should be kept up-to-date on a daily (or at least weekly) basis.
2. Once a significant area has been mapped, but well before mapping of the chosen area has been completed,
the geologist should begin to make interpretive overlays. These will be working hypotheses that will aid
him/her as s/he continues to map.
3. interpretation based on posting sheets should be done at the same scale as the posting sheets and should
retain all the structural detail recorded in the field, intimately, these working sheets will be reduced in or-
der to generate a smaller-scale map, but the important structural details need to be preserved at all scales
(I have seen too many geological maps that have no dip symbols, and that display photo linears instead of
faults actually mapped in the field).
4. The interpretive maps should be done by band in full colour.
5. The hand-drawn posting sheets, fully color-coded, represent a major investment of time and money. They
should be carefully archived, and the name(s) of the geologist(s) and dates of work should be written on
each.
Base Map: Lithology, Structure, Veins
Qtz-Diorite
x
x x
x x
qtz-ksar-(glassy
limonite) vns x bio-mt 89 x
x vnlts
x x
x 83 x
intrusive 61
contact x 57 x
+ x
Tonalite
porphyry +
x
+ 88 x
+
+ 77 53 x
1 m wide
fault bx + x pervasive
v 45
x biotiz‘n
v
v +
85
v v
v v
42 38 v
v v
35 v
v
v v
v 76 sericite
v v halos
v Kspar
v v v glassy limonite
v halos
v v
Andesite`
qtz-ser-chl
alt‘n

Cu-ox

Overlay #1: Alteration

leached py sites,
earthy hematite &
jarosite

indigenouse
goethite

Overlay #2: Limonites

Fig. 6: Overlays for Outcrop mapping

The Folio.
The following types of information should be displayed in a folio set derived from the field mapping phase:
1. Base map: lithologies, strike and dips of bedding, faults, contacts, major veins.
2. Each overlay is drawn on a grayscale version of the base map, so that they “stand alone” (e.g., lithologic
contacts, faults, etc., are visible without having to overlay the overlay on the base map).
3. Vein overlay: all large veins and representative veinlet sets (color-coded to dominant mineral) plotted to
true strike, illustrative dips indicated; vein abundance contoured.
4. Limonite overlay: distribution of glassy limonite, goethite, earthy hematite, jarosite, tenorite, and green
copper oxides. Colour applied to indicate relative abundance (absent low, moderate, high). Areas of domi-
nantly exotic versus dominantly indigenous limonites and Cu-oxides should be identified. Based on map-
ping of limonites, areas of pyrite-dominance versus chalcopyrite-dominance should be outlined.
 5. Magnetite overlay: Illustrate the distribution of magnetite, disseminated, vein/veinlet, or replacement
and contour for abundance.
6. Alteration overlay: emphasis on minerals rather than alteration types; try simply showing limits of min-
erals such as secondary biotite, chlorite, epidote, clays, sericite, silica ledges, jasperoids, etc. Finally, with
regard to folios, a complete folio also includes topography, geochemical and geophysical data and data
interpretations. In their relation to the geological maps, the following points are important:
7. The magnetite overlay produced during the field mapping phase (and which could include magnetic sus-
ceptibility measurements on the outcrop) can be used to interpret ground and airborne magnetics.
8. The raw geochemical data on soil, stream sediment or rock-chip samples, should be geologically inter-
preted and hand-drawn by the geologist who generated the geological maps and overlays discussed above.
The patterns of grade distribution should reflect his/her concepts of grade control. Computer generated
contour maps of assay results should be used only if there is no geological mapping available.

Composite maps: exploration models and drill targeting:

The final and very important product, or raison d’être, of the folio is the composite of key features. Examples
of this approach are given by Figure 7 (Pancho, Maricunga region, northern Chile) and Figure 8 (Batu Hijau.
Sumbawa Island, Indonesia).
Refugio district: Figure 7 is re-drawn from portions of a folio that was completed during mapping of the
porphyry Au-Cu prospect at Pancho (Refugio district, Maricunga region, Chile) by John Muntean in 1994-
95. The folio displays the following features: lithologies, faults, alteration types, vein abundance (A-B veinlets,
banded veinlets), and hand-contoured rock-chip geochemistry for gold. We attempted to pull out of this data
set the key features that would help target a drill hole into the centre of the ore It is clear from figure 8 that the
outer limit of banded veinlets outlines the +0.5 ppm Au zone. Additionally, the following is evident: the in-
nermost 1/2 of the gold zone is identified by the presence of potassic alteration and AB quartz veinlets and the
outer 1/2 of the gold zone is identified by the disappearance of AB quartz veinlets and appearance of abundant
banded veinlets. Further, quartz-alunite veins lie outside the zone of +0.S ppm Au, and sericitic & intermedi-
ate argillic alteration does not serve as a useful targeting tool. The result is a composite map that displays the
main features of the prospect that would help to target on the gold zone. The composite becomes a useful tool
not only in further exploration at Pancho, but in further exploration in tin-Maricunga area and in establishing
a genetic model for these unusually high Au/Cu porphyries.
 sericite,
kaolinite

feldspar stable

>0.5 ppm Au

limit of
abundant AB
s
nic qtz-veinlets
lca
vo ry
r p hy limit of
po ton banded
plu veins

100m

Fig. 7: Pancho: Key zoning features. Based on mapping by J. Muntean 1994-95

Batu Hijau: Figure 8 is re-drawn from portions of a folio that was one of the projects completed during a
mapping course held at Batu Hijau in March 1996. The folio displays the following features: lithologies, faults,
three classes of quartz vein abundance, and hand-contoured soil geochemistry for copper and for gold. Ad-
ditionally, we had available a 1:10.000 scale alteration map. We attempted to pull out of this data set the key
features that would help target a drill hole into the centre of the ore zone. It is clear from Figure 8 that the outer
limit of abundant quartz veins (~+5 vol %) outlines the +0.5 %Cu zone at depth. Additionally, the following is
evident:

Distance from +0.5% Cu

outermost edge of secondary biotite 300-400 m
outer limit of rare quartz veins 200 m
outer limit of moderate quartz veins (1-2%) 150 m
outer limit of abundant quartz veins (+5%) 0m
presence of porphyries 0m
In the absence of a drilled-out reserve, the composite map could show the limit of glassy limonite. Additional
features that should be displayed on a composite would be structural directions of quartz veins, limits of ser-
icitic alteration and other hydrothermal alteration types, and limits of indigenous limonites.
 A final exercise that can be done to aid in targeting is to generate a “coincidence” map. By this I mean that
there are certain features whose coincidence in space yields stronger evidence for a target than any individual
feature by itself. As an example, the following coincidences were used as indicators of the most favourable drill
targets at Batu Hijau (listed in order of increasing favourability):
A. Coincidence of abundant quartz veins and highest copper in soil
B. Coincidence of abundant quartz veins and highest gold in soil
C. Coincidence of A and B
The rationale for coincidence A is that a copper anomaly associated with abundant quartz veins is more likely
to represent indigenous (rather than transported) copper. Had we had the data, we would have used coinci-
dence of quartz veins with glassy limonite and with highest rock chip copper. Coincidence C reinforces A and
B. All the targets based on coincidence C overlie the +0.5% Cu zone at depth.

o 2

o 3

o 1
tonalite
porphyry

Abundant
Quartz veins
N
+0.5 % Cu
at 307 mRL

outer Limit of
secondary Biotite

location of first three drill

o1 holes (discovery holes) 500 meters

Fig. 8: Batu Hijau: key zoning Features. Based on mapping by R. Gonzalez and Batu Hijau Mapping Course,
March 1996