19 Wave motion

Types of waves
A pulse is a single disturbance that propagates from one point to a next. As the pulse passes, as in the
rope or slinky spring in Figure 19.1, for example, each particle mimics the vibration at the source.

propagation
single vibration left right
of rope rope

propagation
push
single vibration
slinky
of slinky pull

Figure 19.1 A pulse in a rope and in a slinky

A wave is a continuous stream of regular disturbances.

Transverse and longitudinal waves

Waves may be classified as being either transverse or longitudinal.
A transverse wave is one that has vibrations perpendicular to its direction of propagation.

Examples of transverse waves

• The wave produced in a rope or slinky lying on a horizontal surface and vibrated from one end,
perpendicularly to its length (see Figures 19.2 and 19.3).
• The wave produced in water by an object vibrated perpendicularly into and out of its surface.
• An electromagnetic wave, for example light.

propagation
before
source
vibration after

particle motion

Figure 19.2 Particle motion in a transverse wave

source
vibration fixed end

Figure 19.3 Transverse wave in a slinky

A longitudinal wave is one that has vibrations parallel to its direction of propagation.
Longitudinal waves are characterised by regions of high pressure (compressions) and regions of low
pressure (rarefactions), indicated by C and R in Figures 19.4 and 19.5.

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 Examples of longitudinal waves
• The sound wave produced in a solid, liquid or gas (see Figure 19.4).
• The wave produced in a slinky lying straight on a horizontal surface and vibrated parallel to its
length from one end (see Figure 19.5).

propagation
C
C R
R
C
R
C
loudspeaker

particle motion

Figure 19.4 Particle motion and pressure variation in a longitudinal sound wave

propagation

source
vibration

C R C R C

Figure 19.5 Longitudinal wave in a slinky

Progressive and stationary waves

Waves may also be classified is either being progressive or stationary.
Progressive waves are those that transfer energy from one point to the next.
Stationary waves do not transfer energy. These waves are not on the CSEC syllabus.

Wave parameters
• Amplitude, a: The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of the vibration or oscillation
from its mean position.
See Figure 19.6.
If the amplitude of a light wave increases, the light becomes brighter.
If the amplitude of a sound wave increases, the sound becomes louder.

displacement

0
position

Figure 19.6 Amplitude, a

• Phase: Points in a progressive wave are in phase if the distance between them along the direction of
propagation is equal to a whole number of wavelengths, λ: 0λ, 1λ, 2λ, and so on.
See Figure 19.7.
When points are in phase in a progressive wave they have the same displacement, direction and
speed in their vibrations.

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 Points in a wave are in antiphase (exactly out of phase), when the distance between them along the
direction of propagation is equal to 12 λ, 1 12 λ, 2 12 λ, and so on.

B G L
A F K
C H J
E
D I

in phase: (A, F and K), (B, G and L), (C and H), (D and I), (E and J)
in antiphase: (B and D), (B and I), (C and E), (C and J), (D and G), etc.

Figure 19.7 Phase and antiphase

• Wavelength, λ: The wavelength is the distance between successive points in phase in a wave.

λ
λ
displacement λ
λ λ
λ
0
position
C R C R C R position

Figure 19.8 The wavelength λ of a transverse and a longitudinal wave

• Period, T: The wave period is the time for one complete vibration.
In Figure 19.9 the period is 200 ms = 0.2 s.
• Frequency, f: The wave frequency is the number of complete vibrations per second.
1 1
T= and f =
f T
T must be in seconds (s) for f to be in hertz (Hz).
1
If T = 0.2 s then f = = 5 Hz.
0.2
displacement

0
100 200 300 t/ms

Figure 19.9 A displacement–time graph for a wave

The frequency of a light wave determines its colour. Red has the lowest frequency and violet the
highest frequency of the visible spectrum.
The frequency of a sound wave determines its pitch. A bass note has a low frequency and a treble
note has a high frequency.
• Wavefront: This is a line perpendicular to the propagation of a wave on which all points are
in phase. Wavefronts are generally taken through crests of transverse waves and through
compressions of longitudinal waves, as illustrated in Figure 19.10. Figure 19.11(a) shows the
reflection of plane wavefronts at a barrier.

wavefront
wavefront

Figure 19.10 Wavefronts of transverse and longitudinal waves

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 • Speed, v: This is the rate at which the wavefronts of a wave propagate, and it depends on the
medium of propagation. At a boundary between media the speed changes and the wave undergoes
refraction (Figure 19.11(b)).

barrier
plane
plane
source
source

X Y

a b speed of waves in Y < speed of waves in X

Figure 19.11 Reflection and refraction of plane wavefronts

Variation of the speed of waves

The speed of light is greater in media of lesser density. Light therefore travels fastest in a vacuum or in
air and slower in water or glass.
The speed of sound is greater through gases of lesser density. Molecules of lesser mass respond
more readily to vibrations than those of greater mass. Sound therefore travels faster through air than
through carbon dioxide.
The speed of sound is greatest through solids, less in liquids and least in gases. The closer packing of the
particles and the rigidity of the bonds in a solid allows vibrations to transfer more readily. See Table 19.1.
The speed of sound through gases is greater at higher temperatures because the increased kinetic
energy allows the vibrations to be passed on more readily.
The speed of a water wave is greater across a deeper region.
Table 19.1 Speed of sound in steel, water and air
steel water air at 0 °C
–1
Speed/m s 5100 1500 330

General wave equations

λ
v = λf v=
T
v1 λ1 sin θ1 η2 ray
= = =
v2 λ2 sin θ2 η1 normal
where η represents the refractive index of a medium λ1 MEDIUM 1
θ1
(see Chapter 24), and θ1 and θ2 are as shown in θ1 θ1
θ2 θ2 interface
Figure 19.12.
θ2
Figure 19.12 shows in detail the change in direction wavefront
of wavefronts when the wave is refracted. Note MEDIUM 2
the following: λ2

• θ1 and θ2 are the angles (of incidence and refraction

respectively) between RAYS and the NORMAL or
between WAVEFRONTS and the INTERFACE. Figure 19.12 Change in direction of
waves on refraction

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 • The speed, v, wavelength, λ, and sin θ, all change by the same proportion when the wave goes
into a new medium. If v doubles, then λ and sin θ also double. The angle θ will not double, but
will increase.
• T and f do not change when a wave passes from one medium to the next.
• When using the equations in calculations it is a good idea to use relevant letters as subscripts
rather than numbers – for example, vw for the speed in water and vg for the speed in glass. This
reduces errors due to incorrect substitution into an otherwise correct equation.
• In the third equation above, the ratio of refractive indices has its subscripts inverted relative to
the other three ratios.

Calculate the wavelength of the broadcast from a radio station which emits waves of frequency
Example 1

104.1 MHz, given that the speed of the wave is 3.0 × 108 m s–1.
v = λf
3.0 × 108 = λ × 104.1 × 106
3.0 × 108 = λ
104.1 × 106
2.9 m = λ
Example 2

A water wave has a speed of 3.0 m s–1 and its crests are 5.0 m apart. It approaches a reef at an
angle of incidence of 60°. On passing over it, the distance between its crests reduces to 4.0 m.
Determine for the wave:
a the frequency in the deeper water
b the period in the deeper water
c the frequency as it passes over the reef (shallow)
d the period as it passes over the reef
e the speed as it passes over the reef
f the angle of refraction on reaching the reef
g the refractive index on travelling from the deep to the shallow.

a v = λf
3.0 = 5.0f
3.0
=f
5.0
0.60 Hz = f
1 1
b T= =
f 0.60
T = 1.67 s (1.7 s to 2 sig. fig.)
c 0.60 Hz (frequency does not change)
d 1.7 s (period does not change)
e Using s for ‘shallow’ and d for ‘deep’:
vs λs
=
vd λd
vs 4.0
=
3.0 5.0
4.0
vs = × 3.0
5.0
vs = 2.4 m s−1

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 sin θs λs
f =
sin θd λd
sin θs 4.0
=
sin 60 5.0
4.0
sin θs = × sin 60
5.0
θs = 44°
g When referring to refractive index of one medium relative to the next, the second medium
must be in the numerator.
ηs λd
=
ηd λs
ηs 5.0
=
ηd 4.0
ηs
= 1.25
ηd

Graphs of waves
Displacement–position graph
A displacement–position graph relates the displacement of each point in a wave to the distance or
position from some reference point at ONE INSTANT IN TIME (the time is held fixed). See Example 3.

Figure 19.13 shows a wave of speed 32 m s–1 at an instant in time. Determine:

Example 3

a the amplitude b the wavelength c the frequency d the period

displacement/mm The x-axis gives

the wavelength.
speed 32 m s−1
5.0

0 position/cm
40 80 120
−5.0

Figure 19.13
a Amplitude = 5.0 mm
b Wavelength = 80 cm or 0.80 m
c Frequency f:
v = λf
v 32
f= = = 40 Hz
λ 0.80
d Period T:
1 1
T= = = 0.025 s
f 40

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 Displacement–time graph
A displacement–time graph relates the displacement of ONE POINT in the wave as time continues
(the position is held fixed). See Example 4.

Figure 19.14 shows a wave of speed 40 m s–1. Determine:

Example 4

a the amplitude of particle P b the displacement of particle P c the period

d the frequency e the wavelength

displacement / mm

speed 40 m s−1 The x-axis gives

10.0 the period.

5.0

0 time / ms
100 200 300
−5.0
P
−10.0

Figure 19.14
a Amplitude of P = 10.0 mm
b Displacement of P = –5.0 mm
c Period = 200 ms or 0.200 s
d Frequency f:
1 1
f= = = 5.00 Hz
T 0.200
e Wavelength λ:
v = λf
v 40
λ= = = 8.0 m
f 5.00

Important notes
• Displacement–position and displacement–time graphs of waves have the shape of transverse
waves, but they can represent both transverse and longitudinal waves. Recall that graphs are a
mathematical means of relating two variables – they are not pictures.
• Pressure–position and pressure–time graphs always represent longitudinal waves. Recall that these
waves have regions of high and low pressure – compressions and rarefactions.
• The mean value on the vertical axis of a pressure–time graph of a sound wave (see Figure 19.15) is
not zero, as it is with a graph of displacement.

pressure / Pa
pressure at 1.1 × 105
compression

atmospheric
pressure 1.0 × 105 time / ms
100 200 300

pressure at
0.9 × 105
rarefaction

Figure 19.15 Pressure–time graph of a sound wave

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 Revision questions
1 What is meant by each of the following terms describing waves?
a longitudinal wave
b transverse wave
c progressive wave
2 Give TWO examples of a transverse wave and TWO examples of a longitudinal wave.

3 Define the following terms associated with waves:

a wavelength b amplitude c frequency d period e wavefront
4 How does the speed of the wave change in each of the following situations?
a Light wave travels from glass to air.
b Water wave travels from a deep region to a shallow region.
c Sound wave travels from air to a denser gas.
d Sound wave travels from air to water.
5 Give reasons for your answers to 4c and 4d above.

6 Calculate the frequency of blue light in air given that its wavelength and speed are
4.0 × 10–7 m and 3.0 × 108 m s–1 respectively.

7 The speed of a wave reduces from 40 m s–1 to 32 m s–1 on entering a second medium.
The angle of incidence is 30° and the period of vibration is 0.40 s. Determine for
the wave:
a the frequency
b the wavelength in the first medium
c the wavelength in the second medium
d the angle of refraction.
8 The wave shown in the graph of Figure 19.16 has a speed of 4.0 m s–1. Determine:
a its period b its frequency c its amplitude d its wavelength

displacement /cm

5.0

0 time / ms
25 50 75
−5.0

Figure 19.16

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