BIO 325 – MIDTERM 1 NOTES

CHAPTER 1
Chapter 1
An Introduction to the Human Body
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
1. define the terms anatomy and physiology.
2. define the following levels of structural organization: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system
and organism.
3. identify the 11 systems of the human body, list representative organs of each system, and
describe the major functions of each system.
4. identify the basic life processes of the human body.
5. define the term homeostasis, and explain the effects of stress on homeostasis.
6. describe the components of a feedback system.
7. compare the operation of negative and positive feedback systems.
8. explain the relationship between homeostasis and disease.
9. describe the anatomical position, and compare common and anatomical terms used to
describe various regions of the human body.
10. define the terms describing directions and anatomical planes used in association with the
human body.
11. list, by name and location, the principal body cavities and the organs contained within them.

Keywords and Topics

Make certain that you can define, and use in context, each of the terms listed below, and that you
understand the significance of each of the concepts.
1. Define the terms anatomy and physiology.
A. Anatomy – the science of the body structures and the relationships among them (ana =
up, tomy = cutting)
B. Dissection –the careful cutting apart of body structures to study their relationships
(dis=apart, section=act of cutting)
C. Physiology – the science of body functions – how the body works (physio = nature, logy
= study of)

2. Define the following levels of structural organization: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system,
and organism.
A. chemical level
I. atom – smallest unit of matter that participate in chemical reactions
II. molecule – two or more atoms joined together
B. cellular level
I. cell – molecules form cells which are the basic structural and functional units of
an organism that are composed of chemicals
C. tissue level
I. tissue – are groups of cells and the materials surrounding them that work
together to perform a particular function
D. organ level
I. organ –composed of two or more tissues, they have specific functions and
recognizable shapes
E. system level
I. system – consists of related organs with a common function
F. organismal level
 I. organism—all the parts of the human body functioning together

Chemical level (letter)—includes atoms and molecules (two atoms joined together) examples
are C, H, O, N, Ca, S, molecules are DNA or glucose
Cellular level (word)—molecules combine to form cells (smallest living unit of the human
body) examples are muscle cells, nerve cells, epithelial cells
Tissue level (sentence)—are groups of cells and the material around them that work together
to perform a particular function. Examples are epithelial tissue (covers body surfaces, lines
hollow organs and cavities and forms glands), connective tissue (connects, supports, and
protects body organs while distributing blood vessels to other tissues), muscle tissue
(contracts to make body parts move and generates heat), and nervous tissue (carries
information from one part of the body to another through nerve impulses)
Organ level (paragraphs)—different types of tissues are joined together (organs are
structures composed of two or more types of tissues, they have specific functions and
recognizable shapes).
System level (chapters)—consists of related organs with a common function. Sometimes an
organ can be part of more than one system (ex: pancreas is a part of the digestive system and
the endocrine system)
Organismal level (book)—all the parts of the human body functioning together.

3. Identify the 11 systems of the human body, list representative organs of each system, and
describe the major functions of each system.
A. systems:
integumentary—components are skin, hair, nails, sweat and oil glands. Function is
protecting body, help regulate temperature, eliminates some waste, helps make vit d,
detects sensations such as pain, touch, warmth and cold, stores fat and provides
insulation
skeletal—components are bones and joints and cartilages. Function is to support and
protect body, provides surface area for muscles to attach, aids body movements,
houses cells that produce blood cells, stores minerals and lipids.
Muscular—components are skeletal muscle tissue (usually attached to bones). Function
is body movements (ex walking), maintains posture and produces heat
Nervous—components are the brain spinal cord, nerves and special sense organs like
eyes and ears. Function is to generate action potentials to regulate body activates,
detect changes in body’s internal and external environments, interprets changes and
responds by causing muscular contractions or glandular secretions.
Endocrine—components are hormone producing glands (ex pineal gland,
hypothalamus, thyroid gland, pituitary gland, thymus, parathyroid gland, adrenal glands,
pancreas, ovaries and testes, as well as hormone-producing cells in several other
organs. Functions are to regulate body activities by releasing hormones (chemical
messengers transported in blood from endocrine glad or tissue to target organ.
Cardiovascular—components are blood, heart, and blood vessels. Function that heart
pumps blood through vessels, blood carries O2 and nutrients to cells and CO2 and
wastes away from cells and helps regulate acid-base balance, temperature, and water
content of body fluids, blood components help defend against disease and repair
damaged blood vessels.
Lymphatic—components are lymphatic fluid and vessels, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes
and tonsils, cells that carry out immune responses (b cells, t cells and others). Function
is to return proteins and fluid to blood, carry lipids from gastrointestinal tract to
blood, contains sites of maturations and proliferations of b cells and t cells that protect
against disease-causing microbes.
 Respiratory—components are lungs and air pathways (ex pharynx <throat>, larynx
<voice box>, trachea <windpipe>, and bronchial tubes leading into and out of lungs.
Function is to transfer oxygen from inhaled air to blood and co2 from blood to exhaled
air, helps regulates acid-base balance of body fluids, air flowing out of lungs though
vocal cords produce sound.
Digestive—components are organs of gastrointestinal tract, a long tube that includes
the moth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines and anus. It also
includes accessory organs that assist in digestive process such as salivary glands, liver,
gallbladders, and pancreas. Function is to achieve physical and chemical breakdown of
food, absorb nutrients, eliminate solid wastes.
Urinary—Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra. Function is to produce, store
and eliminate urine, eliminate wastes and regulate volume and chemical
composition of blood. Also, to help maintain the acid-base balance of body fluids,
maintains body’s mineral balance, helps regulate production of red blood cells.
Reproductive—gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females), associated organs
(uterine tubes/fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, and mammary glands in females and
epididymis, ductus or vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate and penis in males.
Function is for gonads to produce gametes (sperm or oocytes) that unite to form a
new organism. Gonads also release hormones that regulate reproduction and other
body processes. Associated organs transport and store gametes. Mammary glands
produce milk.
Note: Learn the major components and functions for each system.

4. Define the basic life processes of the human body.

A. Metabolism – the sum of all chemical process that occur in the body
I. Catabolism – (catabol= throwing down) the breakdown of complex chemical
substances into simper components (ex splitting proteins in food into amino
acids)
II. Anabolism – (anabol = a raising up) the building up of complex chemical
substances from small simpler components (using amino acids to anabolize
(build) new proteins that make up body structure such as muscles and bones)
B. Responsiveness—is the body’s ability to detect and respond to changes (ex: an
increase in body temperature during fever is a change in the internal environments,
turning your head towards sounds of brakes is response to external environment.
Different cells respond in different ways—nerve cells generate electrical signals (action
potentials), while muscles cells respond by contracting—making body parts move.
C. Movement—includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells and even
tiny structure inside cells. Ex: after you eat fats your gallbladder contracts and releases
bile into the gastrointestinal tract to help digest them. Or when body tissue is damaged
or infected certain white blood cells move the bloodstream into the affected tissue to
help clean up and repair the area. Inside cells, vesicles move around to carry out their
functions.
D. Growth—is an increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of existing
cells, an increase in number of cells or both. Sometimes increase in tissue size occurs
because of the amount of material between cells ex is growing bones, which has an
accumulation up of mineral deposits between bone cells causing bone to grown in
length and width.
E. Differentiation—is the development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized
state. Such as precursor cells, which can divide and give rise to cells that undergo
differentiation, those are known as stem cells. Each type of cell in the body has a
specializes structure or function that differed from that of its precursor cell (ex
red blood cells and some white blood cells all arise from same precursor cells in
 red bone marrow. Or fertilized human egg (ovum) develops into an embryo, then
fetus, infant, child, adult.
I. stem cells
F. Reproduction—is either the formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair or
replacements, OR the production of a new individual. The formations of new cells occur
through cell division. The production of a new individual occurs through the fertilization
of an ovum by a sperm cell to forma zygote – followed by repeated cell divisions and the
differentiation of these cells.
G. Autopsy—“seeing with one’s own eyes”
I. Necropsy—is a postmortem examination of the body and dissection of its internal
organs to confirm cause of death. It can uncover diseases, extent of injuries, and
explain how those things contributed to death. Can provide more information
about diseases etc., and reveal conditions that may affect offspring. Helps in
legal ways too-criminal cases and beneficiaries.

5. Define the term homeostasis, and explain the effects of stress on homeostasis.

A. Homeostasis – is the condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environments due to
the constant interactions of the body’s many regulatory processes. It is dynamic. Each
structure from the cellular level to the system level contributes in some way to keep the
internal environment within normal limits.
B. body fluids – dilute, watery solutions containing dissolved chemicals
I. intracellular fluid (ICF) – fluid within cells (body’s internal environment)
II. extracellular fluid (ECF) – fluid outside body cells
a. interstitial fluid = internal environment (ECF that fills narrow spaces
between cells of tissues)
b. blood plasma (ECF within blood vessels)
c. lymph (ECF within lymphatic vessels)
d. cerebrospinal fluid (ECF in and around the brain and spinal cord)
e. synovial fluid (ECF in joints)
f. aqueous humor (ECF of the eyes)
g. vitreous body (ECF of the eyes)

6. Describe the components of a feedback system.

A. control of homeostasis; nerve impulses and hormones—homeostasis is continually
being disturbed ex heat in summer, lack of o2 on a run (external), blood glucose levels
fall too low when you skip breakfast (internal enviro). Most of the time its mild but can be
intense and prolonged. Body can bring itself back to balance—via the nervous system
and endocrine system working together or independently. Nervous system regulates
homeo by sending nerve impulse (ap) to organs that can counteract changes from the
balances state. The endocrine system glands secrete messenger molecules called
hormones into the blood. Nerve changes are rapid, hormones are slower (usually
working via negative feedback systems).
B. feedback system (feedback loop – is a cycle of event in which the status of a body
condition is monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored, reevaluated and so on);
controlled condition (each monitored variable ei body temp, blood pressure, blood
glucose is termed controlled condition); stimulus (disruption that changes a controlled
condition).
C. receptor (a body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition and sends
input to a control center); afferent pathway (info carried toward control centre); input
(typically in the form of nerve impulses or chemical signals)
D. control center (ex brain – sets range of values within which a controlled condition
should be maintained—evaluates the input from receptors and generates output
 commands when needed); output (from the control centre, typically occurs as nerve
impulses or chemical signals, or hormones); efferent pathway (since info flows away
from control centre)
E. effector (brings about a change) is a body structure that receives output from the
control center and produces a response or effect that changes the controlled center;
response (that alters the controlled condition)
EXAMPLE: When your body temperature drops sharply, your brain (control center)
sends nerve impulses (output) to your skeletal muscles (effectors). The result is
shivering, which generates heat and raises body temp.

7. Compare the operation of negative and positive feedback systems.

A. negative feedback systems (reverses a change in a controlled condition);
baroreceptors (the receptors – pressure-sensitive nerve cells located in the walls of
certain blood vessels, detect the higher pressure, they send nerve impulses (input) to
the brain (control centre) which interprets the impulses and responds by sending nerve
impulses (output) to the heart and blood vessels (the effectors)). BRINGS BACK TO
NORMAL STATE.
B. positive feedback systems (strengthen or reinforces a change in one of the body’s
controlled conditions); adds to or reinforces initial change in controlled conditions – it
continues until it is interrupted by some mechanism (if not stopped can sometimes be
life-threatening). Example is child birth or major blood loss, blood clotting.

8. Explain the relationship between homeostasis and disease (poor health behaviors that
interfere with body’s natural drive for homeostasis may result in disease).
A. Disorder (any abnormality of structure of function)
B. Disease (a more specific term for an illness characterized by a recognizable set of signs
and symptoms. Alter body structures and functions in characteristic ways); local disease
(affects one part or a limited region of the body), systemic disease (affects either the
entire body or several parts of it)
C. Symptoms (subjective changes in body functions that are not apparent to an observer)
D. Signs (objective changes that a clinician can observe and measure; either anatomical-
swelling, rash, or physiological – fever, high bp, or paralysis)
E. Diagnosis (is the science and skill of distinguishing one disorder or disease from
another)
I. Epidemiology (science that deals with why/when/where diseases occur and how
they are transmitted among individual in a community)
II. Pharmacology (is the science that deals with the effects and uses of drugs in the
treatment of disease)

9. Describe the anatomical position, and compare common and anatomical terms used to
describe various regions, of the human body.
A. anatomical position (standard position of reference) (erect, facing observer, palms
forward) (having on standard anatomical postion allows directional term to be clearly
defined so that any body part can be described in relation to any other part)
I. prone position (laying face down)
II. supine position (body is lying faceup)
B. regional names
I. head (skull and face), neck (supports head and neck, attaches it to trunk), trunk
(chest, abdomen, pelvis), upper limb (shoulder, armpit, arm, forearm, wrist and
hand), lower limb (buttock, thigh, leg, ankle, foot), groin – where trunk attaches to
thighs.
Note: Learn the common names for the major parts of the human body.
 Example: cephalic (head), cervical (neck), axillary (armpit) etc. See picture.

10. Define the terms describing directions and anatomical planes used in association with the
human body.
A. directional terms – words that describe position of the body relative to another.
Note: Learn all directional terms and their definitions from Exhibit 1.A.
Superior/cephalic or cranial (towards head)
Inferior/caudal (away from head)
Anterior/ventral (front of body)
Posterior/dorsal (back of body)
Medial (near midline)
Lateral (father from midline)
Intermediate (between two structures)
Ipsilateral (on the SAME side of body as another structure)
Contralateral (on OPPOSITE side)
Proximal (nearer to the attachments)
Distal (father from the attachments)
Superficial (towards surface)
Deep (away from surface)

B. planes (imaginary flat surfaces that pass through the body parts)
C. sagittal plane vertical plane that divides the body or an organ into left and right sides)
I. midsagittal plane (median plane) – plane passes through the midline or the body
or an organ and divides it into equal right and left sides); midline (imaginary
vertical line that divides the body into equal left and right sides)
II. parasagittal plane (when this plane does not pass through the midline, unequal
right and left sides)
D. frontal or coronal plane (divides the body or an organ into anterior and posterior
portions)
E. transverse plane (cross-sectional, horizontal) – divides the body or an organ into
superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions
F. oblique plane (by contrast, passes through the body or an organ at an oblique angle
(angle other than 90 degrees)
G. section (midsagittal, frontal, transverse)

11. List, by name and location, the principal body cavities and the organs contained within them.
A. body cavities (spaces that enclose internal organs; bones, muscles, ligaments, and
other structures separate the various body cavities from one another)
B. cranial cavity (contains the brain) (hollow space)
C. vertebral (spinal) canal (contains spinal cord)
I. meninges (three layers of protective tissue) –these protective tissues and shock
absorbing fluids surround the brain and spinal cord
D. thoracic cavity (aka chest cavity; formed by the ribs, muscles of the chest, the sternum
(breastbone), and the thoracic portion of the vertebral column)
I. pericardial cavity (a fluid-filled space that surrounds the heart)
II. pleural cavity (2 fluid filled spaces around each lung) (visceral inner, parietal
outer layer)
III. mediastinum (central part of the thoracic cavity; between the lungs,
extending from the sternum to the vertebral column and from the first rib to
the diaphragm) (contains heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and several
large blood vessels) Does not contain the lungs!
 IV. Diaphragm (a dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the
abdominopelvic cavity).

E. abdominopelvic cavity (extends from diaphragm to the groin; encircled by abdominal

muscular wall and the bones and muscles of the pelvis). Is divided into two portions.
I. abdominal cavity (superior) (contains the stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder,
small intestine, and most of the large intestine)
II. pelvic cavity (inferior) (contains the urinary bladder, portions of the large
intestine, and internal organs of the reproductive system).
III. Viscera (organs inside the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities)
Note: Skip “Thoracic and Abdominal Cavity Membranes” and “Abdominopelvic Regions and
Quadrants.”

12. List, by name and location, the principal body cavities and the organs contained within them.

There are 9 abdominopelvic regions – right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac,

right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar, right inguinal, hypogastric, left inguinal. These are more widely
used for anatomical studies. Live is in epigastric, ascending colon right lumber, urinary in
hypogastric, small intestine in umbilical.

The quadrants are right upper q, left upper q, right lower q, left lower q. These are used for
clinicians for describing the site of pain. Pain in appendix would be in RLQ.

Medical Imaging – grandparent is the x-ray for diagnosis of disease and study of anatomy
and physiology.

Chapter 2
The Chemical Level of Organization
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
1. identify, by name and symbol, the principal chemical elements of the human body.
2. describe the basic structure of an atom, ion, molecule and compound.
3. explain, briefly, how ionic, covalent and hydrogen bonds are formed.
4. define the term chemical reaction, and explain the basic differences between synthesis,
decomposition, exchange and reversible reactions.
5. list and compare the properties of inorganic acids, bases, salts and water.
6. define the term pH, and explain the role of buffer systems in homeostasis.
7. compare the structure and functions of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, DNA, RNA and
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
8. describe the characteristics of enzymes, and discuss their functions.

Keywords and Topics

Make certain that you can define, and use in context, each of the terms listed below, and that you
understand the significance of each of the concepts.

1. Identify, by name and symbol, the principal chemical elements of the human body.
A. chemical element (all living forms of matter –both living and nonliving—are made up of
a limited number of building blocks called…chemical element)
B. chemical symbol (named element is designated one or two letters of the elements
name)
 C. major elements (constitute 96% of the body’s mass: Oxygen 65, carbon 18, hydrogen 9,
and nitrogen 3)
D. lesser elements (8 others, 3.6%: calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium,
chlorine, magnesium, and iron)
E. trace elements (14 elements present in tiny amounts, adds up to 0.4%; several have
important functions; ex. Iodine needed to make thyroid hormones)

2. Describe the basic structure of an atom, ion, molecule, compound and free radicle.
A. Atom (smallest units of matter that retain the properties and characteristics of the
element – element is made up of these) (
B. subatomic particles (compose individual atoms)
I. nucleus (dense central core of an atom)
a. proton (in nucleus, positively charged +)
b. neutron (uncharged 0)
II. electrons (negatively charged -; tiny) (move about in large space surrounding
nucleus –no fixed orbit or path) (form a negatively charge cloud that envelops the
nucleus)
a. electron shells (regions where electrons are most likely to move about;
simple circles around the nucleus) – first shell: never more than 2
electrons, second shell max of 8, third up to 18
- number of protons always equals number of electrons—
charges balance each other thus atom is neutral or 0.
C. atomic number (number of protons in the nucleus of an atom)
D. mass number (is the sum of its protons and neutrons)
E. isotopes (atoms of an element that have different numbers of neutrons and therefore
have different mass numbers) – radioactive isotopes (unstable, nuclei decay
(spontaneously change) into a stable configuration. These atoms emit radiation either
subatomic or packets of energy and in the process, transform into a different element.
The decay can be fast (s) or slow (million years)). The half-life of an isotope is the time
required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample of that isotope to de decay into a
more stable form. Half-life of I-131 is 8 days (important clinical tool)
F. atomic mass (dalton or amu)(aka atomic weight is the average mass of all its naturally
occurring isotopes)
I. ion (an atom that has a positive or negative charge because it has unequal
numbers of protons and electrons) (losing or gaining)
II. ionization – the process of giving up or gaining electrons
G. molecule (when two or more atoms share electrons the resulting combination is
called…) in H2O one atom of oxygen shares electrons with two atoms of hydrogen
H. compound (a substance that contains atoms of two or more different elements) ex h2o
or NaCl
I. free radical (an atom or group of atoms with an unpaired electron in the outermost shell)
(unstable, highly reactive and destructive to nearby molecules. They become stable by
giving up unpaired electron or taking one from another molecule—free radicals may
break apart important body molecules. (sunlight, xrays, dry cleaning product are
examples) Oxygen derived free radicals are cancer, atherosclerosis, Alzheimer’s,
emphysema, diabetes, arthritis, cataracts etc. Antioxidants slow pace of free radicals. –
selenium, zinc, beta carotene, vit c and e, red blue or purple fruits and veggies.

3. Explain, briefly, how ionic, covalent and hydrogen bonds are formed.
A. chemical bond (forces that hold together the atoms of a molecule or a compound)
I. valence shell of electrons (outermost shell of an electron)
 II. ionic bond (the force of attraction that holds together ions with opposite
charges)
a. cation (positively charged ion)
b. anion (negatively charged ion)
c. electrolyte (ionic compound that breaks apart into positive and negative
ions in solution)
III. covalent bond (two or more atoms share electrons rather than gaining or
losing them); single (two atoms share one electron pair), double (2 atoms share
2 pairs), triple (2 atoms share 3 pairs)
a. nonpolar (one atom doesn’t attract the shared electrons more strongly
than the other atom)
b. polar (sharing of electrons between two atoms is unequal (the nucleus of
one atom attracts the shared electrons more strongly than the nucleus or
the other atom)
c. electronegativity (the power to attract electrons to itself)
IV. hydrogen bond (forms when a hydrogen atom with a partial positive charge
attracts the partial negative charge of neighboring electronegative atoms, most
often larger oxygen or nitrogen atoms)
V. surface tension (a measure of the difficulty of stretching or breaking the surface
of a liquid).

4. Define the term chemical reaction, and explain the basic differences between synthesis,
decomposition, exchange and reversible reactions.
A. chemical reaction (occurs when new bonds form or old bonds break between atoms)
I. reactants (starting substances)
II. products (ending substances)
III. catalysts (chemical compounds that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the
activation energy needed for a reaction to occur) – enzymes = most important
catalysts.
IV. synthesis reactions (anabolism)
V. decomposition reactions (catabolism) – split up large molecules into smaller
atoms, molecules or ions.
VI. exchange reaction (both synthesis and decomposition reactions)
VII. reversible reaction (the products can revert to the original reactants)
VIII. oxidation–reduction reactions (always parallel; oxidation = the loss of electrons in
the process the oxidized substance releases energy; reduction = refers to the
gain of electrons in the process the reduced substance gains energy)

5. List and compare the properties of inorganic acids, bases, salts and water.
A. inorganic compound (usually lack carbon and are structurally simple; water, many salts,
acids, and bases)
B. organic compound (always contain carbon, usually contain hydrogen, and always have
covalent bonds) – 38-43% of the human body
C. water (most important and abundant inorganic compound in all living systems – without
water you would die in days)
D. water as a solvent: solution, solvent, solute )SOLVENT DISSOVLES SOLUTE
I. hydrophilic (easily dissolves in water)
II. hydrophobic (contain mainly non polar covalent bonds; not very water soluble)
E. water in chemical reactions
 I. hydrolysis (decomposition reactions break down large nutrient molecules into
smaller molecules by the addition of water molecules; hydrolysis reactions
enable dietary nutrients to be absorbed into the body)
II. dehydration synthesis reaction (when 2 smaller molecules join to form a larger
molecule, a water molecule is one of the products formed)
F. thermal properties of water
I. heat capacity (water has high heat capacity; and heat of vaporization is high
(changing from a liquid to a gas takes large amount of heat)
G. water as a lubricant
H. mixture (a combination of elements or compounds that are physically blended together
but not bound by chemical bonds)
I. colloid (particles are large enough to scatter light; usually appear translucent or
opaque)
J. suspension (suspended material may mix with the liquid or suspending medium for
some time but eventually it will settle out, ex blood)
K. concentration
I. mole (amount of any substance that has a mass in grams equal to the sum of the
atomic masses of all its atoms)
L. acid (substance that dissociates into one or more hydrogen ions, and one or more
anions)
I. hydrogen ion (H+) – single proton with one positive charge, an acid is also
referred to as a proton donor)
M. base (removes H+ from a solution and therefore is a proton acceptor)
I. hydroxide ion (OH−)
N. salt (when dissolves in water, dissociates into cations and anions, neither of which is H+
and OH- )

6. Define the term pH, and explain the role of buffer systems in homeostasis.
A. acid base balance
I. pH scale (a solution’s alkalinity or acidity is expressed on this scale)
II. acidic solution (more H+ than OH-, and has a pH below 7)
III. basic (alkaline) solution (more OH- than H+; and a pH above 7)
IV. buffer systems (function to convert strong acids or bases into weak acids or
bases)
a. acidosis—falls below7.35
b. alkalosis—rises above 7.45
V. carbonic acid bicarbonate buffer system (important buffer system in the body;
carbonic acid = weak acid; bicarbonate ion = weak base)

7. Compare the structure and functions of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, DNA, RNA and
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
A. Macromolecules (small organic molecules that combine into very large molecules
I. Polymers (macromolecules are usually polymers; large molecule formed by the
covalent bonding of many identical or similar molecules small building-block
molecules called monomers
II. Monomers (dehydration synthesis the reaction that joins two monomers)
III. isomers
B. carbohydrate (includes sugars, glycogen, starches, and cellulose; 2-3% of total body
mass
I. monosaccharide (simple sugar; contains from 3-7 cabon atoms)
 II. disaccharide (simple sugar; molecule formed from the combination of two
monosaccharides
III. polysaccharide (contains tens or hundreds of monosaccharides joined through
dehydration synthesis reactions); starches; cellulose
IV. glycogen (polysaccharide; made entirely of glucose monomers linked to one
another in branching chains)
a. starches (polysaccharides formed from glucose by plants), can be
broken down through hydrolysis
b. cellulose (polysaccharide formed from glucose by plants that cannot
be digested by humans;

C. lipid (18-25% of body mass in lean adults; contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; they
have 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen; fewer polar covalent bonds; most are
hydrophobic
I. hydrophobic (insoluble in polar solvents such as water)
II. lipoprotein (lipid molocules join with hydrophilic protein molecules) lipid-protein
complexes; soluble
III. fatty acid (simplest lipids; used to synthesize triglycerides and phospholipids; can
be catabolized to generate ATP); saturated (only single covalent bonds btwn the
carbon atoms and hydrocarbon chain) and unsaturated (one or more double
covalent bonds btwn the carbon atoms of the hydrocarbon chain)
IV. triglyceride or triacylglycerol (two types of building blocks: a singly glycerol
molecule and 3 fatty acid molecules)
a. glycerol
V. Phospholipid (have glycerol backbone and two fatty acid chains attached
a. Amphipathic (have both polar and non polar parts; line up tail-to-tail in a
double row to make up much of the membrane that surrounds each cell
VI. Steroid (have four rings of carbon atoms
a. cholesterol
VII. eicasanoids (lipids derived from a 20-carbon fatty acid called arachidonic acid)
a. prostaglandins (wide variety of functions)
b. leukotrienes (participate in allergic and inflammatory responses
D. protein (large molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; 12-18%
of the lean adult body)
I. functions of proteins—Table 2.8 (structural, regulatory, contractile,
immunological, transport, catalytic)
II. amino acid (monomers of proteins; each of the 20 diff amino acids has a
hydrogen (H) atom and 3 important functional groups attached to a central
carbon atom)
III. peptide bond (covalent bond joining each pair of amino acid)
IV. dipeptide (when 2 amino acids combine), tripeptide (adding another amino acid
to a dipeptide), peptide (4-9 amino acids), polypeptide (10-2000 or more)
V. primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure, quaternary structure
VI. fibrous (insoluble in water and their polypeptide chains form long strands that are
parallel to eachother; structural functions) and globular proteins (more or less
soluble in water and their polypeptide chains are scherical (globular) in shape;
metabolic functions).
VII. Denaturation (if a protein encounters an altered environment, it may unravel and
lose its characteristic shape; denatured proteins are no longer functional)
E. nucleic acid (huge organic molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
and phosphorus; two varieties)
 I. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – forms the inherited genetic material inside each
human cell (gene is a segment of a DNA molecule)
II. ribonucleic acid (RNA) – relays instructions from the genes to guide each cell’s
synthesis of proteins from amino acids.
III. Nucleotide (nucleic acid is a chain of repeating monomers called nucleotides) –
nucleotide of DNA made of 3 parts: nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, phosphate
group
a. nitrogenous base (adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C,), and guanine
(G)
b. deoxyribose (5 carbon sugar)
IV. double helix (spiral ladder)
V. ribose
VI. adenosine triphosphate (ATP) – energy currency of living systems
VII. adenosine diphosphate (ADP) (removal of the third phosphate group)

8. Describe the characteristics of enzymes, and discuss their functions. (functions: highly specific,
very efficient, subject to a variety of cellular controls)
A. Enzyme (in living cells, most catalysts are protein molecules called enzymes)
I. Most consist of apoenzyme (protein part) and cofactor (non protein part)
B. Substrate (the reactant molecule on which the enzyme acts)
C. active site (the part of the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction)
D. enzyme-substrate complex (substrates make contact with the active site on the
surface of the enzyme molecule forming this temporary intermediate compound)

Chapter 3
The Cellular Level of Organization
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
1. define the term cell, and list the three major components of a cell.
2. explain the structure and functions of the plasma membrane.
3. explain selective permeability, the electrochemical gradient, and the various passive and active
processes that transport substances across the plasma membrane.
4. describe the structure and functions of cytoplasm and of the organelles listed below:
A. cytoskeleton
B. centrosome
C. cilia and flagella
D. ribosomes
E. endoplasmic reticulum
F. Golgi complex
G. lysosomes
H. peroxisomes
I. proteasomes
J. mitochondria.
5. describe the structure and function of the nucleus.
6. describe the sequence of events that occurs in protein synthesis.;
7. discuss the stages, events and significance of somatic and reproductive cell division.
8. describe how cells differ in size and shape, and homeostatic imbalances.

Keywords and Topics

Make certain that you can define, and use in context, each of the terms listed below, and that you
understand the significance of each of the concepts.
1. Define the term cell, and list the three major components of a cell.
A. Cell – living structural and functional units enclosed by a membrane. Has three main
parts: the plasma membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.
B. cell division –all cells arise from existing cells, in which one cell divides into two identical
cells
C. cell biology/cytology –the study of cellular structure and function (intimately related)
D. plasma membrane –forms the cells flexible outer surface, separating the cells int and
ext enviro. It is a selective barrier that regulates the flow of materials into and out
of the cell. Also plays key role in communication among cells and between cells
and their external environment. Keeps cell environment in check.
I. internal environment—everything inside the cell
II. external environment—everything outside the cell
E. cytoplasm—consists of all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the
nucleus.
I. cytosol—intracellular fluid (water, dissolved solutes and suspended particles.
II. Organelles—little organs which have characteristic shapes and functions. These
are inside the cytosol. Ex: cytoskeleton, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes and mitochondria.
III. Nucleus—is a large organelle that houses most of a cell’s DNA.
a. Chromosomes—a single molecule of DNA associated with several
proteins
b. Genes—hereditary units that control most aspects of cellular structure and
function (in chromosomes which are in the nucleus)

2. Explain the structure and functions of the plasma membrane.

A. plasma membrane—flexible but sturdy barrier
I. fluid mosaic model—the molecular arrangement of the plasma membrane
resembles a continually moving sea of fluid lipids that contains a mosaic of many
different proteins. Some proteins float free in the lipid sea, others are anchored.
Membrane allows passage of several types of lipid-soluble molecules but act as
a barrier to the entry or exit of some polar substances. Some proteins allow
movement of polar molecules and ions in and out of the cell. Other proteins act
as signal receptors or link plasma m to intra/extracellular proteins.
II. lipid bilayer—two back-to-back layers made up of three types of lipid molecules
(phospholipids (contain phosphorus) 75%, cholesterol (a steroid attached to
hydroxyl group) 20% and glycolipids (lipids with attached carbohydrate groups)
5%)
III. phospholipid
IV. cholesterol—weakly amphipathic
V. glycolipid—only in membrane layer facing the extracellular fluid
VI. amphipathic—they have both polar and nonpolar parts (bilayer occurs because
lipids are amphipathic)
a. hydrophilic – water loving (head) (heads face outwards so watery fluid on
either side (cytosol in, extracellular fluid out)
b. hydrophobic –water fearing (fatty-acid tails) (point towards another forming
a nonpolar, hydrophobic region in membranes interior)

- cholesterol molecules are weakly amphipathic and

interspersed among other lipids in both layers of the
membrane. Tiny OH group is the only polar region of
cholesterol and forms hydrogen bonds with polar heads of
 phospholipids and glycolipids. The stiff steroid ring and
hydrocarbon tail of cholesterol are nonpolar/they fit along the
fatty acid tails of phospholipids and glycolipids
- carbohydrate groups of glycolipids form polar head, fatty
acid tails are nonpolar. GLYCOLIPIDS APPEAR ONLY IN
THE MEMBRANE LAYER THAT FACES THE
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID-which is why the two sides of the
bilayer are asymmetric or different.
VII. membrane proteins
a. integral protein—extend into or through the lipid bi-layer and are firmly
embedded in it. Some are tightly attached to one side of the bilayer by
covalent bonding to fatty acids. Amphipathic. Hydrophilic regions into
watery fluid, hydrophobic into fact acid tails.
b. transmembrane protein—they span the entire lipid bilayer and protrude
into both the cytosol and ECF.
c. peripheral protein—not as firmly embedded in the membrane. Attached to
polar head of membrane lipids or to integral proteins at the inner or outer
surface of membrane.
d. Glycoprotein—are proteins with carbohydrate groups attached to the ends
that protrude into the ECF.
i. Glycocalyx—the carbohydrate portions of glycolipids and
glycoproteins form an extensive sugary coat called GLYCOCALYX.
This acts as a molecular signature that enables cells to recognize
another. Some enable cells to adhere to one another in some
tissues and protects cells from being digested by enzymes in ECF.
The hydrophilic properties of glycocalyx attract a film of fluid to the
surface of many cells—make RBC slippery when go through
narrow bv, and protects cells lining airways and GIT from drying
out.
VIII. functions of membrane proteins—membranes of different cells and various
intracellular organelles have different assortment of proteins that determine
membrane functions. (generally, types of lipids in cell mem vary only slightly)
a. ion channel—some integral proteins (IP) for ion channels (pores) that
specific ions, like potassium K+, can flow through to get in or out of cell.
Most are selective—only allow single type of ion to pass.
b. Carriers—other integral proteins (IP) act as carries, selectively moving a
polar substance or ion from one side of the membrane to the other—also
known as transporters.
c. Receptors—IP called receptors serve as cellular recognition sites—
recognizes and binds a specific type of molecule. Ex: insulin receptors
bind the hormone insulin.
d. Ligand—specific molecule that bins to a receptor is called ligand of that
receptor.
e. Enzymes—Some IP are enzymes that catalyze specific chemical
reactions at the inside or outside surface of the cell.
f. Linkers—anchor proteins in the plasma membranes of neighboring cells to
one another or to protein filaments inside the outside the cell. (peripheral
proteins also serve as enzymes and linkers)
g. cell-identity markers—membrane glycoproteins and glycolipids often serve
as…CIM. They enable a cell to 1. Recognize other cells of same kind
during tissue formation or 2. Recognize and respond to potentially
dangerous foreign cells. Ex: ABO blood type markers.
 - Peripheral proteins help support the plasma membrane,
anchor integral proteins, and participate in mechanical
activates such as moving materials and organelles within
cells, changing cell shape in dividing and muscle cells, and
attaching cells to one another.
IX. membrane permeability—Permeable means permits passage. Impermeable
means does not permit passage.
X. selective permeability—the permeability to different substances varies-some
pass more readily than others.
XI. concentration gradient—is a difference in the concentration of a chemical from
one place to another, such as from the inside to the outside of the plasma
membrane. Ex: oxygen and Na ions are more concentrated in ECF than cytosol.
The opposite is true for K+.
XII. electrical gradient—difference in electrical charges between two regions.
- typically, the inner surface of the PM is more negatively
charged and the outer surface is more positively charged.
XIII. membrane potential—because it (electrical gradient) occurs across the PM, this
charge difference is termed membrane potential.

- Electrical and concentration gradients important because

help move substance across PM. Many cases the substance
moves across PM down its concentration gradient. Move
downhill from where it is more concentrated to where it
is less concentrated to reach equilibrium. (pos move to
neg or neg move to pos)
XIV. electrochemical gradient—the combined influence of the concentration gradient
and the electrical gradient on movement of a particular ion.

3. Explain selective permeability and describe the electrochemical gradient across the plasma
membrane.
A. transport across the plasma membrane—essential to life of a cell.
I. passive processes—a substance moves down it concentration or electrical
gradient to cross the membrane using on its KE (energy of motion) (KE is
intrinsic, no input of energy from the cell) Ex: simple diffusion
II. active processes—cellular energy is used to drive the substance uphill against its
concentration or electrical gradient. Usually in the form of ATP
a. vesicles—another way substances enter and leave cells is via tiny,
spherical membrane sacs referred to as vesicles. Ex: endocytosis—
vesicles detach from PM while brining materials into cell or exocytosis—
merging vesicles with PM to release material from the cell.
III. Diffusion—is a passive process in which the random mixing of particles in a
solution occurs because of the particles KE.
IV. solutes and solvents – solutes=dissolved substance, solvents=liquid that does
the dissolving (both undergo diffusion) Ex: if a solute is high conc in one area and
lower in another, it will diffuse to the low area to restore equilibrium (moves down
conc gradient). (crystal and dye and water example)
V. factors that influence diffusion rate—1 Steepness of the concentration
gradient=the greater the difference in conc between the two sides of the
membrane, the higher the rate of diffusion. 2 Temperature=the hight the
temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion. Diffusion occur more rapidly in a
person with a fever. 3 Mass of the diffusion substance=larger mass means
slower diffusion rate. Smaller molecules are faster than larger. 4 Surface
 area=larger membrane surface area the faster the diffusion rate. Ex: air sacs of
lungs can diffuse o2 from air into blood. Emphysema reduces surface area of air
sacs and slows rate of diffusion-harder to breathe. 4 Diffusion distance=greater
distance over which diffusion must occur, the longer it takes. (in pneumonia,
additional fluid increase diffusion distance bc o2 must move through fluid and
membrane to reach bloodstream).
TYPES OF DIFFUSION
VI. simple diffusion—is a passive process in which substances move freely through
the lipid bilayer or the PM of cells without the help of membrane transport
proteins. (nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules –like O, CO2, N gases, fatty acids,
steroids, and fat-soluble vitamins (A D E K)). (small uncharged polar molecules
like water and urea and small alcohols also pass though via simple diffusion).
IMPORTANT for O and CO2 movement between body and blood cells, blood
and air with lungs, also route absorption for some nutrients and excretion of
some wastes by cells.
VII. facilitated diffusion—a substance moves across the lipid bilayer aided by a
channel protein or carrier protein. (for solutes that are too polar, or highly
charged they move by this way of diffusion). Integral membrane protein assists
(either a channel or carrier)
a. channel-mediated facilitated diffusion—solute moves down conc gradient
across lipid bilayer through membrane channel
i. ion channels—integral transmembrane proteins allow small,
inorganic ions that are too hydrophilic to penetrate the nonpolar
interior of the lipid bilayer—only at certain sites. Most are for K+ or
Cl-, some for Na+ or Ca2+
-ion channel diffusion usually SLOWER than free diffusion through
lipid bilayer because channels occupy less surface area than lipids.
Facilitated diffusion is very fast! Million K ions in one second
through channel.
ii. gated channels—part of channel protein acts as gate, changing
shape in one way to open the pore and in another way to close it.
Some open randomly, other via chemical or electrical changes in or
out of the cell. When gates open ions move down their
electrochemical gradients in and out of cell.
b. carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion—a carrier or transported move a
solute down its conc gradient across PM. Passive so no cellular energy
required. Solute binds to carrier on one side and then released on other
side after undergoing change in shape. The solute binds more often to the
carrier on the side of the membrane with higher conc of solute. The rate of
how quickly this occurs depends on the steepness of the concentration
gradient (when conc equal on both sides same rate)
i. transport maximum—number of carriers available in PM places an
upper limit on the rate at which facilitated diffusion can occur. Once
all of the carriers are occupied the transport maximum is reached
and even a further increase in conc gradient does not increase the
rate of facilitated diffusion. Ex sponge full of water thus completed
saturated. (glucose (makes atp), fructose, galactose, some vits do
this type of carrier mediated facilitated diffusion.
ii. Saturation—sponge full of water and can’t take more
*selective permeability of PM is often to achieve homeostasis
VIII. osmosis and details on the process—type of diffusion in which there is a net
movement of a solvent through a selectively permeable membrane. Osmosis is
 passive. In living systems, solvent is water—higher water con to area of lower
water conc or think of it as water moves from lower solute conc to area of higher
solute con. During osmosis water passes though PM by two different ways:
1 by moving between neighboring phospholipid molecules in lipid bilayer
via simple diffusion or 2 by moving through aquaporins
a. aquaporins—integral membrane proteins that function as water
channels.
IX. hydrostatic pressure—forces water molecules to move back to because of
pressure on membrane
X. osmotic pressure—is proportional to the concentration of the solute particles that
cannot cross the membrane—the higher the solute concentration, the higher
the solutions osmotic pressure. The amount of pressure needed to restore the
starting condition equals osmotic pressure. Normally osmotic pressure is same in
interstitial fluid outside the cell and cytosol
a. tonicity—is a measure of the solutions ability to change the volume of cell
by altering their water content.
b. isotonic solution—any solution in which a cell maintains its normal
shape and volume is an isotonic solution. (most IVs are isotonic)
c. hypotonic solution—solution that has a lower conc of solutes than the
cytosol inside the RBCs = burst
d. hemolysis—RBCs burst because water molecules are entering the
cells faster than they leave
e. lysis—the rupture of other types of cells due to placement in a hypotonic
solution is referred to lysis (pure water is very hypotonic and cause rapid
hemolysis)
f. hypertonic solution—has higher conc of solutes than does the cytosol
inside RBCs
g. crenation—water molecules move out of the cells faster than they enter
causing cell to shrink.
XI. active transport—energy is required for carrier proteins to move solutes across
the membrane against a concentration gradient. (this is for solutes that cannot
cross the PM bc they would need to move against their conc gradient). Two
sources of energy can drive active transport 1 energy from hydrolysis of ATP 2
energy stored in an ionic conc gradient is secondary source. (Na K H Ca2
Cl are examples of solutes that pass via active transport)
a. primary active transport—energy obtained from hydrolysis of ATP
changes the shape of the carrier protein which pumps a substance across
the PM against its conc gradient
b. pumps—carrier proteins that mediate primary active transport
- typical body cell expends 40% of ATP it generates on PAT.
Chemicals that turn off ATP production are cyanide—lethal
bc shut down active transport in cells
c. Na /K  pump or Na+/K+ ATPase –expels Na from cell and brings in K
+ +

(sodium-potassium pump, this acts as ATPase enzyme that hydrolyzes

ATP) All cells have 1000s of these pumps in PM. Na out of cell, K into cell
both against the conc gradient. Because they leak back across PM by
passive transport or secondary active transport, these pumps are always
working. Want low Na and high K in cytosol
SEE HIGHLIGHTED NOTES
XII. secondary active transport— the energy stored in Na or H conc gradient is used
to drive other substance across the membrane against their own conc gradient.
SAT indirectly uses energy obtained from hydrolysis of ATP. mechanisms use
 the energy stored in an ionic conc gradient. Because PAT pumps that hydrolyze
ATP maintain the gradient, SAT mechanisms consume ATP indirectly.
a. symporters = transporters move two substances in the same direction and
antiporters = move two substances in opposite directions across the
membrane
XIII. transport in vesicles
a. vesicles—small spherical sac. Transport in vesicles required ATP thus us
an active process.
b. exocytosis—material move out of a cell by the fusion with the plasma
membrane of vesicles formed inside the cell
c. endocytosis—materials move into a cell in a vesicle formed from the
plasma membrane
THREE TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS
d. receptor mediated endocytosis; six steps—is highly selective type of
endocytosis by which cells take up specific ligands (molecules that bind to
specific receptors) ex: LDLs, transferrin, vitamins, antibodies, hormones
1 Binding—binds to a receptor (integral membrane protein are conc
in regions of the PM called clathrin-coated pits). A protein called
clathrin attaches to membrane on its cytoplasmic side—creates
basket-like structure around receptor that causes membrane to
invaginate (fold inward)
2 Vesicle formation—invaginated edges of membrane around
clathrin-coated pit fuse, and a small piece of membrane pinches off
—resulting in vesicles—that contains receptor.
3 Uncoating—right afters it is formed, clathrin-coated vesicle loses
it clathrin coat and becomes UNCOATED VESICLE. Clathrin
molecule either returns to inner surface of PM or helps coats on
other vesicles inside the cell.
4 Fusion with endosome—uncoated vesicle quickly fuses with
vesicle know as an endosome---separates from receptors.
5 Recycling of receptors to plasma membrane—receptors pinch off
and form transport vesicles that return back to PM (10 min for LDL)
6 Degradation in lysosomes—other vesicles bud off the endosome
and soon fuse with lysosome (contain digestive enzymes)
REVIEW THIS!
XIV. Phagocytosis—form of endocytosis in which the cell ENGULFS large solid
particles (such as worn out cells, bacteria or viruses). Begins when particle binds
to PM receptor on the phagocyte causing pseudopods
a. Phagocyte—able to carry out phagocytosis. Two types 1 macrophages-in
body tissues 2 neutrophils-type of white blood cell
b. Pseudopod—false feet –projections of its PM and cytoplasm. Surround
particle outside the cell, and membranes fuse to for vesicle called
phagosome which enters the cytoplasm.
c. Phagosome—fuses with lysosomal (enzymes break down the ingested
material)
d. residual body—undigested materials in the phagosome remain indefinitely
in a vesicle called residual body
XV. pinocytosis (or bulk phase endocytosis)—most body cells do this. It’s a form of
endocytosis in which tiny droplets of extracellular fluid are taken up. NO receptor
proteins are involved, all solutes dissolved in ECF are brought into the cell. PM
folds inwards and forms vesicles containing a droplet of ECF. The vesicles
detach from PM and enters the cytosol. Within the cell, the vesicles fuses with
 lysosomes, where enzymes degrade the engulfed solutes. The resulting smaller
mocelcues such as aa or fatty acids leave the lysosome to be used elsewhere in
the cell. Bulk Phase Endo occurs in most cells, especially absorptive cells in
intestines and kidneys.
XVI. Exocytosis—release materials from a cell. All cells do this but especially
important in two types of cells 1 secretory cells that liberate digestive enzymes,
hormones mucus or other secretions 2 nerve cells that release substances called
neurotransmitters. Also, sometimes wastes are release. During exo membrane-
enclosed vesicles called secretory vesicles form inside the cell, fuse with PM and
release contents into EFC. Segments of lost PM are recovered or recycled by
exo. Balance between endo and exo keep PM surface area relatively constant.
XVII. Transcytosis—move substances into, across and out of a cell. Endo—across cell
—exo on opposite side of cell. Occurs most often in endothelial cells that line
blood plasma and interstitial fluid. Ex pregnant –antibodies cross placenta into
fetal circulation via transcytosis.

4. Describe the structure and functions of cytoplasm, its cytosol, and the organelles listed below.
A. cytosol (intracellular fluid)—is the fluid portion of the cytoplasm that surrounds
organelles and constitutes about 55% of total cell volume. It varies in composition and
consistency from one part of the cell to another. 75-90% is water plus various dissolved
and suspended components. There are some organic molecules that aggregate into
masses of storage – lipid droplets, glycogen granules. Many chemical reactions occur
here—glycolysis  2ATP 1 glucose.
B. Cytoskeleton—network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytosol
THREE TYPES OF CYTOSKELETON: in order of their increasing diameter;
I. Microfilament—thinnest, composed of actin and myosin, prevalent on edge of
cell. Two major functions: help generate movement (muscle contraction, cell
division, cell locomotion—migration of embryonic cells, invasion of tissues by
WBC to fight infection or migration of skin cells during healing) and provide
mechanical support—for basic strength and shape of cells. They anchor
cytoskeleton to integral proteins in PM.
II. microvillus (plural is microvilli)—nonmotile, microscopic fingerlike projections of
the PM. Has core of parallel microfilaments that support it. They greatly increase
surface area of the cell—thus they’re abundant on cells involved in absorption
(like epithelial cells in small intestine)
III. intermediate filament—several dif proteins compose these, which are
exceptionally strong. Found in parts of cell subject to mechanical stress, help
stabilize position of organelles such as nucleus, and help attach cells to one
another.
IV. Microtubule—largest, are long, unbranched hollow tubes composed mainly of the
protein TUBULIN. Assembly of microtubules begins in an organelle called the
centrosome. They grow outward from centrosome toward periphery of the cell.
They help determine cell shape, also function in the movement of organelles
such as secretory vesicles, chromosomes during cell division, specialized cell
projections such as cilia and flagella.
C. Organelles—specialized structures within cell, ahev characteristic shapes, functions in
cell growth, maintenance and reproduction. Each organelle hs own set of enzymes that
carry out specific reactions. Cooperate to maintain homeo.
D. Centrosome—located near the nucleus, two components: a pair of centrioles and
pericentriolar material. During cell division, centrosomes replicate so that succeeding
generations of cells have the capacity for cell division.
E. Centriole—are cylindrical structure, each composed of nine clusters of three
microtubules (triplets) arranged in a circular pattern. Long axis of one centriole is at a
right angle to other; pericentriolar material—surrounds centriole, contains hundreds of
ring-shaped complexes composed of protein tubulin =organizing centers for growth of
mitotic spindle plays a key role in cell div and microtub formation in nondividng cells.
F. cilium (plural is cilia)—motile projections of cell surface, dominant components of
mircrotubles. MOVE FLUIDS ALONG CELLS SURFACE. Contains a core of 20
microtubles are arranged such that one pair in center is surrounded by 9 clusters of two
fused microtubules (doublets). Anchored by basal body—initiating assembly of cilia and
flagella. Oarlike pattern of beating—stiff the flexible. Respiratory tract has many cilia.
Smokers paralyze function of cilia—so foreign particles aren’t cleared from airways-also
increase risk of ectopic pregnancy.
G. flagellum (plural is flagella)—motile projections of cell surface, dominant components of
mircrotubles. MOVES AN ENTIRE CELL. Much longer than cilia. It moves in wavelike
pattern by wiggling. Ex: sperms cells tail.
H. Ribosome—are the sites of protein synthesis. High ribosomal RNA, but also 50
proteins. Has two subunits, one about half the size of the other. Made in nucleolus—
then exit nucleus separately then come together in cytoplasm. Some are on outer
surface of nuclear membrane and endoplasmic reticulum (ER)—these ones synthesize
proteins destined for insertion in the PM or secretion from the cell. Free ribosomes
synthesize proteins used in the cytosol. Also in mitochondria and synth mitch proteins.
I. endoplasmic reticulum (ER)—network of membranes in the form of flattened sacs or
tubules. ER extends from nuclear envelope (mem around nucleus) to which it is
coneected and projects throughout the cytoplasm. Half the membranous surfaces within
the cytoplasm.
I. rough ER—continuous with nuclear membrane and usually folded into series of
flattened sacs. Outer surface is rough with ribosomes. Proteins synthesized by
ribsomones attached to rough ER enter spaces within the ER for processing and
sorting. Sometimes enzymes attached proteins to carbo to form glycoproteins. Or
proteins attach to phospholipids. These both may be incorporated into membrane
organelles, inserted into PM or secreted via exocytosis. THUS, rough ER
produces secretory proteins, membrane proteins and many organelle
proteins.
II. smooth ER—extends from rough Er to form network of membrane tubules. No
ribosomes on outer membrane. But contains unique enzymes that make it
functionally more diverse than rough ER. No ribosomes—no protein synth but
it DOES syn fatty acids and steroids (estro and testo). In liver enzymes of
smooth ER releases glucose into bloodstream and inactivate/detoxify lipid-
soluble drugs or harmful substances such as alc, pesticides, and carcinogens. In
muscles cells Ca that trigger contraction are released from sarcoplasmic reticule,
a form of smooth ER. Also smooth RE removes P group from glucose-6-p.
J. Golgi complex—first step in transport pathway of synthesized ribosomes. Has 3-20
cisternae. more extensive in cells that secrete proteins; cisternae—small, flat membrane
sacs with bulging edges that resemble a stack of pita bread. Curved, cuplike shape;
CONVEX entry (cis) faces rough ER, the concave extit (trans) faces PM. Sacs in
between are medial cisternae. Differen enzymes in the entry, medial and exit cisternae
all areas to modify, sort and package proteins into vesicles for transport to different
destinations.;----Processed proteins leave the exit face and stored in secretory vesicles
—delivery proteins to the plasma membrane, exoc into ECF; ----other proteins leave in
membrane vesicles—proteins leave exit face in MV that deliver their contents to the PM
for incorporation into the membrane. Adds new segments of PM as existing segments
are lost and modifies the number and distributions of membrane molecules.
 K. Lysosome—are membrane-enclosed vesicles that form from the Golgi complex.
Contain as many as 60 kinds of powerful digestive and hydrolytic enzymes that can
breakdown a variety of molecules once lysosoms fuse with cesicles formed during
endocytosis. Work best in an acidic pH. So has active transport pumps for H. has pH of
5, wheras cytosol has pH of 7.
- Functions: Digest subsatnces that enter a cell via
endocytosis and transport final products of digestion into
cytosol. Carry out autophagy. Implement autolysis, and
accomplish ec digestion.
- Autophagy—entire worm out organelle is digested.
Organelle to be digested is enclosed by a membrane derived
from the ER to create a vesicle called an autophagosome—
then fuses with lysosome.
- Autolysis—detroying the entire cell. Occurs in pathologicsl
conditions, and responsible for tissue deterioration after
death.
- Lysosomal enzymes also act within a call, ex sperm
dissolving protective coating.
L. peroxisome (microbodies—small we than lysosomes, abundant in liver); oxidases—
enzymes that can oxidize (remove H atoms) various organic substances, catalase—
decomposes h2o2. Because production and degradation of h2o2 occur in same
organelle, peroxisomes protect other parts of the cell from toxic effects. Also have
enzymes that destroy superoxides. Without peroxisome by products of metabo could
accum in cell and results in cell death. Peroxisome can self-replicate.
M. Proteasome—destruction of unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins is the function of
tiny barrel-shaped structure consisting of four stacked ring of proteins around a central
core called PROTEASOME (very small); proteases—enzyme that cut proteins into small
peptides then other enzymes breakdown into aa and then can be recycles into new
proteins.
N. mitochondrion (mitochondria)—function is to generate ATP through reactions of
aerobic cellular respiration and plays an important role in apoptosis. They are the”
powerhouse” of the cell. Active cells that uses ATP at a high rate, such as muscles,
liver, kidney, have large number of mitochondria. Located in cell where oxygen enters or
where ATP is used. PA can increase number of mitoch. Membranes—inner has folds
called mitochondrial cristae, central fluid filled cavity if mito is called mito matrix.
Elaborate folders allow for chemical reactions in aerobic phase of cellular respiration.;
cristae; matrix; apoptosis—orderly, genetically programmed death of a cell.
-mitochondrial DNA is from mother only. REVIEW AGAIN

5. Describe the structure and function of the nucleus.

A. Nucleus—contains most of the cells genes, which are located on chromosomes.
Functions: control cellular structure, directs cellular activities, and produces ribosomes
in nucleoli. Most cells have a single nucleus [Mature RBCs don’t have a one, while
skeletal muscle cells and a few other have multiple nuclei].
I. nuclear envelope—double membrane that separates the nucleus from the
cytoplasm. Has lipid bilayers. Outer membrane is continuous with rough ER.
II. nuclear pore—extend through nuclear envelope. Circular arrangement of
proteins surrounding a larger opening (10x wider than the pore in the PM). Small
molecules and ions move via passive diffusion. Large molecules must use active
transport (recognized, then selectively transported though pore).
 III. nucleolus (nucleoli)—function in producing ribosomes. Simple a cluster of
protein, DNA and RNA, no enclosed by a membrane. Sites that synthesis rRNA
and assemble rRNA and proteins into ribosomal subunits. (prominent in cells that
synthesize protein like muscles and liver cells). They disperse/ disappear during
cell division and reorganize once new cells are formed.
IV. Gene—hereditary units, which control structure and direct cellular activates.
Genes are arranged along chromosomes. Humans have 46 chromosomes, 23
inherited from each parent. Each chromosome is a long molecule of DNA that is
coiled together with several proteins.
V. Chromatin—complex of DNA, proteins and some RNA. Has a bead-on-a-string
structure
VI. Genome—total genetic information carried in a cell or organism.
VII. Nucleosome—bead on chromatin, double-stranded DNA wrapped twice around a
core of eight proteins called histones (help organize the coiling and folding of
DNA). String between beads is called linker DNA.
VIII. Chromatids—just before cell division, DNA replicates and the loops condense
more, and form chromatids (DNA and histones form chromatids). Pair of
chromatids held together by centromere to from chromosome.
- Chromosome is a highly coiled and folded DNA molecule that is combined with
protein molecules.
- REVIEW TABLE 3.2

6. Describe the sequence of events that occurs in protein synthesis.

A. protein synthesis
B. proteome—all of an organism’s proteins.
I. Codon= each DNA bas triplet is transcribed as a complementary sequence of
three nucleotides
II. Genetic code= set of rules that relate to base triplet seq. of DBA to corresponding
codons of RNA and the a.a. they specify.
C. gene expression—a genes DNA is used as a template for synthesis of a specific
protein. Synthesis of a specific protein requires transcription of a gene’s DNA into RNA
and translation of RNA into a corresponding sequence of amino acids to form a new
protein molecule.
I. transcription—steps description and understanding of the process (occurs in
nucleus)—DNA transcription begins at a promoter and ends at a terminator.
During transcription, the genetic info in DNA is copied to RNA (A-U, T-A, C-G, G-
C). The enzyme RNA polymerase catalyzes transcription of DNA.
a. Three types of RNA are made from the DNA template (base triplets):
i. Messenger RNA directs the synthesis of a protein
ii. Ribosomal RNA joins ribosomal proteins to make ribosomes
iii. Transfer RNA binds to an amino acid and hold it in place on a
ribosome until it is incorporated into a protein during translation.
(one end or tRNA carries aa the other end consists of triplet
nucleotides called anticodon).
- Introns are regions in a gene that do no code for parts of
proteins. Exons do code. Transcribed info from introns and
exons is called pre-mRNA. Intron are removed and exons
are spliced together by the enzyme snPNPs. The result is a
functional mRNA molecule that passes through a pore in the
nuclear envelope to reach the cytoplasm where translation
takes place.
 II. translation—steps description and understanding of the process (occurs in the
cytoplasm)—RNA attaches to a ribosome, then info in RNA is translated into
corresponding seq. of aa to form new protein. Ribosomes have binding sites for
mRNA and a P, A and E site for attachments of tRNAs.
a. An mRNA molecule binds to the small ribosomal subunit at the mRNA
binding site. A special tRNA initiator binds to the start codon (AUG) on
mRNA where translation begins. The tRNA anticodon (UAC) attaches to
mRNA codon by pairing complementary bases. (AUG is also codon for aa
methionine thus methionine is always first aa in a growing polypeptide)
b. Next, large ribosomal subunit attaches to small ribosomal subunit—
creating functional ribosome. The initiator tRNA (with aa methionine) fits
into the P site of ribosome.
c. The anticodon of another tRNA pairs with second mRNA codon at the A
site
d. A component of large ribo subunit catalyzes the formation of peptide bond
between methionine and the aa carried by the tRNA at the A site.
e. After the peptide bond, the two proteins become attached to the tRNA at
the A site.
f. Ribosome shifts by one codon: tRNA previously at P site enters E site and
is release from ribosome; tRNA previously at A site is now at P site. This
allows another tRNA with its aa to bind to newly exposed codon at A site.
(steps 3-6 continue to occur and protein lengthens)
g. Protein synthesis stops when the ribosome reaches stop codon on mRNA
at the A site which causes the completed protein to detach from the final
tRNA. Ribosomal subunits split again.
- Rate of protein synthesis is about 15 peptide bonds per
second. If several ribosomes attached to the same mRNA =
polyribosome—translation of one mRNA into several
identical proteins at the same time.

7. Discuss the stages, events and significance of somatic and reproductive cell division.
A. cell division—cells reproduce themselves. Two types: somatic and reproductive
B. germ cell—is a gamete (sperm or oocyte) or any precursor cell destined to
become a gamete.
I. somatic cell division—is any cell of the body other than a germ cell. A cell
undergoes a nuclear division called mitosis and a cytoplasmic division
called cytokinesis to produce two genetically identical cells, each with the
same number and kind of chromosomes as the original cell. SCD replaces
dead or injured cells and adds new ones during tissue growth.
II. Mitosis
III. cytokinesis
IV. reproductive cell division—is the mechanism that produces gametes, the
cells needed to form the next generation of sexually reproducing
organisms. Two step division called meiosis—in which the number of
chromosomes in the nucleus is reduced by half
V. meiosis
C. cell cycle in somatic cells
I. homologous chromosomes
II. sex chromosomes, X and Y
III. diploid cell (2n)
a. interphase
b. G1 phase
 c. G0 state
d. S phase
e. G2 phase
f. mitotic (M) phase
IV. nuclear division: mitosis
a. prophase
b. metaphase
c. anaphase
d. telophase
V. cytoplasmic division: cytokinesis; cleavage furrow
D. reproductive cell division
I. meiosis
II. haploid cell (n)
III. meiosis I
IV. synapsis
V. crossing-over
VI. meiosis II

8. Describe how cells differ in size and shape, and homeostatic imbalances.
A. cellular diversity
B. disorders
I. cancer—general information

Chapter 4
The Tissue Level of Organization
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
1. define the term tissue, and classify the tissues of the body into four major types.
2. describe the structure and functions of the five principal types of cell junctions.
3. describe the general features of epithelial tissue.
4. outline the classification of epithelial tissue and describe the structure, location and function of
each of the types of epithelium listed below:
A. simple squamous epithelium
B. simple cuboidal epithelium
C. simple columnar epithelium
D. pseudostratified columnar epithelium
E. stratified squamous epithelium
F. stratified cuboidal epithelium
G. stratified columnar epithelium
H. transitional epithelium.
5. define the term gland, and distinguish between exocrine and endocrine glands.
6. describe the general components of connective tissue: cells, ground substance and fibers.
7. describe the structure, function and location of each of the types of connective tissue listed
below:
A. loose connective tissue
I. areolar connective tissue
II. adipose tissue
III. reticular connective tissue
B. dense connective tissue
I. dense regular connective tissue
 II. dense irregular connective tissue
III. elastic connective tissue
C. cartilage
I. chondrocytes
II. hyaline cartilage
III. fibrocartilage
IV. elastic cartilage
D. bone tissue or osseous tissue
I. osteon or Haversian system
II. osteocytes
E. blood tissue
I. plasma
II. red blood cells
III. white blood cells
IV. platelets
F. lymph.
8. define the term membrane, and describe the location and functions of the membranes listed
below:
A. mucous membrane or mucosa
B. serous membrane or serosa
C. cutaneous membrane or skin
D. synovial membranes.
9. compare the structure, location and modes of control of the three types of muscular tissue.
10. describe the structural features and functions of nervous tissue.
11. describe generally, and give examples of, homeostatic imbalances in tissues.

Keywords and Topics

Make certain that you can define, and use in context, each of the terms listed below, and that you
understand the significance of each of the concepts.
1. Define the term tissue, and classify the tissues of the body into four major types.
A. Tissue—is a group of cells that usually have a common origin in an embryo and function
together to carry out specialized activities.
B. Histology—is the science that deals with the study of tissues. Pathologist examines
cells.
I. epithelial tissue—covers body surface and lines hollow organs, body cavities and
ducts, also forms gland. Allows interacting between internal and external
environment.
II. connective tissue—protects and supports the body and its organs. Bind organs
together, store energy reserves as fat, and help provide the body with immunity
to disease-causing organisms.
III. muscular tissue—special cells for contractions and generation of force.
Generates heat that warms the body.
IV. nervous tissue—detects changes in a variety of conditions in and outside of the
body and responds by generating electrical signals called nerve action potentials
that activate muscular contractions and glandular secretions.

2. Describe the structure and functions of the five principal types of cell junctions.
A. cell junction—are contact points between the plasma membranes of tissue cells
I. tight junction—web like strands of transmembrane proteins that fuse together the
outer surfaces of adjacent plasma membranes to seal off passageways between
adjacent cells. Ex: epithelial cells in stomach lining, intestines, urinary bladder
 have tight junctions. They prevent contents of these organs from leaking into the
blood or surrounding tissues.
II. adherens junction—contain plaque (dense protein layer INSIDE the plasma
membrane that attaches both to transmembrane glycoproteins (cadherins) and to
microfilaments(actin) of cytoskeleton. Each cadherins inserts into plaque of other
side. Adhesion belts—like a belt. These junctions HELP epithel surfaces resist
separation during various contractile activities (food moving in intestines)
III. desmosome—are like adherens junctions but the plaque of desmosomes does
not attach to microfilaments but instead the plaque attaches to intermediate
filaments (keratin protein). These junctions are common in epidermis, cardiac
muscle cells. Prevent separating of cell under tensions and contractions.
IV. Hemidesmosome—resemble desmososmes but do NOT link to adjacent cell.
(half a demosome). The transmembrane glycoproteins are integrins rather than
caherins. Integrins attach to intermediate filaments (keratin) on inside of PM. On
outside of PM, integrins attach to protein laminin (basement membrane)
ANCHOR CELLS TO BASEMENT MEMBRANE!
V. Gap junction—membrane proteins called connexins for tiny fluid-filled tunnels
called connexons that connect neighboring cells. Has intercellular gap still. Small
ions and molecules can diffuse but larger ones can’t. Transfer of nutrients and
waste in avascular tissues (lens and cornea of eye). Allow communication
between cells. Muscle or nerve impulse to spread rapidly!

- Bc epi tissues lack bv and forms surfaces, it is always found

immediately adjacent to bv-rich connective tissue, which
enables it to make exchanges with blood necessary for
delivery of oxygen and nutrients and removal of wastes
which is critical for survival and function.

3. Describe the general features of epithelial tissue.

A. epithelial tissue or epithelium—many cells are tightly packed together with little or no
extracellular matrix. Have no blood vessels (AVASCULAR). Almost always forms
surface layer and is not covered by another tissue (the excepting is the epi lining of bv)
- consists of cells arranged in continuous sheets in either
single or multiple layers
- always has free surface
 - FUNCTIONS: selective barrier that limits or aids transfer of
substance in or out of body. A secretory surface that release
products produced by cells onto its free surface. A protective
surface that resists the abrasive influences of the
environment.
- Protection, filtration, secretion, absorption and excretion.
Also combined with nervous tissue to form small, hearing
vision and touch.
I. surfaces: apical=free, faces body surface, body cavity, lumen (interior space) of
internal organ, or a tubular duct that receives secretions. Contains cilia or
microvili, lateral= faces adjacent cells on either side, tight junction, adherens,
desmosomes or gap, basal=opposite of apical surface. It is the deepest layer
and adheres to extracellular material such as basement membrane.
Hemidesmosomes junction.
B. basement membrane—details=thin extracellular layer, usually two layers—basal lamina
(thin layer closer to and secreted by epi cells. Has proteins laminin and collagen) and
reticular lamina (closer to underlying connective tissue and has protein collagen
produced by fibroblasts.
I. In addition to attaching and supporting overlying epi tissues, basement
membranes have more functions; form surface for epi cells to migrate
during growth or wound healing, restrict passage of large molecules
between epi and connective tissue and participate in filtration of blood in
kidneys.
Divided into two types:
C. covering and lining epithelium—form the outer covering of the skin and internal organs.
Also, inner lining of bv, ducts, and body cavities and interior of respiratory, digestive,
urinary and reproductive system.
D. glandular epithelium—makes up the secreting portion of glands such as thyroid, adrenal
and sweat glands.

4. Outline the classification of epithelial tissue and describe the structure, location and function of
each of the types of epithelium listed below. —CLASSIFED BY ARRANGEMENT INTO
LAYERS AND SHAPES OF CELLS. 1. A: Simple epithelium is single layer that does
diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion (mucus sweat or enzymes) or absorption (intake
fluids/subsatnaces). B: Pseudostratified (false) epit appears to have multiple layers bc cell
nuclei lie at different levels and not all cells reach apical (free) surface). But it is actually a
simple epi tbc all its cells rest of the basement membrane—celss that do extend to apical
contain cilia and goblet cells. C: stratified epi consists of TWO or more layers that protect
underlying tissues where there is considerable wear and tear. 2 A: Squamous cell – thin, flat,
allow rapid passage B: Cuboidal are tall and wide/cubes or hexagons. They secrete or absorb
have cilia and micro. C: columnar cells are much taller than they are wide, protect underlying
tissues and help secretion and absorption (cilia and mircovil). D: Transitional cells change
shape from squamous to cuboidal and back. Stretch (distend) to larger then back to small
example is bladder.

A. simple squamous epithelium

B. simple cuboidal epithelium
C. simple columnar epithelium (nonciliated and ciliated)
D. pseudostratified columnar epithelium (nonciliated and ciliated)

E. stratified squamous epithelium (keratinized, when surface cells are dead and become
hard, and nonkeratinized when surface cells remain alive) *
F. stratified cuboidal epithelium*
G. stratified columnar epithelium*
H. transitional epithelium

I. arrangements of cells in layers

I. simple epithelium; secretion, absorption
II. pseudostratified epithelium
III. stratified epithelium
J. cell shapes
I. squamous cells
II. cuboidal cells
III. columnar cells
IV. transitional cells

K. covering and lining epithelium, Table 4.1—brief description, location and functions

I. simple squamous epithelium—single layer, flat, tiled floor oval nucleus.
Cardiovascular and lymphatic system, serous membranes, air sacs, lungs,
kidneys, eardrum. Filtration site or diffusion (not found near wear and tear sites)
II. simple cuboidal epithelium—single layer, cube, more pie-shaped. Covers
ovaries, lens of eye, pigment in retina, kidney tubules, ducts glands, thyroid and
pancreas. Secretion and absorption.
III. nonciliated simple columnar epithelium—single, column, oval nuclei bear base of
cell, has microvil at apical surface and goblet cells (secrete mucus) bulges when
builds so looks like goblet or wine glass. Lines GIT, ducts of glands, gallbladder.
Secretion and absorption – higher level than cuboidal. Lubricates digestive,
respiratory and reproductive tracts and urinary. Helps prevent destruction of
stomach lining my acidic gastric juices.
IV. ciliated simple columnar epithelium—single, column, oval nuclei near base.
Goblet cells are interspersed. Lines bronchioles, uterine tubes, uterus, paranasal
sinus, central canal of spinal cord, ventricles of brain. Cilia beat in unison, move
mucus and foreign particles toward throat. Coughing sneezing speed up
movement or cilia and mucus. Cili also helps move oocytes expelled from ovaries
move to uterus.
V. pseudostratified columnar epithelium—basement membrane, single layer,
appear like more. (ciliated contain cells that extend to surface and secrete mucus
 or bear cilia, non-ciliated lack cilia and goblet cells). Lines airways of upper resp
tract, ducts in glads, epididymis and male urethra. Ciliated secreted mucus, traps
particles sweeps from body, non-cilated function in absorption and protection.
VI. stratified squamous epithelium—layers, apical squamous, deep cub col. Basel
cells divide---dehydrate less meta. Apical dead cells, but new cell emerge.
Keratinized = tough layer of keratin in apical layer. Non-keratinized no larger
amounts of keratin but moistened by mucus from sali/muc glands. Organelles are
not replaced. Keratin in superficial skin, non-in wet surface ei mouth, esoph,
epiglot, pharynx, vagina, tongue. Protects against abrasion, water loss UVR and
foreign invasion. BOTH FIRST LINE DEFENSE AGAINST MICROBES. PAP
TEST NONKERATINIZED CELLS.
VII. stratified cuboidal epithelium—two more layers, apical cube, RARE. Ducts of
adult sweat glands and esopheal glands, part male urethra. Protect, secretion
limited, and absorption.
VIII. stratified columnar epithelium—shortened, irreg shaped cells, apical only
columnar, uncommon. Lines urethra, ducts, eso glad, anal mucous membrane,
conjunctiva of eye. Protection and secretion.
IX. transitional epithelium—variable appearances. Relaxed = cuboidal but apical
layer round, stretched = flatt squamous. Ideal for lining hollow structures
(bladder). Ureters urethras. Allows stretch and protection while holding fluid.

5. Define the term gland, and distinguish between exocrine and endocrine glands.
A. glandular epithelium—secretion by glandular cells lying in clusters deep to covering and
lining of epi.
B. Gland—single cell or group of cells that secrete substances into ducts, surfaces, blood.
I. endocrine gland—hormone secretions enter the interstitial fluid and then diffuse
directly into bloodstream without a DUCT. Far reaching effects. Hormones
regulate metabolic and physio activates to maintain homeo. (pit gland, pineal,
thyroid, parthy, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thymus).
II. exocrine gland—secrete into ducts that empty onto surface of covering and lining
epi (ex skin surface, lumen of hollow organ) Limited effects, harmful to
bloodstream. Produce sweat to lower body temp, oil, earwax, saliva, digestive
enzymes.
- pancreas, ovaries, testes are mixed glands!

a. structural classification of exocrine glands: unicellular = single-celled,

goblet are important unicel exo glands secrete directly onto apical surface.
multicellular = most exo glands are multi, many cells that have distinctive
microscopic structure or organ. Ex sudoriderous *sweat, sebaceous *oil
and salivary glands.
MULTICELLUAR GLANDS: whether ducts branched or unbranched and
the shape of the secretory portions of gland.
i. Simple = no branch, compound = branched, acinar(alveolar) =
rounded secretory portions, tubuloacinar =both tubular and more
rounded parts.
 Examples:
a glands in large intestine
b gastric glands
c sweat glands
d penile urethra
e sebaceous gland
f bulbourethral (cowper) gland
g mammary glands
h acinar glands or pancreas

b. functional classification—how secretions are released. Product of cell or

entire or partial glandular cell. ER and Golgi complex work together to
from intracellular secretory vesicles that contains product.
i. merocrine gland—are synthesized on ribosomes attached to rough
ER, processed, sorted, packed by Golgi and then released from cell
via exocytosis. Most exoc glands of body are this! Salivary,
pancreas.
ii. apocrine gland—accumulate their secretory product at the apical
surface of secreting cell. The part pinches off by exoc from rest of
cell to release the secretion. (mammary gland) The cell repairs
itself and repeats.
iii. holocrine gland—accumulate a secretory product in their cytosol,
as cell matures it ruptures and becomes secretory product.
Because it ruptures large amounts of lipids from PM and ICM. Old
cell replaced by new. Ex holocrine gland is sebaceous gland of
skin.

6. Describe the general components of connective tissue: cells, ground substance and fibers.
A. connective tissue—one of most abundant tissues/widely distributed. Binds together,
supports, strengthens other body tissues, protects and insulates internal organs,
compartmentalizes structures such as skeletal muscles, serves as the major transport
system within body, primary location for stored energy (adipose, fat), and main
soure of immune response. Two basic elements: ECM and cells.
I. extracellular matrix—is the material located between its widely spaced cells. It
consists of protein fibers and ground substances (the material between cells and
fibers). The fibers are secreted by the connective tissue cells and account for
many of the functional properties and control the surrounding watery environment
 via specific proteoglycan molecules. DETERMINES MUCH OF THE TISSUES
QUALITIES. In cartilage, the ECM is firm but pliable, in bone it is hard and
inflexible. HIGHLY VASCULAR (except cartilage, tendons), not near surface.
Except for cartilage it is supplied with nerves.

II. connective tissue cells—mesenchymel cells (embryonic). immature cells in loose

and dense ct (chondroblasts in cart, osteoblasts in bone). Blast cells retain
capacity for cell division and secret the ECM. Once ECM produced the immature
cells change into mature cells (fibrocytes, etc). Mature cells have reduced
capacity for cell divison and ECM formation—mainly involved in
monitoring/maintaining ECM.
a. Fibroblast— are large, flat, branching cells. Most numerous, in all general
ct. Migrate though ct, secreting the fibers and certain components of
ground substance of ECM.
b. Macrophage—develop from monocytes—type of WBC. Irregular shape
with short branching, capable of engulfing bacteria and cellular debris by
phagocytosis. Fixed and wandering (can move).
c. plasma cell—small cells that develop from WBC B lymphocyte. Secrete
antibodies, proteins that attack/neutralize foreign substances.
IMPORTANT FOR IMMUNE RESPONSE. Abundant in ct, GIT, respiratory
tract, salivary glands, lymph nodes, spleen, red bone marrow.
d. mast cell—abundant along bv that supple ct. produce histamine—
chemical that dilates small blood vessels as part of inflammatory response
to injury or infection. Also, can bind, ingest, kill bacteria.
e. Adipocyte—fat cells, that store triglycerides. Found deep to the skin and
around organs like heart and kidney.
f. leucocytes (white blood cell)—NOT found in significant number in ct.
However, they migrate from blood to ct. ex, neutrophils gather at sites of
infection and eosinophils migrate to sites of invasion or allergic response.
III. connective tissue extracellular matrix (two major parts: ground substance &
fibers)
IV. ground substance—between cells and fibers, fluid, semi-fluid, gelatinous or
calcified. Supports cells, binds together, stores water, provides medium for
exchange between blood and cells. Active role in tissue develop, migrate,
proliferate and change shape and how carry out metabolic functions. GAGs—
proteopglycans form core protein and the GAGs project from the protein like
bristles on a brush. GAGs TRAP WATER, makes them jellylike. Hyaluronic acid
(not in GAGs) is viscous, slippery that binds cells, lubricates joints and helps
maintain shape of eyeball. Hyaluronidase (produced by wbc, sperm) breaks
hyaluronic acid making ground substances of ct more liquid. –thus, can move
faster. Adhesion proteins link components of ground substances to one another
and to the surfaces of cells – main one is called fibronectin (binds collagen fibers
and gs) also cells to gs.
V. Fibers—function to strengthen and support ct.
a. collagen fiber—are very strong and resist pulling forces but they are not
stiff which allows tissue flexibility. Properties vary from tissue to tissue. In
cartilage, more water surrounds it then in bone making cartilage more
cushioning. Occur in parallel bundles-which adds tensile strength to
tissue. Collagen is most abundant protein in body 25%. In bone, carti,
tendons (m to b), ligaments (b to b).
b. elastic fiber; elasticity—smaller in diameter, branch and join together to
form fibrous network in ct. Has elastin surrounded by fibrillin which adds
 strength and stability. Can stretch up to 150% their relaxed length without
breaking. Can return to original shape = elasticity. Skin, bv walls, lung
tissue.
c. reticular fiber; stroma (supporting frame for soft organs/spleen lymph
nodes)—are collagen arranged fine bundles with a coating of glycoprotein,
provide support in walls of bv and form network around cells in tissues
(areolar), adipose, nerve, smooth muscles. Thinner, produced by
fibroblasts and have branching network. HELP FORM BASEMENT
MEMBRANE!

7. Describe the structure, function and location of each of the types of connective tissue listed
below.
MATURE: present in newborn. Cells arise primarily from mesenchyme. 5 Types of mature ct in
purple.
A. loose connective tissue—are loosely arranged between cells.
I. areolar connective tissue
II. adipose tissue
III. reticular connective tissue
B. dense connective tissue—contain more fibers, thicker, densely pack. But have fewer
cells then LCT
I. dense regular connective tissue
II. dense irregular connective tissue
III. elastic connective tissue
C. cartilage—dense network of collagen fibers and elastic fibers embedded in chondroitin
sulfate (ground substance) Can endure stress more than loose or dense ct. Resilience
is due to chondroitin sulfate! Few cells, large ECM. NO nerved of bv in ECM. No blood
supply because it secreted antiangiogensus factor-substance that prevents bv growth.
(potential cancer treatment). Since cartilage has no blood supply, heals poorly after
injury.
I. chondrocytes
II. hyaline cartilage
III. fibrocartilage
IV. elastic cartilage
D. bone tissue or osseous tissue—spongy or compact
I. osteon or Haversian system
II. osteocytes
E. blood tissue (liquid ct)
I. plasma
II. red blood cells
III. white blood cells
IV. platelets
F. lymph

EMBRYONIC:
G. embryonic connective tissues
I. mesenchyme—primarily in embryo. It forms almost all other types of ct. Irregular
shape embedded in semifluid ground substance that contains reticular fibers.
Almost exclusively under skin and along developing bones of embryo, some
adult ct along bv. FORMS ALL OTHER TYPES OF CT
 II. mucous connective tissue—widely scattered fibroblasts embedded in viscous,
jelly-like ground substances that contain collagen fibers. In the umbilical cord of
fetus. Support.

H. mature connective tissues: brief descriptions, locations and functions

I. loose connective tissue
a. areolar connective tissue—most widely distributed tissues, has collagen,
elastic and reticular fibers. Arranged randomly, serval kinds og cells
(fibroblasts, macrophahes, plasma cells, adip, mast, and few wbc.
Embedded in semifuild ground substance (hyaluronic acid, chondroitin
sulfate, dermatan sulfate, keratin sulfate). Around nearly every body
structure, subcutaneous layer deep to skin, papillary region of dermis,
lamina propria of mucous mem, around bv, nerves and organs. Strength
elasticity and support.
b. adipose tissue—adipocytes that are specialized for storage of
triglycerides as large, centrally located droplets. Cell fills up with single,
large tricly droplet and cytoplasm and nucleus are pushed to periphery of
cell. With weight gain increase of adipose and new bv form. Obese person
has more bv than lean. Causes high bp. Mots os white adipose but some
is brown (BAT—bc of rich blood supply and numerous pigmented
mitochondria that participate in aerobic cellular respiration. Bat in fetus,
infant, adults have small amount. Found wherever areolar ct is located.
Deep king, around heart and kidney, yellow bm, padding joints and behind
eyeball. Reduced hear loss through skin, energy reserve, support/protects
organs, in newborns BAT generates heat to maintain proper temp.
c. adipocytes—derived from fibroblast
d. reticular connective tissue—is a fine interlacing network of reticular fibers
and reticular cells. Stroma of liver, spleen, lymph nodes, red bm, reticular
lamina of basement mem, around bv and mm. Forms stroma of organs,
binds smooth mm tissue cells, filters and removes worn out blood cells in
spleen and microbes in lymph nodes.

II. dense connective tissue

a. dense regular connective tissue—forms shiny white ECM, mainly collagen
fibers regularly arranged bundles with fibroblast in rows between them.
Collagen fiber not living, so damaged tendons and ligaments heal slowly.
Forms tendon, lig, aponeuroses (sheet like tendons that attach mm to mm
or mm to bones). Provides strong attachment between various structures,
withstands pulling tension along long axis of fibers.
b. dense irregular connective tissue—is made up of collagen fibers, irregular
arranged with dew fibroblasts. Occurs in sheets, reticular region of dermis,
fibrous pericardium of heart, periosteum of bones, perichondrium of carti,
joint capsules, membrane cap around organs. In Heart valve. Provides
tensile pulling strength in many directions.
c. elastic connective tissue—contains predominantly elastic fibers with
fibroblasts between the,, unstained tissue is yellowish. In lung tissues,
arteries, trachea, bronch tubes, true vocal cords, suspensory ligs of penis,
lif in vert. Allows stretching of various organs, is strong and can recoil to
org shape. Elasticity is important to normal functioning of lungs (recoils in
exhale) and elastic arteries (recoil between heartbeats to help maintain
blood flow.)
 III. cartilage—dense network of collagen and elastic fibers embedded in chondroitin
sulfate. THREE TYPES
a. resilience—due to chondroitin sulfate
IV. chondrocyte—cells of mature cartilage
V. lacunae—space where find chondrocytes which is in ECM
VI. perichondrium—covering of dense irregular ct that surrounds most cartilage and
contains bv, nerves, and source of new cartilage cells.
a. hyaline cartilage—contains a resilient gel as ground substance and
appears in the body as a bluish-white shiny substance (can stain pink or
purple); prominent chondrocytes are found in lacunae surrounded by
perichondrium (exceptions: articular cartilage in joint, and epiphyseal
plates (bone growth)). MOST ABUNDANT ART IN BODY. End of long
bones, anterior ends of ribs, nose parts of larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchial tubes, embryonic and fetal skeleton. Provides smooth surfaces
for movement at joints, flexibility and support. Weakest type of cartilage
and can be fractured
b. fibrocartilage—has chondrocytes among clearly visible thick bundles of
collagen fibers within ECM, lacks perichondrium. In pubic symphysis (hips
join anterior), interveterbral discs, menisci (cart pads), portions of tendons
that insert into cart. Support and joining structure together. STRONGEST
TYPE
c. elastic cartilage—has chondrocytes in threadlike network of elastic fibers
within exm , perichondrium present. Lid on top of larynx (epiglot), part of
external ear (auricle), auditory (Eustachian) tubes. Provides strength and
elasticity, maintains shape of certain structure.

VII. repair and growth of cartilage—relatively inactive, grows slowly, avascular

a. interstitial growth—growth from within the tissue. Increases rapidly in size
bc division of existing chondrocytes and deposition of ECM. As
chondrocytes synth new matrix, they are pushed away from each other—
cause expand from within like bread rising. (occurs during childhood/ado
because cart is young and pliable)
b. appositional growth—growth at the outer surface of the tissue. Cells in
inner cellular layer of perichondrium differentiate into chondroblast—they
then surround themselves with ECM and become chondrocytes, thus
matrix accumulates beneath perichondrium of outer surface cause growth
in width. (later in adolescence)

VIII. bone tissue or osseous tissue—cartilage, joints, bones make up skeletal system.
It supports soft tissues, protects delicate structures, works with skeletal muscles
to generate movements. Has calcium and phosphorus, red bone marrow =
produces blood cells, and yellow bone marrow=store for triglycerides. Bones are
composed of serval dif ct—osseous tissue, periosteum, red yellow bone marrow,
endosteum (store yellow bone marrow). Whether is spongy or compact depends
on ECM.
IX. osteon or haversian system—basic unit of compact bone. Has four parts:
X. lamellae—concentric rings of ECM that consist of mineral salts (Ca and P). Give
bone hardness and compressive strength, collagen gives tensile strength.
Lamellae make compact!
XI. Lacunae—small spaces between lamellae that contain bone cells called
osteocytes
a. osteocyte
 XII. canaliculi—project from lacunae, and are networks of minute canals containing
the processes of osteocytes. Provide routes for nutrients to reach osteocytes and
for wastes to leave them.
XIII. central canal (haversian canal)—contains blood vessels and nerves

XIV. spongy bone—lacks osteons. It consists of columns of bone called trabeculae

(has lamellae, osteocytes, lacunar and canaliculi) Space between trabeculae are
filled with red bone marrow.
a. Trabeculae

XV. blood tissue (LIQUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE) – has liquid as its ECM.
XVI. Plasma—bloods ECM. Is pale yellow fluid that consist mostly of water with a
wide variety of substances (nutrients, wastes, enzymes, plasma proteins,
hormones, respiratory gases, ions)
FORMED ELEMENTS ARE:
XVII. red blood cell—erythrocytes, transport oxygen to body cells and remove CO2
from them
XVIII. white blood cell—leukocytes, are involved in phagocytosis, immunity and allergic
reactions. (lymphocytes are a type of WBC)
XIX. platelet—thrombocytes, participate in blood clotting.
XX. Lymph—is the ECF that flows in lymphatic vessels. Has less protein that blood
plasma. Clear liquid. Composition varies depending on where it is coming from.

8. Define the term membrane, and describe the location and functions of the membranes listed
below.
A. Membrane—flat sheet of pliable tissue that cover or line part of the body.
I. epithelial membrane—most membranes have epi layer and underlying ct layer
and are called epithelial membrane. Principle membranes are mucous, serous,
cutaneous, or skin. *another type of membrane is synovial it lines joints and
contains ct but no epi!
II. mucous membrane or mucosa—lines body cavity that opens directly to the
exterior. Lines digestive tract, presp, repro, urinary tract. Epi layer important for
defense bc its barrier between microbes and other pathogens. Usually tight
junctions. Secreted mucus and enzymes. Different types for different places. The
connective layer is areolar called lamina propria.
a. lamina propria—supports the epithelium, binds it to underlying structure,
allows some flexibility of the membrane and affords some protection.
Holds bv in place and vascular source for overlying epit. Oxygen and
nutrients diffuse from the lamina propria to the covering epithelium; co2
and wastes diffuse in opp direction. EX small intestine
III. serous membrane or serosa—lines body cavity that does not open directly to
the exterior, and it cover organs that are within cavities. Has areolar ct covered
by mesothelium (simple squamous epi). Mesothelium secretes serous fluid which
helps organs glide over each other and along wall. EX lungs. Has two layers:
a. parietal—layer attached to and lining cavity wall visceral layers—covers
and adheres to the organs within the cavity.
b. Pleura= serous membrane lining the thoracic cavity and covering lungs,
pericardium=lines heart cavity and covers heart, peritoneum=abdominal
cavity and covers abdominal organs.
IV. cutaneous membrane or skin—entire surface of body
a. epidermis—superficial portion, keratinized stratified squamous epi, dermis
is deeper, dense irregular ct and areolar ct.
 V. synovial membrane—line joint cavities (structure not open to exterior), lack
epithelium and thus NOT epithelial membranes. Has two layers—synoviocytes
(between space and bone/discontinuous) and ct layer (areolar and adipose) deep
to synoviocytes. They secret syn fluid.
a. synovial fluid—lubricates and nourishes the cart covering bones at
movable joints and contains macrophages that remove microbes and
debris from the joint cavity.

9. Compare the structure, location and modes of control of the three types of muscular tissue.
A. muscular tissue: description, location, functions—Table 4.9—consists of elongated cells
called muscle fibers or myocytes that can use ATP to generate force. They produce
body movements, maintains posture, generates heat, also protection. Three types:
skeletal, cardiac, smooth.
I. skeletal muscle tissue=long cylindrical striated fibers. Vary in length (30-40cm to
12-16inches) Has multi nuclei at periphery. Voluntary bc can be made to contract
or relax by conscious control. Usually attached to bones by tendons. For motion,
posture, heat and protection.
II. cardiac muscle tissue—branched, striated, with one central nucleus (sometimes
two). Attach end to end by transverse thickenings of PM called intercalated
discs which have desmosomes (strengthen tissue and hold fiber together un
vigorous contraction) and gap junctions (provide quick route for conduction of
electrical signals (AP) through heart. INVOLUNTARY. IN heart wall, pumps blood
to body.
a. intercalated disc
III. smooth muscle tissue—involuntary, non-striated, spindle shape, thickest in
middle, tappers at each end. Single nucleus. Gap junctions connect indi fibers in
some smooth muscles tissues (intestines) Can produce powerful contractions in
unison. No gap junctions in iris, so they contract individually like skeletal mm
fibers. Iris of eyes, walls of hollow internal structures ei bv, airways to lungs,
stomach, intestines, gallbladder, urinary bladder and uterus. Function = motion
(constriction of bv and airways, propulsion of foods through GIT, contraction of
urinary bladder and gallbladder).

10. Describe the structural features and functions of nervous tissue.

A. nervous tissue—two principle types of cells: neurons and neuroglia
I. neuron—sensitive to stimuli, convert stimuli into electrical signals called nerve
action potentials (nerve impulses) and conduct these AP to other neurons.,
muscles or glands. Most neurons have three parts
II. nerve action potentials
III. cell body—contains the nucleus and other organelles
IV. dendrites—are tapering, highly branched short cell processes. ARE THE MAJOR
RECEIVING OR INPUT PORTION OF A NEURON.
V. Axon—single, thin, cylindrical process, conduction nerve impulses toward
another neuron or to some other tissue.
VI. Neuroglia—do not generate or conduct nerve impulses. They have many
supportive functions.
VII. excitable cells and electrical excitability—neurons are muscles fibers are
considered excitable cells bc they have electrical excitability. The ability to
repond to certain stimuli by producing electrical signals such as AP. AP travel
can propagate along PM of neuron or mm fiber due to presence of specific
voltage-gated ion channels. They release neurotransmitters—which allow neuron
to communicate with other neurons, mm or glands. AP in mm fibers, contract,
 result in movement of limbs, food through small intestine and move blood out of
heart into bv of body.
a. neurotransmitter

11. Describe generally, and give examples of, homeostatic imbalances in tissues.
A. Disorders—of epi tissue are mainly specific to individual organs such as peptic ulcer
disease (PUD) which erodes the epi lining of stomach or small intestine. Most prevalent
disorders of ct are auto-immune diseases—in which antibodies produced by the
immune system fail to distinguish what is foreign from what is self and attach the body’s
own tissues. Ex rheumatoid arthritis—attacks synovial membrane of joint. For ct
disorders affect multiple body systems.
I. systemic lupus erythematosus or SLE or lupus—is a chronic inflammatory
disease of connective tissue occurring mostly in nonwhite women during their
childbearing years. It is aut-immune that can cause tissue damage in everybody
system. Mild to fatal. 1 in 2000. Genetic (twins/fam history), enviro (viruses,
bacteria, chem, drugs, sunlight emotional stress) and hormonal (estro) factors
implicated. Signs and symptoms of SLE painfully joints, low fever, fatigue, mouth
ulcers, weight loss, enlarged lymph nodes and spleen, sensitivity to sunlight, loss
of scalp hair and anorexia. Butterfly rash across bridge of nose and cheeks.
Blistering or ulceration resemble wolf bite. MOST SERIOUS PART IS INFLAMED
KIDNEYS, LIVER SPLEEN LUNGS HEART BRAIN GIT. No cure, only anti-
inflam drugs like aspirin and immunosuppressive drugs.

Chapter 5
The Integumentary System
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
1. describe the anatomy and major functions of the skin.
2. explain the basis of different skin colours.
3. compare the anatomy, distribution and physiology of the epidermal derivatives listed below:
A. hair
B. sebaceous glands or oil glands
C. sudoriferous glands or sweat glands
D. ceruminous glands
E. nails.
4. describe how the skin contributes to the regulation of body temperature, the storage of blood,
protection, sensation, excretion and absorption, and synthesis of vitamin D.
5. outline the steps involved in epidermal wound healing and deep wound healing.

Keywords and Topics

Make certain that you can define, and use in context, each of the terms listed below, and that you
understand the significance of each of the concepts.
1. Describe the anatomy and major functions of the skin.
A. integumentary system
B. skin or cutaneous membrane
C. epidermis
D. dermis
E. subcutaneous (SQ) layer or hypodermis
F. lamellated corpuscle or pacinian corpuscle
G. epidermis
 I. keratinocyte
II. keratin
III. melanocyte
a. melanin
IV. intraepidermal macrophages or Langerhans cell
V. tactile epithelial cells or Merkel cell
a. tactile disk or Merkel disk
VI. thin and thick skin—also read 5.3
VII. layers or strata
a. stratum basale or stratum germinativum
i. keratin intermediate filaments (tonofilaments)
b. stratum spinosum
c. stratum granulosum
i. keratohyalin
ii. lamellar granules
d. stratum lucidum
e. stratum corneum
i. callus
f. keratinization
VIII. psoriasis
H. dermis
I. papillary region
II. dermal papilla (plural is papillae)
a. capillary loops
III. corpuscle of touch or Meissner corpuscle
IV. free nerve ending
V. reticular region
a. extensibility
b. elasticity
I. epidermal ridge
I. fingerprints (footprints)
2. Explain the basis of different skin colours.
A. structural basis of skin colour
I. melanin (pheo- and eumelanin)
a. nevus (mole)
II. albinism and vitiligo
III. carotene
IV. cyanotic, jaundice, erythema, pallor
3. Compare the anatomy, distribution and physiology of the epidermal derivatives listed below.
A. hair
I. functions of hair
II. shaft
III. root
a. medulla, cortex, cuticle
IV. hair follicle
V. bulb
VI. matrix
VII. arrector pili muscle
VIII. hair root plexus
IX. hair growth; stages
a. alopecia
 X. types of hairs
a. lanugo
b. terminal hairs
c. vellus hairs
XI. hair colour
B. sebaceous gland or oil gland
I. sebum
II. acne
C. sudoriferous gland or sweat gland
I. eccrine sweat gland
a. thermoregulation
b. thermoregulatory sweating
c. insensible and sensible perspiration
d. emotional sweating (cold sweat)
II. apocrine sweat gland
D. ceruminous gland
I. cerumen
E. nail
I. nail body
II. free edge
III. hyponychium (nail bed)
IV. eponychium (cuticle)
V. nail root
VI. lunula
VII. nail matrix
4. Describe how the skin contributes to the regulation of body temperature, the storage of blood,
protection, sensation, excretion and absorption, and synthesis of vitamin D.
A. functions of skin
I. thermoregulation
II. blood reservoir
III. protection
IV. cutaneous sensations
V. excretion and absorption
VI. synthesis of vitamin D
5. Outline the steps involved in epidermal wound healing and deep wound healing.
A. skin wound healing
I. epidermal wound healing
a. contact inhibition
b. epidermal growth factor
II. deep wound healing
a. inflammatory phase
b. migratory phase
i. granulation tissue
c. proliferative phase
d. maturation phase
III. fibrosis—scar types
B. disorders
I. skin cancer
II. burn
III. pressure ulcers
Chapter 6
The Skeletal System: Bone Tissue
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
1. describe the main functions of bones.
2. identify the parts of a long bone.
3. describe the histological features of bone tissue.
4. describe the steps in intramembranous and endochondral ossification.
5. describe how bone grows in length and thickness.
6. describe the processes involved in bone remodeling.
7. describe the sequence of events in the repair of a fracture.
8. describe the role of bone in calcium homeostasis.

Keywords and Topics

Make certain that you can define, and use in context, each of the terms listed below, and that you
understand the significance of each of the concepts.
1. Describe the main functions of bones.
A. functions of the skeletal system
I. support
II. protection
III. assistance in movement
IV. mineral homeostasis (storage and release)
V. blood cell production
VI. red bone marrow
VII. hemopoiesis
VIII. triglyceride storage
IX. yellow bone marrow
2. Identify the parts of a long bone.
A. structure of a long bone
I. diaphysis
II. epiphysis (plural is epiphyses)
III. metaphysis (plural is metaphyses)
IV. epiphyseal plate and line
V. articular cartilage
VI. periosteum
a. outer fibrous layer
b. inner osteogenic layer
c. perforating fibers or Sharpey’s fibers
VII. medullary cavity or marrow cavity
VIII. endosteum
3. Describe the histological features of bone tissue.
A. histology of bone tissue
B. bone or osseous tissue
I. hydroxyapatite
II. calcification
III. osteogenic cell
a. osteoprogenitor cells
b. osteoblast
c. osteocyte
d. osteoclast
 i. resorption
C. compact bone tissue
I. osteon or haversian system
II. central or haversian canal
III. concentric lamellae
IV. lacuna (plural is lacunae)
V. canaliculus (plural is canaliculi)
D. spongy bone tissue
I. trabecula (plural is trabeculae)
E. blood and nerve supply of bone
I. periosteal arteries
II. nutrient artery and foramen
III. metaphyseal artery
IV. epiphyseal arteries
V. nutrient veins: epiphyseal, metaphyseal, periosteal
4. Describe the steps in intramembranous and endochondral ossification.
A. bone formation
I. ossification or osteogenesis
II. intramembranous ossification—steps
III. endochondral ossification—steps
5. Describe how bone grows in length and thickness.
A. bone growth
I. growth in length
II. epiphyseal plate
III. epiphyseal line
IV. growth in thickness
6. Describe the processes involved in bone remodeling.
A. bone remodeling
I. bone resorption
II. bone deposition
7. Describe the sequence of events in the repair of a fracture.
A. fracture; stress fracture
I. reactive phase—fracture hematoma
II. fibrocartilaginous callus
III. bony (hard) callus
IV. bone remodeling
8. Describe the role of bone in calcium homeostasis.
A. bone’s role in calcium homeostasis
I. parathyroid hormone (PTH)
II. calcitriol
III. calcitonin (CT)
B. disorders and medical terminology
I. osteoporosis
II. rickets and osteomalacia

Chapter 7
The Skeletal System: The Axial Skeleton
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
 1. distinguish between the axial and appendicular divisions of the skeleton.
2. classify bones on the basis of shape and location.
3. describe the major surface markings on bones and the brief functions of each (no examples).
4. identify the names, locations and the listed surface markings of the bones of the skull.
5. identify the principal sutures, sinuses, and fontanels of the skull, as well as the hyoid bone.
6. identify the names, locations and major surface markings of the bones of the vertebral column.
7. identify the names, locations and major surface markings of the bones of the thorax.

Keywords and Topics

Make certain that you can define, and use in context, each of the terms listed below, and that you
understand the significance of each of the concepts.
1. Distinguish between the axial and appendicular divisions of the skeleton.
A. axial skeleton
B. appendicular skeleton
2. Classify bones on the basis of shape and location.
A. types of bones
I. long bone
a. compact bone tissue
b. spongy bone tissue
II. short bone
III. flat bone
IV. irregular bone
V. sesamoid bone
VI. sutural bone
3. Describe the major surface markings on bones and the brief functions of each (no examples).
A. bone surface markings, Table 7.2: fissure, foramen, fossa, sulcus, meatus, condyle,
facet, head, crest, epicondyle, line, spinous process, trochanter, tubercle, tuberosity.
4. Identify the names, locations and the listed surface markings of the bones of the skull.
A. skull (details in the Exhibits)
I. cranial bones
a. frontal bone
i. supraorbital margin, foramina, notch, frontal sinuses
b. parietal bones (2)
c. temporal bones (2)
i. zygomatic, mastoid, and styloid processes
ii. mandibular fosa,
iii. zygomatic arch
iv. external auditory meatus
v. internal auditory meatus
d. occipital bone
i. foramen magnum
ii. occipital condyles
iii. external occipital protuberance
e. sphenoid bone
i. sella turcica
ii. optic foramen
f. ethmoid bone
g. superior and middle nasal conchae (turbinates; singular is concha)
II. facial bones (details in the Exhibits)
a. nasal bones (2)
b. lacrimal bones (2)
 i. lacrimal fossa
c. palatine bones (2)
d. inferior nasal conchae or turbinates (2)
e. vomer
f. maxillae (2; singular is maxilla)
i. maxillary sinus
ii. infraorbital foramen
g. zygomatic bones (2)
h. mandible
i. body
ii. rami (2; singular is ramus)
iii. angles (2)
iv. condylar processes (2)
v. coronoid processes (2)
vi. temporomandibular joints (2)
vii. alveolar process
III. nasal septum
IV. orbits or orbital cavities
5. Identify the principal sutures, sinuses, and fontanels of the skull, as well as the hyoid bone.
A. suture
I. coronal suture
II. sagittal suture
III. lambdoid suture
IV. squamous sutures (2)
B. sinus
I. paranasal sinuses
C. fontanels
D. hyoid bone
I. body
II. lesser horns
III. greater horns
6. Identify the names, locations and major surface markings of the bones of the vertebral column.
A. vertebral column or spine, backbone, or spinal column
I. vertebra (plural is vertebrae)
II. normal curves
a. cervical and lumbar
b. thoracic and sacral
III. intervertebral disc
a. nucleus pulposus
IV. parts of a typical vertebra
a. vertebral body
b. vertebral arch
c. vertebral foramen
d. vertebral (spinal) canal
e. intervertebral foramen
f. transverse processes
g. spinous process
h. superior articular processes
i. inferior articular processes
V. regions of the vertebral column (details in the Exhibits)
a. cervical vertebrae (7; C1-C7)
 b. atlas (C1)
c. axis (C2)
d. dens or odontoid process
VI. thoracic vertebrae (12; T1-T12)
a. vertebrocostal joint
VII. lumbar vertebrae (5; L1-L5)
VIII. sacrum
a. anterior sacral foramina
b. median sacral crest
c. posterior sacral foramina
d. sacral canal (sacral hiatus)
e. sacral promontory
f. sacroiliac joint
g. lumbosacral joint
IX. coccyx
7. Identify the names, locations and major surface markings of the bones of the thorax.
A. thorax, thoracic cage (details in the Exhibits)
I. sternum or breastbone
a. manubrium
b. body
c. xiphoid process
d. sternal angle
e. suprasternal notch
f. clavicular notches
II. ribs (12 pairs)
a. costal cartilage
b. true ribs (1–7)
c. false ribs (8–12)
d. floating ribs (11–12)
e. head
f. articular facets
g. tubercle
h. body
i. costal angle
j. costal groove
III. disorders
a. herniated disc or slipped disc
b. abnormal curves of the vertebral column
c. spina bifida

Chapter 8
The Skeletal System: The Appendicular Skeleton
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
1. identify the names, locations and major surface markings of the bones of the pectoral
(shoulder) girdles.
2. identify the names, locations and major surface markings of the bones of the upper limbs.
3. identify the names, locations and major surface markings of the bones of the pelvic (hip) girdle.
4. identify the names, locations and major surface markings of the bones of the lower limbs.
 5. compare the principal structural differences between female and male skeletons, especially
those that pertain to the pelvis.
Keywords and Topics
Make certain that you can define, and use in context, each of the terms listed below, and that you
understand the significance of each of the concepts.
1. Identify the names, locations and major surface markings of the bones of the pectoral
(shoulder) girdles.
A. pectoral girdles or shoulder girdles (2; details in the Exhibits)
I. clavicle or collarbone
a. sternal end
b. acromial end
II. scapula or shoulder blade
a. spine
b. acromion
c. glenoid cavity
d. superior, lateral (axillary) and medial (vertebral) borders
e. superior and inferior angles
f. scapular notch
g. coracoid process
h. supraspinous fossa
i. infraspinous fossa
j. subscapular fossa
2. Identify the names, locations and major surface markings of the bones of the upper limbs.
A. upper limbs or upper extremities (2; details in the Exhibits)
I. humerus
a. head
b. glenohumeral joint
c. anatomical neck
d. greater tubercle
e. lesser tubercle
f. intertubercular sulcus
g. surgical neck
h. body or shaft
i. deltoid tuberosity
j. capitulum
k. radial fossa
l. trochlea
m. coronoid fossa
n. olecranon fossa
o. medial epicondyle
p. lateral epicondyle
II. ulna
a. olecranon
b. coronoid process
c. trochlear notch
d. ulnar tuberosity
e. head
f. styloid process
III. radius
a. head
b. radial tuberosity
 c. styloid process
d. radiocarpal joint or wrist joint
IV. carpal bones
Note: You are expected to learn the names of the carpals and major features,
but not their precise positions.
a. scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate,
hamate
V. metacarpal bones (in the anatomical position, the first metacarpal is the lateral
bone)
a. base, shaft, head
VI. phalanges
a. proximal, middle (except in thumb) and distal phalanges
b. pollex
3. Identify the names, locations and major surface markings of the bones of the pelvic (hip) girdle.
A. pelvic girdle or hip girdle (details in the Exhibits)
I. coxal bone or hip bone (or os coxa)
a. pubic symphysis
b. sacroiliac joint
c. bony pelvis (plural is pelves or pelvices)
II. ilium
a. acetabulum
b. iliac crest
c. anterior superior iliac spine
d. anterior inferior iliac spine
e. posterior superior iliac spine
f. posterior inferior iliac spine
g. greater sciatic notch
h. iliac fossa
i. iliac tuberosity
III. ischium
a. ischial spine
b. lesser sciatic notch
c. ischial tuberosity
d. obturator foramen
IV. pubis
a. pubic crest
b. pubic symphysis
c. pubic arch
V. hip or coxal joint
a. pelvic brim
b. false (greater) pelvis
c. true (lesser) pelvis
d. pelvic inlet
e. pelvic outlet
f. pelvic axes
4. Compare the principal structural differences between female and male skeletons, especially
those that pertain to the pelvis.
A. comparison of female and male pelves
5. Identify the names, locations and major surface markings of the bones of the lower limbs.
A. lower limbs or lower extremities (2); details in the Exhibits
I. femur or thighbone
 a. body or shaft
b. head
c. neck
d. greater trochanter
e. lesser trochanter
f. gluteal tuberosity
g. linea aspera
h. medial condyle
i. lateral condyle
j. medial epicondyle
k. lateral epicondyle
l. patellar surface
II. patella
III. tibia or shin bone
a. lateral condyle
b. medial condyle
c. tibiofemoral (knee) joints
d. tibial tuberosity
e. medial malleolus
IV. fibula
a. head
b. lateral malleolus
V. tarsal bones
Note: You are expected to learn the names of the tarsals and major features, but
not their precise positions.
a. talus
b. calcaneus
c. cuboid
d. navicular
e. cuneiform bones
f. 1st (medial), 2nd (intermediate) and 3rd (lateral) cuneiforms
VI. metatarsal bones
Note: The 1st metatarsal is the medial bone.
VII. phalanges
VIII. hallux
IX. medial and lateral longitudinal arches
X. transverse arch

Chapter 9
Joints
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
1. define the term articulation (joint).
2. classify joints on the basis of structure and function.
3. describe the structure and functions of the three types of fibrous joints.
4. describe the structure and functions of the two types of cartilaginous joints.
5. describe the structure of synovial joints.
6. describe the structure and functions of bursae and tendon sheaths.
7. describe the types of movements that can occur at synovial joints.
8. describe the six types of synovial joints.
 9. explain the anatomic and physiologic significance of the knee joint.
10. describe selected joint disorders.

Keywords and Topics

Make certain that you can define, and use in context, each of the terms listed below, and that you
understand the significance of each of the concepts.
1. Define the term articulation (joint).
A. articulation or arthrosis
2. Classify joints on the basis of structure and function.
A. structural classification
I. fibrous joints
II. cartilaginous joints
III. synovial joints
B. functional classification
I. synarthrosis
II. amphiarthrosis
III. diarthrosis
3. Describe the structure and functions of the three types of fibrous joints.
A. fibrous joints
I. suture
a. synostosis
b. frontal or metopic sututure
II. syndesmosis
III. gomphosis or dentoalveolar joint
IV. interosseous membrane
4. Describe the structure and functions of the two types of cartilaginous joints.
A. cartilaginous joints
I. synchondrosis
II. symphysis
5. Describe the structure of synovial joints.
A. synovial joints
I. synovial (joint) cavity
II. articular cartilage
III. articular capsule
IV. fibrous membrane
V. ligament
VI. synovial membrane
VII. articular fat pad
VIII. synovial fluid
IX. accessory ligaments: extracapsular and intracapsular ligaments
X. articular discs (menisci)
XI. labrum
XII. nerve and blood supply
6. Describe the structure and functions of bursae and tendon sheaths.
A. bursa (plural is bursae)
B. tendon (synovial) sheaths
7. Describe the types of movements that can occur at synovial joints.
A. types of movements at synovial joints
I. gliding
II. angular
III. flexion
 IV. extension
a. lateral flexion
V. hyperextension
VI. abduction or lateral deviation
VII. adduction or ulnar deviation
VIII. circumduction
IX. rotation
a. medial (or internal) rotation
b. lateral (or external) rotation
X. special
a. elevation
b. depression
c. protraction
d. retraction
e. inversion
f. eversion
g. dorsiflexion
h. plantar flexion
i. supination
j. pronation
k. opposition
8. Describe the six types of synovial joints.
A. types of synovial joints
I. plane joint
II. hinge joint
III. pivot joint
IV. condyloid or ellipsoidal joint
V. saddle joint
VI. ball and socket joint
9. Explain the anatomic and physiologic significance of the knee joint.
A. knee joint (Exhibit 9E)
I. medial and lateral tibiofemoral joints
II. patellofemoral joint
III. articular capsule
IV. patellar ligament
V. tibial collateral ligament
VI. fibular collateral ligament
VII. anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)
VIII. posterior cruciate ligament (PCL)
IX. medial meniscus
X. lateral meniscus
10. Describe selected joint disorders.
A. disorders
I. rheumatism and arthritis
II. osteoarthritis
III. rheumatoid arthritis
IV. gouty arthritis
V. Lyme disease
Chapter 10
Muscular Tissue
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to
1. describe the structural differences among the three types of muscular tissue.
2. describe the functions and properties of the three types of muscular tissue.
3. describe the connective tissue components, blood vessels and nerves of skeletal muscles.
4. describe the microscopic anatomy of a skeletal muscle fiber.
5. describe the characteristics of thick filaments and thin filaments.
6. describe the sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction.
7. describe the events that occur at a neuromuscular junction.
8. identify the sources of the ATP used during muscle contraction.
9. distinguish between anaerobic and aerobic cellular respiration.
10. describe the factors that contribute to muscle fatigue.
11. describe the structure, function, and recruitment of a motor unit, and the phases of twitch
contraction.
12. describe how frequency of stimulation affects muscle tension, and how muscle tone is
produced.
13. distinguish between isotonic and isometric contractions.
14. describe the structure and functions of the three different types of skeletal muscle fibers.
15. describe the major structural and functional characteristics of cardiac and smooth muscle
tissue.
16. Describe some muscular disorders.

Keywords and Topics

Make certain that you can define, and use in context, each of the terms listed below, and that you
understand the significance of each of the concepts.

1. Describe the structural differences among the three types of muscular tissue.
A. skeletal muscle tissue
I. striated
II. voluntary
B. cardiac muscle tissue
I. striated
II. involuntary
III. autorhythmicity
C. smooth muscle tissue
I. nonstriated
II. involuntary
2. Describe the functions and properties of the three types of muscular tissue.
A. functions of muscular tissue
I. producing body movements
II. stabilizing body positions
III. storing and moving substances within the body
IV. generating heat
a. shivering
B. properties of muscular tissue
I. electrical excitability
II. contractility
III. extensibility
IV. elasticity
3. Describe the connective tissue components, blood vessels and nerves of skeletal muscles.
A. skeletal muscle tissue
I. muscle cell (fiber)
 II. connective tissue components
III. subcutaneous layer or hypodermis
IV. fascia
V. epimysium
VI. perimysium
VII. fascicles
VIII. endomysium
IX. tendon
X. aponeurosis
XI. nerve and blood supply
XII. somatic motor neuron
4. Describe the microscopic anatomy of a skeletal muscle fiber.
A. microscopic anatomy of skeletal muscle fiber
I. sarcolemma
II. transverse (T) tubules
III. sarcoplasm
IV. myoglobin
V. myofibrils
VI. sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
a. terminal cisterns
b. triad
VII. muscular hypertrophy
VIII. fibrosis
IX. muscular atrophy
5. Describe the characteristics of thick filaments and thin filaments.
A. filaments (myofilaments)
I. thin filament
II. thick filament
III. sarcomere
IV. Z disc
V. A band
VI. I band
VII. H zone
VIII. M line
B. contractile proteins
I. myosin—motor protein for all three types of muscles
II. myosin tail
III. myosin heads
IV. actin
V. myosin-binding site
C. regulatory proteins
I. tropomyosin
II. troponin
D. structural protein
I. titin
6. Describe the sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction.
A. sliding filament mechanism
I. contraction cycle—all four steps
II. excitation contraction coupling
a. Ca2+ release channels
b. Ca2+ active transport pump
 III. length tension relationship
7. Describe the events that occur at a neuromuscular junction.
A. neuromuscular junction
I. somatic motor neuron
II. synapse
III. synaptic cleft
IV. neurotransmitter
V. axon terminal
VI. synaptic end bulb
VII. synaptic vesicle
VIII. acetylcholine or ACh
IX. motor end plate
X. ACh receptor
XI. junctional folds
XII. muscle action potential—steps
a. acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
8. Identify the sources of the ATP used during muscle contraction.
A. muscle metabolism
I. production of ATP in muscle fibers
II. creatine phosphate
9. Distinguish between anaerobic and aerobic cellular respiration.
A. anaerobic glycolysis
B. aerobic respiration
10. describe the factors that contribute to muscle fatigue.
A. muscle fatigue
I. central fatigue
B. oxygen debt
C. recovery oxygen uptake
11. Describe the structure, function, and recruitment of a motor unit, and the phases of twitch
contraction.
A. control of muscle tension
I. motor unit
II. twitch contraction
a. latent period
b. contraction period
c. relaxation period
d. refractory period
12. Describe how frequency of stimulation affects muscle tension, and how muscle tone is
produced.
A. frequency of stimulation
I. wave summation
II. unfused (incomplete) tetanus
III. fused (complete) tetanus
IV. motor unit recruitment
V. muscle tone
a. flaccidity
13. Distinguish between isotonic and isometric contractions.
A. isotonic contraction
B. concentric isotonic contraction
C. eccentric isotonic contraction
D. isometric contraction
14. Describe the structure and functions of the three different types of skeletal muscle fibers.
A. types of skeletal muscle fibers
I. slow oxidative (SO) fiber
II. fast oxidative glycolytic (FOG) fiber
III. fast glycolytic (FG) fiber
IV. distribution and recruitment of different types of fiber
15. Describe the major structural and functional characteristics of cardiac and smooth muscle
tissue.
A. cardiac muscle tissue
I. intercalated disc
II. desmosomes
III. gap junctions
B. smooth muscle tissue
I. visceral (single unit) smooth muscle tissue
II. multiunit smooth muscle tissue
III. microscopic anatomy of smooth muscle
a. thick, thin, and intermediate filaments
b. caveolae
c. dense bodies
IV. physiology of smooth muscle
a. calmodulin
b. smooth muscle tone
c. stress relaxation response
V. regeneration of muscle tissue
a. hypertrophy
b. hyperplasia
Note: Learn the summary of the major features of the types of muscular tissues (Table 10.5).
16. Describe some muscular disorders.
A. disorders
I. myasthenia gravis
II. muscular dystrophy
III. abnormal contractions of skeletal muscle
a. spasm
b. cramp
c. tic
d. tremor
e. fasciculation
f. fibrillation