Python

What is Python?
Python is a widely-used, interpreted, object-oriented, and high-level programming language with

dynamic semantics, used for general-purpose programming.
And while you may know the python as a large snake, the name of the Python programming
language comes from an old BBC television comedy sketch series called Monty Python's Flying
Circus.
Who created Python?

Python goals
In 1999, Guido van Rossum defined his goals for Python:
 an easy and intuitive language just as powerful as those of the major competitors;

 open source, so anyone can contribute to its development;
 code that is as understandable as plain English;
 suitable for everyday tasks, allowing for short development times.
What makes Python special?

Where can we see Python in action?
We see it every day and almost everywhere. It's used extensively to implement complex Internet
services like search engines, cloud storage and tools, social media and so on. Whenever you use
any of these services, you are actually very close to Python, although you wouldn't know it.
Many developing tools are implemented in Python. More and more everyday use

applications are being written in Python. Lots of scientists have abandoned expensive proprietary
tools and switched to Python. Lots of IT project testers have started using Python to carry out
repeatable test procedures. The list is long.
There is more than one Python

There are two main kinds of Python, called Python 2 and Python 3.
Python aka CPython
In addition to Python 2 and Python 3, there is more than one version of each.
Guido van Rossum used the "C" programming language to implement the very first version
of his language and this decision is still in force. All Pythons coming from the PSF are written
in the "C" language.
Cython
Another Python family member is Cython.
Cython is one of a possible number of solutions to the most painful of Python's trait - the lack of
efficiency. Large and complex mathematical calculations may be easily coded in Python
Jython
Another version of Python is called Jython.
"J" is for "Java". Imagine a Python written in Java instead of C.
PyPy and RPython

Take a look at the logo below. It's a rebus. Can you solve it?
It's a logo of the PyPy - a Python within a Python. In other words, it represents a Python
environment written in Python-like language named RPython (Restricted Python). It is actually a
subset of Python.
How to get Python and how to get to use it

https://www.python.org/downloads/.
Downloading and installing Python

Starting your work with Python
To start your work, you need the following tools:
 an editor which will support you in writing the code (it should have some special features,
not available in simple tools); this dedicated editor will give you more than the standard OS
equipment;
 a console in which you can launch your newly written code and stop it forcibly when it gets
out of control;
 a tool named a debugger, able to launch your code step by step and allowing you to inspect
it at each moment of execution.
IDLE is an acronym: Integrated Development and Learning Environment.
Navigate through your OS menus, find IDLE somewhere under Python 3.x and launch it. This is
what you should see:
How to write and run your very first program
It is now time to write and run your first Python 3 program. It will be very simple, for now.
The first step is to create a new source file and fill it with code. Click File in the IDLE’s menu and
choose New file.
How to write and run your very first program

Now put just one line into your newly opened and named editor window.
The line looks like this:
print("Hello!")
print("Welcome to Python Essentials!")
print("THIS IS SANDBOX MODE.")
How to spoil and fix your code

Watch all the windows carefully.
A new window appears – it says that the interpreter has encountered an EOF (end-of-file) although
(in its opinion) the code should contain some more text.
The editor window shows clearly where it happened.
print("Hello!"
Fix the code now. It should look like this:
print("Hello!")
Remove one letter from the word print. Run the code by pressing F5. As you can see, Python is
not able to recognize the error.
rint("Hello")
Run this program
print("Hello!")
print("Welcome to Python Essentials!")

Congratulations! You have completed Module 1.
 Module 2 - Data types, variables, basic input-output operations, basic

operators
The print() function
Look at the line of code below:
print("Hello, World!")
The word print that you can see here is a function name.
The only argument delivered to the print() function in this example is a string:
As you can see, the string is delimited with quotes - in fact, the quotes make the string - they cut
out a part of the code and assign a different meaning to it.
Example
print("The itsy bitsy spider climbed up the waterspout.")
print("Down came the rain and washed the spider out.")
Console
The itsy bitsy spider climbed up the waterspout.

Down came the rain and washed the spider out.
Example
print("The itsy bitsy spider climbed up the waterspout.")
print()
print("Down came the rain and washed the spider out.")
Console
Down came the rain and washed the spider out.
The empty print() invocation is not as empty as you may have expected - it does output an
empty line
Example
print("The itsy bitsy spider\nclimbed up the waterspout.")
print()
print("Down came the rain\nand washed the spider out.")
Console
The itsy bitsy spider

climbed up the waterspout.
Down came the rain
and washed the spider out.
The letter n placed after the backslash comes from the word newline.
\n
The print() function - using multiple arguments
Example
print("The itsy bitsy spider" , "climbed up" , "the waterspout.")
Console
The print() function - the positional way of passing the

arguments
Example
print("My name is", "Python.")
print("Monty Python.")
Console
My name is Python.
Monty Python.
The print() function - the keyword arguments
Example
print("My name is", "Python.", end=" ")

print("Monty Python.")
Console
My name is Python. Monty Python.
The print() function has two keyword arguments that you can use for your purposes. The first of
them is named end.
In order to use it, it is necessary to know some rules:
 a keyword argument consists of three elements: a keyword identifying the argument

(end here); an equal sign (=); and a value assigned to that argument;
 any keyword arguments have to be put after the last positional argument (this is very
important)

We've said previously that the print() function separates its outputted arguments with spaces.
This behavior can be changed, too.
The keyword argument that can do this is named sep (like separator).
print("My", "name", "is", "Monty", "Python.",

sep="-")
Console
My-name-is-Monty-Python.

Both keyword arguments may be mixed in one invocation, just like here in the editor window.
print("My", "name", "is", sep="_", end="*")

print("Monty", "Python.", sep="*", end="*\n")
Console
My_name_is*Monty*Python.*
Exercise
print("Programming","Essentials","in")
print("Python")
Console
Programming Essentials in
Python
Expected output
Programming***Essentials***in...Python
Solution
Print(“programming”,Essentials”, “in”,
sep=”***”,end=”… ”)
Print(“Python”)
Example
print(" *")
print(" * *")
print(" * *")
print(" * *")
print("*** ***")
print(" * *")
print(" * *")
print(" *****")
Console
*
* *
* *
* *
*** ***
* *
* *
*****
Key takeaways
1. The print() function is a built-in function. It prints/outputs a specified message to the

screen/consol window.
2. Built-in functions, contrary to user-defined functions, are always available and don't have to be
imported. Python 3.7.1 comes with 69 built-in functions. You can find their full list provided in
alphabetical order in the Python Standard Library.
3. To call a function (function invocation), you need to use the function name followed by
parentheses. You can pass arguments into a function by placing them inside the parentheses. You
must separate arguments with a comma, e.g., print("Hello,", "world!") . An
"empty" print() function outputs an empty line to the screen.
4. Python strings are delimited with quotes, e.g., "I am a string" , or 'I am a string, too' .
5. Computer programs are collections of instructions. An instruction is a command to perform a

specific task when executed, e.g., to print a certain message to the screen.
6. In Python strings the backslash ( \ ) is a special character which announces that the next
character has a different meaning, e.g., \n (the newline character) starts a new output line.
7. Positional arguments are the ones whose meaning is dictated by their position, e.g., the second
argument is outputted after the first, the third is outputted after the second, etc.
8. Keyword arguments are the ones whose meaning is not dictated by their location, but by a
special word (keyword) used to identify them.
9. The end and sep parameters can be used for formatting the output of the print() function.
The sep parameter specifies the separator between the outputted arguments (e.g., print("H",
"E", "L", "L", "O", sep="-") , whereas the end parameter specifies what to print at the end
of the print statement.
Python Literals
Literals - the data in itself

Example
print("2")
print(2)
Console
2
2
Through this example, you encounter two different types of literals:
 a string, which you already know,

 and an integer number, something completely new.
 The print() function presents them in exactly the same way - this example is obvious, as
their human-readable representation is also the same. Internally, in the computer's memory,
these two values are stored in completely different ways - the string exists as just a string - a
series of letters.
 The number is converted into machine representation (a set of bits). The print() function
is able to show them both in a form readable to humans.
Integers
we can write this number either like this: 11111111, or like that: 11_111_111.
*Python 3.6 has introduced underscores in numeric literals, allowing for placing single underscores
between digits and after base specifiers for improved readability.
And how do we code negative numbers in Python? As usual - by adding a minus. You can write: -
11111111 , or -11_111_111 .
Positive numbers do not need to be preceded by the plus sign, but it's permissible, if you wish to do
it. The following lines describe the same number: +11111111 and 11_11_11_11 .
Integers: octal and hexadecimal numbers

There are two additional conventions in Python that are unknown to the world of mathematics. The
first allows us to use numbers in an octal representation.
If an integer number is preceded by an 0O or 0o prefix (zero-o), it will be treated as an octal value.

This means that the number must contain digits taken from the [0..7] range only.
0o123 is an octal number with a (decimal) value equal to 83.
The print() function does the conversion automatically. Try this:
print(0o123)
The second convention allows us to use hexadecimal numbers. Such numbers should be preceded

by the prefix 0x or 0X (zero-x).
0x123 is a hexadecimal number with a (decimal) value equal to 291. The print() function can
manage these values too. Try this:
print(0x123)
Floats
Whenever we use a term like two and a half or minus zero point four, we think of numbers which the
computer considers floating-point numbers:
2.5
If you want to use just a value of two and a half, you should write it as shown above. Note once
again - there is a point between 2 and 5 - not a comma.-0.4
We can write 0.4 as a
0.4
.4
4.0
Ints vs. floats

Look at these two numbers:
4
4.0
You may think that they are exactly the same, but Python sees them in a completely different way.
4 is an integer number, whereas 4.0 is a floating-point number.
Take, for example, the speed of light, expressed in meters per second. Written directly it would look
like this: 300000000.
To avoid writing out so many zeros, physics textbooks use an abbreviated form, which you have
probably already seen: 3 x 108.
It reads: three times ten to the power of eight.
In Python, the same effect is achieved in a slightly different way - take a look:
3E8
The letter E (you can also use the lower-case letter e - it comes from the word exponent) is a
concise record of the phrase times ten to the power of.
Note:
 the exponent (the value after the E) has to be an integer;

 the base (the value in front of the E) may be an integer.
Coding floats
A physical constant called Planck's constant (and denoted as h), according to the textbooks, has the
value of: 6.62607 x 10-34.
If you would like to use it in a program, you should write it this way:
6.62607E-34
For example, let's say you've decided to use the following float literal:
0.0000000000000000000001
When you run this literal through Python:
print(0.0000000000000000000001)
this is the result:
1e-22
Exercise
I'm Monty Python.
''
""
Code
print("I'm Monty Python")
print("''")
print('""')
Boolean values
A programmer writes a program, and the program asks questions. Python executes the program,
and provides the answers. The program must be able to react according to the received answers.
Fortunately, computers know only two kinds of answers:
 Yes, this is true;

 No, this is false.
 Python, then, is a binary reptile.
 These two Boolean values have strict denotations in Python:
True
False
You cannot change anything - you have to take these symbols as they are, including case-
sensitivity.
Challenge: What will be the output of the following snippet of code?

print(True > False)
True
print(False< True)
True
print(False>True)
False
Print(True<False)
False
Expected output
"I'm"
""learning""
"""Python"""
print('”I\'m happy.”')
print(‘””learning””’)
print(‘”””Python”””’)
Key takeaways
1. Literals are notations for representing some fixed values in code. Python has various types of
literals - for example, a literal can be a number (numeric literals, e.g., 123), or a string (string literals,
e.g., "I am a literal.").
2. The binary system is a system of numbers that employs 2 as the base. Therefore, a binary
number is made up of 0s and 1s only, e.g., 1010 is 10 in decimal.
Octal and hexadecimal numeration systems, similarly, employ 8 and 16 as their bases respectively.
The hexadecimal system uses the decimal numbers and six extra letters.
3. Integers (or simply ints) are one of the numerical types supported by Python. They are numbers
written without a fractional component, e.g., 256, or -1 (negative integers).
4. Floating-point numbers (or simply floats) are another one of the numerical types supported by
Python. They are numbers that contain (or are able to contain) a fractional component, e.g., 1.27.
5. To encode an apostrophe or a quote inside a string you can either use the escape character,
e.g., 'I\'m happy.', or open and close the string using an opposite set of symbols to the ones you
wish to encode, e.g., "I'm happy." to encode an apostrophe, and 'He said "Python", not
"typhoon"' to encode a (double) quote.
6. Boolean values are the two constant objects True and False used to represent truth values (in
numeric contexts 1 is True, while 0 is False.
Exercise 1
What types of literals are the following two examples?
"Hello ", "007"
They're both strings/string literals.
Exercise 2
What types of literals are the following four examples?
"1.5", 2.0, 528, False
The first is a string, the second is a numerical literal (a float), the third is a numerical literal (an
integer), and the fourth is a boolean literal.
Python as a calculator
print(2+2)
Basic operators
An operator is a symbol of the programming language, which is able to operate on the values.
We'll begin with the operators which are associated with the most widely recognizable arithmetic
operations:
+, -, *, /, //, %, **
Arithmetic operators: exponentiation
A ** (double asterisk) sign is an exponentiation (power) operator. Its left argument is the base, its
right, the exponent.
Classical mathematics prefers notation with superscripts, just like this: 23. Pure text editors don't
accept that, so Python uses ** instead, e.g., 2 ** 3 .
print(2 ** 3)
print(2 ** 3.)
print(2. ** 3)
print(2. ** 3.)
Console
8
8.0
8.0
8.0
 when both ** arguments are integers, the result is an integer, too;
 when at least one ** argument is a float, the result is a float, too.
Arithmetic operators: multiplication

An * (asterisk) sign is a multiplication operator.
print(2 * 3)
print(2 * 3.)
print(2. * 3)
print(2. * 3.)
Console
6
6.0
6.0
6.0
Arithmetic operators: division

A / (slash) sign is a divisional operator.
print(6 / 3)
print(6 / 3.)
print(6. / 3)
print(6. / 3.)
Console
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
The result produced by the division operator is always a float,
Arithmetic operators: integer division

A // (double slash) sign is an integer divisional operator. It differs from the standard / operator in
two details:
 its result lacks the fractional part - it's absent (for integers), or is always equal to zero (for
floats); this means that the results are always rounded;
 it conforms to the integer vs. float rule.
Example
print(6 // 3)
print(6 // 3.)
print(6. // 3)
print(6. // 3.)
Console
2
2.0
2.0
2.0
As you can see, integer by integer division gives an integer result. All other cases produce floats.
Example
print(6 // 4)
print(6. // 4)
Console
1.0
The result of integer division is always rounded to the nearest integer value
that is less than the real (not rounded) result.
This is very important: rounding always goes to the lesser integer.
Example
print(-6 // 4)
print(6. // -4)
Console
-2
-2.0
The result is two negative twos. The real (not rounded) result is -1.5 in both cases. However, the
results are the subjects of rounding. The rounding goes toward the lesser integer value, and the
lesser integer value is -2, hence: -2 and -2.0.
Operators: remainder (modulo)

The result of the operator is a remainder left after the integer division.
Example
print(14 % 4)
Console
2
 14 // 4 gives 3 → this is the integer quotient;
 3 * 4 gives 12 → as a result of quotient and divisor multiplication;
 14 - 12 gives 2 → this is the remainder.
Example
print(12 % 4.5)
Console
3.0
Operators: addition
The addition operator is the + (plus) sign, which is fully in line with mathematical standards.
Example
print(-4 + 4)
print(-4. + 8)
Console
0
4.0
The subtraction operator, unary and binary operators

The subtraction operator is obviously the - (minus) sign, although you should note that this
operator also has another meaning - it can change the sign of a number.
Example
print(-4 - 4)
print(4. - 8)
print(-1.1)
Console
-8
-4.0
-1.1
Operators and their priorities

Example
2 + 3 * 5
You surely remember that you should first multiply 3 by 5 and, keeping the 15 in your memory, then
add it to 2, thus getting the result of 17.
Operators and their bindings

The binding of the operator determines the order of computations performed by some operators
with equal priority, put side by side in one expression.
Most of Python's operators have left-sided binding, which means that the calculation of the
expression is conducted from left to right.
This simple example will show you how it works. Take a look:
print(9 % 6 % 2)
There are two possible ways of evaluating this expression:
 from left to right: first 9 % 6 gives 3, and then 3 % 2 gives 1;

 from right to left: first 6 % 2 gives 0, and then 9 % 0 causes a fatal error.
The result should be 1. This operator has left-sided binding. But there's one interesting exception.
Operators and their bindings: exponentiation

Repeat the experiment, but now with exponentiation.
Use this snippet of code:
print(2 ** 2 ** 3)
The two possible results are:
 2 ** 2 → 4; 4 ** 3 → 64
 2 ** 3 → 8; 2 ** 8 → 256
Run the code. What do you see?
256
The result clearly shows that the exponentiation operator uses right-sided binding.
List of priorities
Priority Operator
1 +, - unary
2 **
3 *, /, %
4 +, - binary
Example
print(2 * 3 % 5)
console
1
Operators and parentheses
Of course, you're always allowed to use parentheses, which can change the natural order of a
calculation.
In accordance with the arithmetic rules, subexpressions in parentheses are always calculated

first.
Example
print((5 * ((25 % 13) + 100) / (2 * 13)) // 2)
Console
10
Key takeaways
1. An expression is a combination of values (or variables, operators, calls to functions - you will
learn about them soon) which evaluates to a value, e.g., 1 + 2.
2. Operators are special symbols or keywords which are able to operate on the values and perform
(mathematical) operations, e.g., the * operator multiplies two values: x * y.
3. Arithmetic operators in Python: + (addition), - (subtraction), * (multiplication), / (classic division -

returns a float if one of the values is of float type), % (modulus - divides left operand by right operand
and returns the remainder of the operation, e.g., 5 % 2 = 1), ** (exponentiation - left operand
raised to the power of right operand, e.g., 2 ** 3 = 2 * 2 * 2 = 8), // (floor/integer division -
returns a number resulting from division, but rounded down to the nearest whole number, e.g., 3 //
2.0 = 1.0)
4. A unary operator is an operator with only one operand, e.g., -1, or +3.
5. A binary operator is an operator with two operands, e.g., 4 + 5, or 12 % 5.
6. Some operators act before others - the hierarchy of priorities:
 unary + and - have the highest priority

 then: **, then: *, /, and %, and then the lowest priority: binary + and -.
7. Subexpressions in parentheses are always calculated first, e.g., 15 - 1 * (5 * (1 + 2)) =

0.
8. The exponentiation operator uses right-sided binding, e.g., 2 ** 2 ** 3 = 256.
Exercise 1
print((2 ** 4), (2 * 4.), (2 * 4))

16 8.0 8
Exercise 2
print((-2 / 4), (2 / 4), (2 // 4), (-2 // 4))
-0.5 0.5 0 -1
Exercise 3
print((2 % -4), (2 % 4), (2 ** 3 ** 2))
-2 2 512
2.1.3.10 SECTION SUMMARY
What are variables?

It seems fairly obvious that Python should allow you to encode literals carrying number and text
values.
You already know that you can do some arithmetic operations with these numbers: add, subtract, etc
It offers special "boxes" (containers) for that purpose, and these boxes are called variables
What does every Python variable have?
 a name;
 a value (the content of the container)
If you want to give a name to a variable, you must follow some strict rules:
 the name of the variable must be composed of upper-case or lower-case letters, digits, and
the character _ (underscore)
 the name of the variable must begin with a letter;
 the underscore character is a letter;
 upper- and lower-case letters are treated as different (a little differently than in the real world
- Alice and ALICE are the same first names, but in Python they are two different variable
names, and consequently, two different variables);
 the name of the variable must not be any of Python's reserved words (the keywords - we'll
explain more about this soon).
Keywords
Take a look at the list of words that play a very special role in every Python program.
['False', 'None', 'True', 'and', 'as', 'assert',

'break', 'class', 'continue', 'def', 'del', 'elif',
'else', 'except', 'finally', 'for', 'from', 'global',
'if', 'import', 'in', 'is', 'lambda', 'nonlocal',
'not', 'or', 'pass', 'raise', 'return', 'try', 'while',
'with', 'yield']
They are called keywords or (more precisely) reserved keywords. They are reserved because you
mustn't use them as names: neither for your variables, nor functions, nor any other named entities
you want to create.
The meaning of the reserved word is predefined, and mustn't be changed in any way.
Creating variables
What can you put inside a variable?
Anything.
var = 1
print(var)
It consists of two simple instructions:
 The first of them creates a variable named var, and assigns a literal with an integer value
equal to 1.
 The second prints the value of the newly created variable to the console.
Using variables
You're allowed to use as many variable declarations as you need to achieve your goal, like this:
var = 1
account_balance = 1000.0
client_name = 'John Doe'
print(var, account_balance, client_name)
print(var)
This example will cause an error:
var = 1
print(Var)
Example
var = "3.7.1"
print("Python version: " + var)
Console
Python version: 3.7.1
Assigning a new value to an already existing variable
Example
var = 1
print(var)
var = var + 1
print(var)
console:
1
2
Example
var = 100
var = 200 + 300
print(var)
Console
500
500 - why? Well, first, the var variable is created and assigned a value of 100. Then, the same
variable is assigned a new value: the result of adding 200 to 300, which is 500.
Solving simple mathematical problems

Now you should be able to construct a short program solving simple mathematical problems such as
the Pythagorean theorem:
The square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.
The following code evaluates the length of the hypotenuse (i.e., the longest side of a right-angled
triangle, the one opposite of the right angle) using the Pythagorean theorem:
a = 3.0
b = 4.0
c = (a ** 2 + b ** 2) ** 0.5
print("c =", c)
Console
C = 5.0
Note: we need to make use of the ** operator to evaluate the square root as:
√ (x) = x(½)
and
c = √ a2 + b2
Exercise
Objectives
 becoming familiar with the concept of storing and working with different data types in Python;
 experimenting with Python code.
Scenario
Here is a short story:
Once upon a time in Appleland, John had three apples, Mary had five apples, and Adam had six
apples. They were all very happy and lived for a long time. End of story.
Your task is to:
 create the variables: john , mary , and adam ;

 assign values to the variables. The values must be equal to the numbers of fruit possessed
by John, Mary, and Adam respectively;
 having stored the numbers in the variables, print the variables on one line, and separate
each of them with a comma;
 now create a new variable named totalApples equal to addition of the three former
variables.
 print the value stored in totalApples to the console;
 experiment with your code: create new variables, assign different values to them, and
perform various arithmetic operations on them (e.g., +, -, *, /, //, etc.). Try to print a string and
an integer together on one line, e.g., "Total number of apples:" and totalApples .
john = 3
mary = 5
adam = 6
print("John Apples = " ,john , "\n" "Mary Apples = " , mary,"\n" "Adam = ",adam)
print("Total Apples = ", john + mary + adam)
Console
John Apples = 3
Mary Apples = 5
Adam = 6
Total Apples = 14
Shortcut operators
It's time for the next set of operators that make a developer's life easier.
Very often, we want to use one and the same variable both to the right and left sides of
the = operator.
x = x * 2
x *= 2
sheep = sheep + 1
sheep += 1
Let's try to present a general description for these operations.
If op is a two-argument operator (this is a very important condition) and the operator is used in the
following context:
variable = variable op expression

It can be simplified and shown as follows:
variable op= expression
Take a look at the examples below. Make sure you understand them all.
i = i + 2 * j ⇒ i += 2 * j
var = var / 2 ⇒ var /= 2
rem = rem % 10 ⇒ rem %= 10
j = j - (i + var + rem) ⇒ j -= (i + var + rem)
x = x ** 2 ⇒ x **= 2
Objectives
 becoming familiar with the concept of, and working with, variables;
 performing basic computations and conversions;
Scenario
Miles and kilometers are units of length or distance.
Bearing in mind that 1 mile is equal to approximately 1.61 kilometers, complete the program in the
editor so that it converts:
 miles to kilometers;
 kilometers to miles.
Do not change anything in the existing code. Write your code in the places indicated by ### . Test
your program with the data we've provided in the source code.
round() function. Its job is to round the outputted result to the number of decimal places specified
in the parentheses, and return a float
Exercise
kilometers = 12.25
miles = 7.38
miles_to_kilometers = ###
kilometers_to_miles = ###
print(miles, "miles is",
round(miles_to_kilometers, 2), "kilometers")
print(kilometers, "kilometers is",
round(kilometers_to_miles, 2), "miles")
Solution
kilometers = 12.25
miles = 7.38
miles_to_kilometers = 7.38 * 1.61
kilometers_to_miles = 12.25 / 1.61
print(miles, "miles is", round(miles_to_kilometers, 2), "kilometers")
print(kilometers, "kilometers is", round(kilometers_to_miles, 2),

"miles")
Console
7.38 miles is 11.88 kilometers
12.25 kilometers is 7.61 miles
Exercise
Objectives
 becoming familiar with the concept of numbers, operators, and arithmetic operations in
Python;
 performing basic calculations.
Scenario
Take a look at the code in the editor: it reads a float value, puts it into a variable named x , and
prints the value of a variable named y . Your task is to complete the code in order to evaluate the
following expression:
3x3 - 2x2 + 3x - 1
The result should be assigned to y .
Remember that classical algebraic notation likes to omit the multiplication operator - you need to use
it explicitly. Note how we change data type to make sure that x is of type float .
Keep your code clean and readable, and test it using the data we've provided, each time assigning it
to the x variable (by hardcoding it). Don't be discouraged by any initial failures. Be persistent and
inquisitive.
Test Data
Sample input
x = 0
x = 1
x = -1
Expected Output
y = -1.0
y = 3.0
y = -9.0
Problem
x = # hardcode your test data here
x = float(x)
# write your code here
print("y =", y)
Solution
x= 0
x = float(x)
y = (3 * (x ** 3) - 2 * ( x** 2 ) + (3 * x) -1)
print("y =", y)
console
y = -1.0
y = 3.0
y = -9.0
Key takeaways
1. A variable is a named location reserved to store values in the memory. A variable is created or
initialized automatically when you assign a value to it for the first time. (2.1.4.1)
2. Each variable must have a unique name - an identifier. A legal identifier name must be a non-
empty sequence of characters, must begin with the underscore( _), or a letter, and it cannot be a
Python keyword. The first character may be followed by underscores, letters, and digits. Identifiers in
Python are case-sensitive. (2.1.4.1)
3. Python is a dynamically-typed language, which means you don't need to declare variables in it.

(2.1.4.3) To assign values to variables, you can use a simple assignment operator in the form of the
equal (=) sign, i.e., var = 1.
4. You can also use compound assignment operators (shortcut operators) to modify values

assigned to variables, e.g., var += 1, or var /= 5 * 2. (2.1.4.8)
5. You can assign new values to already existing variables using the assignment operator or one of
the compound operators, e.g.: (2.1.4.5)
var = 2
print(var)
var = 3
print(var)
var += 1
print(var)
6. You can combine text and variables using the + operator, and use the print() function to output
strings and variables, e.g.: (2.1.4.4)
var = "007"
print("Agent " + var)
Exercise 1
What is the output of the following snippet?
var = 2
var = 3
print(var)
Console
3
Exercise 2
Which of the following variable names are illegal in Python?
my_var
m
101
averylongvariablename
m101
m 101
Del
Del
Console
my_var
m
101 # incorrect (starts with a digit)
averylongvariablename
m101
m 101 # incorrect (contains a space)
Del
del # incorrect (is a keyword)
Exercise 3
a = '1'
b = "1"
print(a + b)
Console
11
Exercise 4
a = 6
b = 3
a /= 2 * b
print(a)
Console
1.0
2*b=6
a = 6 → 6 / 6 = 1.0
Leaving comments in code: why, how, and when

You may want to put in a few words addressed not to Python but to humans, usually to explain to
other readers of the code how the tricks used in the code work, or the meanings of the variables,
and eventually, in order to keep stored information on who the author is and when the program was
written.
A remark inserted into the program, which is omitted at runtime, is called a comment.
In Python, a comment is a piece of text that begins with a # (hash) sign and extends to the end of
the line.
If you want a comment that spans several lines, you have to put a hash in front of them all.
Just like here:
# This program evaluates the hypotenuse c.

# a and b are the lengths of the legs.
a = 3.0
b = 4.0
c = (a ** 2 + b ** 2) ** 0.5 # We use ** instead of square root.
print("c =", c)
# This is a test program.

x = 1
y = 2
#y=y+x
print(x + y)
Objectives
 becoming familiar with the concept of comments in Python;
 using and not using comments;
 replacing comments with code;

#this program computes the number of seconds in a given number of hours
# this program has been written two days ago
a = 2 # number of hours
seconds = 3600 # number of seconds in 1 hour
print("Hours: ", a) #printing the number of hours
# print("Seconds in Hours: ", a * seconds) # printing the number of seconds in a

given number of hours
#here we should also print "Goodbye", but a programmer didn't have time to
write any code
#this is the end of the program that computes the number of seconds in 3 hour
Key takeaways
1. Comments can be used to leave additional information in code. They are omitted at
runtime.
2. . If you want to place a comment that spans several lines, you need to place # in
front of them al
# This program prints

# an introduction to the screen.
print("Hello!") # Invoking the print() function
# print("I'm Python.")
3. Whenever possible and justified, you should give self-commenting names to

variables, e.g., if you're using two variables to store a length and width of something,
the variable names length and width may be a better choice
than myvar1 and myvar2.
4. It's important to use comments to make programs easier to understand, and to use
readable and meaningful variable names in code.
5.
. Comments can be important when you are reading your own code after some time
(trust us, developers do forget what their own code does), and when others are
reading your code (can help them understand what your programs do and how they
do it more quickly
Exercise 1
# print("String #1")
print("String #2")
Console
String #2
Exercise 2
What will happen when you run the following code?
# This is
a multiline
comment. #
print("Hello!")
Console
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
How to Talk to a Computer

Function print() sends data to the console.
he function is named input() . The name of the function says everything.
The input() function is able to read data entered by the user and to return the same data to the
running program.
The program can manipulate the data, making the code truly interactive.
Virtually all programs read and process data.
Example
print("Tell me anything...")
anything = input()
print("Hmm...", anything, "... Really?")
The program prompts the user to input some data from the console
the input() function is invoked without arguments; the function will switch the console to input
mode;
The input() function with an argument

The input() function can do something else: it can prompt the user without any help from print()
Modified example
anything = input("Tell me anything...")
print("Hmm...", anything, "...Really?")
The result of the input() function

We've said it already, but it must be unambiguously stated once again: the result of
the input() function is a string.
Example
anything = input("Enter a number: ")
something = anything ** 2.0
print(anything, "to the power of 2 is", something)
Console
Enter a number: 66
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "main.py", line 2, in <module>
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for ** or pow(): 'str' and 'float'
Type casting
Python offers two simple functions to specify a type of data and solve this
problem - here they are: int() and float().
Their names are self-commenting:
 the int() function takes one argument (e.g., a

string: int(string)) and tries to convert it into an integer; if it fails,
the whole program will fail too (there is a workaround for this
situation, but we'll show you this a little later);
 the float() function takes one argument (e.g., a

string: float(string))and tries to convert it into a float (the rest is
the same).
Example
anything = float(input("Enter a number: "))

print(anything, "to the power of 2 is", something)
Console
Enter a number: 6
6.0 to the power of 2 is 36.0
More about input() and type casting

Having a team consisting of the trio input()-int()-float() opens up lots of new possibilities.
Example
leg_a = float(input("Input first leg length: "))
leg_b = float(input("Input second leg length: "))
hypo = (leg_a**2 + leg_b**2) ** .5
print("Hypotenuse length is", hypo)
Console
Input first leg length: 5
Input second leg length: 10
Hypotenuse length is 11.180339887498949
 2.1.6.6 How to talk to a computer: string operators


 Concatenation
 The + (plus) sign, when applied to two strings, becomes a concatenation operator:
 string + string
commutative, i.e., "ab" + "ba" is not the same as "ba" + "ab".
Example
fnam = input("May I have your first name, please? ")
lnam = input("May I have your last name, please? ")
print("Thank you.")
print("\nYour name is " + fnam + " " + lnam + ".")
Console
May I have your first name, please? Amit
May I have your last name, please? kumar
Thank you.
Your name is Amit kumar.
Replication
The * (asterisk) sign, when applied to a string and number (or a number and string, as it remains
commutative in this position) becomes a replication
operator:
string * number
number * string
It replicates the string the same number of times specified by the number.
For example:
 "James" * 3 gives "JamesJamesJames"
 3 * "an" gives "ananan"
 5 * "2" (or "2" * 5) gives "22222" (not 10!)
A number less than or equal to zero produces an empty string.
print (“abc” * 0)
This simple program "draws" a rectangle, making use of an old operator ( +) in a new role:
print("+" + "-" * 10 + "+")
print(("|" + " " * 10 + "|\n") * 5, end="")
print("+"+ "-" * 10 + "+")
Console
Type conversion: str()
You already know how to use the int() and float() functions to convert a string into a number.
Here is our "right-angle triangle" program again:
length = float(input("enter length :"))
width = float(input("enter width :"))
print("hypotenuse " + str((length ** 2 + width **2)** 0.5 ))
Console
enter length :10

enter width :5
hypotenuse 11.180339887498949
Example
# input a float value for variable a here
# input a float value for variable b here
# output the result of addition here

# output the result of subtraction here
# output the result of multiplication here
# output the result of division here
a = float(input("enter value of a"))
b = float(input("enter value of b"))
print("addication of a & b" , a + b)
print("Subtraction of a & b" , a - b)
print("Multipication of a & b" , a * b)
print("Divisionof a & b" , a / b)
print("\nThat's all, folks!")
Console
enter value of a20
enter value of b5
addication of a & b 25.0
Subtraction of a & b 15.0
Multipication of a & b 100.0
Divisionof a & b 4.0
That's all, folks!
 2.1.6.10 LAB: Operators and expressions


 2.1.6.11 LAB: Operators and expressions
Scenario
Your task is to prepare a simple code able to evaluate the end time of a period of time, given as a
number of minutes (it could be arbitrarily large). The start time is given as a pair of hours (0..23) and
minutes (0..59). The result has to be printed to the console.
For example, if an event starts at 12:17 and lasts 59 minutes, it will end at 13:16.
Don't worry about any imperfections in your code - it's okay if it accepts an invalid time - the most
important thing is that the code produce valid results for valid input data.
Test your code carefully. Hint: using the % operator may be the key to success.
Test Data
Sample input
:12
17
59
Expected output: 13:16
Sample input
:23
58
642
Sample input:
2939
Example
hour = int(input("Starting time (hours): "))
mins = int(input("Starting time (minutes): "))
dura = int(input("Event duration (minutes): "))
# hours calculated from total minutes i.e mins + dura
hrmin = (int( mins + dura )//60)
# remaing minutes from total minutes excludeing hours
rmin = (int( mins + dura )%60)
# total hours
hr = (int( hour + hrmin )%24)
print(hr,":",rmin)
# put your code here
Key takeaways
1. The print() function sends data to the console, while the input() function gets data from

the console.
2. The input() function comes with an optional parameter: the prompt string. It allows you to

write a message before the user input, e.g.:
name = input("Enter your name: ")

print("Hello, " + name + ". Nice to meet you!")
3. When the input() function is called, the program's flow is stopped, the prompt symbol keeps
blinking (it prompts the user to take action when the console is switched to input mode) until the user
has entered an input and/or pressed the Enter key.
Example
name = input("Enter your name: ")
print("Hello, " + name + ". Nice to meet you!")
print("\nPress Enter to end the program.")

input()
print("THE END.")
Example
concatenation (+) operator
num1 = input("Enter the first number: ") # Enter 12

num2 = input("Enter the second number: ") # Enter 21
print(num1 + num2) # the program returns 1221
Example
multiply (* - replication) strings, e.g.:
myInput = ("Enter something: ") # Example input: hello
print(myInput * 3) # Expected output: hellohellohello

Exercise 1
x = int(input("Enter a number: ")) # the user enters 2
print(x * "5")
Console
55
Exercise 2
x = input("Enter a number: ") # the user enters 2
print(type(x))
Console
<class 'str'>
Programming Essentials in Python: Module 3

 3.1.1.1 Python Essentials: Module 3

In this module
Boolean values;
 if-elif-else instructions;
 the while and for loops;
 flow control;
 logical and bitwise operations;
 lists and arrays.
Comparison: equality operator

 = isan assignment operator, e.g., a = b assigns a with the value of b;
 == is the question are these values equal?; a == b compares a and b.
Example
2 == 2
True - of course, 2 is equal to 2. Python will answer True (remember this pair of predefined

literals, True and False - they're Python keywords, too).
Example
2 == 2.
This question is not as easy as the first one. Luckily, Python is able to convert the integer value into
its real equivalent, and consequently, the answer is True .
Example
1 == 2
This should be easy. The answer will be (or rather, always is) False.
Equality: the equal to operator (==)
Example
var = 0 # assigning 0 to var

print(var == 0)
Console
True
print(var == 0)
Console
False
Inequality: the not equal to operator (!=)

The != (not equal to) operator compares the values of two operands
Example

print(var != 0)
Console
False
Example
print(var != 0)
Console
True
Comparison operators: greater than
You can also ask a comparison question using the > (greater than) operator.
black_sheep > white_sheep # greater than
True confirms it; False denies it.
Comparison operators: greater than or equal to
The greater than operator has another special, non-strict variant, but it's

denoted differently than in classical arithmetic notation: >= (greater than or
equal to).
If we want to find out whether or not we have to wear a warm hat, we ask the following question:
centigrade_outside ≥ 0.0 # greater than or equal to
Comparison operators: less than or equal to
As you've probably already guessed, the operators used in this case are:
the < (less than) operator and its non-strict sibling: <= (less than or equal
to).
Look at this simple example:
current_velocity_mph < 85 # less than
current_velocity_mph ≤ 85 # less than or equal to
Making use of the answers
What can you do with the answer (i.e., the result of a comparison operation) you get from the
computer?
answer = number_of_lions >= number_of_lionesses

Priority Table
Priority Operator
1 +, - unary
2 **
3 *, /, //, %
4 +, - binary
5 <, <=, >, >=
6 ==, !=
Scenario
Using one of the comparison operators in Python, write a simple two-line program that takes the
parameter n as input, which is an integer, and prints False if n is less than 100 , and True if n is
greater than or equal to 100 .
Example
n = int(input ("type nummber"))
ans = n>=100
print(ans)
Console
type nummber+123
True
Conditions and conditional execution
if a condition is met, and not do it if it isn't.

To make such decisions, Python offers a special instruction. Due to its nature and its application, it's
called a conditional instruction (or conditional statement).
if true_or_not:
do_this_if_true
This conditional statement consists of the following, strictly necessary, elements in this and this
order only:
 the if keyword;
 one or more white spaces;
 an expression (a question or an answer) whose value will be interpreted solely in terms
of True (when its value is non-zero) and False (when it is equal to zero);
 a colon followed by a newline;
 an indented instruction or set of instructions (at least one instruction is absolutely required);
the indentation may be achieved in two ways - by inserting a particular number of spaces
(the recommendation is to use four spaces of indentation), or by using the tab character;
note: if there is more than one instruction in the indented part, the indentation should be the
same in all lines; even though it may look the same if you use tabs mixed with spaces, it's
important to make all indentations exactly the same - Python 3 does not allow mixing
spaces and tabs for indentation.
As you can see, having lunch is not a conditional activity and doesn't depend on the
weather.
Knowing what conditions influence our behavior, and assuming that we have the
parameterless functions go_for_a_walk() and have_lunch(), we can write the following
snippet:
if the_weather_is_good:
go_for_a_walk()
have_lunch()
Conditonal execution: the if statement

If a certain sleepless Python developer falls asleep when he or she counts 120 sheep, and the
sleep-inducing procedure may be implemented as a special function named sleep_and_dream(),
the whole code takes the following shape:
if sheep_counter >= 120: # evaluate a test expression

sleep_and_dream() # execute if test expression is True
You can read it as: if sheep_counter is greater than or equal to 120, then fall asleep and dream
(i.e., execute the sleep_and_dream function.)
We've said that conditionally executed statements have to be indented. This creates a very
legible structure, clearly demonstrating all possible execution paths in the code.
Take a look at the following code:
if sheep_counter >= 120:

make_a_bed()
take_a_shower()
sleep_and_dream()
feed_the_sheepdogs()
As you can see, making a bed, taking a shower and falling asleep and dreaming are all executed
conditionally - when sheep_counter reaches the desired limit.
Feeding the sheepdogs, however, is always done (i.e., the feed_the_sheepdogs() function is not

indented and does not belong to the if block, which means it is always executed.)
Example
k = int(input ("type a number :"))
if k >= 120:
print("greater than 120")
print("number is " , k)
print("last statement on true condition")
print("out side the indent wether condition is true of false2")
Console
type a number :150
greater than 120
number is 150
last statement on true condition
out side the indent whether condition is true of
false2
We can say, for example: If the weather is good, we will go for a walk, otherwise we will go to a
theater.
Now we know what we'll do if the conditions are met, and we know what we'll do if not everything
goes our way. In other words, we have a "Plan B".
if true_or_false_condition:
perform_if_condition_true
else:
perform_if_condition_false
Thus, there is a new word: else - this is a keyword.
 3.1.1.7 Making decisions in Python
The if-else statement: more conditional execution

Example
go_for_a_walk()
else:
go_to_a_theater()
have_lunch()
If the weather is good, we'll go for a walk. Otherwise, we'll go to a theatre. No matter if the weather is
good or bad, we'll have lunch afterwards (after the walk or after going to the theatre).
Everything we've said about indentation works in the same manner inside the else branch:
go_for_a_walk()
have_fun()
else:
go_to_a_theater()
enjoy_the_movie()
have_lunch()
Nested if-else statements
Now let's discuss two special cases of the conditional statement.
First, consider the case where the instruction placed after the if is another if .
Example
if nice_restaurant_is_found:
have_lunch()
else:
eat_a_sandwich()
else:
if tickets_are_available:
go_to_the_theater()
else:
go_shopping()
Example
weather = input("is weather good : <y/n>")
if weather == "y":
resturent = input("is resturent found : <y/n>")
if resturent == "y":
print("Have a lunch !")
else:
print("Eat sandwich !")
else:
ticket = input("are the tickets availabe : <y/n>")
if ticket == "y":
print("go to theater :")
else:
print("go for shopping :")
Console
is weather good : <y/n>n
are the tickets availabe : <y/n>n
go for shopping :
Here are two important points:
 this use of the if statement is known as nesting; remember that
every else refers to the if which lies at the same indentation level; you need
to know this to determine how the ifs and elses pair up;
 consider how the indentation improves readability, and makes the code easier
to understand and trace.
The elif statement
The second special case introduces another new Python keyword: elif. As you probably suspect, it's
a shorter form of else if.
elif is used to check more than just one condition, and to stop when the first statement which is
true is found.
if the_weather_is_good
go_for_a_walk()
elif tickets_are_available:
go_to_the_theater()
elif table_is_available:
go_for_lunch()
else:
play_chess_at_home()
The way to assemble subsequent if-elif-else statements is sometimes called a cascade.
Notice again how the indentation improves the readability of the code.
Some additional attention has to be paid in this case:
 you mustn't use else without a preceding if;

 else is always the last branch of the cascade, regardless of whether you've used elif or
not;
 else is an optional part of the cascade, and may be omitted;
 if there is an else branch in the cascade, only one of all the branches is executed;
 if there is no else branch, it's possible that none of the available branches is executed.
Example
number1 = int(input("enter number1 :"))
if number1 > number2:
large_number = number1
else:
print("large number is :", large_number)
Console
enter number1 :10
enter number2 :20
large number is : 20
Example
# read two numbers
number1 = int(input("Enter the first number: "))
number2 = int(input("Enter the second number: "))
# choose the larger number

if number1 > number2: larger_number = number1
else: larger_number = number2
# print the result

print("The larger number is:", larger_number)
Note: if any of the if-elif-else branches contains just one instruction, you may code it in a more
comprehensive form (you don't need to make an indented line after the keyword, but just continue
the line after the colon).
print("large number :",number1)
else:
else:
print("large number :", number2 )
else:
print("Large number is :" , large_number)
Console
enter number1 :80
enter number2 :110
enter number3 :6
large number : 110
Large number is : 110
Example
a = int(input("Enter value of a :"))
b = int(input("Enter value of b :"))
c = int(input("Enter value of c :"))
big = a
if b > big :
big = b
if c > big:
big = c
print("bigger number is ", big)
Console
Enter value of a :5
Enter value of b :30
Enter value of c :6
bigger number is 30
 3.1.1.9 Making decisions in Python

# read three numbers

number3 = int(input("Enter the third number: "))
# We temporarily assume that the first number

# is the largest one.
# We will verify this soon.
largest_number = number1
# we check if the second number is larger than currentlargest_number

# and update largest_number if needed
if number2 > largest_number:

# we check if the third number is larger than current largest_number

# and update largest_number if needed
if number3 > largest_number:

# print the result
print("The largest number is:", largest_number)
Pseudocode and introduction to loops

Python often comes with a lot of built-in functions that will do the work for you. For example, to find
the largest number of all, you can use a Python built-in function called max(). You can use it with
multiple arguments. Analyze the code below:
# read three numbers

number3 = int(input("Enter the third number: "))
# check which one of the numbers is the greatest

# and pass it to the largest_number variable
largest_number = max(number1, number2, number3)
# print the result

 3.1.1.12 LAB: Essentials of the if-else statement
Example
Write a program that utilizes the concept of conditional execution, takes a

string as input, and:
 prints the sentence "Yes - Spathiphyllum is the best

plant ever!" to the screen if the inputted string
is "Spathiphyllum" (upper-case)
 prints "No, I want a big Spathiphyllum!" if the inputted
string is "spathiphyllum" (lower-case)
 prints "Spathiphyllum! Not [input]!" otherwise.
Note: [input] is the string taken as input.
Test Data
Sample input: spathiphyllum
Expected output: No, I want a big Spathiphyllum!
Sample input: pelargonium
Expected output: Spathiphyllum! Not pelargonium!
Sample input: Spathiphyllum
Expected output: Yes - Spathiphyllum is the best plant

ever!
Solution
plant = input("type plant name : spathiphyllum: ")

if plant == "Spathiphyllum":
print("Yes - Spathiphyllum is the best plant
Ever !")
else :
if plant == "spathiphyllum":
print("No, I Want a big Spathiphyllum !")
else:
print("Spathiphyllum ! Not [iput] !")
Example
The most important tax, called the Personal Income Tax (PIT for short) had
to be paid once a year, and was evaluated using the following rule:
 if the citizen's income was not higher than 85,528 thalers, the tax was
equal to 18% of the income minus 556 thalers and 2 cents (this was
the so-called tax relief)
 if the income was higher than this amount, the tax was equal to
14,839 thalers and 2 cents, plus 32% of the surplus over 85,528
thalers.
Solution
income = float(input("Enter the annual income: "))
if income < 85528 :

tax = ((income * 18)/100)
if tax > 556 :
print("1",tax)
tax = tax - 556
print("2",tax)
else:
tax = 0
else:
tax = ((income - 85528)*32)/100 + 14839
print("3",tax)
tax = round(tax, 0)
print("The tax is:", tax, "thalers")
Test Data
Sample input: 10000
Expected output: The tax is: 1244.0 thalers
Sample input: 100000
Sample input: 1000
Sample input: -100

 3.1.1.14 SECTION SUMMARY (1/2)

Key takeaways
1. The comparison (or the so-called relational) operators are used to
compare values. The table below illustrates how the comparison operators
work, assuming that x = 0, y = 1, and z = 0:
2. When you want to execute some code only if a certain condition is met, you can use
a conditional statement:
Exercise 1
x = 5
y = 10
z = 8
print(x > y)
print(y > z)
Exercise 2
x, y, z = 5, 10, 8
print(x > z)
print((y - 5) == x)
Exercise 3
x, y, z = 5, 10, 8
x, y, z = z, y, x
print(x > z)
print((y - 5) == x)
Exercise 4
x = 10
if x == 10:
print(x == 10)
if x > 5:
print(x > 5)
if x < 10:
print(x < 10)
else:
print("else")
Exercise 5
x = "1"
if x == 1:
print("one")
elif x == "1":
if int(x) > 1:
print("two")
elif int(x) < 1:
print("three")
else:
print("four")
if int(x) == 1:
print("five")
else:
print("six")
Exercise 6
x = 1
y = 1.0
z = "1"
if x == y:
print("one")
if y == int(z):
print("two")
elif x == y:
print("three")
else:
print("four")
Looping your code with while

while there is something to do
do it
Note that this record also declares that if there is nothing to do, nothing at all will happen.
In general, in Python, a loop can be represented as follows:

while conditional_expression:
instruction
The semantic difference is more important: when the condition is met, if performs its
statements only once; while repeats the execution as long as the condition evaluates to True .
Note: all the rules regarding indentation are applicable here, too. We'll show you this soon.
Look at the algorithm below:
while conditional_expression:
instruction_one
instruction_two
instruction_three
:
:
instruction_n
An infinite loop
An infinite loop, also called an endless loop, is a sequence of instructions in a program which
repeat indefinitely (loop endlessly.)
Here's an example of a loop that is not able to finish its execution:
while True:
print("I'm stuck inside a loop.")
This loop will infinitely print "I'm stuck inside a loop." on the screen.
Example
With comments
# we will store the current largest number here
largest_number = -999999999
# input the first value

number = int(input("Enter a number or type -1 to stop: "))
# if the number is not equal to -1, we will continue
while number != -1:
# is number larger than largest_number?
if number > largest_number:
# yes, update largest_number
largest_number = number
# input the next number
number = int(input("Enter a number or type -1 to stop: "))
# print the largest number
Example without comments
ln = -99999999
n = int (input ("type number or -1 to stop:" ) )
while n != -1:
if n > ln :
ln = n
n = int(input ("type number or -1 to stop:") )
print("largest number is ", ln)

Console
type number or -1 to stop:5
type number or -1 to stop:54
type number or -1 to stop:-1
largest number is 54
Example
# A program that reads a sequence of numbers
# and counts how many numbers are even and how many are odd.
# The program terminates when zero is entered.
odd_numbers = 0
even_numbers = 0
# read the first number

number = int(input("Enter a number or type 0 to stop: "))
# 0 terminates execution
while number != 0:
# check if the number is odd
if number % 2 == 1:
# increase the odd_numbers counter
odd_numbers += 1
else:
# increase the even_numbers counter
even_numbers += 1
# read the next number
number = int(input("Enter a number or type 0 to stop: "))
# print results
print("Odd numbers count:", odd_numbers)
print("Even numbers count:", even_numbers)
Example
on = 0 #odd number
en = 0 #even number
n = int(input ("enter number or 0 :"))

while n != 0 :
if n%2 == 1 :
on += 1 # counting total odd number
else:
en += 1 # counting total even number
n = int(input ("enter number or 0 :"))
print("tolal odd number" , on)
print("total even number" , en)
Console
enter number or 0 :21
tolal odd number 3
total even number 1
 3.1.2.2 Loops in Python | while
Try to recall how Python interprets the truth of a condition, and note that
these two forms are equivalent:
while number != 0: and while number:.
The condition that checks if a number is odd can be coded in these

equivalent forms, too:
if number % 2 == 1: and if number % 2:.

Same Example with EQUIVALENTFORMS
number = int(input("Type number or type 0 to exit :"))

od = 0
en = 0
while number :
if number % 2 :
print("odd")
od += 1
else:
print("even")
en += 1
number = int(input("Type number or type 0 to exit :"))
print("total number of odd number",od)
print("total number of even number" ,en)
Using a counter variable to exit a loop

Example
counter = 5
while counter != 0:
print("Inside the loop.", counter)
counter -= 1
print("Outside the loop.", counter)
you can see the difference

counter = 5
while counter:
print("Inside the loop.", counter)
counter -= 1
print("Outside the loop.", counter)
-------------------------------------------------------
Problem
Objectives
Familiarize the student with:

 using the while loop;
 reflecting real-life situations in computer code.
Scenario
A junior magician has picked a secret number. He has hidden it in a variable
named secret_number. He wants everyone who run his program to play the Guess
the secret number game, and guess what number he has picked for them. Those who
don't guess the number will be stuck in an endless loop forever! Unfortunately, he does
not know how to complete the code.
Your task is to help the magician complete the code in the editor in such a way so that
the code:
 will ask the user to enter an integer number;

 will use a while loop;
 will check whether the number entered by the user is the same as the number
picked by the magician. If the number chosen by the user is different than the
magician's secret number, the user should see the message "Ha ha! You're
stuck in my loop!" and be prompted to enter a number again. If the
number entered by the user matches the number picked by the magician, the
number should be printed to the screen, and the magician should say the
following words: "Well done, muggle! You are free now."
The magician is counting on you! Don't disappoint him.
Solution
secret_number = 777
no = int(input ("\n Guess the secret number game :"))
while secret_number != no:
print("\n HA HA ! You're Stuck in my loop !")
no = int(input ("\n Guess the secret number game :"))
print("Well done, muggle! You are free now.")
print(
"""
+================================+
| Welcome to my game, muggle! |
| Enter an integer number |
| and guess what number I've |
| picked for you. |
| So, what is the secret number? |
+================================+
""")
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Look at the print() function. The way we've used it here is called multi-line

printing. You can use triple quotes to print strings on multiple lines in order to make
text easier to read, or create a special text-based design. Experiment with it.
-----------------------------------------
Looping your code with for
while loop
i = 0
while i < 100:
# do_something()
i += 1
for loop
for i in range(100):
# do_something()
Pass
There are some new elements. Let us tell you about them:
 the for keyword opens the for loop; note - there's no condition after it; you don't have to
think about conditions, as they're checked internally, without any intervention;
 any variable after the for keyword is the control variable of the loop; it counts the loop's
turns, and does it automatically;
 the in keyword introduces a syntax element describing the range of possible values being
assigned to the control variable;
 the range() function (this is a very special function) is responsible for generating all the
desired values of the control variable; in our example, the function will create (we can even
say that it will feed the loop with) subsequent values from the following set: 0, 1, 2 .. 97, 98,
99; note: in this case, the range() function starts its job from 0 and finishes it one step (one
integer number) before the value of its argument;
 note the pass keyword inside the loop body - it does nothing at all; it's an empty
instruction - we put it here because the for loop's syntax demands at least one instruction
inside the body (by the way - if, elif, else and while express the same thing)
Example
for i in range(10):
print("The value of i is currently", i)
The range() function invocation may be equipped with two arguments, not just one:
for i in range(2, 8):

In this case, the first argument determines the initial (first) value of the control variable.
The last argument shows the first value the control variable will not be assigned.
More about the for loop and the range() function with three

arguments
The range() function may also accept three arguments - take a look at the code in the editor.
The third argument is an increment - it's a value added to control the variable at every loop turn (as
you may suspect, the default value of the increment is 1).
Example
for i in range(2, 8, 3):

Console
The value of i is currently 2
The value of i is currently 5
2 (starting number) → 5 ( 2 increment by 3 equals 5 - the number is within the range from 2 to 8)
→ 8 ( 5 increment by 3 equals 8 - the number is not within the range from 2 to 8, because the stop
parameter is not included in the sequence of numbers generated by the function.)
Example
Just like here - there will be no output:

This means that the range()'s second argument must be greater than the first.
Thus, there will be no output here, either:

Example
short program whose task is to write some of the first powers of two:
Example
pow = 1
for exp in range(8):
print("2 to the power of", exp, "is", pow)
pow *= 2
Console
expor power is 1
expor power is 2
expor power is 4
expor power is 8
expor power is 16
expor power is 32
expor power is 64
expor power is 128
The exp variable is used as a control variable for the loop, and indicates the current value of
the exponent. The exponentiation itself is replaced by multiplying by two. Since 2 0 is equal to
1, then 2 × 1 is equal to 21, 2 × 21 is equal to 22, and so on. What is the greatest exponent for
which our program still prints the result?
Example
for i in range(9):
if i > 3:
break
print(i)
 3.1.2.6 LAB: Essentials of the for loop - counting mississippily

Example
import time
for i in range(5):
print("Mississippi")
time.sleep(1)
# Write a for loop that counts to five.
# Body of the loop - print the loop iteration number and the word "Mississippi".
# Body of the loop - use: time.sleep(1)
# Write a print function with the final message.
Console
Mississippi
Mississippi
Mississippi
Mississippi
Mississippi
The break and continue statements
These two instructions are:
 break - exits the loop immediately, and unconditionally ends

the loop's operation; the program begins to execute the
nearest instruction after the loop's body;
 continue - behaves as if the program has suddenly
reached the end of the body; the next turn is started and the
condition expression is tested immediately.
Both these words are keywords.
Example
# break - example
print("The break instruction:")

if i == 3:
break
print("Inside the loop.", i)
print("Outside the loop.")
# continue - example
print("\nThe continue instruction:")

if i == 3:
continue
print("Inside the loop.", i)
print("Outside the loop.")
Console
The break instruction:
Inside the loop. 1
Inside the loop. 2
Outside the loop.
The continue instruction:

Inside the loop. 1
Inside the loop. 2
Inside the loop. 4
Inside the loop. 5
Outside the loop.
(cnt = 0
while cnt != 10:
if cnt == 3 :
cnt += 1
continue
print("cnt", cnt)
cnt += 1 )
The break and continue statements: more examples

Example break
ln = -99999999 #largest number

cnt = 0 # counter
while True:
no = int(input("enter number or -1 to end the program:"))
if no == -1:
break
cnt += 1
if no > ln :
ln = no
if cnt != 0:
print ("largest number is " , ln)
else:
print("you have not entered any number")
Example continue
largestNumber = -99999999
counter = 0
number = int(input("Enter a number or type -1 to end program: "))
while number != -1:

if number == -1:
continue ( wrong lines in program)
counter += 1
if number > largestNumber:

largestNumber = number
number = int(input("Enter a number or type -1 to end program: "))
if counter:
print("The largest number is", largestNumber)
else:
print("You haven't entered any number.")
 3.1.2.8 Loop control in Python | break and continue


Continue Example
cnt = 0
while cnt != 6:
if cnt == 3:
continue
print("cnt =" ,cnt)
cnt = cnt + 1
print("outside the loop")
Console
cnt = 0
cnt = 1
cnt = 2
Killed
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
for i in range(5):
if i == 3:
continue
print("i =",i)
print("out side the loop")
Console
i=0
i=1
i=2
i=4
out side the loop
----------------------------------------------------------------------
i=0
while i <= 5:
if i == 3:
i=i+1
continue
print("i = ",i)
i=i+1
print("outside the while loop")
Console
i= 0
i= 1
i= 2
i= 4
i= 5
Problem
The break statement is used to exit/terminate a loop.
Design a program that uses a while loop and continuously asks the user to enter a word unless the
user enters "chupacabra" as the secret exit word, in which case the message "You've
successfully left the loop." should be printed to the screen, and the loop should terminate.
k = input("enter string or type chupacabra: ")

while k :
if k == "chupacabra":
break
k = input("enter string or type chupacabra: ")
print("You've successfully left the loop ")
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Problem
Objectives
 using the continue statement in loops;

 reflecting real-life situations in computer code.
Scenario
The continue statement is used to skip the current block and move ahead to the next iteration,
without executing the statements inside the loop.
It can be used with both the while and for loops.
Your task here is very special: you must design a vowel eater! Write a program that uses:
 a for loop;
 the concept of conditional execution (if-elif-else)
 the continue statement.
Your program must:
 ask the user to enter a word;

 use userWord = userWord.upper() to convert the word entered by the user to upper
case; we'll talk about the so-called string methods and the upper() method very soon -
don't worry;
 use conditional execution and the continue statement to "eat" the following
vowels A, E, I, O, U from the inputted word;
 print the uneaten letters to the screen, each one of them on a separate line.
Test your program with the data we've provided for you.
Solution
# Prompt the user to enter a word
# and assign it to the userWord variable.
userWord = input("Enter Name :")
userWord = userWord.upper()
for letter in userWord:
if letter == "A":
continue
elif letter == "E":
continue
elif letter == "I":
continue
elif letter == "O":
continue
elif letter == "U":
continue
print(letter)
# Complete the body of the for loop.
Console
Enter Name: Gregory
G
R
G
R
Y
Enter Name: abstemious

B
S
T
M
S
Same Problem
Test data
Sample input: Gregory
Expected output:
GRGRY
wordWithoutVovels = ""
# Prompt the user to enter a word

# and assign it to the userWord variable
userWord = input("Enter Name")

userWord = userWord.upper()
for letter in userWord:
if letter == "A":
continue
elif letter == "E":
continue
elif letter == "I":
continue
elif letter == "O":
continue
elif letter == "U":
continue
wordWithoutVovels = wordWithoutVovels + letter
print(wordWithoutVovels)
# Complete the body of the loop.
# Print the word assigned to wordWithoutVowels.
 3.1.2.12 Python loops | else


 The while loop and the else branch
 Both loops, while and for, have one interesting (and rarely used)
feature.
As you may have suspected, loops may have the else branch too,

like ifs.
The loop's else branch is always executed once, regardless of

whether the loop has entered its body or not.
Example
i = 5
while i < 5:
print(i)
i += 1
else:
print("else:", i)
Console
1
2
3
4
5
else:5
Example with while Fail

i = 10
while i < 5:
print(i)
i += 1
else:
print("else:", i)
Console
else: 10
The while's condition is False at the beginning - can you see it?
Run and test the program, and check whether the else branch has been
executed or not.
The for loop and the else branch
for i in range(5):
print(i)
else:
print("else:", i)
Console
0
1
2
3
4
else 4
Example
for i in range(3,14,2):
print(i)
Console
3
5
7
9
11
13
Example
i = 111
print(i)
else:
print("else:", i)
Console
else: 111
 3.1.2.14 LAB: Essentials of the while loop
Example
Scenario
Listen to this story: a boy and his father, a computer programmer, are playing with wooden blocks.
They are building a pyramid.
Their pyramid is a bit weird, as it is actually a pyramid-shaped wall - it's flat. The pyramid is stacked
according to one simple principle: each lower layer contains one block more than the layer above.
The figure illustrates the rule used by the builders:
Your task is to write a program which reads the number of blocks the builders have, and outputs the
height of the pyramid that can be built using these blocks.
Note: the height is measured by the number of fully completed layers - if the builders don't have a
sufficient number of blocks and cannot complete the next layer, they finish their work immediately.
Test your code using the data we've provided.
Test Data
Sample input: 6
Expected output: The height of the pyramid: 3
Sample input: 20
Sample input: 1000
Sample input: 2
blocks = int(input("Enter the number of

blocks: "))
cnt = 0
sum = 0
#
# Write your code here.
#
while blocks > cnt :
cnt = cnt + 1
#print("\n cnt" , cnt)
#input("\n press enter to continue at
cnt :")
#sum = sum + cnt
blocks = blocks - cnt
#print("blocks ", blocks)
#input("\n press enter to continue at
blocks :")
print("The height of the pyramid:", cnt)
3.1.2.15 Surbhi ?
1. There are two types of loops in Python: while and for:
 the while loop executes a statement or a set of statements

as long as a specified boolean condition is true, e.g.:
Example 1
while True:
print("Stuch in indefinate loop")
Example 2
counter = 5
while counter > 1:
print(counter)
counter -= 1
the for loop executes a set of statements many times; it's used to iterate over a sequence
(e.g., a list, a dictionary, a tuple, or a set - you will learn about them soon) or other objects
that are iterable (e.g., strings). You can use the for loop to iterate over a sequence of
numbers using the built-in range function. Look at the examples below:
Example 1
word = "Phython"
for letter in word:
print(letter,end="*")
Console
P*h*y*t*h*o*n*
Example 2
for i in range(1,10):
if i %2 == 0:
print("even",i)
else:
print("odd",i)
Console
odd 1
even 2
odd 3
even 4
odd 5
even 6
odd 7
even 8
odd 9
You can use the break and continue statements to change the flow of a loop:
 You use break to exit a loop, e.g.:
Example
text = "OpenEDG Python Institute"
for letter in text:
if letter == "P":
break
print(letter, end=" ")
console
O p e n E D G
Example
text = "pyxpyxpyx"
for letter in text:
if letter == "x":
continue
print(letter, end=" ")
Console
p y p y p y
3. The while and for loops can also have an else clause in

Python. The else clause executes after the loop finishes its
execution as long as it has not been terminated by break, e.g.:
n = 0
while n != 3:
print(n)
n += 1
else:
print(n, "else")
print()

print(i)
else:
print(i, "else")
4. The range() function generates a sequence of numbers. It accepts integers and

returns range objects. The syntax of range() looks as follows: range(start,
stop, step), where:
 start is an optional parameter specifying the starting number of the

sequence (0 by default)
 stop is an optional parameter specifying the end of the sequence generated
(it is not included),
 and step is an optional parameter specifying the difference between the
numbers in the sequence (1 by default.)
Example
for i in range(3):
print(i, end=" ") # outputs: 0 1 2
for i in range(6, 1, -2):

print(i, end=" ") # outputs: 6, 4, 2
Key takeaways: continued
Exercise 1
Create a for loop that counts from 0 to 10, and prints odd numbers to the screen. Use the
skeleton below:

# line of code
# line of code
Solution 1

if i % 2 != 0:
print(i)
1 3 5 7 9
Solution 2
for i in range (1,11):

if i%2 == 0:
continue
print(i)
1 3 5 7 9
Exercise 2
Create a while loop that counts from 0 to 10, and prints odd numbers to the screen. Use the
skeleton below:
x = 1
while x < 11:
# line of code
# line of code
# line of code
x=1
while x < 11:
if x % 2 != 0:
print(x)
x += 1
Exercise 3
Create a program with a for loop and a break statement. The program should iterate over
characters in an email address, exit the loop when it reaches the @ symbol, and print the part
before @ on one line. Use the skeleton below:
for ch in "john.smith@pythoninstitute.org":
if ch == "@":
# line of code
# line of code
for ch in "john.smith@pythoninstitute.org":
if ch == "@":
break
print(ch, end="")
Console
john.smith
Exercise 4
Create a program with a for loop and a continue statement. The program should iterate over
a string of digits, replace each 0 with x , and print the modified string to the screen. Use the
skeleton below:
for digit in "0165031806510":

if digit == "0":
# line of code
# line of code
# line of code
for digit in "0165031806510":

if digit == "0":
print("x", end="")
continue
print(digit, end="")
Console
x165x318x651x
Exercise 5
What is the output of the following code?

n = 3
while n > 0:
print(n + 1)
n -= 1
else:
print(n)
Console
4
3
2
0
Exercise 6
n = range(4)
for num in n:
print(num - 1)
else:
print(num)
Console
-1
0
1
2
3
Exercise 7
for i in range(0, 6, 3):

print(i)
Console
0
3
 Logic and bit operations in Python | and, or, not


 Computer logic
if we have some free time, and the weather is good, we will go for a walk.
We've used the conjunction and, which means that going for a walk
depends on the simultaneous fulfilment of these two conditions. In the
language of logic, such a connection of conditions is called a conjunction.
And now another example:
If you are in the mall or I am in the mall, one of us will buy a gift for Mom.
The appearance of the word or means that the purchase depends on at

least one of these conditions. In logic, such a compound is called a
disjunction.
It's clear that Python must have operators to build conjunctions and
disjunctions. Without them, the expressive power of the language would be
substantially weakened. They're called logical operators.
and
One logical conjunction operator in Python is the word and. It's a binary
operator with a priority that is lower than the one expressed by the
comparison operators. It allows us to code complex conditions without the
use of parentheses like this one:
counter > 0 and value == 100
The result provided by the and operator can be determined on the

basis of the truth table.
If we consider the conjunction of A and B, the set of possible values of arguments and
corresponding values of the conjunction looks as follows:
Argument A Argument B A and B

False False False
False True False
True False False
True True True
or
A disjunction operator is the word or . It's a binary operator with a lower priority
than and (just like + compared to * ). Its truth table is as follows:
Argument A Argument B A or B
False False False
False True True
True False True
True True True
not
In addition, there's another operator that can be applied for constructing
conditions. It's a unary operator performing a logical negation. Its operation
is simple: it turns truth into falsehood and falsehood into truth.
This operator is written as the word not, and its priority is very high: the
same as the unary + and -. Its truth table is simple:
Argument Not Argument
True False
False True
Logical expressions
Let's create a variable named var and assign 1 to it. The following
conditions are pairwise equivalent:
print(var > 0)
print(not (var <= 0))
print(var != 0)
print(not (var == 0))
You may be familiar with De Morgan's laws. They say that:
The negation of a conjunction is the disjunction of the negations.
The negation of a disjunction is the conjunction of the negations.

Let's write the same thing using Python:
not (p and q) == (not p) or (not q)

not (p or q) == (not p) and (not q)
Logical values vs. single bits
Logical operators take their arguments as a whole regardless of how many bits they contain.
The operators are aware only of the value: zero (when all the bits are reset) means False ; not
zero (when at least one bit is set) means True .
The result of their operations is one of these values: False or True . This means that this
snippet will assign the value True to the j variable if i is not zero; otherwise, it will be False .
ex
i=1
j = not i
Console
False
i=1
j = not not i
Console
True
EX
i=0
if i :
print("true")
else:
print("false")
Console
False
Ex
i=0
if not i :
print("true")
else:
print("false")
Console
True
Ex
i=0
if not not i :
print("true")
else:
print("false")
Console
False
Bitwise operators
However, there are four operators that allow you to manipulate
single bits of data. They are called bitwise operators.
They cover all the operations we mentioned before in the logical

context, and one additional operator. This is the xor (as in
exclusive or) operator, and is denoted as ^ (caret).
Here are all of them:
& (ampersand) - bitwise conjunction;

| (bar) - bitwise disjunction;
~ (tilde) - bitwise negation;
^ (caret) - bitwise exclusive or (xor).
Bitwise operations (&, |, and ^)
Arg A Arg A Arg A & Arg B Arg A | Arg B Arg A ^ Arg B

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0
Bitwise operations (~)

Arg ~Arg
0 1
1 0
Let's make it easier:
& requires exactly two 1s to provide 1 as the result;

| requires at least one 1 to provide 1 as the result;
^ requires exactly one 1 to provide 1 as the result.
 3.1.3.2 Logic and bit operations in Python | and, or, not
3.1.4.1 Lists - collections of data
Why do we need lists?
Let's create a variable called numbers; it's assigned with not just
one number, but is filled with a list consisting of five values (note:
the list starts with an open square bracket and ends with a closed
square bracket; the space between the brackets is filled with five
numbers separated by commas).
numbers = [10, 5, 7, 2, 1]
Let's say the same thing using adequate terminology: numbers is

a list consisting of five values, all of them numbers. We can also
say that this statement creates a list of length equal to five (as in
there are five elements inside it).
The elements inside a list may have different types. Some of them
may be integers, others floats, and yet others may be lists.
Python has adopted a convention stating that the elements in a

list are always numbered starting from zero. This means that the
item stored at the beginning of the list will have the number zero.
Since there are five elements in our list, the last of them is
assigned the number four. Don't forget this.
You'll soon get used to it, and it'll become second nature.
Before we go any further in our discussion, we have to state the

following: our list is a collection of elements, but each element is a
scalar.
Indexing lists
How do you change the value of a chosen element in the list?
Let's assign a new value of 111 to the first element in the list. We
do it this way:
Example
numbers = [10, 5, 7, 2, 1]
print("Original list content:", numbers) # printing original list
content
numbers[0] = 111
print("New list content: ", numbers) # current list content
And now we want the value of the fifth element to be copied to the
second element - can you guess how to do it?
Example
numbers = [10, 5, 7, 2, 1]
content
numbers[0] = 111
print("\nPrevious list content:", numbers) # printing previous list
content
numbers[1] = numbers[4] # copying value of the fifth element to

the second
print("New list content:", numbers) # printing current list content
The value inside the brackets which selects one element of the
list is called an index, while the operation of selecting an element
from the list is known as indexing.
The len() function
The length of a list may vary during execution. New elements may be added to the list, while
others may be removed from it. This means that the list is a very dynamic entity.
If you want to check the list's current length, you can use a function named len() (its name
comes from length).
The function takes the list's name as an argument, and returns the number of elements
currently stored inside the list (in other words - the list's length).
Example
numbers = [10, 5, 7, 2, 1]
print(len(number))
Example
numbers = [10, 5, 7, 2, 1]
content
numbers[0] = 111
content

the second
print("Previous list content:", numbers) # printing previous list
content
print("\nList length:", len(numbers)) # printing the list's length

Removing elements from a list
Any of the list's elements may be removed at any time - this is

done with an instruction named del (delete). Note: it's an
instruction, not a function.
Example
del numbers[1]
print(len(numbers))
print(numbers)
Example
numbers = [10, 5, 7, 2, 1]
content
numbers[0] = 111
content

the second
print("Previous list content:", numbers) # printing previous list
content
print("\nList's length:", len(numbers)) # printing previous list length
###
del numbers[1] # removing the second element from the list

print("New list's length:", len(numbers)) # printing new list length
print("\nNew list content:", numbers) # printing current list content
Negative indices are legal
It may look strange, but negative indices are legal, and can be very useful.
An element with an index equal to -1 is the last one in the list.
Example
print(numbers[-1])
print(numbers[-2])
Example
numbers = [111, 7, 2, 1]
print(numbers[-1])
print(numbers[-2])
print(numbers[-3])
Console
1
2
7
Objectives
 using basic instructions related to lists;

 creating and modifying lists.
Example
hatList = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] # This is an existing list of numbers hidden

in the hat.
# Step 1: write a line of code that prompts the user
print(hatList)
nu = int(input ("Enter number :"))
# to replace the middle number with an integer number entered by
the user.
hatList[2] = nu
print(hatList)
# Step 2: write a line of code here that removes the last element
from the list.
del hatList[4]
print("list after del ",hatList)
# Step 3: write a line of code here that prints the length of the
existing list.
print("length ",len(hatList))
print("list ",hatList)
Console
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Enter number: 776
[1, 2, 776, 4, 5]
list after del [1, 2, 776, 4]
length 4
list [1, 2, 776, 4]
 3.1.4.7 Lists - collections of data | Functions and methods

 Functions vs. methods
 A method is a specific kind of function - it behaves like a function and looks like a
function, but differs in the way in which it acts, and in its invocation style.
 A function doesn't belong to any data - it gets data, it may create new data and it
(generally) produces a result.
 A method does all these things, but is also able to change the state of a selected
entity.
 A method is owned by the data it works for, while a function is owned by the
whole code.

 This also means that invoking a method requires some specification of the data from
which the method is invoked.
 It may sound puzzling here, but we'll deal with it in depth when we delve into object-
oriented programming.
 In general, a typical function invocation may look like this:
result = function(arg)
The function takes an argument, does something, and returns a result.
A typical method invocation usually looks like this:
result = data.method(arg)
Note: the name of the method is preceded by the name of the data which owns the method.
Next, you add a dot, followed by the method name, and a pair of parenthesis enclosing the
arguments.
The method will behave like a function, but can do something more - it can change the
internal state of the data from which it has been invoked.
You may ask: why are we talking about methods, not about lists?
This is an essential issue right now, as we're going to show you how to add new elements to an
existing list. This can be done with methods owned by all the lists, not by functions.
Adding elements to a list: append() and insert()

A new element may be glued to the end of the existing list:
list.append(value)
Such an operation is performed by a method named append(). It takes its argument's value

and puts it at the end of the list which owns the method.
The list's length then increases by one.
The insert() method is a bit smarter - it can add a new element at any place in the list, not
only at the end.
list.insert(location, value)
It takes two arguments:
 the first shows the required location of the element to be inserted

 the second is the element to be inserted.
Example
numbers = [111, 7, 2, 1]
print(len(numbers))
print(numbers)
###
numbers.append(4)
print(len(numbers))
print(numbers)
###
numbers.insert(0, 222)
print(len(numbers))
print(numbers)
#
Console
4
[111, 7, 2, 1]
5
[111, 7, 2, 1, 4]
6
[222, 111, 7, 2, 1, 4]
Adding elements to a list: continued
You can start a list's life by making it empty (this is done with an empty pair of square
brackets) and then adding new elements to it as needed.
Example
myList = [] # creating an empty list
for i in range(5):
myList.append(i + 1)
print(myList)
Console
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Example
myList = [] # creating an empty list
for i in range(5):
myList.insert(0, i + 1)
print(myList)
Console
[5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
You should get the same sequence, but in reverse order (this is the merit of using
the insert() method).
Making use of lists

The for loop has a very special variant that can process lists very effectively - let's take a look
at that.
Let's assume that you want to calculate the sum of all the values stored in the myList list.
Example
myList = [10, 1, 8, 3, 5]
total = 0
for i in range(len(myList)):
total += myList[i]
print(total)
Console
27
The second face of the for loop
But the for loop can do much more. It can hide all the actions connected to the list's indexing,
and deliver all the list's elements in a handy way.
This modified snippet shows how it works:
myList = [10, 1, 8, 3, 5]
total = 0
for i in myList:
total += i
print(total)
Console
27
3.1.4.10 Lists - collections of data | lists and loops
Lists in action
Example
This is how you can do it:
variable1 = 1
variable2 = 2
auxiliary = variable1
variable1 = variable2
variable2 = auxiliary
a=5
b = 10
print("a",a)
print("b",b)
a , b = b, a
print("a",a)
print("b",b)
Now you can easily swap the list's elements to reverse their order:
Example
myList = [10, 1, 8, 3, 5]
myList[0], myList[4] = myList[4], myList[0]

myList[1], myList[3] = myList[3], myList[1]
print(myList)
console
[5, 3, 8, 1, 10]
Example
Using for loop
list = [ 10, 1, 8, 3, 5]
print(list)
length = len(list)
for i in range(length // 2):
list[i],list[length - i - 1] = list[length - i - 1 ], list[i]
print(list)
Console
[10, 1, 8, 3, 5]
[5, 3, 8, 1, 10]
Note:
 we've assigned the length variable with the current list's length (this makes our code a
bit clearer and shorter)
 we've launched the for loop to run through its body length // 2 times (this works well
for lists with both even and odd lengths, because when the list contains an odd number
of elements, the middle one remains untouched)
 we've swapped the ith element (from the beginning of the list) with the one with an index
equal to (length - i - 1) (from the end of the list); in our example, for i equal
to 0 the (l - i - 1) gives 4; for i equal to 1, it gives 3 - this is exactly what we needed.
Exercise
Write a program that reflects these changes and lets you practice with the concept of lists. Your
task is to:
 step 1: create an empty list named beatles;

 step 2: use the append() method to add the following members of the band to the
list: John Lennon, Paul McCartney, and George Harrison;
 step 3: use the for loop and the append() method to prompt the user to add the
following members of the band to the list: Stu Sutcliffe, and Pete Best;
 step 4: use the del instruction to remove Stu Sutcliffe and Pete Best from the list;
 step 5: use the insert() method to add Ringo Starr to the beginning of the list.
# step 1
print("Step 1:", beatles)
# step 2
# step 3
# step 4
# step 5
# testing list legth

print("The Fab", len(beatles))
3.1.4.13 LAB: The basics of lists - the Beatles
beatles = []
beatles.append("John Lennon")
beatles.append("Paul McCartney")
beatles.append("George")
beatles.append("Harrison")

length = len(beatles)
print("length = " , length)
for i in range(2):
beatles.append(input("Enter Name : " ))
print(beatles)

length = len(beatles)
del beatles[length - 1]
del beatles[length - 2]
print("deleting last two names " ,beatles)
beatles.insert(0,"Ringo Starr")
print("inserting names " ,beatles)
print("The Fab", len(beatles))
Key takeaways
1. The list is a type of data in Python used to store multiple objects. It is an ordered and
mutable collection of comma-separated items between square brackets, e.g.:
Example
myList = [1, None, True, "I am a string", 256, 0]
2. Lists can be indexed and updated, e.g.:

myList = [1, None, True, 'I am a string', 256, 0]
print(myList[3])
# outputs: I am a string
print(myList[-1])
# outputs: 0
myList[1] = '?'
print(myList)
# outputs: [1, '?', True, 'I am a string', 256, 0]
myList.insert(0, "first")
myList.append("last")
print(myList)
# outputs: ['first', 1, '?', True, 'I am a string',
256, 0, 'last']
3. Lists can be nested, e.g.:
myList = [1, 'a', ["list", 64, [0, 1], False]]
4. List elements and lists can be deleted, e.g.:
myList = [1, 2, 3, 4]
del myList[2]
print(myList) # outputs: [1, 2, 4]
del myList # deletes the whole list
5. Lists can be iterated through using the for loop, e.g.:
myList = ["white", "purple", "blue", "yellow",

"green"]
for color in myList:

print(color)
Example
list = []
for i in range(6):
list.append(input("enter color name :"))
for i in list:
print(i)
else:
print(list)
6. The len() function may be used to check the list's length, e.g.:
myList = ["white", "purple", "blue", "yellow", "green"]

print(len(myList)) # outputs 5
del myList[2]
print(len(myList)) # outputs 4
7. A typical function invocation looks as follows: result = function(arg), while a

typical method invocation looks like this:result = data.method(arg).
Exercise 1
lst = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
lst.insert(1, 6)
del lst[0]
lst.append(1)
print(lst)
Exercise 2
lst = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
lst2 = []
add = 0
for number in lst:

add += number
lst2.append(add)
print(lst2)
Exercise 3
What happens when you run the following snippet?
lst = []
del lst
print(lst)
Exercise 4
lst = [1, [2, 3], 4]

print(lst[1])
print(len(lst))
 3.1.5.1 Sorting simple lists - the bubble sort algorithm


 The bubble sort
 Now, for a moment, try to imagine the list in a slightly different way - namely, like this:
10
4
2
6
8
Look - 10 is at the top. We could say that it floated up from the bottom to the surface, just like
the bubble in a glass of champagne. The sorting method derives its name from the same
observation - it's called a bubble sort.
Now we start with the second pass through the list. We look at the first and second elements - a
swap is necessary:
6 8 2 4 10
Time for the second and third elements: we have to swap them too:
6 2 8 4 10
Now the third and fourth elements, and the second pass is finished, as 8 is already in place:
6 2 4 8 10
We start the next pass immediately. Watch the first and the second elements carefully - another
swap is needed:
2 6 4 8 10
Now 6 needs to go into place. We swap the second and the third elements:
2 4 6 8 10
The list is already sorted. We have nothing more to do. This is exactly what we want.
As you can see, the essence of this algorithm is simple: we compare the adjacent elements,
and by swapping some of them, we achieve our goal.
Sorting a list
Example
myList = [8, 10, 6, 2, 4]
j=0
for j in range(len(myList) - 1):
for i in range(len(myList) - 1):
if myList[i] > myList[i + 1]:
myList[i], myList[i + 1] = myList[i + 1], myList[i]
else:
print(myList)
Example
myList = [8, 10, 6, 2, 4]
swapped = True
while swapped:
swapped = False # no swaps so far
for i in range(len(myList) - 1):
if myList[i] > myList[i + 1]:
swapped = True # swap occured!
myList[i], myList[i + 1] = myList[i + 1], myList[i]
print(myList)
print("final",myList)
Console
[8, 6, 10, 2, 4]
[8, 6, 2, 10, 4]
[8, 6, 2, 4, 10]
[6, 8, 2, 4, 10]
[6, 2, 8, 4, 10]
[6, 2, 4, 8, 10]
[2, 6, 4, 8, 10]
[2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
final [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
 3.1.5.3 Sorting simple lists - the bubble sort algorithm


mylist = []
swp = True
num = int(input ("how many elemets do you want
to sort:"))
for i in range(num):
val = float(input ("type element :"))
mylist.append(val)
k = mylist
print("initial list", k)
while swp:
swp = False
for i in range(len(mylist) - 1):
if mylist[i] > mylist[i+1]:
swp = True
mylist[i],mylist[i+1]=mylist[i+1],
mylist[i]
print("final",mylist)
 3.1.5.4 SECTION SUMMARY


Key takeaways
1. You can use the sort() method to sort elements of a list, e.g.:

Python

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What is Python?

Python is a widely-used, interpreted, object-oriented, and high-level programming language with

Who created Python?

 an easy and intuitive language just as powerful as those of the major competitors;

What makes Python special?

Many developing tools are implemented in Python. More and more everyday use

There is more than one Python

"J" is for "Java". Imagine a Python written in Java instead of C.

PyPy and RPython

How to get Python and how to get to use it

Downloading and installing Python

IDLE is an acronym: Integrated Development and Learning Environment.

How to write and run your very first program

print("Welcome to Python Essentials!")

print("THIS IS SANDBOX MODE.")

How to spoil and fix your code

The editor window shows clearly where it happened.

Fix the code now. It should look like this:

print("Welcome to Python Essentials!")

 Module 2 - Data types, variables, basic input-output operations, basic

The word print that you can see here is a function name.

The only argument delivered to the print() function in this example is a string:

print("The itsy bitsy spider climbed up the waterspout.")

print("Down came the rain and washed the spider out.")

The itsy bitsy spider climbed up the waterspout.

print("The itsy bitsy spider climbed up the waterspout.")

print("Down came the rain and washed the spider out.")

The itsy bitsy spider climbed up the waterspout.

Down came the rain and washed the spider out.

print("The itsy bitsy spider\nclimbed up the waterspout.")

print("Down came the rain\nand washed the spider out.")

The itsy bitsy spider

The letter n placed after the backslash comes from the word newline.

The print() function - using multiple arguments

print("The itsy bitsy spider" , "climbed up" , "the waterspout.")

The print() function - the positional way of passing the

The print() function - the keyword arguments

print("My name is", "Python.", end=" ")

In order to use it, it is necessary to know some rules:

 a keyword argument consists of three elements: a keyword identifying the argument

The print() function - the keyword arguments

The keyword argument that can do this is named sep (like separator).

print("My", "name", "is", "Monty", "Python.",

The print() function - the keyword arguments

print("My", "name", "is", sep="_", end="*")

1. The print() function is a built-in function. It prints/outputs a specified message to the

5. Computer programs are collections of instructions. An instruction is a command to perform a

Literals - the data in itself

Through this example, you encounter two different types of literals:

 a string, which you already know,

Integers: octal and hexadecimal numbers

If an integer number is preceded by an 0O or 0o prefix (zero-o), it will be treated as an octal value.

0o123 is an octal number with a (decimal) value equal to 83.

The print() function does the conversion automatically. Try this:

The second convention allows us to use hexadecimal numbers. Such numbers should be preceded

We can write 0.4 as a

Ints vs. floats

4 is an integer number, whereas 4.0 is a floating-point number.

It reads: three times ten to the power of eight.

 the exponent (the value after the E) has to be an integer;

When you run this literal through Python:

this is the result:

I'm Monty Python.

print("I'm Monty Python")

 Yes, this is true;

Challenge: What will be the output of the following snippet of code?

What types of literals are the following two examples?

"Hello ", "007"

They're both strings/string literals.

What types of literals are the following four examples?

"1.5", 2.0, 528, False

Arithmetic operators: multiplication

Arithmetic operators: division

The result produced by the division operator is always a float,

Arithmetic operators: integer division

This is very important: rounding always goes to the lesser integer.

8. The exponentiation operator uses right-sided binding, e.g., 2 2 3 = 256.

print((2 % -4), (2 % 4), (2 3 2))