Assignment OF AEE-607

Topic: introduction of Fall Armyworm

Submitted To: Dr RAO SABIR SATTAR

Submitted By: Ali Akbar 2015-ag-5099

 An introduction of fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) with management
strategies: a review paper

Abstract. Fall armyworm (FAW) (Spodoptera frugiperda) is a polyphagous crop pest native to America and later reported in
West Africa in 2016. The larval stage is the most devastating in nature affecting the production of 353 species of crops with 70
percent yield loss in the overall economy. The pests are found to thrive in the temperature above 10 degree Celsius and the wings
of moths are deformed above 30 degree Celsius. The cultural method are most effective method which contribute 56 percent of
the pest management where push and pull method control 82.6 percent larvae per plant. Seed powder of Azadirachta indica, was
found to control 70 percent larval mortality in lab whereas Nicotiana tobacum and Lippia javanica controlled the larvae by 66
percent in contact toxicity. Metarhizium anisopliae, a bio-control agent control the egg and neonate larvae by 87 percent and
96.5 percent. Chloropyrifos mixed with saw dust controls 20 percent of the pest and spinosad has effect with 90 percent larva l
mortality. An agro-advisory at large scale can play an indispensable role to minimize the incidence of the fall armyworm and
help smallholder farmers to take the precautions on time reducing the possible crop loss. Integrated pest management is best for
the management strategy of the fall armyworm.

Keywords: fall armyworm, incidence, integrated pest management, species, strategies

1. INTRODUCTION

The fall armyworm (FAW) (Spodoptera frugiperda) is one of the devastating insect pest belonging to the family
Noctuidae and falls in the Lepidoptera order. It is a polyphagous pest (Baudron et al., 2019) causing damage to
economically important cultivated cereal crops such as maize, rice, sorghum, cotton and various vegetable crops and
eventually impacts on food security (FAO, 2017; CABI, 2018a; Bateman et al., 2018). The FAW feeds on leaves,
stem and reproductive parts of plant species (Tefera et al., 2019). It is native to tropical and subtropical regions of the
America. FAW, which was first found in America, is one of the common pests of maize in South and North America.
In Africa, it was first reported in 2016 (Sisay et al., 2018) and has become one of the major invasive pests reaching
over 30 countries across tropical and southern Africa including Madagascar, Seychelles and Cabo Verde at the end
of 2017 (Bateman et al., 2018) which later reached over 44 countries (Sisay et al., 2019). There are 353 plants reported
as a host for this pest (Kansiime et al., 2019).
Symptoms start with the larval stage making different sizes of papery windows in leaves leading to extensive
defoliation of plants, occurrence of faecal materials and in later stage growth and development of plants is affected
(Reddy, 2019). This insect has marching behaviour similar to that of the army causing havoc loss to the crops that
come in its path (FAO, 2019; CABI, 2019). The FAW is devastating in nature and CABI (2017a) has predicted that
the pest causes a possible loss of 6.1 billion US dollar only in African countries when control measures are not
applied. The awareness programmes regarding the symptoms, early detection and control measures of the pest along
with the recommendation of effective pesticide and bio-pesticide can be effective to minimize the loss. Assessing
suitable crop varieties that can tolerate the FAW needs to be initiated and in a longer run national policies should
promote lower risk control options through short term subsidies and rapid assessment and registration of biopesticides
and biological control products (CABI, 2017a).
This paper highlights the necessary information on the introduction and identification of the fall armyworm with
its possible control measures.

2. TAXONOMY OF THE INSECT

Two strains of fall armyworm such as rice strain and corn strain are found (Nagoshi et al., 2007). Rice strain feeds
on rice and other pasture grasses whereas the corn strain feeds on maize, cotton and sorghum (CABI, 2020). These
strains are morphologically similar but can be differentiated at the molecular level. The fall armyworm invaded in
Africa has a greater diversity than that found in America which contains both the strains (Jacobs et al., 2018; CABI,
2020). Table 1 shows the classification of fall armyworm (S. frugiperda.
 Sagar et al.
An introduction of fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) with management strategies: A review paper

Table 1. Detail classification of fall armyworm (S. frugiperda)

Domain Eukaryota
Kingdom Metazoa
Phylum Arthropoda
Subphylum Uniramia
Class Insecta
Order Lepidoptera
Family Noctuidae
Genus Spodoptera
Species frugiperda
(CABI, 2020)

3. DISTRIBUTION OF THE INSECT

An adult fall armyworm does have a capacity to fly over longer distances. The distance covered by one generation
is estimated 300 miles. This fast migration rate may be due to the movement of air in weather fronts (Sparks, 1979).
Fall armyworm is the major insect pests of tropical regions of the Americas and a native to tropical and subtropical
regions of the Americas. In late 2016, it was reported for the first time in West Africa and rapidly spread throughout
Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and later confirmed in forty four African countries (Sisay et al., 2019). The report suggests
that the entry of both the strains of FAW from Americas to Africa was through commercial aircrafts, cargo containers
or aeroplane holds and which later spread through the dispersal of wind (Day et al., 2018). Fall armyworm has been
reported in many Asian countries. In Indian continent, it was first reported in 2018 in Karnataka. Later, it spread in
different places like Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujrat, Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal etc (CABI, 2020). The insect
pest has existed in Asian countries like China, Japan, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Korea, Thailand,
Srilanka and Vietnam (FAO, 2019). Fall armyworm is yet to be recorded in some continent but the threat of its
spreading is very high in a short time. In Nepal, it was first recorded in Nawalparasi district on 9th May 2019 (Bhusal
and Bhattarai, 2019) and declaration of the invasion of FAW was made in the 19th meeting of Nepal Plant Protection
Organization (NPPO) of Nepal (GoN, 2019). This pest has now been observed in fifteen districts of Nepal
(Bajracharya and Bhatt, 2019).

4. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FAW

The larval stage of the fall armyworm is the most devastating in nature and detrimental to crops. In infected maize
plants, the larvae of FAW can be observed on the different plant parts viz., young leaves, leaf whorls, tassels and cob
depending on the growth stages of the plant (Goergen et al., 2016). To determine the loss due to FAW, many variables
needs to be considered. In general, crop infestation due to the pest depends on the number of pest, time of infestation,
natural enemies and pathogens of the pest available at that time and health (nutritional and moisture) status of the
plant (CABI, 2019). Buadron et al. (2019) reported that when there is 26.4% to 55.9 % of pest incidence in maize
then there is yield reduction of 11.57%. Chimweta et al. (2019) revealed that the 25-50% damage of leaf, silk and
tassel results in 58% of yield reduction while 55-100 % of severity at the period of mid to late whorl stage caused up
to 73% of yield loss (Huska and Gould, 1997; CABI, 2019). Kiprop (2017) reported 12.5 to 30% loss in country’s
economy in Malawi.
There was a yield loss of 3.2 million tonnes in Tanzania, 13.91 million tonnes in Uganda and 30.54 million tons
in Ethopia during the reporting period (Kiprop, 2017). In Kenya, FAW affected 250,000 ha of agricultural land that
accounts 11 percent of the country's total maize cultivated area (Kiprop, 2017). Similarly, production loss of maize
estimated by FAW in Ghana and Zambia were 45% and 40%, respectively. In Africa, losses from FAW in twelve
countries including Ghana and Zambia were estimated at 8.5 to 21 million tonnes worth about 250-630 million US
dollars if no control measures were applied (Bateman et al., 2018).
A total of 170,000 ha of maize crops was estimated to be affected by FAW in India spreading in 10 states of the
country (Sangomla and Kukreti, 2019). In China, Yunnan province is mostly affected area by this pest where 80,000
hectare of land has been found to be affected by this pest damaging the crops like maize, sorghum, sugarcane and
ginger crops (Gu and Woo, 2019). The total area of 11,1992.17 ha has been affected in China and 98.6 percent of the
total area is covered with maize (FAO, 2019). Likewise, more than 10,000 ha of maize was affected in four provinces
of Cambodia (Cambodia News, 2019). FAW was detected in 8 regions, 22 districts and 71 administrative regions
with the infestation rate of 0.5 to 32 % in Bangladesh. Similarly, almost 10,000 ha of land in Indonesia, 16,200 ha of
land in Myanmar and 46,000 ha of land in Vietnam was reported to be infested by this worm. In Thailand, yield loss
predicted by FAW was reported to be 25 to 40% that results in 130 million to 260 million dollar loss (FAO, 2019).
Beshir et al. (2019) reported that the deadly pest having voracious appetite for the crops like maize and others can
hugely affect the Nepalese farmers and economy. Since Nepalese climatic condition is suitable for the establishment
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of the populations of this pest, the potential crop loss up to 100 % is predicted in maize if this pest is not managed
properly.

5. FAVOURABLE ENVIRONMENT FOR THE PEST

Fall armyworm are affected by climatic factors and changes in the climate may affect its distribution in various
geographical regions. It has been reported that growth, abundance, survival, mortality, number of generations and
other characteristics are highly affected by environmental condition (Ramirez-cabral et al., 2017).The pest
overwintering mechanism governs the greater invasion of FAW. It thrives in cool, wet weather and severe outbreaks
after heavy rainfall and humid weather (Westbrook and Sparks, 1986). A warm and humid growing season with
heavy rainfall is favorable for the survival and reproduction of the pest. The development of the pests ceases below
the temperature of 10 degree Celsius (Assefa and Ayalew, 2019). For the efficient reproduction, tropical and
subtropical areas are favored where more than ten generations of the fall armyworm per year are reported compared
to just two generations in temperate areas (Assefa and Ayalew, 2019). A warm temperature accelerates the
development of insects with probability of increasing the multiple generations of fall armyworm (Westbrook and
Sparks, 1986)
The varied temperatures at the different stages are required to complete the life cycle of fall armyworm. The
minimum threshold temperature required is 10.9 degree Celsius with sandy clay or clay sand soils which is suitable
for pupation and adult emergence (CABI, 2019). Eggs hatch within two to four days at temperatures of 21-27 °C
(Assefa and Ayalew, 2019). The optimum temperature required for the development of larvae is 28 degree Celsius
whereas pupation requires a bit lower temperature than for larval development with threshold temperature of 14.6
degree Celsius. The wings of the pest are deformed at temperature above 30 degree Celsius (CABI, 2019).

6. SYMPTOMS OF PEST DAMAGE IN MAIZE

Symptoms of FAW infestation in maize starts after the eggs are hatched. The typical symptoms caused by FAW
is the papery windows of variable sizes and ragged edges with oblong to round appearance on the leaves leading to
become loose and detach from the plants. At the severe stage, extensive defoliation can be observed with the excessive
faecal material left over on the plant due to voracious feeding nature of larval instars. Eventually, growth and
development of crops are stopped that results in no cob or tassel formation (Reddy, 2019). The windows pane of
translucent patches are observed at 1st and 2nd instar infestation while larger elongated holes are visible at 3 rd to 6th
instars. At the end, the faecal of the FAW looks as sawdust-like materials in the maize funnel or on the leaves (CABI,
2018b).The leaf damage assessment of the crop can be done as follows as presented in the Table 2 (Sisay et al., 2019).

Table 2. Scale for the leaf damage assessment of the crop through fall armyworm (S. frugiperda)
Scale Description
0 No visible leaf damage
1 Only pinhole damage on leaves
2 Pinhole and shot hole damage to leaf
3 Small elongated lesions (5-10 mm) on 1-3 leaves
4 Mid-sized lesions (10-30 mm) on 4-7 leaves
5 Large elongated lesions (>30 mm) or small portions eaten on 3-5 leaves
6 Elongated lesions (>30 mm) and large portions eaten on 3-5 leaves
7 Elongated lesions (>30 cm) and 50% of leaf eaten
8 Elongated lesions (30 cm) and large portions eaten on 70 % of leaves
9 Most leaves with long lesions and complete defoliation observed

7. Life Cycle of the insect

The lifecycle of the insect can be classified into four stages. The fall armyworm can be identified either by using
morphological characters or through characteristic injury symptoms on susceptible crops or molecular
characterizations (FAO and CABI, 2019).
Egg: The egg of fall armyworm is dome-shaped with a flattened base with 0.4 mm in diameter and 0.3 mm in
length (Prasanna et al., 2018). Bajracharya and Bhat (2019) reported that eggs of the fall armyworm are creamy white
in color with reticulate ribs covered with abdominal hairs. The female lays 100 to 200 eggs at a time in mass (Prasanna
et al., 2018) on the upper, lower sides of the leaf, the stalk and the funnel of the maize plant (CABI, 2018b).

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An introduction of fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) with management strategies: A review paper

Larvae: The newly hatched caterpillars at first and

second instar are green in colour which turns into brown
to black colour at the third to sixth instars (CABI,
2018b). The mature larva has a white inverted “Y”
shaped mark on the front and its epidermis is rough or
granular in texture (Prasanna et al., 2018) with four dark
raised spots in the form of square (CABI, 2018b). The
newly hatched larvae is observed to be burrowing in
nature (CABI, 2017c). Capinera (2000) reported that the
1–6 instar have head capsule with 0.35, 0.45, 0.75, 1.3,
2.0, and 2.6 mm wide, and body lengths are about 1.7,
3.5, 6.4, 10.0, 17.2, and 34.2 mm, respectively. Figure 1. Larvae of fall armyworm (Bajracharya and Bhat,
2019)
Pupa: Pupae are oval in shape, reddish brown in
colour and form a cocoon of 20-30 mm in length which are usually found at the depth of 2-8 cm in soil (CABI,
2018b). According to Silva et al. (2017), pupae are usually 15 mm long and are found in the soil in cocoons (20–30
mm across).
Adult: The adults of FAW are nocturnal in behaviour (CABI, 2017b). The adult moths vary in colour and
wingspan (32 to 40 mm). The male moths have shaded grey and brown forewing with triangular white spots at the
tip and near the centre of the wing (Assef and Ayalew, 2019) which is absent in female moth. The moths are migratory
in nature and can fly over long distance through travel (CABI, 2018m).

Figure 2. Adult female Figure 3. Adult male (Ibrahim and Jimma, 2018)

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Figure 4. The lifecycle of fall armyworm, FAO (2017)

8. Integrated Management of Fall Armyworm

The detection of fall armyworm is utmost important before the pets causes economic damage. Fernandez (2002)
reported that it is recommended to use the control measures in the maize, only when the 5% of seedlings are cut or
20% of whorls of small plants (during the first 30 days) are infested with fall armyworm. Assefa and Ayalew (2019)
revealed that larval stage of fall armyworm is the effective time for the proper management of the pest with timing
(morning, afternoon or evening) when the management activity is done is indispensable.

8.1. Advisory Services

A combination of communication methods (in public and private sectors) is required taking into account the
information to be communicated and the control methods being promoted (Day et al., 2017). This is the first and the
most important step for the management of the fall armyworm. The Asian countries like China, Bangladesh,
Indonesia, Japan, Myanmar, and Srilanka are adopting this method to bring awareness among the people regarding
the management of the devastating pest (FAO, 2019).

8.2. Physical and Mechanical Method

Firake (2019) reported that hand picking and destruction of egg masses, and neonate larvae in mass by crushing
or immersing in kerosene water as one of the control measures of fall armyworm. The application of dry sand into
the whorl of affected maize plants soon after observation of FAW incidence in the field has been reported as the
another control measure. The number of eggs or caterpillars of fall armyworm are few so handpicking and crushing
them can act as a practical measure for small gardens or few affected plants. 54 % of the pest control has been found
through the adoption of mechanical control of management (Assefa, 2018). Installation of pheromone traps @ 5/acre
at the potential area of spreading in crop season and off-season helps to control the incidence of fall armyworm
(Firake, 2019). FAO (2017) reported that the pheromone traps that attract the male armyworm moths are
recommended for scaling as this method is simple to use. The standard bucket trap with a green canopy, yellow
funnel, and white bucket has been the most effective for capturing the moths of the fall armyworm (Meagher, 2001;
Hardke et al., 2015).

8.3. Cultural Method

The fall Armyworm is often controlled through the use of synthetic/chemical insecticides (Blanco et al., 2014,
2010; Hruska and Gould, 1997). However, application of different cultural methods might help to minimize the crop
loss by FAW. Firake (2019) demonstrated that intercropping of maize with legume crops (eg. Maize + pigeon
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An introduction of fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) with management strategies: A review paper

pea/black gram /green gram) can be effective to control fall armyworm. Similarly, clean cultivation and balanced use
of fertilizers along with cultivation of maize hybrids with tight husk cover reduces ear damage by FAW and other
insects. Kumela et al. (2019) illustrated that the dry mixture of sand with trichlorfon and formulated as granules or
powder when applied into the whorls has been effective and widely used by smallholder farmers in Ethiopia and
Kenya. Van Huis (1981) has reported that the amount of pesticide use has been reduced by 20% by the application
of the mixture of chlorpyrifos with sawdust. Prasanna et al. (2018) reported that the early plantation or the use of
early maturing varieties (higher armyworm densities occur later in the season) are found to be effective to control
FAW. The concept of “Push-Pull” companion cropping showed some potential to control the spread of the FAW,
however, this attempt requires an investment of labor and extra cost viz., intercropping maize with a pest-repellent
(“push”) plant (Desmodium spp.) surrounded by a border with pest-attractive trap (“pull”) plant such as napier grass
(Pennisetum purpureum or Brachiaria spp.) has been found to be effective in FAW management (Pradhan et al.,
2019). A research reported that 82.7 percent reduction in the average number of larvae per plant and 86.7 percent
plant damage per plot were observed in climate adapted with push pull in comparison to maize grown in a plot as a
sole crop along with 2.7 times higher maize grain yield (Midega et al., 2018). Early crop plantation to avoid the higher
densities of pest, intercropping of maize with non-host plant like sunflower and bean (FAO, 2018), crop rotation and
varietal choice, good soil tilth, regular monitoring of the field and burning of the crop residues can destroy egg, larvae,
pupa and adult left in the field (Assefa, 2018). Frequent weeding significantly reduce the damage from FAW as
graminaceous weeds which are found dominantly in the maize fields are considered as the major host of the fall
armyworm. Similarly, the pest damage was significantly low in the maize plots that are established adopting
minimum/zero tillage in which the natural enemies are found in higher densities (Buadron et al., 2019). In Kenya, 39
percent of the farmers were reported to follow the cultural control method such as adding soil to the plant whorl,
drenching tobacco extract to the damage plants for controlling the FAW (Kumela et al., 2019). A study reported that
56 percent of pest management through cultural method (Assefa and Ayalew, 2019). Advantages
1. It is cost effective method of pest management.
2. This method is safe and do not poses the undesirable residual effects on food, human health and environment.
Disadvantages
1. Requires long term planning for greatest effectiveness.
2. The percentage of pest control is lower as compared with other methods of management.

8.4. Biocontrol Method/Biological Method

Certain bio-control agents have been found to be effective to control the FAW. The in-situ protection of natural
enemies through habitat management along with increasing the plant diversity by intercropping with pulses and
ornamental flowering plants has been reported as building-up of various natural enemies (Firake, 2019). The
application of Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki formulations @ 2g/litre (or) 400g/acre is effective to control FAW.
The application of Metarhizium anisopliae talc formulation (1x108 cfu/g) @ 5g/litre whorl application at 15-25 days
after sowing is good. Similarly, 1-2 sprays at the interval of 10 days depending on pest damage has been reported
effective to control the extension of the pest infection. FAO (2018) reported that the biopesticides especially based
on the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), fungi (such as Beauveria bassiana) and Baculo viruses have been
effectively used for the control of FAW. These biotic agents also have a contribution to reduce leaf defoliation in
crops (Molina-Ochoa et al., 2003). Pilkington et al. (2010) highlighted that various microbial pathogens and arthropod
bio-control agents have been successfully used to control the FAW. Globally, there are fifty three species of parasites
that represent forty three genera and ten families which are effective to control fall armyworm (Ashley, 1979; Sparks,
1986; Assefa, 2018). Aktuse et al. (2019) in his study to evaluate the efficacy of entomo-pathogenic fungi against
eggs and second instar larvae revealed that 30 percent mortality of second instar larvae by the Beauveria isolate
whereas Metarhizium isolate provided the 87% and 96.5% of egg and neonate larvae mortality respectively. There
are many natural enemies which are effective to control many lepidopteran insects of the noctuidae family. Tefera et
al. (2019) suggested that these natural enemies could be potential for the biological control of many insect pests.
Cotesia icipe a larval parasitoid was found effective to control fall armyworm infestation in Ethiopia, whereas in
Kenya Plaexorista zonata was found to control the pest (Sisay et al., 2018). Various parasitoid species belonging to
Trichogramma and Telenomus, which are easy to rear in a laboratory (Cave and Acosta, 1999; Cave, 2000; Ferrer,
2001; Nagaraja, 2013; Tefera, 2019), are widely used for the management of fall armyworm (Mihm, 1987; Cave,
2000; Gutierrez-Martinez et al., 2012; Tefera, 2019). The biological control agents reported for the management of
FAW are Telenomus remus (Platygastridae), Chelonus insularis, Cotesia marginiventris, Trichogramma spps
(Braconidae), Archytas, Winthemia and Lespesia (Tachinidae), earwigs (Dermaptera), Ladybird beetles
(Coccinellidae), Assassin and flower bugs like Zelus (Reduviidae), Podisus (Pentatomidae), Nabis (Nabidae),
Geocoris (Lygaeidae), Orius, Anthocoris (Anthocoridae), ants, birds and bats (FAO, 2018).
Advantages
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1. No problem of development of resistance by the pest.
2. It is safe to use and has no adverse effect on human health and environment.
3. It is a very specific strategy, hence possess no danger to non-target pest.
4. It is cost effective method of pest management in a longer run.
Disadvantages
1. Initial management cost is high.
2. This management method is a slow process.
3. The pest control percentage with the use of biological control agent is lower as compared to chemical method
of pest control.

8.5. Botanical Method

Different locally available resources and botanical methods are used to control fall armyworm in the world through
local botanical extract, soil, sand, wood ash, lime, oils and soaps (Hruska, 2019). Souza et al. (2010) reported that
plant oils obtained from Corymbia citriodora, Eucalyptus urograndis and Eucalyptus urograndis had positive effects
for protecting maize plants from FAW larvae. The neem seed powder has been reported to be effective in killing over
70% of larvae of FAW in the laboratory (Maredia, 1992). A significant mortality of larvae of FAW has been reported
from the use of aqueous seed extract obtained from Carica papaya which is similar to the mortality caused by
Malathion (Figueroa-Brito et al., 2013). Similarly, the plant oils obtained from the turmeric, clove, palmarosa and
neem have significant effects in controlling first and second instar of FAW larvae (Barbosa et al., 2018). Jirnmci,
(2013) and Schmutterer (1985) reported that various botanicals extracts obtained from plants such as Azadirachta
indica, Millettia ferruginea, Croton macrostachyus, Phytolacca docendra, Jatropha curcas, Nicotiana tabacum and
Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium have been successfully used to control the FAW. The seed cake extract of
Azadirachta indica (Silva et al., 2015) and ethanolic extracts of Argemone ochroleuca (Martinez et al., 2017) cause
high mortality of FAW larva due to reduction of food intake by larvae resulting slower growth. As the botanical
pesticides have lesser effect on the non-target organisms and have an ability to add in growth promotion some of the
pesticidal plants, they are found effective with reduce in use of synthetic insecticides (Abudulai et al., 2001; Mkindi
et al., 2020; Rioba et al., 2020). Ageratum conyzoides (Lima et al., 2010; Rioba and Stevenson, 2017), Chenopodium
ambrosioides has been evaluated for their efficacy against fall armyworm (Sisay et al., 2019; Rioba et al., 2020).
Cymbopogon citratus, Malva sylvestris, Ruta graveolens, Petiveria alliacea, Zingiber officinale, Bacharis
genistelloides, Artemisia verlotiorum (Tagliari et al., 2010), extracts of castor plant, Carica papaya (Figueoroa et al.,
2002) and Moringa (Rioba et al., 2020) has been reported to have insecticidal properties against fall armyworm. The
larval mortality was found highest 66 percent from both Nicotiana tobacum and Lippia javanica in contact toxicity
test and in a feeding bioassay L. javanica and N. tabacum reported the highest larval mortality of 62 percent and 60
percent respectively at the concentration of 10 percent w/v. At the same time while evaluating the feeding differences,
Cymbopogon citratus and Azadirachta indica were found to be the most potential feeding deterrents with 36 percent
and 20 percent respectively (Phambala et al., 2020).
Advantages
1. The raw materials such as botanicals are easily available within the locality of farmers.
2. It is one of the cheapest method of pest management as compared with other methods.
3. This is safe and environmentally friendly method. Disadvantages
1. The pest control percentage with the use of botanical method is lower as compared to chemical method of pest
control.

8.6. Chemical Method

The appropriate time for the chemical application is utmost important for the management of the fall armyworm.
An individual should have knowledge on the life cycle and timing when to apply the pesticide i.e. there is no
effectiveness in spraying when the larvae are deeply embedded inside the whorls and ears of maize and in the day
time because larvae only come out to feed on plants during night dawn or dusk (Day et al., 2017). Various chemicals
have been recommended to control the fall armyworm. The insecticides of different groups such as Methomyl,
Pyrethroids, Cyfluthrin and organophosphate insecticide, methyl parathion can be used for the control of fall
armyworm (Tumma and Chandrika, 2018). The seed treatment with chlorantraniliprole and cyantraniliprole was
found to be effective and reduced the need for foliar sprays against fall armyworm in soya (Thrash et al., 2013). Van
Huis (1981) reported that when chlorpyrifos was mixed with the saw dust and used as a treatment, 20% control of the
fall armyworm was found. Chemicals like chlorpyrifos, carbosulfan, emamectin benzoate, cartap hydrochloride and
beta cypermethrin have been widely used for the control of the fall armyworm in Africa. Among them, emamectin
benzoate, cartap hydrochloride and beta cypermethrin are also recommended to use for vegetables (IRAC South
Africa, 2018). Cruz et al. (2012) and Bhusal & Bhattarai (2019) reported that over 90% of larval mortality through
the use of Spinosad and new insecticide Chlorantraniliprole, flubendiamide, and spinetoram was found to perform
better than traditional insecticide lambda-cyhalothrin and novaluron (Hardke et al., 2015).
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An introduction of fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) with management strategies: A review paper

Advantages
1. The percentage control through this method is higher than other method of pest control.
2. This method act very fast if selected in proper concentration and proper quantity.
Disadvantages
1. This method has residual effect and have detrimental effect on human health and environment.
2. Along with the harmful insects, it also kills the beneficial insects.

9. CONCLUSION

The fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) has been one of the most devastating pests worldwide. This pest has a
higher probability of spreading all over the world causing massive reduction in agricultural production and
productivity. The control of fall armyworm requires an integrated management strategy where the field inspection at
the early pest attack and identification of the controlling mechanism is important. An awareness programme through
advisory services regarding the pest identification, its damage symptoms, and control measures with appropriate
measures can reduce the incidence of the pest. Locally available resources and methods could play a vital role for the
smallholder farmers across the world so there’s an urgent need to sensitize the smallholder farmers against the control
measures of fall armyworm. The measures can help to lower down the incidence and loss from the pests invasion and
contribute to global stability. A collective action could be recommended that can play a vital role for the management
of the fall armyworm.

Acknowledgement: The authors acknowledge all the helping hands during the time of this manuscript preparation.
Conflict of Interest: The author(s) declare(s) that there is no any conflict of interest regarding the publication of this
paper.