CH4: imperfections in solid

Many of the important properties of materials are due to the presence of

imperfections
‫العديد من الخصائص الهامة للمواد بسبب وجود عيوب‬: ‫تعريف‬
?Why study imperfections in solids
The mechanical properties of pure metals experience significant alternations when •
alloyed

:The common types of imperfections include; three

)point defects:a)1
.a) Vacancies: vacant atomic sites in a structure
Thermodynamically, the number of vacancies depends on and increase with
.temperature
.b) Self-Interstitials:"extra" atoms positioned between atomic sites
.where an atom from the crystal is crowded into an interstitial site
c) Substitutional Atoms: occurs when the solute atom is large enough that it can
.replace solvent atoms
solvent and solute atoms must differ in atomic size by less than 15%
Line Defects (Dislocations): are one-dimensional defects around which some of )2
.atoms are misaligned
:‫هي عيوب أحادية البعد تكون حولها بعض الذرات منحرفة‬
:The common types of linear defects are
Edge dislocation )‫بمعنى تغير في الحجم‬
b) Screw dislocation: spiral planar ramp resulting from shear deformation
‫بمعنى نفس الحجم بس فيه تشوه في الشكل‬
‫ الزم تفرق‬9‫ الرسمات ص‬.‫ منحدر مستو حلزوني ناتج عن تشوه القص‬:‫خلع المسمار‬
Most dislocations found in crystalline materials are mixed dislocation, that means
both types of dislocations (edge and screw).
:Area defect)3
• Solidification- result of casting of molten material –• ‫ نتيجة صب المادة المنصهرة‬- ‫التصلب‬
-
‫تحصل في خطوتين‬steps • Nuclei form • Nuclei grow to form crystals – grain structure 2
‫شكل المواة ثم النواة تنمو لتشكل كريستال‬
.Microscopic examination is always used to detect the imperfections in solids

The addition of impurity atoms to a metal form solid solution and/or second phase
depending on the kind of impurity, concentration and temperature.

The conditions for substitutional solid solution (S.S.) ‫الشروط‬

When impurity atom B (solute) replace or substitute the host atom A (solvent), the
degree of dissolving depends on:
Atomic size factor: the difference in atomic radii between solute and solvent is <
15%, otherwise new phase will be formed.

Crystal structure: The crystal structure of both atoms must be the same. 
Electronegativity: They should have nearly similar electronegativity otherwise
intermetallic compounds will be formed.
Valences: a metal will have more of a tendency to dissolve another metal of higher
valency than one of a lower valency.
‫ أو اتجاهات بلورية‬/ ‫هي حدود ذات بعدين ومناطق منفصلة عادة من المواد التي لها هياكل بلورية مختلفة و‬
‫مختلفة‬.
This type include external surfaces, grain boundaries, twin boundaries, stacking faults, and
phase boundaries.

Grain boundaries: are boundaries between crystals.  are produced by the solidification
process, for example.  have a change in crystal orientation across them.  impede
dislocation motion.

Interfacial defects: are boundaries that have two dimensions and normally separate regions
of the materials that have different crystal structures and/or crystallographic orientations.

‫ أو اتجاهات بلورية‬/ ‫هي حدود ذات بعدين ومناطق منفصلة عادة من المواد التي لها هياكل بلورية مختلفة و‬
‫مختلفة‬
Microscopic examination: Optical microscope. Scanning electron microscope (SEM).
Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

There are two common ways to express the composition (or concentration) of the
alloys in terms of its constituent elements; weight percent (wt %) and atomic
percent. (at %)
 CH5

.Diffusion flux (J): is how fast diffusion occurs, or the rate of mass transfer
-- :Flux can be measured for

vacancies --host (A) atoms --impurity (B) atoms

concentration gradient(the slope, dC/dx)Kg.M-3, must be constant (i.e., slope doesn't vary ‫ل‬
‫ ا تختلف‬with position)

.Interdiffusion from regions of large to lower concentration )1(

.Self-difjfusion: In an elemental solid, atoms also migrate )2(
migrate ‫االول تداخل بين جميع الذرات والثاني العنصر يهاجر من مكان الى اخر‬
.Steady State: the concentration profile doesn't change with time
:Diffusion mechanisms

:Substitutional Diffusion
.applies to substitutional impurities •
.atoms exchange with vacancies •
.rate depends on: --number of vacancies --activation energy to exchange •

Diffusivity increases with T , D=D0e(-Q/RT) •

Rate of diffusion independent of time

.
 ‫‪CH6‬‬

‫‪The mechanical behavior reflects the relationship between an applied force and its response‬‬

‫يعكس السلوك الميكانيكي العالقة بين القوة المطبقة واستجابته‬

‫‪The need for‬‬

‫‪ standard language for expressing mechanical properties of materials (expressions, terms):‬‬

‫‪ STRENGTH, HARDNESS, DUCTILITY,‬‬

‫‪TOUGHNESS, ELASTICITY, PLASTICITY and‬‬

‫‪STIFFNESS‬‬

‫‪ standard test methods:‬‬

‫‪ American Society for Testing and Materials‬‬

‫…‪(ASTM) Standards and others‬‬

‫الحاجة ل‬

‫لغة قياسية للتعبير ‪‬‬

‫الخواص الميكانيكية للمواد‬

‫‪):‬التعبيرات والمصطلحات(‬

‫‪ ،‬القوة والصالبة والليونة ‪‬‬

‫المتانة والمرونة واللدونة و‬

‫الكزازة‬

‫‪:‬طرق االختبار القياسية ‪‬‬

‫الجمعية األمريكية لالختبارات والمواد ‪‬‬

‫‪ ..‬المعايير وغيرها )‪(ASTM‬‬

‫‪Need to compare load on specimens of various size and shapes:‬‬

‫تحتاج إلى مقارنة الحمل على عينات ذات أحجام وأشكال مختلفة‪:‬‬
‫للتوتر والضغط‪:‬‬

‫حيث ‪ F‬يتم تطبيق الحمل بشكل عمودي على المقطع العرضي للعينة و ‪ A0‬هي منطقة المقطع العرضي (عموديًا على‬
‫القوة) قبل تطبيق الحمل‪.‬‬

‫هو الطول األصلي ‪ ، lo‬التغير في الطول ‪ l‬حيث ‪ ، ε = l / l0 (x 100٪) ،‬ساللة هندسية‬

‫‪For tension and compression:‬‬

 Engineering Stress, σ = F / A0 , where F is load applied perpendicular to speciment
crosssection and A0 is crosssectional area (perpendicular to the force) before application of
the load.

Engineering Strain, ε = Δl / l0 ( x 100 %), where Δl change in length, lo is the original length.

These definitions of stress and strain allow one to compare test results for specimens of
different cross-sectional area A0 and of different length l0

:The units of engineering stress (or stress) are

,megapascals, MPa (SI) (1 MPa = 106 N/m2 ) -

pounds force per square inch, psi -

Engineering strain (or strain) is unitless , the value of strain is independent of the unit
.% system. Sometimes strain is expressed in

:Compression test

.Note: compressive structure member ( < 0 here)

)‫ (عندنا نوعان عند الضغط وال السحب‬.‫هذا عند الضغط‬

.a compressive force is taken to be negative, which yields a negative stress

Computed compressive strains are also negative

‫اختبارات الشد أكثر شيوعً ا بسبب هم أسهل في األداء ؛‬

.‫القليل جدا من المعلومات اإلضافية تم الحصول عليها من اختبارات الضغط‬
، )‫ مطلوب سالالت دائمة (مثل البالستيك‬, ‫ سلوك مادي تحت كبير و‬: ‫يتم استخدام اختبارات الضغط عند‬
‫أو المادة هشة في التوتر‬

How does deformation take place in

the material at an atomic scale

: Two types of deformation

Elastic

 Reversible, no change in the shape and the size

! of the specimen when the load is released

!  under load, the volume of the material changes

Plastic

 Irreversible, dislocations cause slips, bonds are

.broken, new bonds are made

 When load is released, specimen does not return

to original size and shape, but volume is

! preserved

‫كيف يحدث التشوه في المادة على نطاق ذري؟‬

:‫نوعان من التشوه‬

‫ مرن‬

!‫ يتغير حجم المواد‬، ‫ ال تغيير في الشكل والحجم من العينة عند تحرير الحمولة! تحت الحمل‬، ‫قابل للعكس‬

.‫ السندات الجديدة مصنوعة‬، ‫ السندات مكسورة‬، ‫ االضطرابات تسبب زالت‬، ‫ ال رجعة فيه‬:‫ بالستيك‬

!‫ ولكن الحجم محفوظ‬، ‫ ال تعود العينة إلى الحجم والشكل األصلي‬، ‫ عند تحرير الحمل‬

Region I : Elastic Deformation Hooke’s Law

Region II: Uniform Plastic Deformation Strain is uniform across material

Region III: Non-uniform Plastic Deformation Deformation is limited to “neck” region

‫حق الرسمه‬

) stress -strain ‫ (سلوك‬10,11 ‫مراجعة صفحة‬

Elastic means reversible Bonds stretch but recover when load is release

‫المرونة تعني عكسها! تمتد السندات ولكنها تتعافى عندما يتم تحرير الحمل‬

:LINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES

E ceramics > E metals >> E polymers

Plastic means permanent. ‫دائم‬/ ‫باق‬

y(ceramics) >>y(metals) >> y(polymers

TENSILE STRENGTH, TS ‫اعلى قمة‬

• Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.

Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts. • Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation
.starts. • Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are aligned and about to break

TS(ceram) ~TS(met) ~ TS(comp) >> TS(poly

:DUCTILITY, %EL: Plastic tensile strain at failure

smaller %EL (brittle if %EL<5%)

larger %EL (ductile if %EL>5%)

.Note: %RA and %EL are often comparable •

.Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume --

--%RA > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck‫ بقصد الطول والمساحه‬A,L
100. ‫القانون لالثنين النهايه ناقص البداية على البدايه ضرب‬

Yield Strength, Tensile Strength and Ductility can be improved by alloying, heat and
mechanical treatment, but Youngs Modulus is rather insensitive to such processing

‫ غير‬E ‫ ولكن‬، ‫يمكن تحسين قوة الغلة وقوة الشد والليونة عن طريق صناعة السبائك والحرارة و المعالجة الميكانيكية‬
‫حساس لمثل هذه المعالجة‬

Temperature effects : YS, TS and YM decrease with increasing temperature, but ductility
.increases with temperature

Resilience, Ur: It is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed

elastically and then, upon unloading, to have this energy recovered.

Ur = 0.5(y ey)

‫ الستعادة هذه الطاقة‬، ‫ عند التفريغ‬، ‫إنها قدرة المادة على امتصاص الطاقة عندما يتم تشويهها بشكل مرن ثم‬.

TOUGHNESS : Capacity of a material to absorb energy up to fracture.

‫ قدرة المادة على امتصاص الطاقة حتى الكسر‬:‫المتانة‬.

Area under the  - e curve up to the point of fracture.

Units = J/m3 or in-lbf/in3

A material is tough if: - high strength – ductility

 CH12

Ceramic materials are inorganic and nonmetallic materials.

Ceramics can be classified into “traditional ceramics” and “advanced ceramics”

Crystals composed of electrically charged, Ions:

Cations (positively charged, metallic ions)

‫تتكون بلورات مشحونة كهربائيا‬

Anions (negatively charged, non-metallic ions

Ceramic materials containing ionic bonds, their crystal structure composed of electrically
charged ions instead of atoms. The ratio of cation radius to anion radius is less than unity
because metallic elements always lose electron and their cation radius is ordinary smaller
than anion

.‫ يتكون هيكلها البلوري من أيونات مشحونة كهربائيًا بدالً من الذرات‬، ‫مواد خزفية تحتوي على روابط أيونية‬

‫ نسبة نصف قطر الكاتيون إلى نصف قطر األنيون أقل من الوحدة ألن العناصر المعدني ة تفق د اإللك ترون دائ ًم ا ويك ون‬
‫نصف قطرها الموجب أصغر من األنيون‬

The size of ion depends on several factor such as coordination number (increased by
increasing coordination number), and on the charge of ions.

Ceramic materials can be classified into different types according to their crystal structure
and the number of cations and anions
1)AX- type crystal structures In which cations (A) and anions (X) are equal

2) Am Xp -Type crystal structure: In which the charge on the cations and anions are not the
same. m and/or p are not equal unity.

3) Am BnXp -Type crystal structure: In which ceramic compounds have more one type of
cations.

Silicate ceramics: Silicates are materials composed of Si and oxygen (SiO4 -4) (solid or glass,)
 CH9

Phases: The physically and chemically distinct material regions that result (e.g., a and b, or
syrup and sugar)

‫المناطق المادية المتميزة جسديًا وكيميائيًا الناتجة‬

THE SOLUBILITY LIMIT: Max concentration for which only a solution occurs.

.‫ أقصى تركيز ال يوجد إال حل‬:‫حدود الذوبان‬

• Solubility limit increases with T

 Equilibrium: A system is at equilibrium if its free energy (function of internal energy

of a system & entropy) is at a minimum,
‫ النظام في حالة توازن إذا كانت طاقته الحرة (وظيفة الطاقة الداخلية للنظام واإلنتروبيا) عند الحد‬:‫التوازن‬
، ‫األدنى‬

Phase equilibrium: is applied to systems with more than one phase

‫ يطبق على األنظمة ذات أكثر من مرحلة‬:‫توازن الطور‬

Metastable (non equilibrium): exist when the state of equilibrium is never completely
achieved because the rate of approach equilibrium is extremely slow

.‫ يوجد عندما ال تتحقق حالة التوازن تمامًا أب ًدا ألن معدل توازن النهج بطيء للغاية‬:)‫مستقر (غير متوازن‬

Phase diagram (equilibrium diagram): is used to describe the phase structure of particular
system using Three controllable parameters (T, P, C)

T ،( ‫ يستخدم لوصف هيكل الطور لنظام معين باستخدام ثالث معلمات يمكن التحكم فيها‬:)‫مخطط الطور (مخطط التوازن‬
)P ، C

One component phase diagram in which composition (C) is constant, so the T & P are
variables.

At point O, the three phases coexist in equilibrium, is called triple point or invariant point.

Conditions of equilibrium solidification and the development of microstructures, are realized

only for extremely slow cooling rates.

.‫تتحقق شروط تصلب التوازن وتطور الهياكل الدقيقة فقط لمعدالت التبريد البطيئة للغاية‬

Nonequilibrume cooling Cu-Ni :

Segregationnonuniform distribution of elements within grains. • Weaker grain boundaries if
alloy is reheated.

.‫ • يتم إعادة تسخين حدود الحبيبات األضعف للسبائك‬.‫الفصل التوزيع غير المنتظم للعناصر داخل الحبوب‬

Cored vs Equilibrium Phases:

Fast rate of cooling: Cored structure. • Slow rate of cooling: Equilibrium structure

Effect of solid solution strengthening on: --Tensile strength (TS) --Ductility (%EL,%AR)

•Not all binary system alloys have a eutectic point.

A eutectic or eutectic mixture is a mixture of two or more phases at a composition

that has the lowest melting point. It is where the phases simultaneously crystallize from
molten solution.

.‫إنه المكان الذي تتبلور منه المراحل في وقت واحد محلول منصهر‬

Eutectic - liquid transforms to two solid phases

• Eutectoid – one solid phase transforms to two other solid phases

Peritectic - liquid and one solid phase transform to a 2nd solid phase

ferrite (a iron) has a BCC crystal structure.

Eutectoid reaction:  ↔ a + Fe3C

Hypereutectoid (more than eutectoid): compositions between 0.76 and 2.14 wt% carbon.

CH14
Most polymer are organic in origin. Many organic materials are hydrocarbons; that is, they
are composed of hydrogen and carbon. the intramolecular bonds are covalent.
Organic molecules can be classified into;

1) Saturated hydrocarbons (paraffin) in which all bonds are single,

2) Unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain double or triple bonds.
The covalent bonds in each molecule are strong, but only weak hydrogen and van der Waals
bonds exist between molecules, and thus these hydrocarbons have relatively low melting
and boiling points. However, boiling temperatures rise with increasing molecular weight

The covalent bonds in each molecule are strong, but only weak hydrogen and van
der
Hydrocarbon compounds with the same molecular formula may have different
atomic arrangements, a phenomenon termed isomerism.
. ‫ وهي ظاهرة تسمى‬، ‫قد يكون لمركبات الهيدروكربون التي لها نفس الصيغة الجزيئية ذرية مختلفة الترتيبات‬
The molecules in polymers are gigantic in comparison to the hydrocarbon molecules and
because of their size they are named Macromolecules.

‫الجزيئات عمالقه بالمقارنه مع جزيئات الهيدروجين‬

For carbon chain polymer, the backbone of each chain is a string of carbon atoms

‫العمود الفقري‬

These long molecules are composed of structural entities called repeat units,

، ‫تتكون هذه الجزيئات الطويلة من كيانات هيكلية تسمى وحدات التكرار‬

monomer refers to the small molecule from which a polymer is synthesized

‫يشير مصطلح المونومر إلى الجزيء الصغير الذي يتم تصنيع البوليمر منه‬

, average molecular weight is used which can determined by the measurements of physical
properties such as viscosity and osmotic pressure.

Degree of polymerization, DP represent: the average number of repeated units in a chain

‫ متوسط عدد الوحدات المتكررة في سلسلة‬DP ‫ تمثل‬، ‫درجة البلمرة‬

The physical properties of polymer depends on: 1- the molecular weight. 2-molecular shape.
3- molecular structure.
Polymers can be classified according to the difference in structure into:

Linear polymers: end to end, single chains

Crosslinked polymers: adjacent linear chains joined at various position by covalent bonds.

Network polymers: multifunctional monomers forming three or more active covalent bonds,
3 dimensional networks, distinctive mechanical and thermal properties.

The response of a polymer to mechanical forces at elevated temperatures is related to its

dominant molecular structure and can be classified into thermoplastics and thermosetting
polymers.

classified into thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers. (tempareture):

Thermoplastics soften when heated (and eventually liquefy) and harden when cooled
processes that are totally reversible and may be repeated such as linear polymers and
branched polymers.

‫ وهي عمليات يمكن عكسها تمامًا ويمكن‬- ‫تنعم اللدائن الحرارية عند تسخينها (وتسييلها في النهاية) وتتصلب عند تبريدها‬
.‫تكرارها مثل البوليمرات الخطية والبوليمرات المتفرعة‬

Thermosetting polymers are network polymers. They become permanently hard during
their formation, and do not soften upon heating. Crosslinking is usually extensive.

.‫ وال تنعم عند التسخين‬، ‫ تصبح صلبة بشكل دائم أثناء تكوينها‬.‫البوليمرات المتصلدة بالحرارة عبارة عن بوليمرات شبكية‬
.‫عادة ما يكون التشابك واسع النطاق‬

Thermoset polymers are generally harder and stronger than thermoplastics and have better
dimensional stabilit.

‫عادة ما تكون بوليمرات المتصلب الحراري أكثر صالبة و أقوى من اللدائن الحرارية ولديها استقرار أفضل في األبعاد‬

Copolymers are composed of two repeat units to achieve desired properties.

.‫تتكون البوليمرات المشتركة من وحدتين متكررتين لتحقيق الخصائص المطلوبة‬

It has been proposed that a semicrystalline polymer consists of small crystalline regions
(crystallites), each having a precise alignment, which are interspersed with amorphous
regions composed of randomly oriented molecules.

‫ تتخللها مناطق‬، ‫ لكل منها محاذاة دقيقة‬، )‫تم اقتراح أن البوليمر شبه البلوري يتكون من مناطق بلورية صغيرة (بلورات‬
.‫غير متبلورة تتكون من جزيئات عشوائية التوجه‬

Many bulk polymers that are crystallized from a melt are semi crystalline and form a
spherulite structure.

.‫العديد من البوليمرات السائبة التي تتبلور من الذوبان تكون شبه متبلورة وتشكل بنية كروية‬

Mechanical behavior of polymers

The mechanical characteristics of polymer materials are greatly affected by :

‫‪the rate of deformation (strain rate), temperature, and the chemical nature of the‬‬
‫)‪environment (water, oxygen, solvent,..‬‬

‫تتأثر الخصائص الميكانيكية لمواد البوليمر بشكل كبير بمعدل التشوه (معدل اإلجهاد) ودرجة الحرارة والطبيعة الكيميائية‬
‫البيئة (ماء ‪ ،‬أكسجين ‪ ،‬مذيب ‪).. ،‬‬