Professional education is an approach to provide specialized training in a professional school.

It aims to
acquire content knowledge for all participants in learning and applying techniques in teaching. It also helps
professionals to gain competencies necessary for proper practices and behavioral management. Professional
Education deepens all professionals to incorporate their knowledge and values in professional discipline;
understanding its core concept, principles, guidelines and techniques. It enables professional to attain a
level of competence needed for responsible entry dedicated to professional practice; and the acceptance for
the continued development of competence.

It is designed to produce a very competitive and responsible professionals ensuring their continuing
competence in the profession by helping them recognize and understand the significance of advancing
professional knowledge and improving standards of practice. It involves the translation of learning to
practice and is intended to prevent occupations and professionals from becoming obsolete.

Childhood defines as the time for a boy or girl from birth until he or she is an adult. It is more
circumscribed period of time from infancy to the onset of puberty. The Convention of the Rights of the
Child defines a child as “every human being below the age of 18 years unless under the law
applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier”.

Adolescence - According to Stuart Judge, a noted educator and psychologist, adolescence is the period of
transition from childhood to adulthood. Although sometimes described as beginning in parallel with fertility
or puberty and ending with maturity and independence, adolescence has a very variable and imprecise
duration

The onset of adolescence cannot be pointed in physiological term, although it is influenced by the same sex
hormones and refers to the same general period as physical sexual development. It represents a complex
and sometimes disturbing psychological transition, accompanying the requirement for the accepted social
behavior of the particular adult and culture.

Physical and Motor Development

 Infants need to learn how to move and to use their bodies to perform various tasks, a process better
known as motor development. Initially, babies’ movements are simply the uncontrolled, reflexive
movements they are born with, over time, they learn to move their body parts voluntarily to perform
both gross (large) and fine (small) motor skills. In general, babies begin developing motor skills form
head to tail (cephalocaudal), the center of the body outward (proximodistal). They learn to control their
head and neck before they learn to maneuver their arms; they learn to maneuver their arms before
they learn to manipulate their fingers. Babies learn to move their torso before the learn how to move
their arms and legs.
 The sucking reflex allows babies to drink milk and nourish themselves in the days of life.
 Another permanent and life-supporting reflex is heard turning in the first days of life.
 Another permanent life-supporting reflex is head turning. This reflex allows a baby to turn his head if
something (a blanket, pillow, or stuffed animal) is blocking his airflow.

 Another reflex that also babies survive is the rooting reflex. When babies root, they may nuzzle their face
and mouth into the caregiver’s chest or shoulder.

 The rest of the flexes have less survival value but are still notable. For the first 3 to 4 months, babies have
an amazing grasping ability and reflex. They will grasp anything place in their palm and hold it with
amazing strength for their size. Some infants in the first weeks of life can support their entire body
weight through that grasp.

 While this reflex may not have any survival function in modern times, it does help babies bond with
caregivers and family in the first weeks of life. Similarly, for the first two months, babies will ‘step” with
their legs if they are held vertically with their feet touching a surface. Even though this reflex
disappears months before babies begin walking purposely, experts believes stepping helps infants
learn how their legs works can be used.
 The Moro response is another reflex that is present during the first 6 months of life, but doesn’t seem to
have a purpose in modern life. A baby with arch her back, flail out, and then curl up if she feels as
although she is being dropped.

 The final reflex is Tonic Neck. During the first 4 months, when babies lie awake on their backs with
their heads facing to one side, they will extend the arm on the side of their body that they’re facing and
reflex the other arm at an angle, in a position that resembles a fencing pose. This reflex may help
prepare them for voluntary reaching later in their environment.

 Between ages 2 and 3 years, young children stop “toddling”, or using the awkward, wide- legged robot-
like stance that is the hallmark of new walkers. As they develop a smoother gait, they also develop the
ability to run, and hop. Children of this age can participate in throwing and catching games with larger
balls. They can also push themselves around with their feet while sitting on a riding toy.

 Children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up stairs using a method of bringing both feet together on
each step before proceeding to the next step (in contrast, adult place one foot on each step in
sequence); However, young children may still need some “back up” assistant to prevent falls in case
they become unsteady in this new skill. Children of this age will also be stumped when it’s time to go
back down the stairs; they tend to turn around and scoot down the stairs backwards. The 3 to 4 years
old can jump and hop higher as higher as their leg muscles grow stronger and many can even hop on
one foot for shorts period of time.

 By ages 4 to 5, children can go up and down the stairs alone in the adult fashion (i.e. taking one step at a
time); their running continues to smooth out and increase in speed. Children of this age can also skip
and add spin to their throws. They also have more control when riding their tricycles (or bicycles), and
can be drive them faster.

 During ages 5 to 6, young children continue to refine easier skills. They’re running even faster and can
start to ride bicycles with training wheels for added stability. In addition, they can step sideways.
Children of this age begin mastering new forms of physical play such as the jungle gym, and begin to
use the see-saw, slide, and swing on their own. They often start jumping rope, skating, hitting balls with
bats, and so on. Many children of this age enjoy learning to play organized sports as soccer, basketball,
t-bale or swimming. In addition, 5 to 6 years old often like to participate in physical extracurricular
activities such as karate, gymnastics, or dance. Children continue to refine and improve their gross
motor skills through age 7 and beyond.

BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

 The human brain begins forming very early in prenatal life (just three weeks after conception), but in
many ways, brain development is a lifelong project. That is because the same events that shape the
brain during development are also responsible for storing information—new skills and memories—
throughout life.

 The rational part of a teen's brain isn't fully developed and won't be until age 25 or so. In fact, recent
research has found that adult and teen brains work differently. Adults think with the prefrontal cortex,
the brain's rational part.

 The brain continues to grow for a few years after a person is born and by the age of2 years old, the brain
is about 80% of the adult size. You may wonder, "How does the brain continue to grow, if the brain has
most of the neurons it will get when you are born? The answer is in glial cells.

 The bran’s ability to change from experience is known as Plasticity. The human brain is especially plastic
early in life, which is why the “nurture” part of the equation is so important

 Throughout life the brain continues to be plastic-this is the mechanism of learning-but plasticity declines
 in adulthood.

 As a child’s brain develops, it goes through several ’critical periods, a developmental phase in which the
brain requires certain environmental input and it will not develop normally.

 The Frontal Lobe is the most recently-evolved part of the brain and the last to develop in young
adulthood. Its dorso-lateral prefrontal circuit is the brain's top executive.

Early Milestones in Brain Growth

 4 months: the infant’s brain responds to every sound produced in all the languages of the world.

 8 to 9 months: Babies can form specific memories from their experiences, such as how to push a ball to
make it roll.

 10 months: Babies can now distinguish and even produce the sounds of their own language (such as “da-
da”) no longer pay attention to the sounds of language that are foreign.

 12 months: Babies whose parents say, for example” Lookee at the doggie” will go to the appropriate
picture of a dog in a picture book more often than those babies who are talked to normal, flatter voices.

 12 to 18 months: Babies can keep in memory something that has been hidden and find it again, even if it
has completely covered up. They can also hold memory sequences of simple activities, such as winding
up a jack-in-the-box until the figure pops up.

 24 months: Preschool children now clear picture in mind of people who are dear to them, and the get
upset when separated from these people (even their peers)

 30 months: Preschool children can hold in mind a whole sequence of spatial maps and know where things
are in their environment.

 36 months: A preschool child can now two different emotions in his mind at the same time, such as being
sad that he spilled ice cream on his cloths but glad that he’s at birthday party

FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT

1. Maternal Nutrition- the nutritional status of the women during adolescent pregnancy and lactation
has a direct impact on the child’s health and development.

2. Child Nutrition- the Child’s state of nutritional balance is crucial in his early developmental age.

3. Early Sensory Stimulation- Toys, soothing sounds and other sensorial stimulation contribute to the
child’s development.
4. Heredity and genes certainly play an important role in the transmission of physical and social
characteristics from parents to off-springs.

Exceptional Development
1. Physical Disabilities- Persons with physical disabilities may experience functional, visual, orthopedic,
motor, or hearing impairments, which may impact upon their ability to walk, play and learn. Physical
disabilities are also often defined and categorized by some degree of limitation in the use of upper or
lower extremities and maintaining posture and positioning.

2. Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD)- Attention-
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Hyperkinetic Disorder (as officially known in U.K., through
ADHD is more commonly used) is generally considered to be a developmental disorder, largely
neurological in nature, affecting about 5% of the world’s population. The disorder typically presents
itself during childhood, and is characterized by a present pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity, as
well as forgetfulness, poor impulse control or impulsivity and distractibility, ADHD is currently
considered to be a persistent and chronic condition for which no medical cure is available ADHD is most
commonly diagnosed in children and, over the past decade.

Linguistic and Literary Development

A. Natural History and Language Development - Language development is a process that starts early
in human life, when a person begins to acquire language by learning it as it is spoken and by mimicry.
Children’s language development moves from simplicity to complexity. Infants start without language.
Yet by four months of age, babies can read lips and discriminate speech sounds.

• Usually, language starts off as recall of simple words without associated meaning, but as children age,
words acquire meaning, and connections between words are formed, in time, sentences start to form as
words are joined together to create logical meaning. As a person gets older, new meaning and new
associations are created and vocabulary increases as more words are learned.

• Infant use their bodies, vocal cries and other preverbal vocalizations to communicate their wants,
needs and dispositions. Even though most children begin to vocalize and eventually verbalize at various
ages and at different rates, they learn their first language without conscious instruction from parents or
caretakers. It is seemingly effortless task that grows increasingly difficult with age. Of course, before any
learning can begin, the child must be biologically and socially mature enough.

B. Biological Preconditions - Linguist do not all agree on what biological factors contribute to language
development, however most do agree that our ability to acquire such a complicated system is specific to
the human species, Furthermore, our ability to learn language may have been developed through the
evolutionary process and that the foundation for language may be passed down genetically.

C. Second Preconditions - it is crucial that children are allowed to socially interact with other people
who can vocalize and respond to questions. For language acquisition to develop
successfully, children must be in an environment that allows them to communicate socially in that
language.

There are a few different theories as to why and how children develop language. The most popular
explanation is that language is acquired through imitation. However, this proves to be more of a folk
tale than anything. Two most accepted theories in language development are psychological and
functional. Psychological explanations focus on the mental processes involved in childhood language
learning. Functional explanations look at the social process involved in learning the first language.

Bilingual Language Development

• There are two major patters in bilingual language acquisition; simultaneous Bilingualism and
Sequential bilingualism. In simultaneous bilingualism, the child acquires two languages at the same time
before the age of 3 years. These children may mix words or parts of words from both languages in the
first stage. Stage 2 occurs at 4 years and older when distinction between the two languages takes place,
and the child uses each language separately. Sequential bilingualism also occurs before the child is 3
years old, but the child can draw in on the knowledge and experience of first language while acquiring
the second language.
• Detecting delays in the speech and language of multilingual children presents a challenge. The authors
state that “the key is to obtain information about the child’s entire language system, not just the primary
or secondary language”.
• The following “red flags” may indicates that the child who is simultaneously acquiring two languages
id experiencing problems with language development.
 No sounds by 2-6 months
 Less than one new words per week for 6-15 month-old children.
 Less than 20 words (in the two languages combined by 20 months: and
 No use of word combinations and a very limited vocabulary by age 2-3 years
 Red flags for abnormal language development in the sequential acquisition of two language include.
 Lack of normal milestones in the first language
 Prolonged phase of not talking
 Difficulty of retrieving words

FACTORS AFFECTING LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

•Inadequate stimulation (talking and playing with the child)
•Delayed general development (global developmental delay), physical development motor skills),
cognitive development etc.
•Specific difficulty with language learning. Not very interested in language, prefers other modalities e.g.
physical activities
•Poor control and/or coordination of the speech muscles; lips, tongue etc.
•Medical problems
•Inadequate awareness of communication, lacks” communication intent”
•Reduced hearing e.g. ear infection, fluid in ear, impacted earwax etc.
•Changes in child’s environment e.g. moving
•Exposure to too many languages for the child
•Inadequate opportunity for speech e.g. the child everyone talks for, the “babied” child has a more
dominant sibling etc.
•Emotional factors e.g. behavioral problems, anxiety, pressure to perform etc.
•Short attention span.
•Family history of speech and language delays or difficulties

Exceptional Development
Aphasia- Aphasia (or aphmia) is a loss of the ability to produce and/or comprehend language due to
injury to brain areas specialized for these functions. It is not a result of deficits in sensory, intellect, or
psychiatric functioning. Depending on the area and extent of the damage, someone suffering from
aphasia may be able to speak but not write, or vice versa, or display any of wide variety of other
deficiencies in language comprehension and production, such as being able to sing but not to speak.

Dyslexia-Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that manifests primarily as a difficulty with written
language, particularly with reading and spelling. Dyslexia is the result of a neurological differences but is
not intellectual disability. Most people with dyslexia have average or above average intelligence.

Evidence suggests that dyslexia results for differences in how the brain processes written and/or verbal
language. It is separate and distinct from reading difficulties resulting from other causes, such as
deficiencies in intelligence, a non-neurological deficiency with vision or hearing, or from poor or
inadequate reading instruction

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Theories of Cognitive Development. Jean Piaget-Swiss psychologist (1896-1980). His theory
provided many central concepts in the field of developmental psychology and concerned the growth of
the intelligence, which for Piaget, meant the ability to more accurately represent the world and perform
logical operations on representations of the concepts grounded in the world. The theory concerns the
emergence and acquisitions of the schemata-schemes, of one perceives the world in the “developmental
stages”, time when children are acquiring new ways of mentally representing- information.

Sensorimotor period (years 0 - 2 )

Infants are born with a set of congenital reflexes, according to Piaget, in addition to explore their world.
Their initial schemas are formed through differentiation of the congenital reflexes:

• The first sub-stage, known as the reflex schema stage, occurs form birth to six weeks and is associated
primarily with the developmental reflexes. Three primary reflexes are described by Piaget: sucking of
objects in the mouth following moving or interesting objects with the eyes, and closing of the hand when
an object makes contact with the palm (palmar grasp). Over this first six weeks of life, these reflexes
begin to become voluntary actions; for example, the palmar reflex becomes intentional grasping.

• The second sub-stage, primary circular reaction phase, occurs form six weeks to four months and is
associates primarily with the development of habits. Primary circular reactions or repeating of an action
involving only one’s body begins. An example of this type of reaction would involve something like an
infant repeating the motion of passing their hands before their face. The schema developed during this
stage inform the infant about the relationships among his body parts (e.g. in passing the hand in form of
his eyes he develop a motor schema for moving his arm so that the hand becomes visible.
• The third sub-stage, the secondary circular reactions phase, occurs from four to nine months and is
associated primarily with the development of coordination between vision and apprehension. Three
new abilities occur at this stage: intentional grasping for a desired object, secondary circular reactions,
and differentiations between ends and means. At this stage, infants will intentionally grasp the air in the
direction of a desired object, often to the amusement of friends, family, younger and older siblings,
grandparents, etc. Secondary circular reactions, or the repetition of an action involving an external
object begin; for example, moving a switch to turn on a light repeatedly. The differentiation between
means also occurs. This is perhaps of one of the most important stages of a child’s growth as it signifies
the drawn for logic. However, babies still only have a very early rudimentary grasp of this and most of
their discoveries have an “accidental” quality to them in that the initial performance of what will soon
become a secondary circular reactions occurs by chance; but the operant conditioning causes the initial
“accidental” behavior (which was followed by an “interesting pattern of stimulation) to be repeated. And
the ability to repeat the act is the result of primary circular reactions established in the previous stage.
For example, when the infant’s hand accidentally makes contact with an object in hid field of vision is
based on the primary circular reaction bringing his hand into his field of vision. Thus, the child learns (at
the level of schemata) that “if he can see it then he can also touch it” and this results in a schemata which
is the knowledge that is external environment is populated with solid objects.

• The fourth sub-stage, called the coordination of secondary circular reactions stage, which occurs from
nine to twelve months, is when Piaget thought that object permanence developed. In addition, the stage
is called the coordination of secondary circular reactions stage, and is primarily with the development of
logic and the coordination between means and ends, this is extremely important marks the beginning of
goal orientation or intentionally, the deliberate planning of steps to meet an objective.

• The fifth sub-stage, tertiary circular reactions phase, occurs from twelve to eighteen months and is
associated primarily with the discovery of new means to meet goals. Piaget describes the child at this
juncture as the “young scientist”, conducting pseudo-experiments to discover new methods of meeting
challenges.

• The six sub-stage, considered “beginning of symbolic representation”, is associated primarily with the
beginnings of insight, or true creativity. In this stag the trial- and error application of schemata, which
was observable during the previous stage, occurs internally (at the level of schemata rather than of
motor responses), resulting in the sudden appearance of new effective behaviors (without any
observable trial-and-error). This is also the time when symbols (words and images) begin to stand for
other objects. This marks the passage into the preoperational stage.

Preoperational period (years 2 – 7)

The Preoperational stage is the second of four stage of cognitive development. By observing sequence of
play, Piaget was able to demonstrate that towards the end of the second year a qualitatively new kind of
psychological functioning occurs (Pre) Operatory Thought in Piagetian theory is any procedure for
mentally acting on objects. The hallmark of the preoperational stage is spare and logically inadequate
mental operations.

According to Piaget, the Pre Operational stage of development follows the sensorimotor stage and occur
between 2-7 years of age. It includes the following processes.

• Symbolic functioning- characterized by the use of mental symbols, words, or pictures, which the child
uses to represent something which is not physically present

• Centration-characterized by a child focusing or attending to only one aspect of a stimulus or situation.

For example, in pouring a quantity of liquid from a narrow beaker into a shallow dish, a preschool child
might judge the quantity of liquid to have decreased, because it is “lower”- that is, the child attends to
the height of the water, but not the compensating increase in the diameter of the container.

• Intuitive thought- occurs when the child is able to believe in something without knowing why she or
he believes it.

• Egocentrism- a version of centration, this denotes a tendency of a child to only think for her or his own
point of view. Also, the inability of a child to take the point of view of others. Example, if a child is in
trouble, he or she might cover her eyes thinking if I cannot see myself my mom cannot either.

• Inability to conserve-though Piaget’s conservation experiments (conservation of mass, volume and

number after the original form has been changed. For example, a child in this phase will believe that a
string which has up in ”o-o-o-o” pattern will have a larger number of beads than a string which has a “o-
o-o-o”: pattern, because the latter pattern has less space between Os; or that a tall, thin 8-ounce cup has
more liquid in it than a wide, short 8-ounce cup.

• Animism- The child believes that inanimate objects have: lifelike” qualities and are capable of action.
Example, a child plays with a doll and treats it likes a real person. In a way this like using their
imagination.

Concrete operational period (years 7 – 11)

The Concrete operational stage is the third of four stages of cognitive development in Piaget’s theory.
This stage, which follows the Preoperational stage, occurs between the ages 7 and 11 years and is
characterized by the appropriate use of logic. Important process during this stage are:
• Seriation - the ability to arrange objects in an order according to size, shape, or any other
characteristic. For example, if given different-shaded objects they may make a color gradient.

• Classification - the ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size or other
characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can include another, a child is no longer subject
to the illogical limitations of animism ( the belief that all objects are alive and therefore have feelings)

• Decentering - where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to solve it. For
example, the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup to contain less than a
normally-wide, taller cup.

• Reversibility - where the child understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then returned to
their original state. For this reason, a child will be able to rapidly determine that if 4 +4 equals 8, 8/4 will
equal 4, the original quantity

• Conservation - understanding that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to the

arrangement or appearance of the object or items. For instance, when a child is presented with two
equally-sized, full cup they will be able to discern that if water is transferred to a pitcher it will conserve
the quantity and be equal to the other filled up.

• Elimination of Egocentrism - the ability to view things from another’s perspective (even if they think
incorrectly). For instance, show a child a comic in whom Jane puts a doll under the box leaves the room,
and then Sarah moves the doll to a drawer, and Jane comes back. A child in the concrete operation stage
will stay that Jane will still think it’s under the box even through the child knows it is in the drawer.

Formal operation period (years 11 adulthood)

The formal operational period is the fourth and final of the periods of cognitive development in the
Piaget’s theory. This stage, which follows the Concrete Operational stage, commences at around 11
years of age (puberty) and continuous into adulthood. It is characterized by acquisition of the ability
to think abstractly, reason logically and draw conclusions from the information available. During this
stage the young adult is able to understand such things as love “shades of gray”, logical proofs, and
values,

Lev Vygotsky-Psychologist, was born in 1896 in Orsha, Belarys (then a part of the Russian Empire).
Vygotsky was tutored privately by Solomon Asphiz and graduated from Moscow State University in
1917. Later, he attended the Institute of Psychology in Moscow (1924-34), where he worked extensively
on ideas about cognitive development, particularly the relationship between language and thinking. His
writings emphasized the roles of historical cultural, and social factors in cognition and argued that
language was the most important symbolic tool provided by society.

Perhaps Vygotsky’s most important contribution concerns the inter-relationship of language

development and thought. This concept, explored in Vygotsky’s book “Thinking and Speaking”,
establishes the explicit and profound connection between speech (both silent inner speech and oral
language), and the development of mental concepts and cognitive awareness. It should be noted that
Vygotsky described inner speech as being qualitatively different than normal (external) speech, For
Vygotsky, social interaction is important for learning, i.e. children learn adults and other children.

PHILOSOPHICAL PROPONENTS

Wilhelm Wundt is the Father of Modern Psychology, was a German physician, physiologist, philosopher,
and professor, known today as one of the founding figures of modern psychology. Wundt, who noted
psychology as a science apart from philosophy and biology, was the first person ever to call himself a
psychologist.

Sigmund Freud is the Father of Psychoanalysis and Psychosexual Theory. He was an Austrian
neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through
dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the
Moravian town of Freiberg, in the Austrian Empire.

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi is the Father of Modern Education. He was a Swiss pedagogue and
educational reformer who exemplified Romanticism in his approach. He founded several educational
institutions both in German- and French-speaking regions of Switzerland and wrote many works
explaining his revolutionary modern principles of education.

Ivan Pavlov is the proponent of classical conditioning theory and he was a Russian physiologist known
primarily for his work in classical conditioning. From his childhood days Pavlov demonstrated
intellectual curiosity along with an unusual energy which he referred to as "the instinct for research".
Inspired by the progressive ideas which D. I.

Burrhus Frederic Skinner is the proponent for operant conditioning (Instrument), commonly known as
B. F. Skinner, was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher.
He was the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his retirement in
1974.
Edward Lee Thorndike is the proponent for the Laws of Learning (law of readiness, law of exercise &
law of effect). He was an American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College,
Columbia University. His work on comparative psychology and the learning process led to the theory of
connectionism and helped lay the scientific foundation for educational psychology.

Albert Bandura is the proponent for social cognitive learning theory (Modelling), he was a Canadian-
American psychologist who is the David Starr Jordan Professor Emeritus of Social Science in Psychology
at Stanford University.

David Ausubel was an American psychologist. His most significant contribution to the fields of
educational psychology, cognitive science, and science education learning was on the development and
research on advance organizers since 1960 and the proponent for his Meaningful Learning Theory.

Jerome Bruner is responsible for human cognitive psychology and cognitive learning theory in
educational psychology. He was an American psychologist who made significant contributions to human
cognitive psychology and cognitive learning theory in educational psychology. Bruner was a senior
research fellow at the New York University School of Law.

Kurt Levin mastered Life Space Concept, known as one of the modern pioneers of social,
organizational, and applied psychology in the United States. The approach, developed by Kurt Lewin, is a
significant contribution to the fields of social science, psychology, social psychology, organizational
development, process management, and change management. His theory was expanded by John R. P.
French who related it to organizational and industrial settings.
Wolfgang Kohler specialized in Insight Learning or Problem Solving by Insight, was a German
psychologist and phenomenologist who, like Max Wertheimer, and Kurt Koffka, contributed to the
creation of Gestalt psychology. Insight learning is perhaps the greatest contribution Wolfgang Kohler
made to psychology. Building off the influence of Gestalt psychology, Kohler discovered that learning can
occur when we gain insight into an entire situation, as opposed to focusing only on an individual part.

Urie Bronfenbrenner - Ecological Systems Theory. (1917-2005) developed the ecological systems
theory to explain how everything in a child and the child's environment affects how a child grows and
develops. He labeled different aspects or levels of the environment that influence children's
development, including the: Microsystem. He was a Russian-born American developmental psychologist
who most was known for his ecological systems theory of child development. His scientific work and his
assistance to the United States government helped in the formation of the Head Start program in 1965.

Sandra Bem - Gender Schema Theory. He was an American psychologist known for her works in
androgyny and gender studies. Her pioneering work on gender roles, gender polarization and gender
stereotypes led directly to more equal employment opportunities for women in the United States.

Howard Gardner - Theory of Multiple Intelligence. He believed that the conventional concept of
intelligence was too narrow and restrictive and that measures of IQ often miss out on other
"intelligences" that an individual may possess. He was an American developmental psychologist and
the John H. and Elisabeth A. Hobbs Professor of Cognition and Education at the Harvard Graduate School
of Education at Harvard University.

Elliot Turiel – Domain Based Moral Education and was an American psychologist and Chancellor’s
Professor at the Graduate School of Education at the University of California, Berkeley. He teaches
courses on human development and its relation to education.

Robert J. Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence. These three examples exemplify Robert
Sternberg's triarchic theory on intelligence. The triarchic theory describes three distinct types of
intelligence that a person can possess. Sternberg calls these three types practical intelligence, creative
intelligence, and analytical intelligence. He was an American psychologist and psychometrician. He is
Professor of Human Development at Cornell University. Prior to joining Cornell, Sternberg was president
of the University of Wyoming.

Lawrence Kohlberg - Moral Development Theory. The Theory of Moral Development is a very
interesting subject that stemmed from Jean Piaget's theory of moral reasoning. Developed by
psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg, this theory made us understand that morality starts from the early
childhood years and can be affected by several factors. He was an American psychologist best known for
his theory of stages of moral development. He served as a professor in the Psychology Department at the
University of Chicago and at the Graduate School of Education at Harvard University.

Erik Erikson - Psychosocial Development Theory. He was a German-American developmental

psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychological development of human beings.
He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis. His son, Kai T. Erikson, is a noted
American sociologist.

Maria Montessori - Montessori Method, Transfer of Learning. She was an Italian physician and educator
best known for the philosophy of education that bears her name, and her writing on scientific pedagogy.
Montessori is a method of education that is based on self-directed activity, hands-on learning and
collaborative play. In Montessori classrooms children make creative choices in their learning, while the
classroom and the teacher offer age-appropriate activities to guide the process.

Edward Paul Torrance - Creativity Problem Solving and considered to be the Father of Creativity. He
was an American psychologist from Milledgeville, Georgia. After completing his undergraduate degree at
Mercer University, Torrance acquired a Master's degree at the University of Minnesota and then a
doctorate from the University of Michigan. His teaching career spanned from 1957 to 1984.

Avram Noam Chomsky - Linguistic (Language) Acquisition Device (LAD). He was an American linguist,
philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian, and social critic. Sometimes described as "the father of
modern linguistics", Chomsky is also a major figure in analytic philosophy and one of the founders of the
field of cognitive science. Noam Chomsky is a contemporary psychologist, linguist, and political activist
known both for his theory of innate grammar and for his political activism.

Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development Theory. He was famous through a series of stages, Piaget proposed
four stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal
operational period. He was a Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development. Piaget's
theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology".
Piaget placed great importance on the education of children.

John Watson - Behaviorism Theory. He was an American psychologist who established the
psychological school of behaviorism. Watson promoted a change in psychology through his address
Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it, which was given at Columbia University in 1913. Through his
behaviorist approach, Watson conducted research on animal behavior, child rearing, and advertising. In
addition, he conducted the controversial "Little Albert" experiment and the Kerplunk experiment.
Watson popularized the use of the scientific theory with behaviorism.

Edward Chace Tolman - Purposive Behaviorism. He was an American psychologist. Through Tolman's
theories and works, he founded what is now a branch of psychology known as purposive behaviorism.
Tolman also promoted the concept known as latent learning first coined by Blodgett.

Bernard Weiner - Attribution Theory on Achievement. He was an American social psychologist known
for developing a form of attribution theory which explains the emotional and motivational entailments
of academic success and failure. Bernard Weiner got interested in the field of attribution after the first
studying achievement motivation.

Daniel Goleman - Emotional Intelligence. He was an author and science journalist. For twelve years, he
wrote for The New York Times, reporting on the brain and behavioral sciences. Emotional Intelligence
(Goleman) 3 years ago • Motivation Theories • Emotional Intelligence (EQ) is defined as the ability to
identify, assess, and control one's own emotions, the emotions of others, and that of groups.

Hermann Ebbinghaus - law of forgetting. The forgetting curve hypothesizes the decline of memory
retention in time. This curve shows how information is lost over time when there is no attempt to retain
it. A related concept is the strength of memory that refers to the durability that memory traces in the
brain. He was a German psychologist who pioneered the experimental study of memory, and is known
for his discovery of the forgetting curve and the spacing effect. He was also the first person to describe
the learning curve. He was the father of the eminent neo-Kantian philosopher Julius Ebbinghaus.

John Locke - Theory of Association. According to other social contract theorists, when the government
fails to secure their natural rights (Locke) or satisfy the best interests of society (called the "general will"
in Rousseau), citizens can withdraw their obligation to obey, or change the leadership through elections
or other means. He was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most
influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "Father of Liberalism".

Edward Thorndike - Belongingness and Connectionism. In 1898, was famous in psychology for his work
on learning theory that lead to the development of operant conditioning within behaviorism. Whereas
classical conditioning depends on developing associations between events, operant conditioning
involves learning from the consequences of our behavior. He was an American psychologist who spent
nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia University. His work on comparative psychology
and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism and helped lay the scientific foundation for
educational psychology.

David McClelland - Needs Achievement Theory or Human Motivation Theory. Human Motivation
Theory states that every person has one of three main driving motivators: the needs for achievement,
affiliation, or power. These motivators are not inherent; we develop them through our culture and life
experiences. He was an American psychologist, noted for his work on motivation Need Theory. He
published a number of works during the 1950s and the 1990s and developed new scoring systems for
the Thematic Apperception Test and its descendants.

Henry Murray - Theory of Psychogenic Needs. He was an American psychologist at Harvard University.
He was Director of the Harvard Psychological Clinic in the School of Arts and Sciences after 1930.
Murray developed a theory of personality called personology, based on "need" and "press".

Victor Harold Vroom - Expectancy Theory. Vroom's expectancy theory assumes that behavior results
from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.
Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individual’s factors such as personality,
 skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. He was a business school professor at the Yale School of
Management. He holds a PhD from University of Michigan and an MS and BS from McGill University.

Lev Semyonovich Vysgotsky - Sociocultural Theory or "zone of proximal development" (ZPD). His
worked was largely unknown to the West until it was published in 1962. ... It asserts three major themes
regarding social interaction, the more knowledgeable other, and the zone of proximal development. He
was a Soviet psychologist, the founder of an unfinished Marxist theory of human cultural and bio-social
development commonly referred to as cultural-historical psychology

INFORMATION AND PROCESSING THEORY

There are three primary stages in the Information and Processing Theory:
• Encoding- information is sensed, perceived, and attended.
• Storage- the information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time depending upon the
processes following encoding
• Retrieval- The information is found at the appropriate time, and reactivated for use on a current task,
the true test of effective memory.

The initial appeal of information processing theories was the idea that cognitive processes could be
described in a stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a path along which information is taken
into the memory system, and reactivated when necessary. Most theories of information processing
center around three main stages in the memory process.
Sensory Register

The first step in the IP model hold ALL sensory information for a VERY BRIEF time period.

Capacity: we hold an enormous amount, more that we can ever perceive.

Duration: Extremely brief- in order of 1 to 3 seconds

The Role of Attention

To move information into consciousness, we need to attend to it. That is, we only have the
ability to perceive and remember later those things that pass through the attention gate.

Short Term Memory (working Memory)
Capacity: What you can say about in 2 seconds. Often said to be 7+/_2 items.
Duration: Around 18 seconds or less
To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to rehearse
There are two types of rehearsal- Maintenance and Elaborative

Long Term Memory - the final storing house of memorial information, the long term memory
store holds information until needed again.
Capacity: unlimited?
Duration: indefinite?

Executive Control Processes

Also known as executive processor, or Metacognitive skills

Guide the flow of information through the system, helps the learner make informed
Example processes-attention, rehearsals, organization
Sometimes call METACOGNITVE SKILLS

The ability to access information when needed

There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:

Decay-Information is not attended to, and eventually fades away.
Very prevalent in working memory.
Inference-New or old information blocks’ access to the information in question.

Methods for Increasing the Probability of Remembering

Organization- info that is organized efficiently should be recalled

Deep processing- This is focusing upon meaning.
Elaboration- Connecting new info with old, to gain meaning.
Generation- Things we produce are easier to remember than things we hear.
Context-Remembering the situation helps recover information
Personalization- making the information relevant to the individual
Memory Methods
Memorization (note the same as learning)
Serial Position Effect (regency and primacy) you will remember the beginning and end of
list most readily
Part Learning - Break up the list to increase memorization
Distributed Practice- Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in at
once (Massed Practice)
Mnemonics Aids
Loci Method - Familiar place, associate list with items in place (i.e. living room)
Peg-type - Standard list is a cue to the target list.
Acronym – SCUBA
Chain Mnemonics – EGBDF
Key word Method - Association of new word/ concept with well know word/concept that
sounds similar.

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
1. Psychometric Theories have sought to understand the structure of intelligence; the form, it
categories, and its composition. Underlying psychometric intelligence theory is a psychological model
according to which intelligence is a combination of abilities that can be measured by mental testing.
These tests often include analogies, classification / identification, and series completion. Each test score
is equally weighted according to the evidence of underlying ability in each category

British psychologist Charles E. Spearman published the first psychometric theory 1904. His theory
noted that people who excelled on one mental ability test often did well on the others, and people who
did poorly on one of them tended to do poorly with others. Using this concept, Spearman devised a
technique of statistical analyzing that examined patterns of individual scores. This analysis helped him
discover what he believed to be the two sources if these individual differences: the “general factor”
which is our general intellectual ability, and a test-specific factor.

American psychologist L.L. Thurstone disregarded with Spearman’s theory and his isolation of the
“general factor” of intelligence. Thurstone believed that the “general factor “resulted from Spearman’s
method of analysis, and that if analysis were more thorough, seven factors would emerge. These seven
factors were collectively called the “primary mental abilities” and included verbal comprehension,
verbal comprehension, verbal fluency, numbers, spatial visualization, inductive reasoning, memory,
memory and perceptual speed.

Most psychologists agree that a broader subdivision of abilities than Spearman’s classification is
necessary, but only some agree with hierarchal subdivision. It quickly became apparent to many
psychologists that were problems that could not be addressed by psychometric theories. The number of
abilities could not be positively identified, and the differences between them could not be clearly defined
due to the limitations of testing and analysis. However, the most significant problem extended beyond
the number of abilities: what happens in someone’s mind when they are using the ability in question?
Psychometric theories had no means of addressing this issue, and cognitive theories began to fill this
gap.

2. Cognitive Theories. During the era of psychometric theories, people’s test scores dominated the study
of intelligence. In 1957, American psychologist Lee Cronbach criticized how some psychologists study
individual differences and other study commonalities in human behavior, but the two methods never
meet. Cronbach voiced the need for two methods to be united, which led to the development of cognitive
theories of intelligence.

Without understanding the processes underlying intelligence, we cannot come to accurate conclusions
when analyzing test scores or assessing someone’s performance. Cognitive analysis helps the
interpretation of the test scores by determining to what degree the score reflects reasoning ability and
the degree to which it is a result of not understanding the questions or vocabulary. Psychometric
theories did not differentiate between these two factors, which have a significant effect on the
determination of intelligence. Many people are excellent reasoners but have modest vocabularies, and
vice versa.

Underlying the cognitive approach to intelligence is the assumption that intelligence is comprised of a
set of mental representations of information, and a set of processes that operate the mental
representations. It is assumed that a more intelligent person represents information better, and
operates more quickly on these representations than does a less intelligent person.
Several different cognitive theories of intelligence have emerged over the years. One was introduced by
Earl Hunt, Nancy Frost, and Clifford Lunneborg, who in 1973 showed one way on which psychometric
and cognitive modeling could be combined. Instead of using conventional psychometric tests, they used
tasks that allowed them to study the basis of cognition-perception, learning and memory. Individual
differences in the tasks became apparent, which they related to differing patterns of performing and
operating manual representations.
Several years later, Robert Stemberg suggested an alternative approach to studying cognitive process.
He argued, based on evidence he had gathered, that there weak only a weak relationship between basic
cognitive tasks and psychometric test scores because the tasks being used were too simple. Although
simple task involve cognitive processes, they are peripheral rather than central.
Although opposing cognitive theories exist, they are all based on the serial processing of information,
which means that cognitive processes are executed one after another in a series.

The assumption is that we process chunks of information one at a time, trying to combine the processes
into an overall problem-solving strategy. Other psychologists have challenged this idea, arguing that
cognitive processing is parallel, meaning that we process large amounts of information simultaneously.
However, it has proved difficult to distinguish between serial and parallel models of information
processing.

Despite evidence and support of cognitive intelligence theories, a major problem remains regarding the
nature of intelligence. Cognitive theories do not take into account that the description of intelligence
may differ from one cultural group to another. Even within mainstream cultures, it will know that
conventional tests do not reliably predict performance. Therefore in addition to cognition, the context in
which the cognition operates also needs to be accounted for.

EXCEPTIONAL DEVELOPMENT – A COGNITIVE APPROACH

Giftedness - For many years, psychometricians and psychologists, following the footsteps of Lewis
Terman in 1916, equated giftedness with high IQ. This “legacy” survives to the present day, in that
giftedness and high IQ continue to be equated in some conceptions of giftedness. Since that early time,
however, other researchers (e.g., Cattell, Guilford, and Thurnstone) have argued that intellect cannot be
expressed in such a unitary manner, and have suggested more multifaceted approaches to intelligence.
Research conducted in the 1980s has provided data which support notions of multiple components to
intelligence. This is particularly evident in the examination of “giftedness” by Stenberge and Davidson in
their edited Conceptions of Giftedness. The many different conceptions of giftedness presented, although
distinct, are interrelated in several ways. Most of the investigators define giftedness in terms of multiple
qualities, not all of which are intellectual, IQ scores are often viewed as in adequate measures of
giftedness. Motivation, high self-concept, and creativity are they key qualities in many of these
broadened conceptions of giftedness.

Mental Retardation is a term for a pattern of persistently slow learning of basic motor and language
skills (“milestones”) during child hood, and a significantly below-normal global intellectual capacity as
an adult. One common criterion for diagnosis of mental retardation is tested intelligence quotient (IQ) of
70 or below and deficits in adaptive functioning.

Autism is a brain development disorder characterized by impairments in social interaction and

communication, and restricted and repetitive behavior, all exhibited before the child is three years old.
These characteristics distinguish autism form milder spectrum disorder (ASD). Autism affects many
parts of the brain, how this occurs is poorly understood. Parents usually notice signs in the first year or
two of their child’s life, Early intervention may help children gain self-care and social skills, although few
of these interventions are supported by scientific studies. There is no cure, with severe autism,
independent living is unlikely; with milder autism, there are some success stories for adults, and an
autistic culture has developed, with some seeking a cure and others believing that autism is a condition
 rather than a disorder.

Asperger’s Syndrome - (also Asperger’s Syndrome, Asperger’s disorder, Asperger’s AS, or AD) is one of
several autism spectrum disorders (ASD) characterized by difficulties in social interaction and by
restricted and stereotyped interests and activities. AS is distinguished for other ASDs in having no
general delay in language or cognitive development,
There is no single treatment for AS, and the effectiveness of particular interventions is supported by
only limited data. Intervention is aimed at improving symptoms and function. The mainstay of treatment
is behavioral therapy, focusing on specific deficits to address poor communication skills, obsessive or
repetitive routines, and clumsiness. Most individuals with AS can learn to cope with their differences,
but may continue to need moral support encouragement to maintain an independent life. Adults with AS
have reached the highest levels of achievement in fields such as mathematics, physics and computer
science, Researchers and people with AS have contributed to a shift in attitudes away from the notion
that AS is a difference rather than a disability.

Down syndrome or Trisomy 21 (usually Down’s syndrome in British English) is a specific disorder
caused by the presence of all or part if an extra 21st chromosome. It is named after John Longdon Down,
the British doctor who described it in 1866. The condition is characterized by a combination of major
and minor differences in structure. Often Down syndrome is associated with some impairment of
cognitive ability and physical growth as well as facial appearance. Down syndrome can be identifies
during pregnancy or at birth. Individuals with Down syndrome can have a lower than average cognitive
ability, often ranging from mild to moderate learning disabilities. Developmental disabilities often
manifests as tendency toward concrete thinking or naiveté. A small number have severe to profound
mental disability. The incidence of Down syndrome is estimated at 1 per 800 to 1, 00 births.

THEORIES OF SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT | ERIKSON STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Erik Homburger Erikson (1902-1994) was a German developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst
known for his theory on social development of human beings, and for coping the phrase identity crisis.

 Each of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are marked by a conflict, for which
successful resolution will result in a favorable outcome, for example, trust vs. mistrust, and by an
important event that is conflict resolves itself around, for example, meaning of one’s life.

 Favorable outcomes of each stage are sometimes known as “virtues”, a term used, in the context
of Erikson work, as it is applied to medicines, meaning” potencies “For example, the virtue that
would emerge from successful resolution. Oddly, and certainly counter- intrusively, Erikson’s
research reveals with breath-taking clarity how each individual must learn how to hold both
extremes of each specific life-stage challenge in tension with one another not rejecting one end
of the tension or the other.

 Only when both extremes in a life-stage challenge are understood and accepted as both required
and useful, can the optimal virtue for that stage surface. Thus, “trust” and “mistrust” must both
the understood and accepted, in order for realistic “hope” to emerge as a viable solution at the
first stage. Similarly, “integrity” and “despair” must both be understood and embraced, in order
for actionable wisdom to emerge as a viable solution at the last stage.

The Erikson life stage virtues in order of the stages in which they may be acquired are:
1. Trust vs. mistrust. Is the world a safe place or is it full of unpredictable events and accidents waiting to
happen? Erikson’s first psychosocial crisis occurs during the first year or so of life (like Freud’s oral stage
of psychosexual development). The crisis is one of trust vs. mistrust.

During this stage the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live. To resolve these feelings of
uncertainty the infant looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.
If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust
which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when
threatened.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope
that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there are a source of support.
Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear.
For example, if the care has been harsh or inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant will
develop a sense of mistrust and will not have confidence in the world around them or in their abilities to
influence events.

This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety,
heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.
Consistent with Erikson’s views on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby and Ainsworth has
outlined how the quality of the early experience of attachment can affect relationships with others in later
life.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile.
Between the ages of 18 months and three, children begin to assert their independence, by walking away
from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat,
etc.
The child is discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes,
playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child’s growing sense of independence and autonomy.
Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an
encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.

For example, rather than put on a child’s clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the
child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance. So, the parents need to encourage the child to
becoming more independent whilst at the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is
avoided. A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child
but if the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents
(particularly when toilet training). The aim has to be “self-control without a loss of self- esteem” (Gross,
1992). Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will.

If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more
confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world. If children are criticized, overly
controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability
to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of
shame or doubt in their own abilities.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt. Around age three and continuing to age five, children assert themselves more
frequently. These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992) it
is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive”. During this period
the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to this
stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through
initiating activities.

Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this
opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make
decisions. Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a
sense of guilt. They may feel like a nuisance to others and will therefore remain followers, lacking in self-
initiative.

The child takes initiatives which the parents will often try to stop in order to protect the child. The child
will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the
child and restrict his initiatives too much. It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions
as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance or
embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening then the child may have feelings of guilt for
“being a nuisance”.

Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt
is, of course, necessary, otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-control or have a
conscience. A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to
the virtue of purpose.

4. Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority. Industry versus inferiority is the fourth stage of Erik
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. The stage occurs during childhood between the ages of five
and twelve. Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do
things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach the child
specific skills.

It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source
of the child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific
competencies that are valued by society, and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments. If
children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious and feel
confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or
teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or
her potential.

If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g. being athletic) then they
may develop a sense of inferiority. Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some
modesty. Yet again, a balance between competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will
lead to the virtue of competence.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion. The fifth stage is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs during
adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage adolescents search for a sense of self and personal
identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs and goals.
The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood and
adulthood, and between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult
(Erikson p. 245)
During adolescence the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming
more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc.
The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in. This is a major stage in development where the child
has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine
his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved:
the sexual and the occupational.
According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of self, of
what one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role”. During this stage the body image
of the adolescent changes. Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for
a while until they can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of
fidelity. Fidelity involves being able to commit one’s self to others on the basis of accepting others, even
when there may be ideological differences. During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form
their own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations.
Failure to establish a sense of identity within society (“I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up”)
can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their
place in society.
In response to role confusion or identity crisis an adolescent may begin to experiment with different
lifestyles (e.g. work, education or political activities). Also pressuring someone into an identity can result
in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation. Occurring in young adulthood (ages 18 to 40 yrs), we begin to share ourselves
more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments with
someone other than a family member.

Successful completion of this stage can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of commitment,
safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead
to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation. During middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs), we establish our careers,
settle down within a relationship, begin our own families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger
picture.

We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in
community activities and organizations. By failing to achieve these objectives, we become stagnant and
feel unproductive. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair. As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow
down our productivity, and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our
accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. Erik
Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not
accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to
depression and hopelessness.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life
with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

Social Cognitive Theory - Utilized both in Psychology and Communications posits that portions of an
individual’s knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of
social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences

An important point in the social cognitive theory is that the learner’s behavior is guided by cognitive
processes rather than formed or shaped by reinforced practice. Four component parts are responsible
for the learning and performance acquisition. These are:

Attentional processes

• Observer characteristics are perceptual or cognitive capacities, arousal level and past performance.
• Event characteristics are relevance, affective valence, complexity, functional value, model’s
characteristics and Intrinsic rewards.

Retention processes
• Observer characteristics are cognitive skills
• Event characteristics are cognitive organization and rehearsal

Motor reproduction process

•Observer characteristics are physical capabilities and sub skill mastery
•Event characteristics are selection and organization of responses with feedback

Motivational processes
•Observer characteristics are incentive preference, social bias and internal standards
•Event characteristics are external, self and vivacious reinforcement

Albert Bandura (Social Cognitive Theory)

•Bandura bases his theory on the acquisition of complex behaviors on a triangular diagram illustrating
the interactive effect of various factors. These three factors are behavior (B), the environment (E), and
the internal events that influence perceptions and actions. (P). the relationship between these three
factors is known as reciprocal determinism.

•Bandura identified three types of reinforces of behavior. These were direct reinforcement, vicarious
reinforcement and self-reinforcement. Direct reinforcement would be directly experienced by the
learner. Vicarious reinforcement would be observed to be consequences of the behavior of the model.
Self-reinforcement would be feelings of satisfaction or displeasure for behavior gauged by personal
performance standards.

•Bandura describes three types of modeling stimuli, which are live models, symbolic models, and verbal
descriptions or instructions. Of these three, in American society, the greatest range of exposure is in the
form of symbolic models through mass media.

•In Bandura’s later work he introduces two other aspects to his Social Learning Theory. These are his
work on the self-regulatory system and self-efficacy. In the area of self-regulatory system/ self-
evaluative behaviors he said that this system us based upon cognitive sub processes that: PERCEIVE,
EVALUATE and REGULATE BEHAVIOR

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Emotional Intelligence (Goleman) - (EI), often measured as an Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQ),
describes an ability, capacity, or skill to perceive, assess, and manage the emotions of one’s self, of
others, and of groups. As relatively new area of psychological research, the definition of EI is constantly
changing.
The El model introduced by Daniel Goleman focuses in EL as wide array of competencies and skills that
drive managerial performance, measured by multi-rater assessment and self-assessment (Bradberry and
Greaves, 2005). In working with Emotional Intelligence (1998) Goleman explored the function of EI on the
job, and claimed EI to be the largest single predictor of success in the workplace, with more recent
confirmation of these findings on a worldwide sample seen in Bradberry and Greaves, “The Emotional
Intelligence Quick Book” (200%)

Goleman’s model outlines four main EI constructs:

•Self-awareness - the ability to read one’s emotions and recognize their impact while using gut feelings
to guide decisions.
•Self - management - involves controlling one’s emotions and impulses and adapting to changing
circumstances.
•Social awareness - the ability to sense, understand, and react to other’s emotions while
comprehending social networks.
•Relationships management - the ability to inspire, influence, and develop others while managing
conflict.

Goleman includes a set of emotional competencies within each construct of EI. Emotional competencies
are not innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that must be worked on and developed to achieve
outstanding performance. Goleman believes that individuals are born with a general emotional
intelligence that determines their potential for learning emotional competencies.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development are places of moral adequacy conceived by Lawrence Kohlberg
to explain the development of moral reasoning. Created while studying psychology at the University of
Chicago, the theory was inspired by the work if Jean Piaget and a fascination with children’s reactions to
moral dilemmas. He wrote his doctoral dissertation at the university in 1958, outlining what are now
known as his stages of moral development.

Levels and Stages of Moral Development:

Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality – The first level of morality, pre-conventional morality, can be further
divided into two stages: obedience and punishment, and individualism and exchange.
 Stage 1: Punishment- Obedience Orientation
 Related to Skinner’s Operational Conditioning, this stage includes the use of punishment so that
the person refrains from doing the action and continues to obey the rules. For example, we
follow the law because we do not want to go to jail.

 Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation

 In this stage, the person is said to judge the morality of an action based on how it satisfies the
individual needs of the doer. For instance, a person steals money from another person because
he needs that money to buy food for his hungry children. In Kohlberg’s theory, the children tend
to say that this action is morally right because of the serious need of the doer.

Level 2: Conventional Morality - The second level of morality involves the stages 3 and 4 of moral
development. Conventional morality includes the society and societal roles in judging the morality of an
action.
 Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation
 In this stage, a person judges an action based on the societal roles and social expectations before
him. This is also known as the “interpersonal relationships” phase. For example, a child gives
away her lunch to a street peasant because she thinks doing so means being nice.

 Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation

 This stage includes respecting the authorities and following the rules, as well as doing a person’s
duty. The society is the main consideration of a person at this stage. For instance, a policeman
refuses the money offered to him under the table and arrests the offender because he believes
this is his duty as an officer of peace and order.

Level 3: Post-conventional Morality

The post-conventional morality includes stage 5 and stage 6. This is mainly concerned with the universal
principles that relation to the action done.
 Stage 5 : Social Contract Orientation
  In this stage, the person is look at various opinions and values of different people before coming
up with the decision on the morality of the action.

 Stage 6 : Universal Ethical Principles Orientation

 The final stage of moral reasoning, this orientation is when a person considers universally
accepted ethical principles. The judgment may become innate and may even violate the laws and
rules as the person becomes attached to his own principles of justice.

Carol Gilligan - her fame rests primarily on in a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s
Development (1982) in which she criticized Kohlberg’s research on the moral development of used
children. Which at the time showed that girls on average reached a lower level of moral development
than boys did. Giligan pointed out that the participants in Kohlberg’s basic study were largely male, and
that the scoring method Kohlberg used tended to a favor a principled way of reasoning that was more
common to boys, over a moral argumentation concentrating on relations, which would be more
amenable to girls. Kohlberg saw reason to revise his scoring method as a result of Gilligan’s critique,
after which boys and girls scored evenly.

Her work formed the basis for what has become known as the ethics of care, a theory of ethics that
contrasts ethics of care to so-called ethics of justice.

The following are some major factors affecting the social and emotional development of children and
adolescents:
 Media - the main means of mass communication (broadcasting, publishing, and the Internet),
regarded collectively.
 Parenting - is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, and
intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the intricacies
of raising a child aside from the biological relationship
 Role Models - is a person whose behavior, example, or success is or can be emulated by others,
especially by younger people.
 Peer groups - is a social group that consists of individuals of the same social status who share
similar interests and are close in age.

EXCEPTIONAL AREA DEVELOPMENT IN THE AREA OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Leadership - the ability of an individual to influence, motivate and enable others to contribute toward
the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members.
Juvenile Delinquency- Juvenile delinquency may refer to either violent or non-violent crime committed
by persons who are (usually) under the age of eighteen and are still considered to be a minor. There is
much debate about whether or not such a child should be held criminally responsible for his or her own
actions. There are many different inside influences that are believed to affect the way a child acts both
negatively and positively, some of which are as follows:

•Abandonment - is a subjective emotional state in which people feel undesired, left behind, insecure, or
discarded. People experiencing emotional abandonment may feel at loss, cut off from a crucial source of
sustenance that has been withdrawn, either suddenly, or through a process of erosion.

•Social institutions - consists of a group of people who have come together for a common purpose.
These institutions are a part of the social order of society and they govern behavior and
expectations of individuals.

•Peer pressure is the direct influence on people by peers, or the effect on an individual who gets
encouraged to follow their peers by changing their attitudes, values or behaviors to conform to those of
the influencing group or individual

Affective and Mode Disorders - The mood or affective disorders are mental disorders that primarily
affect mood and interfere with the activities of daily living. Usually it includes major depressive disorder
(MDD) and bipolar disorder (also called Manic Depressive Psychosis. They are set of psychiatric
disorders, also called mood disorders. The main types of affective disorders are depression, bipolar
disorder, and anxiety disorder. Symptoms vary by individual and can range from mild to severe.

What is an affective personality disorder? Affective disorders may include manic (elevated, expansive, or
irritable mood with hyperactivity, pressured speech, and inflated self-esteem) or depressive (dejected
mood with disinterest in life, sleep disturbance, agitation, and feelings of worthlessness or guilt)
episodes, and often combinations of the two.
What are some examples of mood disorders? Some examples of mood disorders include: Major
depressive disorder — prolonged and persistent periods of extreme sadness. Bipolar disorder — also
called manic depression or bipolar affective disorder, depression that includes alternating times of
depression and mania.
What are the different types of mood disorders?
 Major depression. Having less interest in usual activities, feeling sad or hopeless, and other
symptoms for at least 2 weeks may indicate depression.
 Dysthymia
 Bipolar disorder
 Mood disorder related to another health condition
 Substance-induced mood disorder.
What medications treat mood disorders? Antipsychotic medications used for bipolar disorder include:

 Olanzapine (Zyprexa)
 Quetiapine (Seroquel)
 Risperidone (Risperdal)
 Ariprazole (Abilify)
 Ziprasidone (Geodon)
 Clozapine (Clozaril)

What is meant by social institutions? Each piece serves a different purpose to the overall operation of
the bike. In sociology, social institutions, such as economy and government, are the 'bike parts' and the
overall society is the 'bicycle.' Social institutions are established sets of norms and subsystems that
support each society's survival.

What are the five major social institutions? Five major institutions in rural sociology are political,
educational, economic, family and religion.

Political: Government as political institution, administers the regulatory functions of Law and order, and
maintains security in society.

What is the function of social institutions? Social institutions are a system of behavioral and relationship
patterns that are densely interwoven and enduring, and function across an entire society. They order
and structure the behavior of individuals by means of their normative character.

Which one is the most important social institution? Family is very important in Germany both from
social and legal viewpoints. A family creates a stable and often unbreakable relationship. For me family
is the most important social institution in my life.

FACILITATING HUMAN LEARNING

Definition of learning - is the acquisition and development of memories and behaviors, including skills,
knowledge, understanding, values and wisdom. It is the goal of education, and the product of experience.
It is therefore a relatively permanent change in behavior.
Other Definitions:
1. A process inferred from relatively stable changes in behavior that result through practice of
interaction with and adaptation to the environment (Goodwin and Klausmeier)
2. The development of new associations as a result of experience (Good and Grophy).
3. The modification of an organism’s behavior as a result of maturation and environmental experience.

THEORIES OF LEARNING
A. Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism | Associationism Theory:

Human activity is based on association between stimulus and response.

a. Law of effect - The third law is the ‘Law of Effect’, according to which the trial or steps leading to
satisfaction stamps in the bond or connection. Satisfying states lead to consolidation and strengthening
of the connection, whereas dis-satisfaction, annoyance or pain lead to the weakening or stamping out of
the connection. In fact, the ‘law of effect’ signifies that if the response satisfy the subject, they are learnt
and selected, while those

which are not satisfying are eliminated. Teaching, therefore, must be pleasing. The educator must obey
the tastes and interests of his pupils. In other words, greater the satisfaction stronger will be the motive
to learn. Thus, intensity is an important condition of ‘law of effect’.
b. Law of exercise - The second law of learning is the ‘Law of Exercise’, which means that drill or practice
helps in increasing efficiency and durability of learning and according to Throndike’s S-R Bond Theory,
the connections are strengthened with trail or practice and the connections are weakened when trial or
practice is discontinued. The ‘law of exercise’, therefore, is also understood as the ‘law of use and disuse’
in which case connections or bonds made in the brain cortex are weakened or loosened. Many examples
of this case are found in case of human learning. Learning to drive a motor-car, typewriting, singing or
memorizing a poem or a mathematical table, and music etc. need exercise and repetition of various
movements and actions many times.

c. Law of readiness - First primary law of learning, according to him, is the ‘Law of Readiness’ or the
‘Law of Action Tendency’, which means that learning takes place when an action tendency is aroused
through preparatory adjustment, set or attitude. Readiness means a preparation of action. If one is not
prepared to learn, learning cannot be automatically instilled in him, for example, unless the typist, in
order to learn typing prepares himself to start, he would not make much progress in a lethargic &
unprepared manner.

B. Classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov): It is based on ADHESIVE principle which means that a
response is attached to a stimulus through the stimulus occurring just prior to the response so that the
recurrence of the stimulus will evoke or cause the response. (Ex. Dog’s salivation experiment)

C. Operant Conditioning (BF Skinner): Organism has to do something in order to get reward that is, it
must operate on its environment.
 Reinforcement: is any behavioral consequence that strengthens behavior. It increases the
likelihood of the recurrent of a particular type of response.
 Types of reinforcement:
 -Positive Reinforcement: These reinforces increase frequency.
 -Negative Reinforcement: Strengthens behavior by their removal.
 -Primary Reinforcement: food, water, sleep
 -Secondary Reinforcement: money, grades, starts, tokens etc.

D.Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura) – plus emphasis on OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING.

E.Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Theory - Gaining insight is a gradual processes of exploring analyzing and
restructuring perceptions until a solution is arrived at.

F.Gestalt Theoru (Kohlerm Wertheimer and Koffka) - The primary focus of this theory is on
PERCEPTION and how people assign meanings to visual stimuli, “The whole is more than the sum of all
its parts”

G.Kurt Lewin’s Topological and Vector Theory (Field Theory) - the behavior of an individual at a given
moment is the result of existing forces operating simultaneously in his life space. (Internal and External
forces).
H.Jerome Bruner’s Theory - Also known as Instrumental Conceptualism. Learning involves 3
simultaneously processes: acquisition transformation and evaluation.

I.Information processing Theory - The theory describes the psychological events in terms of
transformations of information form input to output. It stresses the value of perception, attention and
memory in the learning process.

Types of Learning:

a.Cognitive Learning - is concerned with the development of ideas and concepts. This explains why the
brain is the most incredible network of information processing and interpretation in the body as we
learn things.
b.Affective Learning - Involves assimilation of values, emotional reactions and acquisition of attitudes.
These domains are cognitive (thinking), affective (emotion/feeling), and psychomotor
(physical/kinesthetic). Each domain on this page has a taxonomy associated with it. Taxonomy is simply
a word for a classification. All of the taxonomies below are arranged so that they proceed from the
simplest to more complex levels.
c.Psychomotor Learning - understanding the external world through the senses and muscles. The
psychomotor domain deals with manual or physical skills. It is the "doing" domain.

Analogical Process and Transfer of Learning - the Theory of Transfer of Learning was introduced by
Thorndike and Woodworth (1901). They explored how individuals would transfer learning in one
context to another context that shared similar characteristics. Their theory implied that transfer of
learning depends on the learning task and the transfer task being identical, also known as “identical
elements. There is a close relationship between transfer of learning and problem solving a problem in a
new situation.

Type Characteristics
Near Overlap between situations, original and transfer contexts as similar
Far Little overlap between situations, original and transfer settings are
Dissimilar
Positive What is learned in one context enhances learning in different setting
Negative Knowledge if a previous topic essential to acquire new knowledge
Vertical Knowledge of previous topic is not essential to acquire new knowledge
Horizontal Knowledge of a previous topic is not essential but helpful to learn a new
Topic
Literal Intact knowledge transfers to new task
Figural Use some aspect of general knowledge to think or learn about a problem
Low Road Transfer of well-established skills in almost automatic fashion
High Road Transfer involves abstraction so conscious formulations of connections
between contexts
High Road/Forward Abstracting situations from learning context to a
Reaching Potential transfer context
High Road/Backward Abstracting in the transfer context features of a
Reaching Previous situation where new skills and knowledge were learned

Metacognition - refers to thinking about cognition (memory, perception, calculation, association, etc.)
itself or to think/reason about one’s own thinking. It refers to “thinking about thinking” and was

introduced as a concept in by John Flavell, who is typically seen as a founding scholar of the field. Flavell
said that metacognition is the knowledge you have of your own cognitive processes (your
thinking).Flavell (1979). It is your ability to control your thinking processes through various strategies,
such as organizing, monitoring, and adapting. Additionally, it is your ability to reflect upon the tasks or
processes you undertake and to select and utilize the appropriate strategies necessary in your
intercultural interactions.
 Metacognition involves two types of knowledge:
 1)explicit | conscious | factual knowledge
 2)implicit | unconsciousness knowledge.
 The efforts of metacognition are aimed at developing learner autonomy, independence and self-
regulated learners.

Motivational Factors in Learning

Reward and Reinforcement - a reward is that which follows an occurrence of a specific behavior with
the intention of acknowledging the behavior in a positive way. A reward often has the intent of
encouraging the behavior to happen again.

There are two kinds of rewards, extrinsic and intrinsic rewards are external to, or outside of, the
individual; for example, praise or money. Intrinsic rewards are internal to or within, the individual; for
example, satisfaction or accomplishment.

Some authors distinguish between two forms of intrinsic motivation: on based on enjoyment, the other
on obligation. In this context, obligation refers to motivation bases on what an individual thinks ought
to be done. For, instance, a feeling of responsibility for a mission may lead to helping others beyond
what is easily observable, rewarded, or fun.

A reinforce is different from reward, in that reinforcement is intended to create a measured increase in
the rate of a desirable behavior following the addition of something to the environment.

Intrinsic motivation is evident when people engage in an activity for its own sake, without some
obvious external incentive present. A hobby is a typical example. Intrinsic motivation has been intensely
studied by educational psychologists since the 1970s, and numerous studies have found it to be
associated with high educational achievement and enjoyment by the students.

There is currently no “grand unified theory” to explain the origin or elements of intrinsic motivation.
Most explanations combine elements of Bernard Weiner’s attribution theory, Bandura’s work on self-
efficacy and other studies relating to locus of control and goal orientation. Thus it is thought that
students are more like to experience intrinsic motivation if they:
 Attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control (e.g. the amount of
effort they put in, not fixed ability).
 Believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (e.g. the results are not determined
by dumb luck).
 Are motivated towards deep mastery of a topic, instead of just rote-learning performance to get
good grades.

In knowledge-sharing communities and organizations, people often cite altruistic reasons for their
participation, including contributing to a common good, a moral obligation to the group, mentorship or
giving back”. This model if intrinsic motivation has emerged from three decades of research by hundreds
of educationalists and still evolving.

In work environments, money is typically viewed as an important goal (having food, clothes etc.) may
well be more powerful than the direct motivation provided by an enjoyable workplace.
Learning styles vs. learning strategies.

Issues regarding learning style are somewhat related, i.e. students that willing and able to think in more
abstract terms and/or to critically examine what they do may show better performance.
A learning style refers to the relationship between individuals and their ways of learning whereas
learning strategies refer to attitudes and behavior that is oriented towards goals. As an example, one
could compare/oppose.

Learning style Learning strategy

Self-assessment Self-assessment
Field-dependent Field- independent
Cognitive level Plus meta-cognitive level
Learner preference Learner competence

THEORIES OF SITUATED LEARNING

Situated learning has antecedents in the work of Gibson (theory of affordances) and Vygotsky (social
learning). In addition, the theory of Schoenfield on mathematical problem solving embodies some of the
critical elements of situated learning framework. Situated learning is a general theory of knowledge
acquisition. It has been applied in the context of technology-based learning activities for schools that
focus in problem-solving skills.

Principles of Situated Learning:

1. Knowledge needs to be presented in an authentic context, i.e., setting and applications that would
normally involve that knowledge
2. Learning requires social interaction and collaboration.

Multiple Intelligences - the theory of multiple intelligence was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard
Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University. It suggests that the traditional notion of
intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in children and adults.

The theory of multiple intelligences differentiates intelligence into specific 'modalities', rather than
seeing intelligence as dominated by a single general ability. Howard Gardner proposed this model in his
1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. According to the theory, an intelligence
must fulfill eight criteria:

1. potential for brain isolation by brain damage,

2. place in evolutionary history,
3. presence of core operations,
4. susceptibility to encoding (symbolic expression),
5. a distinct developmental progression,
6. the existence of savants, prodigies and other exceptional people,
7. support from experimental psychology, and
8. Support from psychometric findings.
Gardner proposed eight abilities that he held to meet these criteria:

Musical-rhythmic and harmonic: This area has to do with sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and
music. People with a high musical intelligence normally have good pitch and may even have absolute
pitch, and are able to sing, play musical instruments, and compose music. They have sensitivity to
rhythm, pitch, meter, tone, melody or timbre.

Visual-spatial: This area deals with spatial judgment and the ability to visualize with the mind's eye.
Spatial ability is one of the three factors beneath g in the hierarchical model of intelligence.

Verbal-linguistic: People with high verbal-linguistic intelligence display a facility with words and
languages. They are typically good at reading, writing, telling stories and memorizing words along with
dates. Verbal ability is one of the most g-loaded abilities. This type of intelligence is measured with the
Verbal IQ in WAIS-IV.

Logical-mathematical: This area has to do with logic, abstractions, reasoning, numbers and critical
thinking. This also has to do with having the capacity to understand the underlying principles of some
kind of causal system. Logical reasoning is closely linked to fluid intelligence and to general intelligence
(g factor).
Bodily-kinesthetic - The core elements of the bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are control of one's bodily
motions and the capacity to handle objects skillfully.[8] Gardner elaborates to say that this also includes
a sense of timing, a clear sense of the goal of a physical action, along with the ability to train responses.
People who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence should be generally good at physical activities such
as sports, dance, acting, and making things.

Gardner believes that careers that suit those with high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
include: athletes, dancers, musicians, actors, builders, police officers, and soldiers. Although these
careers can be duplicated through virtual simulation, they will not produce the actual physical learning
that is needed in this intelligence.

Interpersonal: In theory, individuals who have high interpersonal intelligence are characterized by
their sensitivity to others' moods, feelings, temperaments, motivations, and their ability to cooperate in
order to work as part of a group. According to Gardner in How Are Kids Smart: Multiple Intelligences in
the Classroom, "Inter- and Intra- personal intelligence is often misunderstood with being extroverted or
liking other people..."[12] Those with high interpersonal intelligence communicate effectively and
empathize easily with others, and may be either leaders or followers.
They often enjoy discussion and debate." Gardner has equated this with emotional intelligence of
Goleman.
Gardner believes that careers that suit those with high interpersonal intelligence include sales persons,
politicians, managers, teachers, lecturers, counselors and social workers.

Intrapersonal: This area has to do with introspective and self-reflective capacities. This refers to having
a deep understanding of the self; what one's strengths or weaknesses are, what makes one unique, being
able to predict one's own reactions or emotions.

Naturalistic: Not part of Gardner's original seven, naturalistic intelligence was proposed by him in
1995. "If I were to rewrite Frames of Mind today, I would probably add an eighth intelligence - the
intelligence of the naturalist. It seems to me that the individual who is readily able to recognize flora and
fauna, to make other consequential distinctions in the natural world, and to use this ability productively
(in hunting, in farming, in biological science) is exercising an important intelligence and one that is not
adequately encompassed in the current list. This area has to do with nurturing and relating information
to one's natural surroundings. Examples include classifying natural forms such as animal and plant
species and rocks and mountain types. This ability was clearly of value in our evolutionary past as
hunters, gatherers, and farmers; it continues to be central in such roles
as botanist or chef.
This sort of ecological receptiveness is deeply rooted in a "sensitive, ethical,
and holistic understanding" of the world and its complexities – including the role of humanity within the
greater ecosphere.

Existential: Gardner did not want to commit to a spiritual intelligence, but suggested that an
"existential" intelligence may be a useful construct, also proposed after the original 7 in his 1999 book.
The hypothesis of an existential intelligence has been further explored by educational researchers.
Additional intelligences: On January 13, 2016, Gardner mentioned in an interview with BigThink that he
is considering adding the teaching-pedagogical intelligence "which allows us to be able to teach
successfully to other people". In the same interview, he explicitly refused some other suggested
intelligences like humor, cooking and sexual intelligence.

Characterizing Students with Special Learning Needs

An exceptional child is one that is different in some way from “normal” to “average” child. The term
“exceptional child” includes those with special problems related to physical disabilities, sensory
impairments, emotional disturbances, learning disabilities and mental retardation. Most exceptional
children require a lot of understanding and patience as well as special education and related services if
they are to reach their full potential development.

SOCIOLOGICAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

Sociologist offer different theoretical perspective that are anchored on the concept that school is an
open system to explain the relationship between the school and the society. The diverse sociological
explanations enable educators to understand how the school, as a social institution of society, interacts
with social environment as they perform their important role in their unique way either as agents of
cultural and social transmission or as agents of social transformation.

The Nature of Education

Sociology provides educators as special perspective in studying the school and society. Schools, by their
nature are social organizations. Because of the nature of education, the study of school systems
becomes the concern of sociologists. Sociologist study the social issues and concerns in education
which impact on socialization.

The Role of Schools

Dr. Adelaida Bago, in her book Social Dimensions in the Philippine Education, stresses there are two
possible purpose or roles of schools:
1. There are those who believe that one role of the school is to educate citizens to fit into society
2. There are those who believe that the role of the school is to educate citizens to change the society

The Specific purposes of the school are the following:

a. Cognitive Purposes- teaching the basic cognitive skills such as reading, writing and speaking.
b. Political Purposes- inculcation of patriotism or loyalty to the existing political order.
c. Social Purposes- concerns with the socialization of citizens into their various roles in society.
d. Economic Purposes- involves training and preparation of citizens for the world of work.

School as Open System

School are open systems that draw their inputs and send back their outputs to the environment. An
open system, like a living organism, has a homeostatic nature. Homeostasis is the property of open
system to regulate its internal environment to maintain stable constant condition. This is done
through internal regulation mechanisms of inter-related and interaction parts that counteract any
departure from the normal or usual.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE OF EDUCATION

To provide logical explanations for why things happen the way they do in group situations, sociologists
make use of theoretical perspective. These theories also become the basis for analyzing curriculum,
instruction and structure in the school organization. The functionalist and Conflict Theories focus
macro-level sociological analysis, while the interaction theory focuses on the micro level analysis.

1. The Functionalist Theory - (other known as equilibrium theory). The key terms in of society. Social
equilibrium is achieved through the process of socialization of members into the basic values norms of
particular group so that consensus is reached. The different parts or members of the society are
interdependent grouped and organized to form a system.
a. Talcot Parsons - conceptualized society as a collection of systems within systems (McLeland, 2000)

b. Emile Durkheim - believed that education plays a significant roles in creating, moral unity, which is
an imperative in social cohesion and harmony, Durkheim defined education and the concerns of
sociology as follows: “ Education is the influence exercised by adult generations on those that are not yet
ready for social life, its object is to arouse and to develop in the child a certain number of physical,
intellectual and moral states which are demanded of him by both the political society as a whole and
special milieu for which he is specifically destined..

2. Conflict Theory - assumes a tension in society and its part due to competing interest of individuals
and groups. Adherents of the theory argue that what holds society together is economic, political,
cultural, military power and note shared values alone. The social order is based on the stability of
dominant groups to impose their will on others who are powerless. The Conflict theory is based on four
interlocking concepts: competition, structural inequality, revolution and war.

a. Karl Marx - the founder of the conflict school of thought believed that because the class system
separates the employers from workers and workers from the benefits of their own labor, class struggle
is inevitable. According to him inevitably the workers would overthrow the capitalists and establish a
new society where the proletariat could freely avail of the benefits of their labor.

b. Max Weber - the father of bureaucratic thought was convinced that although power relations
between dominant and powerless group shape society, class differences alone could not fully explain the
complex way human beings from hierarchies and belief systems and make them work. Weber examined
status cultures as well as class positions. According to him, the main activity of schools is to teach
particular “status cultures” both in and outside the classroom

3. Interaction Theories - the focus of the interaction theory is the communication and the relationship
that exists among and between groups in education- peers, teachers, students, teacher-principal and
teacher- parents. The concern is to study the social-psychological questions that impact on normative
attitudes, values, aspirations and self –concepts of particular groups that in return impact on the
teaching- learning process.

a. Labeling Theory - this theory is related to expectations. For instance, in general the expectations of
significant others on the learners, determine to a large extent in the behavior of students. To this extent,
the processes by which students are labeled either as gifted or learning disabled, fast or slow learner,
smart or dumb, affect the quality as well as the extent and speed of learning.

b. Exchange Theory - is based on the concept of reciprocity or ”katugunan”. Reciprocal interactions bind
individuals (teachers, students, parents, administrators) with obligations. The consequences of
interaction are rewards and benefits.

CULTURE, SOCIETY AND INTERACTION IN THE PHILIPPINE SETTING

Jocano (1998) proposed a social framework that could be used as basis for understanding the
relationships and interaction between and among groups in the Philippine education setting. The
Framework shows the interlocking and interfacing of relationships of kinship and family, socialization
practices and cultural themes that impact on the school system.
• Culture - is the complex whole which includes the customs, beliefs, more, folkways of a certain group of
people.
• Education is transferring of culture
• Sub-Culture - specialized from culture practiced by a small group of people which shows uniqueness
compared to other groups.
• Norm - what is considered” normal” is basically based on the number of people practicing a certain
behavior.

Kinds of Groups

A group can be defined as a unit in which different personalities with different interdependence roles
and status interacts. There are different kinds of groups; these are the Primary, the Secondary, the
In-Group, the Out-Group, the Peer Group, the Reference Group and the Voluntary Associations.
a. The Primary Group is a group by which there is an intimate, there is face to face, there is informal as
well as personal relationship among the members such as the “family”
b. The Secondary Group is a group by which there is an impersonal, there is an informal, and there is a
contractual, business-like as well as casual relationship among the members such as the “religion” or
“school”.

c. The In-Group is a group by which the member feels to have been given a sense of belongingness.
d.The Out-Group is a group by which an individual feels some indifferences, dislike, strangeness,
antagonism or hatred.
e. The Peer Group is a group by which the members are almost in the same age as well as social and
economic status. The Peer Group comes in different types; the Play-Group, the Gang and the Clique.
f. The Play-Group is common among the children; there could be a minimum or no adult supervision in
this group; it is also spontaneous and informal.
g. The Gang is a group by which there is a recognized leader. The members are expected to follow their
rules of behaviors; they have a definite place to stay, meeting time and they have planned activities.
Sometimes, they even have a password.
h. The Clique is a group by which the members have the same line of thinking as well as interest.
i. The Reference Group is a group by which an individual or a member identifies him or herself
consciously or unconsciously. This kind of group is more likely on identification and not really on the
actual membership.
j. The Voluntary Association is a group by which the members tend to join together because of their
common needs, decisions, aims or goal.

Types of Groups:

a. Integrated group - the members have common action in shared meanings and values
b. Crowed- members act together on the basis of a shared emotion and feelings, as in religious revival
meetings, revolutionary mob or a panic.
c. Audience or mass - members act together on the basis of a common attitudes without interaction
among members; like people at film showing.
d. Public - this refers a number of people in some form of community come to a common agreement who
have common interest but do not necessarily come to a common agreement.

Social Institution: According to Anthony Giddens, Social Institutions are” enduring features of social life”.
It is a complex of positions, norms and social relations performing a social role. Social institutions
includes government, families, and other groups of people with recognizable social interaction and
norms of conduct.

Characteristics:
1. Social Purpose-institution satisfy social needs
2. Permanence-institution are relatively permanent
3. Enforcing rules and regulations- institution governs behavior
4. Promotes values- institution exerts social pressure regarding right conduct

Major Social Institutions

1. Family – is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity and co-residence. It is the smallest
social institution. One of the primary function of the family is to produce and reproduce persons both
biologically and socially (in cases of adoption).
a. Conjugal Family-includes the husband, wife, and children who are not of age yet.
b. Consanguinity Family- consist of a parent and his or her children, and other people.
c. Matrilocal Family- consists of a mother and her children

2. Education is the transmission of knowledge is the primary purpose of education. As a social

institution school has the following purpose.
1. Intellectual - schools teach basic knowledge and skills commonly known as the 3 Rs and eventually
developing their HOTS (higher order thinking skills)
2. Political - schools develop allegiance to the country and promotes patriotism
3. Social - schools develop person’s ability to interact with fellow human being
4. Economic - schools prepare the person to achieve suitable occupational endeavors.

3. Religion: According to Stark religion is the “socially defined patterns of beliefs concerning the ultimate
meaning of life; it assumes the existence of the supernatural” and has a characteristics like:
1. Belief in the higher being (deity)
2. Doctrine of salvation
3. A code of conduct
4. Religious rituals
4. Government: A government is an institution entrusted with making and enforcing the rules of a
society as well as with regulating relations with other societies. In order to be considered a government,
a ruling body must be recognized as such by the people it purpose to govern.

Types of Government
a. Democracy - is a system of government in which the citizens exercise power directly or elect
representatives from among themselves to form a governing body, such as a parliament.
b. Monarchy - is this system or form of government. A monarch, such as a king or queen, rules a kingdom
or empire. In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch's power is limited by a constitution. But in an
absolute monarchy, the monarch has unlimited power.
c. Authoritarianism - is a form of government characterized by strong central power and limited.
d. Totalitarianism - is a form of government that seeks to subordinate all aspects of individual life to the
authority of the state.

Social Problems - growing groups and countries experience various societal problem brought about by
various factors.
• Juvenile delinquency, Crime, Alcoholism, Suicide, Drug addiction, Racial prejudice, Industrial conflict,
Poverty and Graft and corruption

Social Control - refers to the ways in which members of a society influence one another so as to maintain
social order.
 Informal Social Control includes Mores and folkways, Expectations not written down but perceived
and made known to him, Pressure to conform, Internalizing the values and attitudes of family, Helping
the child to understand and norms of the bigger group and Desire for acceptance of the bigger group
 Formal Social Control includes Passage of law, Formal mechanism to maintain control over the
behavior of its members, Tendency to level an individual who is out of line and gossip and Curbing anti-
social attitudes by disallowing privacy or ascribing undesirable status to deviants.

Social process - sociologist have noted that social change occurs in patterns and these patterns are called
social process, this is also used to interpret social behavior.

Classification of Social Process:

• Competition - an impersonal attempt to gain scare and valued resources of wealth, land etc.
• Conflict - involves the use of deliberate power
• Accommodation - is the conscious adjustment and compromise among conflicting groups to live
without conflict
• Assimilation - is the learning and acceptance by one group of the beliefs and values of another groups
so that they gradually become virtually indistinguishable

Characteristics of Culture

1. Culture is Learned
2. Pakikipagkapwatao
3. Family orientation
4. Joy and humor
5. Flexibility, adaptability, creativity
6. Hard work and industry
7. Faith and religiosity
8. Ability to survive

Weakness of the Filipino Character

1. Extreme personalism
2. Extreme family centeredness
3. Lack of discipline
4. Passivity and lack of initiative
5. Colonial mentality
6. Kanya-kanya syndrome
7. Lack of self-analysis and self-reflection

PILLARS OF EDUCATION
 PILLARS OF LEARNING: The Four Pillars of Education all started with the report entitled” Learning the
Treasure within” of the International Commission of Education for the Twenty-first –Century chaired by
Jacques Delors in 1996. It was published by the UNESCO.

A. LEARNING TO KNOW
- Implies learning how to learn by developing one’s concentration, memory skills and ability to think;
acquiring the instrument of understanding.
- To learn to know, students need to develop learn-to-learn-skills. Such skills are learning to read with
comprehension, listening, observing, asking question, data gathering, note taking and accessing,
processing, selecting and using information
- The role of the teacher is as facilitator, catalyst, monitor and evaluator of learning.
B. LEARNING TO DO
- Represents the skillful, creative and discerning application of knowledge
- One must learn how to think creatively, critically and holistically, and how to deeply understand the
information that is presented.
- To perform a job or work, the learning to do must be fulfilled. This entails the acquisition of
competence that enables people to deal with a variety of situations, and to work in teams.

C. LEARNING TO LIVE TOGETHER

- Vital in building a genuine and lasting culture of peace in the world.
- Can be achieved by developing in understanding of others and their history, traditions and spiritual
values, and appreciation of interdependence.
- A wide range of skills is necessary for the pillar of education; self-control, handling emotions,
communication, interpretation of behaviors, critical thinking, relationship building and cooperation,
negotiation, mediation and refusal, problem solving and decision making.
- Teachers should help the students realize the value of being able to live together, in their gradually
enlarging world: home, school, community, city, town, province, country, and the world as a global
village.

D. LEARNING TO BE
- Dominant theme of Edgar Faure is report” Learning to Be: The World of Education Today and
Tomorrow”, published UNESCO
- If refers to the role of education in developing all the dimensions of the complete person: to achieve the
physical, intellectual, emotional and ethical integration of the individual into a complete man. Pertains to
the overall development of the human person as individual and a member of the society

GENDER and DEVELOPMENT: In many countries where women still face discrimination, let us promote
gender equality and development between boys and girls in primary school. It is the 3rd UN Millennium
Goal which aims to eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005,
and all levels of education no later than 2015. Let us step up to empower women in access to education,
work and involvement in decision making.” Gender and development or GAD is an approach on socially
constructed basis of the difference between men and women and emphasized the need to challenge the
existing gender roles and relations.

SEX VS. GENDER

SEX GENDER
 Categorized as male or female  Masculinity and femininity
 Biological  Socially, culturally and historically determined
 Fixed at birth  Learned through socialization
 Does not change across time and  Varies over time and space
space  Unequally valued (masculinity as the norm
 Equally

Socialization - is a process by which social norms, roles and expectations are learned and internalize.
Gender Socialization- is a process by which norms, roles and expectation in relation to gender are
learned by men and women.

Gender Stereotype - a form of prejudgment, bias or limitation given to roles and expectations of male
and females.
 Channel of Socialization:

1. Family : Manipulation, Canalization, Verbal Application and Activity Exposure

2. Church
3. Mass media
4. School: Instructional Language , Classroom Management and Instructional Materials

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION

Multicultural education refers to any form of education or teaching that incorporates the histories, texts,
values, beliefs, and perspectives of people from different cultural backgrounds.
• A field of study and an emerging discipline whose major aim is to create equal opportunities from
diverse racial, ethnic, social class and cultural groups.
• The primary goal of multicultural education is to transform the school so that male and female
students, exceptional students, and students from diverse cultural social-class, racial, and ethnic groups
experience an equal opportunity to learn.

Who is the father of multicultural education? James A. Banks, considered the “father of multicultural
education,” will speak at K-State about “Diversity in America: Challenges and
Opportunities for Educating Citizens in a Global Age.” He will deliver his address from 5-6:30 p.m.
Thursday, Oct. 6, in the Town Hall Room of the Leadership Studies Building.

What is the main goal of multicultural education? One of the goals of multicultural education is to
acknowledge the experiences and perspectives of oppressed groups that are commonly excluded from
mainstream academia (eg. racial, ethnic, class, gender, etc.).

What are the dimensions of multicultural education? The Dimensions of Multicultural Education. The
five identification of dimensions of multicultural education. They are: content integration, the
knowledge construction process, prejudice reduction, an equity pedagogy, and an empowering school
culture and social structure.

TEACHING IN MULTI-CULTURAL CLASSES

A Multicultural Classroom is one in which both the students and the teacher are accepting of all races,
cultures, and religions. This acceptance is evidenced by the books that are read, the activities that are
completed, and the lessons that are taught.

• Multicultural education embodies a perspective rather than a curriculum. Teachers must consider
children’s cultural identities and be aware of their own biases
• Teachers and parents need to acknowledge the fact that we are inevitably influenced by the
stereotypes and one-sided view of society that exists in our schools and the media. Hence, we must we
recognized those biases and change the attitude they represent by accepting all children as we receive
them.
• OPPRESSION- (racism or biased attitudes) a problem in multi-cultural classes vs. OPPENESS-
developing as much effort to changing to learn about other’s culture, nurturing diversity by making
multicultural education a process of action.

LEGAL DIMENSIONS OF THE PHILIPPINE EDUCATION

The educational system in terms of curriculum, instruction, structure and organization at any given
period of history is defined by organic laws, acts, and policies crafted by legal and educational experts as
well as national policy makers. These statutes provide direction and guidance to those involved in the
educational system.

NATIONAL COMMISSIONS

1. Monroe Survey (1925)- The work of the commission because the basis for reforms in administrative
organization and supervision, basic and higher education, teacher education and training, language
instruction, private education, finance and education of non- Christians. ( martin, 1980)
2. Swamson Survey (1959) - Two important recommendations of the Commission were the restoration
of grade 7 and the provision of higher financing for schools. (Martin, 1980).
3. PCSPE(1989)- Presidential Commission to Survey Philippine Education-recommendations of the
commission include: Mismatch between educational priorities and national development priorities and
Lack of systemic planning and evaluation in education became the basis for major reforms.
4. EDCOM (1991) -Congressional Commission on Education-some of the radical changes that came about
as a result of the EDCOM report were: the creation of the independent Commission on Higher Education
(CHED), the professionalization of teachers through the creation of the Licensure Examination for
Teachers (LET), the clear definition of career service paths for teachers and administrators, the creation
of the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA).
5. PCER (1999)- Presidential Commission on Educational Reform- the recommendations of the
commission became the basis for the formulation of a package of policy and projects known as the
Higher Education Development Project ( HEDP)

SPECIFIC DECREES ACTS and LAWS (Legalizing Philippine Education)

1. PROVISIONAL CONSTITUTION OF BIAK NA BATO: Article XV- the Secretary of Interior was to take
charge among other duties, with the advancement of the public instruction.
a. Elimination of the friar control over all or most aspects of education
b. Secularization of a universal system of primary education
c. Greater supervision and control higher education by the state
d. Implementation of a more modern and progressive educational system patterned after western
models

2. THE MALOLOS CONSTITUTION (1899 Constitution: Article 23 not only contain instruction regarding
the public schools; it also specifies the manner by which private schools maybe established in order to
provide more access to education to a greater number of Filipinos. All primary education was offered
free and compulsory in all schools in the country as explicitly stated in the constitution.
“Any Filipino may establish and maintain institutions of learning, in accordance with the laws
authorizing them, Public Education shall be free and obligatory in all schools of the nation”

3. THE 1935 CONSTITUTION: Article XIV - provides ”All schools shall aim to develop moral character,
personal discipline, civic conscience, and vocational efficiency, and to teach the duties of citizenship”
Article XIV, Sec 5; “All educational institution shall be under the supervision of a subject to regulation by
the state. The government shall establish and maintain a complete and adequate system of public
education, and shall provide at least free public primary instruction and citizenship training to adult
citizens.
The Japanese occupied the City of Manila in 1942. Subsequently, the Japanese dissolved the National
Government and replaced it with Central Administrative Organization of the Japanese Army. The
Japanese created the Department of Education, Health and Public Welfare with Claro M. Recto as
commissioner. The Bureau of Private Education supervised private schools and colleges. The six basic
principles of Japanese education basic principles of Japanese education in the Philippines include the
following as enumerated by Bago.
a. To make people understand the position of the Philippines as member of the EAST-ASIA Co Prosperity
Sphere.
b. To eradicate the old idea of the reliance upon the western nations especially upon the United States
and Great Britain, and to posters a new Filipino culture based on the self- consciousness of the people as
Orientals
c. To endeavor to evaluate the morals of the people, giving up the over emphasis on materialism
d. To strive for the diffusion of the Japanese language in the Philippines and to terminate the use of
English in due course.
e. To put importance to the diffusion of elementary education and to the promotion of vocational
education.
f. To inspire the people with the spirit to love labor.

4. THE 1973 CONSTITUITION: The 1973 constitution provided specific provisions on education in
several sections that demonstrates the important role assigned to education in creating the New Society.
Section 8 of Article XV provides that: “All educational institutions shall, be under the supervision of a
subject to regulation by the state. The state shall establish and maintain a complete, adequate, and
integrated system of education relevant to the goals of the national development”.

5. THE FREEDOM CONSTITUTION OF 1986: Article XV, Section 8 contained the specific provisions on
education. Thus the educational system during the interim period was basically the same as the one
operating under the Martial Law.

6. THE 1987 CONSTITUTION: Section 17 of the Constitution states:” The state shall give priority to
education, science and technology, arts, culture, and sports to foster patriotism and nationalism,
accelerate social progress, and promote total human liberation and development”. This general principle
was defined in sections 1-5 of article IV on Education, Science and Technology, Arts, Culture and Sports
Education.

7. THE ROYAL EDUCATIONAL DECREE OF 1863: In an attempt to correct the existing deficiencies in
education, the Royal Educational decree of 1863 was promulgated. The main objective of the decree was
to establish a system of elementary schools for the country and to provide training for teachers in order
to “broaden as much as possible the teaching of the Holy Catholic Faith, of the language of the fatherland,
and of the elementary knowledge of life.”

8. EDUCATIONAL ACT OF 1901: In 1901, a few years after the establishment of the American Rule in the
country, the Philippines Commission passed the first comprehensive school law for the Philippines. The
main objective of the Educational Act of 1901, which is also known as Philippine Commission Act no.74
and considered as the “Organic school law of the Philippines” was to establish a highly centralized
educational system in the country.

9. EDUCATIONAL ACT OF 1940: The educational act of 1940 during the Commonwealth period ushered
a new era in educational history. The primary aim of the act was “to meet the increasing demand for
public elementary instruction at the same time comply with the constitutional mandate on public
education.

10. EDUCATIONAL ACT OF 1982: The act provides for the establishment and maintenance of an
integrated system of education (both formal and non-formal) relevant to the goals of national
development. In recognition of the right of every individual to have equal access to relevant quality
education. The act defines the structure of the formal education consisting of elementary, secondary and
tertiary levels as well as delineates the objectives of each category.

11. THE PHILIPPINES BILINGUAL POLICY (BEP): The policy provided an operational definition of
Bilingual Education in the Philippines, which is the separate use of Filipino and English as the media of
instruction in specific subject area. (As reiterations of DECS order No. 25 of 1974- Implementing
Guidelines for the policy on Bilingual Education

12. FREE PUBLIC SECONDARY ACT OF 1988: The act established and provided for a free public
secondary education to all qualified citizens.

13. THE HIGHER EDUCATION ACT OF 1994: The act created the Commission on Higher Education
(CHED) which is independent and separate form DECS.

14. TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND SKILLS DEVELOPMENT ACT OF 1994: This Act (R.A. No. 7796) which
is also known as the TESDA Act of 1994, created the Technical Education and Skills Development
Authority, providing for its powers, structure and for other purposes. The general aim of the Act is to
provide “relevant, accessible, high quality and efficient technical education and skills development in
support of the development of high quality Filipino middle-level manpower responsive to and in
accordance with Philippine development goals and priorities”.

15. HIGHER EDUCATION MODERNIZATION ACT OF 1997: Otherwise known as R.A. 8292. This act
provides among others for the uniform composition and powers of the governing boards of state
universities and colleges, with the chairman of CHED as the chair of the governing boards of all SUCs.

16. AN ACT TO LENGHTHEN THE SCHOOL CALENDAR: Under this act, the school year shall start on the
first Monday of June but not later than the last day of August. In the implementation of this act, the
Secretary of Education shall determine the end of the regular school year, taking into consideration the
Christmas and summer vacations, and the particular circumstances of each region.

17. GOVERNANCE OF THE BASIC EDUCATION ACT OF 2001: This act contains provision that are also
found in the educational act of 1982 regarding the organizational structure of the educational
bureaucracy. The important provision of this act is the remaining of the department of education,
culture and sports to the department of education

PSYCHOLOGICAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

Learning is not a function of the mind alone but of the total person which is the overreaching principle of
holistic education, that is, to provide learning opportunities for the development of the physical,
intellectual, psychomotor, character and social development of human beings.
Definition of Holistic Education - The concept of holistic education, based on a spiritual/philosophical
orientation’s encapsulated in the Primer for 2002 Basic Education Curriculum: “The Department of
Education envisions every learner to be functionally literate, equipped with life skills, appreciative of the
arts and sports, and imbued with the desirable values of a person who is makabayan (patriotic),
makatao (mindful of humanity), makakalikasan ( respectful of nature) and maka-diyos (godly).

Purpose of Holistic Education - The purpose of holistic education is to prepare students to meet the
challenges of living as well as schooling. To ensure holistic education, it is important for young people to
learn a variety of human concerns which include knowing and understanding about the following:
(Holistic Education, 2003)
1. Themselves
2. Healthy relationships with others
3. Social development
4. Resilience
5. Beauty, truth and transcendental experience

Cognitive Development: Cognition represents the manner by which a human being acquires, stores,
processes and uses information about the internal and external environment.

Three famous cognitive psychologists:

1. Jean Piaget - considered the development of the intellect according in four sequential stages that form
a continuum of mental processes which increasingly become more sophisticated as the individual grows
and develops.
2. Jerome Bruner - like Piaget. Bruner considered intellectual development as taking place in stages,
from the simple to the complex. According to Bruner, human beings represent in their minds the world
around them based on the cognitive level they are in at a particular point in time, however, unlike Piaget,
Bruner did not consider cognitive levels as age-bound.
3. Lev Vygotsky - on the other hand, he focused on the important role of language and social interaction
in cognitive development. To Vygotsky, it is necessary to understand the interrelations between thought
and language, in order to understand intellectual development.

Social emotional development, like cognitive development is the product of interaction between the
biological and environmental factors. The social dimension refers to the interaction with others, while
the emotional refers to feelings about oneself.

Eric Erikson is known for “identity crisis”. He formulated a theory of social-emotional development
based on his extensive experience in psychotherapy and dealings with children and adolescents from all
social class levels. He proposed that socialization consists of “the eight stages of man” each stage
involves a “psycho- social crisis”.

Lawrence Kohlberg, proposed six stages of moral development. The first three of which share many
features with the stages in the Piagetian model. He believes that moral development tales place through
a series of six under three levels of development.

Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia (1956) developed a taxonomy of objectives in the affective domain.
Affective phenomena run through from simple behaviors to increasing more complex ones that require
organization and characterization or internalization.

TAXONOMY OF THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN

Holistic education not only involves the development of the cognitive and affective domains. It also
involves the development of the psychomotor domains which pertain to physical movement, perceptual
abilities and non-verbal communication. Harrow, A.J. developed a taxonomy of objectives for
psychomotor with six categories:
1. Reflex Movements - this includes segmental reflexes.
2. Fundamental Movements - this include walking, running, jumping and etc.
3. Perceptual Abilities - this include kinesthetic, visual, auditory, tactile and coordination.
4. Physical Abilities - involve endurance, strength, flexibility, agility, and dexterity.
5. Skilled Movements - these are the movements necessary in games, sports, dances and the arts.
6. Non-Discursive Communications - these relate to expressive movements through posture, gestures,
facial expressions and creative movement.
HISTORICAL DIMENSION OF EDUCATION
Education is as old as life itself. No one can present an accurate account concerning the origin of
education. There are 2 opposing school of thoughts when it comes to origin of education.
1. Evolutionist – education started form primitive people. Some of these evolutionists do not believe in
any type of god. Others believe in one or more gods who are not involved in the process.
2. Creationist - education started from Adam and Eve

Modern day education owes much of it system to the institutions established by the ancient civilizations
of China, India, Israel, Egypt, Greece and Rome

Chinese Education
• Chinese are descendants from the rivers banks of Huang Ho and Yangtze River.
• Aimed at selecting and training people for public services.
• Emphasis on modeling a person’s character and moral values.
• Believed that government has responsibility to provide education
• Centered on the mastery of Chinese language and classical literature particularly the work of Confucius
(the first teacher in China).

• Analects- the most revered Chinese classical literature which contains the sayings of Confucius.

Egyptian Education
• Egyptians were polytheist people (worshippers of many gods)
• Pharaohs were considered their god and king
• Priest and scribes were teachers of noble class
• Parents were teachers of lower class or fellahin
• Education was highly practical and empirical
• They devised a system of picture writing called hieroglyphics.
• Provide the modern world with the basic foundation of education, art, music, literature, mathematics,
engineering, architecture, astronomy, geography, geology, medicine etc.

Greek Education
• Ancient Greece was divided into several Poleis (small city-states)
• Greeks were mixture of Germanic and Aryan stock ( strong race)
• Sparta and Athens were two or more popular poleis
• Constant struggle between Sparta and Athens resulted in Peloponnesian War which lasted for 27
years.

Spartan Education
• Sparta was the largest polis
• Purely military city-state
• Mothers functioned as state nurses
• At age 7 boys were turned over to Paidonomus - a military commander who cared for boys until age 18
• Boys stayed with the paidonomoud
• At 18 boys prepare for the military training
• At 20 get assigned for actual war
• At 30 they are compelled to many
• Girl’s education was limited to the instructions given by their mothers
• Because of their system, there was no famous Spartan

Athenian Education
• Men sana en coporesano’ (sound mind sound body). This is the ultimate aim of Athenian education
• Democratic form of living, democracy is the lasting legacy of Athens to the world
• Athens preserved the family
• All schools were private
• Boys were separated from girls
• Form 0-7 yr. old, boys stayed at home received training form Paidogogus ( an educated slave)
• Palaestra - a public gymnasium were boys had their physical training under a Paedotribe
• Pentathlon (running, jumping, discus, javelin and wrestling
• Kitharistes- music teacher, teaches poetry like lliad and Odyssey
• Grammarian - Writing teacher
• At 18 if Athenian boy finished his training he will be called an Ephebos ( novice citizen), after
• The Sophist ( New Class of Teachers)
Sophist were well traveled men who were mostly non-citizen of Athens, they offered new perspective in
learning through declamation and oration, grammar, rhetoric, critical and reflective thinking.
Protagoras - Chief of the Sophist

The 3 Great Educational Theorists:

1. Socrates - he postulated” know thyself” and accepted the fundamental principles of Protagoras that
man is the measure of all things
2. Plato – wrote the “Republic”, he advocated a government which he termed Aristocratic Socialism
(philosophical king, warrior and artisan)
3. Aristotle - father of modern sciences

Greek Universities:
1. Rhetorical Schools ( founded by Sophists)
2. Philosophical Schools
a. Academy- founded by Plato
b. Lyceum- founded by Aristotle
c. School of Stoics- by Zeno
d. Epicurean-by Epicurus
3. Combined Rhetorical and Philosophical School
a. University of Athens-most teachers were Sophist supported by Athenian Government bust
disappeared when Constantine declared Christianity as official religion
4. School Outside Greece- University of Alexandra (Egypt) Built in honor of Alexander the Great Famous
Alumni - Euclid (geometry), Eratosthenes (Geography and Astronomy), Archimedes (Physics)

Roman Education - Pragmatic education-strived to find practical application of the knowledge they
acquired and activities they pursued.
a. Early Roman Education (home based education)
b. Hellenized Roman education- started when Rome’s contact with Greek civilization then finally
conquering Greece.

Stages of Roman Education:

1. Elementary (7-10) = Literator
2. Secondary (10-16) = Grammaticus
3. Higher Education (16 up) = Rhetorical

Medieval Education
• Medieval education started when the roman empire fell around 400 Ad
• Christianity was declared as the official religion of the state by Constantine the Great, therefore
Catholics grew in number and power
• Hierarchy of Church in Middle ages:
1. Pope-leader of the church and held office in Rome
2. Cardinal
3. Archbishop
4. Bishop
5. Priest/Clergy

Movements during middle Ages

1. Monasticism - advocated by St. Benedict. They were called as ”monks” and stayed in monasteries
which serve as repositories of classical literature.
2. Scholasticism -“Education as an intellectual discipline.
Anseim - Father of Scholasticism
Abelard - One of the famous schoolmen
St. Thomas Aquinas - wrote “Summa Theolagiae” (official doctrine of Catholic Church)

Early School during middle Ages

• Catechumenal School - “catechumens” are new converts, they held their classes in small churches
• Catechetical School - for in-depth training in religion
• Episcopal/Cathedral School - organized by bishop to train clergy

The Medieval University

• The most important contribution of the middle ages
• The first universities focused on teaching medicine
• University of Napes (the first organized university

Composition of Medieval University

1. Stadium Generale ( entire studentry)
2. Nation (students and teachers who came from same place of origin)
3. Councilor (leader of Nation)
4. Facultas (teachers who teaches the same subjects
5. Dean (leader of Facultas)
6. Rector (chosen by councilors and facultas)

Degree Offered by Medieval University

• At 13 to 14, a boy may enter a university and study Liberal Arts
• At 21 teach younger boys
• At 25 write thesis
• If the students pass the thesis defense he will receive Licential Docebdi
• Renaissance Period (the peak of Arts and Sciences)- Renaissance is considered the start of modern
period
• Reformation Period- Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses containing the abuses of the church to the door
of his church.
• Counter Reformation = to win back protestants, the pope assigned 3 congregations to head counter-
reformation.
1. Brothers of Christian School (founded by St. La Salle)
2. Society of Jesus ( founded by St. Francis of Loyola)
3. Jansenites ( founded by St. Cyrene)

Notable Names in Education

• Socrates -“know thy self”
• Plato - wrote the “Republic”
• Aristotle - Father of Modern Sciences
• Ciero - Wrote the “Oratore”
• Quintillian - Wrote” Institution Oratoria” he was a famous Grammaticus
• Anselm - father of scholasticism
• Abelard - spearheaded Conceptualism
• St. Thomas Aquinas - “wrote” Summa Theolgiae”
• Erasmus - suggested that education be in accordance with the needs of society, he was a humanist who
advocated the importance of studying the character of the child
• Ascham - wrote the “Schoolmaster” condemning brutal punishment in English schools during his time.
• John Amos Comenius - father of modern education, he wrote the first picture book”Orbis Senualium
Pictus”
• Mulcaster - said that” Education should be in accordance with nature”
• John Locke-“tabula rasa’ ( blank sheet)
• John Jacques Rosseau - wrote”Emile” (Education should be in accordance with the nature of the child)
• Pestallozzi - defined education as natural ,symmetrical and harmonious development of the faculties of
the child
• Herbart - conceived education as aimed towards the development of morality and virtue. He is famous
for the Herbatian Method in psychology
• Froebel - father of kindergarden
• John Dewey - “Education is not preparation for life, it is life”
• St.John Baptiste de la Salle - patron saint of teachers
• Maria Montessori - advocated the child- centered education and prepared environment

ORIENTAL PHILOSOPHY
The first Philosophy in order is the so-called Oriental, which, however, does not enter into the substance
or range of our subject as represented here. Its position is preliminary, and we only deal with it at all in
order to account for not treating of it at greater length, and to show in what relation it stands to Thought
and to true Philosophy. The expression Eastern philosophy is specially employed in reference to the
period in which this great universal Oriental conception aroused the East — the land of circumscription
and of limitation, where the spirit of subjectivity reigns. More particularly in the first centuries of
Christendom — that significant period — did these great Oriental ideas penetrate into Italy; and in the
Gnostic philosophy they began to force the idea of the illimitable into the Western mind, until in the
Church the latter again succeeded in obtaining the ascendency and hence in firmly establishing the
Divine. That which we call Eastern Philosophy is more properly the religious mode of thought and the
conception of the world belonging generally to the Orientals and approximates very closely to
Philosophy; and to consider the Oriental idea of religion just as if it were religious philosophy, is to give
the main reason why it is so like.

CONFUCIANISM
• Had its beginning in the teachings of Confucius but the following sages took the lead in building its
formulation? Mencius and Hzun-Tzu.
• Confucius is the Latinized name for Kung-Fu-Tzu-Fu-Tzu. Tze which means master, is a polite suffix
added to the names of most of the philosophers during the Chou Dynasty.
• Confucius was the founder of the Ju School which was known in the west as the Confucian School.
• The Ju or Confucian School emphasized matters concerning human-heartedness and righteousness and
the six liberal arts commonly translated as Liu Yi or the Six Classics namely:
 Yi Ching or the Book of Changes
 Shi-Ching or the Book of Odes
 Shu-Ching or the Book of History
 Li-chi or the Rituals and Rites
 Chu’unCh’iu or the Book of Spring and Autumn Annals
• The primary goal of Confucius was not just to make his” disciples” to ne well versed of the Classics but
to be “rounded men”, useful to the state and the society. Thus, he taught them various branches of
knowledge (ancient cultural history, interpretations based on his moral concepts) based on the different
Classics.
• Confucius ‘philosophy is HUMANISTIC. It occupies mainly with HUMAN RELATIONS and VIRTUE. This,
his concept of the Yi (Righteousness) and Jen (human heartedness).
• Counfucianist’s great virtue were: benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, sincerity and
harmony.
• Confucius’ Ideas
 His Ethics is based upon the nature of man and society’
 For him MAN is essentially a social being; he is the main component of a society (made by the
individuals who compose it and the interaction they have each other)
 A MORAL man is the cooperating member of the society.
 The measures of the man’s life is not “how long” but “how good”.
 All men desire happiness and in order to achieve it everyone’s goal must be to make each other happy.
 The secret of his mark in history is based on the great emphasis on the Supremacy of HUMAN VALUES.
WISDOM is to KNW men; VIRTUE is to LOVE men”.
 A government is GOOD when it make its people happy
 The government should bring about welfare and happiness of the whole people.
 A good government must be administered by the most capable men of the country- those who have
the CHARACTER and KNOWLEDGE.
 Character and knowledge were produced by PROPER EDUCATION

CONFUCIANISM: DOCTRONE OF JEN

 Jen or benevolence is the central thesis of his whole system- his ethic, politics and his life ideal-flowed
from this; this is the PERFECT and SUPREME VIRTUE.
 The Jen stresses correct procedure fir human relations-proper way for men to meet each other’s
leading to positive efforts for the good of others.
 A man of Jen is man of all around virtue
 Jean is the Confucian ideal of:
- Cultivating human relations
- Developing human faculties
- Sublimating one’s personality
- Upholding human rights
 To achieve Jen one must practice the Chung and the Shu (the Principle of Reciprocity).
- Chung- means faithfulness; a state of the mind when one is completely honest with himself
- Shu- means altruisn; it is regard for the others; a state of mind when one has complete understanding
and sympathy with the outside world, the opposite of selfishness.

Five Main Philosophies of Education

1. Essentialism: Main proponent-William Bagley

2. Progressivism: “Education is nor preparation for life” Main proponent-John Dewey
3. Perennialism: Main proponent- Robert Hutchins
4. Existentialism: Existence precede essence” Main proponent- Jean Paul Sarte
5. Behaviorism: Main proponent-John Watson

Man by nature is curious. He wants to know the “whatness, whyness, and howness” of the things around
him. It is in the exploring of things that he finds fulfillment for the numerous complexities that confront
him. The eagerness to look for more answers or find solution to manifolds problems that beset him leads
him to the unending journey of seeking for truth. Truly, this manifests the true desire of man which is to
know. It affirms not only his essence, his rationality. It is also a fulfillment of his purpose to keep the
truth and pass it from one generation to another so as to preserve humanity. Ideas flow from the human
mind eternally. It is in the ideas that the truth lies. Unending as the ideas are, the more the need for a
man to harness and cultivates it to perfection. Ideas that are not nourished and protected will not just
prevent man in possessing the truth but it will also deprive him a taste of his rationality. Hence , ideas
must and should be at all times shine in luster of naturalness, profound by simplicity and contain true
and real meaning.

The truth in the ideas must be preserved in as much as man wants to preserve the gift of knowledge and
wisdom that it brings. And delicate as it is, it should be protected from all forms of deterioration and
artificialities. Presented it maybe in various ways, the real meaning must be conveyed at all

times. It is philosophizing that the ideas can be best presented and conveyed. This can be best enhanced
through proper education. Since then philosophy and education complement and work hand-in-hand in
the acquisition of knowledge and the preservation of Truth. True enough, one can say then that
Philosophy is knowledge and Education is the most essential tool of philosophy in the search for wisdom
and truth.

Man and Philosophy: The ultimate aim of man is to possess for the Truth. The process ends not in the
search but in the possession of the truth. It is in his capacity to think, to rationalize that the
responsibility of philosophizing is realized. It is but proper then to have a closer look on the man and a
glimpse of what philosophy is, so that we can fully understand the meaning of our search for the truth
and the desire to possess it.

Definition of Man: The quest for the truth is the ultimate goal of man. There is no way but up, the goal is
to achieve it. Thus, man is defined vertically as Rational Animal.

Innate in man is the desire to be with his fellow beings. It is in his relationship with others that
fulfillment of another dimension of his rationality is achieved. Time and time, it has been proven that
man cannot live by himself alone. The need to share himself with others-share his innermost thoughts,
feelings, experiences and unravel the kind of person he is-is a must fully realize the aspect of being
political animal. Hence, the aim to develop a relationship not only with him spreads to other beings.
Here he develops friendship, camaraderie, companionship with other fellow beings. He grows and finds
fulfillment with them. This, man is defined horizontally as a SOCIAL or POLITICAL ANIMAL.

Being rational and social or political animal are not enough to realize the value of man. Another aspect
must also be present, functionality. Man is created for a certain reason or purpose. He has a role to
perform in order to preserve him and all other beings. He is the steward of the world. In this regard, man
should work. Hence man is defines as a Working Animal.

Relationship of Philosophy and Education: While philosophy establishes the fundamental principles
(concepts, theories, learning). It is Education that carries out these principle. Furthermore, it is
Philosophy that provides the goal or aims while Education is the instrument in realizing these goals.
Philosophy and Education complement each other. Both of them spouse theory and practice. The
absence of one of the one will make a man insufficient and aimless.

NATURALISM

 Rooted from Ancient Philosopher such as Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes

 Denies everything that has supernatural significance-dogmas/revelations-for all can only be found
through nature
 Preserves the natural goodness of man
 Truth can only be found nature
 Advocates: J.J. Russeau, John Lock, Montaigne
 On Education
 Naturalism stands for democratic and universal way-everyone must be educated in the same manner.
 Education is in accordance to human development and growth
 Emphasis is given more on the physical development- informal exercise-and hygiene of the person
rather of the 3R’s
 Aims to unfold the child’s potential not to prepare him for a definite vocation or social position-but to
prepare him to adapt to the changing times and needs. Consequently, ones conduct is governed by
impulse, instinct and experience.
 NOT writing poems
 Jean Jacques Rousseau claimed that everyone is essentially good. This view can help the teacher best
when--- dealing with misbehaving students
 NOT Analyzing expositions
 Believes in things that exist within the physical realm of nature which is itself the source of value
 A democratic and universal way-everyone must be educated in the same manner"
 person rather of the 3 R's"
 One's conduct is governed by impulse, instincts and experience."
 It puts the child at the center of educational process and prepares him to experience life as it is."

IDEALISM

 Ideas are the only true reality, the ultimate truths for matter is nothing but just a mere representation
of ideas.
 Emphasis is given on knowledge obtained by speculation and reasoning for its central tenet is that
ideas are the only thing worth knowing for.
 Focus is on conscious reasoning of the mind in order to attain truth. This includes the activities
pertinent to the human mind such as introspection and intuition and the use of logic.
 Advocates: Socrates, Plato
 On Education.
 Its aim is to discover the full potentials in child and cultivates it in order to prepare him for a better
position in the society and for him to serve the society better.
 Emphasis is given on subjects-philosophy, literature, religion and history that will develop and
enhance the mind of a child
 Methods used in teaching include lecture, discussion and the Socratic dialogue.
 Character development is through emulation of examples and heroes.
 Knowledge is arrived through reasoning
 Freud's superego
 Honesty remains a value if nobody in an organization values it.
 Mrs. Tan always ask her students to memorize and recite poems and speeches they have studied in
her literature class.
 To come to closer to the truth we need to "go back on the things themselves
 The spiritual nature of man and stresses that the human spirit, soul or mind are the most important
elements in life
 Faith, hope, and love are values now and forever whether they will be valued by people or not.
 Has the educational objective to indoctrinate Filipinos to accept the teachings of the Catholic Church
which is to foster faith in God.
 Virtue as one component in the teaching of Rizal as a course focuses on the teaching of good and
beauty consistent with the good and beauty in God.
 A Christian Living teacher, puts so much significance on values development and discipline.
 A teacher who lectures most of the time and requires his students to memorize the rules of grammar?
 Teacher Zany is an inspiration to almost of the students. Her efficiency and effectiveness in the
profession is truly outstanding. Which of the following describe this attitude toward her?
 Ideas are the only true reality, the ultimate truths for matter is nothing but just a mere representation
of ideas.
 Focus is on conscious reasoning of the mind in order to attain truth.
 Focus includes the activities pertinent to the human mind such as introspection and intuition and the
use of logic

REALISM
 Concerns with the actualities of life, what is real.
 Ultimate reality is the world of physical objects. Hence, reality is independent of the human mind.
 Objective existence of the world and beings in it
 Knowability of these objects as they are in themselves
 Advocates: Aristotle, St. Thomas and Jonathan Herbart
 On Education:
 The most effective way to find about reality is to study it through organized, separate and
systematically arranged matter- emphasis is on subject matter concerning Science and Mathematics
 Methods used in teaching include recitation, experimentation and demonstration
 Character development is through training in the rules of conduct
 Values are eternal
 truth exists in an objective order that is independent of the knower
 A movement based on the belief that education should be concerned with actualities of life, in effect it
was a form of protest against the formalism of humanist and the religious reformers.
 The inclusion of the study of Rizal and other national heroes in the school curriculum in order to
inculcate love of country is based on a (an).
 Believes that learning requires disciplined attention, regular homework, and respect for legitimate
authority?
 The belief that sometimes it is better to make a "wrong" decision when there is urgency than make a
"right decision too late," is encouraged
 When teachers are convinced that it is best to teach students the skill to adapt to change since change
is the only thing permanent in this world, they subscribe to the philosophy
 Your teacher is of the opinion that the world and everything in it are ever changing and so teaches you
the skill to cope with change which is his governing
 The logic behind the practice of using lecture method in tackling long lesson in history is
 Stresses that knowledge is the result scientific inquiry?
 Methods used in teaching include recitation, experimentation and demonstration"
 Character development is through training in the rules of conduct"
 emphasis is on subject matter concerning Science and Mathematics"

EXISTENTIALISM
 Rooted from the dehumanization of man by technology and reaction to the traditional Philosophy of
Kant and Hegel
 Defining feature is “ existence precede essence” - Man conceives and makes of himself
 Known as the Philosophy of Subjectivity - Proclaims man’s freedom in the accomplishment of his
destiny
 Conceives philosophy as something that is human life and the choice that each person has to make.
 Advocates: Soren Kierkegaard, Jean Paul Sarte
 On Education:
 Subject matter is a personal choice
 Learning is based on the willingness of the student to choose and give meaning to the subject
 Emphasis is given on the students rather than on curriculum content
 Students should not be treated as objects measured or standardized
Methods are geared on giving opportunities for the students for self-actualization and self-direction.
 Character development is through the personality of every individual in making a decision.
 Schools exist for children to know themselves and their place in society
 The school is a place where individuals -- Can meet to pursue dialogue and discussion about their lives
& choices
 Every person has the same predicament and the same possibilities." This is said by an teacher who
adheres to _ principles
 Schools should teach students to make responsible choices and be made accountable for such choices
 The learner can choose what he can become despite his environment.
 Approach every student/pupil as- she/he is without allowing yourself to be influenced by your
foreknowledge of her/his home background.
 Identify the ninth intelligence which is described as the ability to seek connections involving one's
place in the family, school, community and "role in the world." They ask "why are we here?" This
intelligence is termed
 Principal C shares this thought with his teachers: Subject matter should help students understand and
appreciate themselves as unique individuals who accept complete responsibility for their thoughts,
feelings, and actions
 As a member of the curriculum committee, your chief concern is to give the child freedom to choose
what to learn and believe, as you allow them to set their own identities and standards.
 Teacher M views his students as unique, free-choosing and responsible individuals. All classroom
activities revolve around the said premise.
 In his class, Teacher Jakob always presents principles and values so as to encourage his students to
examine them and decide for themselves whether to accept them or not.
 That training in the humanities is most important
 Richard excels in classifying current types of leaves and rocks. He love sot collect specimens and
catalogs them. His strength is
 Man first exists the defines him/herself
 A balance between freedom and responsibility
 A teacher who always consults the students whenever decisions have to made like number in a school
program, class customs for the intramurals, etc
 Subject matter is personal choice
 Learning is based on the willingness of the student to choose and give meaning to the subject
 Emphasis is given on the students rather than on the curriculum content
 Students should not be treated as objects to be measured and standardized
 Methods are geared on giving opportunities for the students for self-actualization and self-direction
 Character development is through the responsibility of every individual in making a decision

ESSENTIALISM
 Rooted in idealism and realism and arose in response to progressive education
 Defining feature is ”essence precedes existence”
 Refers to the traditional or back to basic approach in education
 Concerns with the fundamental of education skill and knowledge without which a
person can’t either be efficient individually or socially
 Advocates: William Bagley, James Koerner, H.G. Rickover, Paul Copperman
 On Education:
 Schooling is practical for this will prepare students to become competent and valuable members of the
society.
 Focuses on the “basics”-reading, writing, speaking and the ability to compute (arithmetic)
 Subjects that are given emphasis include geography, grammar, reading, history, mathematics, art and
hygiene
 Stresses the values of hard work, perseverance, discipline, and respect to authorities to students.
 Students should be taught to think logically and systematically-grasping not just the parts but the
whole (entirely)
 Methods of teaching centers on giving regular assignments, drills, recitation, frequent testing and
evaluations.
 From the very start students must be made to realize that study is indeed hard work
 Specialization is knowing more and more about less and less". Then it is better to be a generalist,
claims Teacher Lani
 Schools should go back to basics, they should teach the 3 R's
 Teacher R asserts that he needs to make his students get interested in the subject whether they like it
or not or may not get interested at all
 The authority of the teachers and the value of a subject matter curriculum
 the teacher is the sole authority in her field of specialization
 Believes in the doctrine that there is an indispensable common core of culture that can be identified
and should be taught to all with religious standards of achievements.
 The Department of Education gives greater emphasis on the development of basic skills
 Learning requires disciplined attention, regular homework, and respect for legitimate authority
 The back to basic curriculum is essence a (an) curriculum.
 Subject matter should help students understand and appreciate themselves as unique individuals who
accept complete responsibility for their thoughts, feelings and actions
 The thought that the teacher is the sole authority in her field of specialization
 Increasing the time basic subjects to facilitate acculturation of basic literacy by providing basic and
needed essential skills is anchored on the philosophy
 Methods of teaching center on giving regular assignments, drills, recitation, frequent testing and
evaluation
PRAGMATISM
 What is experienced and observed is true. Hence, what is useful is true.
 Synonymous to functionality and practicality
 Focuses more on praxis’
 Thought must produce actions (realization) rather than continue lying inside the mind and leading
into uncertainty
 Advocates: Charles Sanders Peicer, John Dewey
 On Education:
 Involves students to work in groups
 Methods of teaching include experimentation, project making and problem solving
 Stresses on the application of what have learned rather than the transfer of the organized body of
knowledge
 Word meanings aid textual understanding.
 Providing learners opportunities to apply theories and principles
 Provide her students to apply their skills and abilities
 The philosophical doctrine that emphasizes the role of experience rather than the role of reason as the
source of knowledge.
 Knowledge is true if it is workable.
 The significance of liberal education in holistic development of students is supported
 The environment of education should be life itself, where the experience living, not prepare for it.
 I cannot see perfection but I long for it. So it must be real

PERENNIALISM
 The word itself means” eternal”, ageless, everlasting, unchanged’
 Influenced by the philosophy of realism
 Truth is universal and does not depend on circumstances of place, time and person.
 To learn means to acquire understanding of great works of civilizations
 Advocates: Robert Hutchins, Mortimer Adler
 On Education:
 Some ideas in the past are still taught because they are significant
 Curriculum should contain cognitive subjects that cultivate rationally, morality, aesthetic and religious
principles. This includes history, language, mathematics, logic, literature, humanities and science.
 Curriculum must be based on recurrent themes of human life for it views education as recurring
process based on eternal truths
 The teacher must have the mastery of the subject matter and authority in exercising it.
 Aims for education of the rational person- to develop man’s power of thought
 The central aim of this philosophy
 Exercising the students higher order thinking skills
 teacher helps learners think with reason

 Act of knowledge takes place in the mind

 NOT Francis Bacon
 Schools should develop in the students' appreciation of the humanities. This way, they become highly
rational and moral.
 Curriculum should only include universal and unchanging truths.
 The learner is a rational being. Schools should develop his rational and moral powers
 After finishing the degree in education, teacher Tess learns that learning never stops. In fact, she
accumulates more knowledge after leaving the portal of her alma mater.
 Education aim the promotion of democratic and social living
 Man has the same essential nature with others.
 The teacher must have the mastery of the subject matter and authority in exercising it.

HUMANISM
 Rooted in the economic and political changes during the Renaissance period
 Has three main lines of growth: (1) Intellectual (includes Education, Aesthetic and -Scientific
 Divisions: Individualistic Humanism (Making the most out one’s life, Living life to the fullest and
stresses on individual freedom, culture and development), (2) Social Humanism (Aims for social rather
than individual happiness and Includes social reforms and improvement of social relationships)
 Advocates: Da Feltre, Erasmus, Pestalozzi
 On Education:
 Education is a process and should not be taken abruptly. The unfolding of human character proceeds
with the unfolding f nature
 The learner should be in control of his destiny
 Concern is more on methods which include theme writing rather than of oral discussions, drills and
exercises, playing.
 Asserts the importance of playing in the curriculum
 Emphasizes motivations and the use of praise and rewards
 Curriculum includes subjects concerning literary appreciation, physical education, social training in
manners and development
 Teacher L gives his students opportunities to be creative because of his conviction that much learning
results from the need to express creativity.
 The strengthening of liberal education which includes classical literature in the curriculum
 The inclusion of Logic in the curriculum is perhaps an influence of the importance of logic that
stressed
 Our present educational system gives more emphasis on science and technology.
 The learning of social graces, rules of etiquette or good manners and right conduct was given much
importance in
 Curriculum includes subjects concerning literary appreciation, physical education, social training in
manners and development."

PROGRESSIVISM
 Contrasted the traditional view of essentialism and perennialism
 Emphasizes change and growth
 Stresses that man is a social animal who learns well through active interplay with others
 Learning is based from the questions of one’s experience of the world. Hence, it is the learner himself
if who thinks, solves and gives meaning through his individual experience.
 Proponent: John Dewey
 On Education:
 Focuses on the child as a whole rather than of the content or the teacher
 Curriculum content comes from the questions and interests of the students
 Emphasis is given on the validation of ideas by students through active experimentation
 Methods of teaching include discussions, interaction (teacher with students) and group dynamics
 Opposes the extreme reliance on bookish method of instruction, learning through memorization, the
use of fear and punishment and the four (4) walled philosophy of education
 Active participation of the learners
 continues process of experiencing and visiting or reorganizing experience
 If your students appear to be more interested in a topic outside your planned lesson for the day, you
set aside your lesson plan for that day and take the opportunity to discuss the topic of particular interest
to your students. Strike the iron while it is hot!
 Schools should help develop students to become enlightened and intelligent citizens of a democratic
society.
 Let's make the use of the experiential methods of teaching.
 The learner is a social being who learns well through an active interplay with others.
 The use of values clarification as a strategy in Values Education
 The practice of non-graded instruction stems from .
 All learning should center on the child's interests and needs. The school should be a pleasant place for
learning. Its emphasis is on the child as the learner and not on subject matter, on activities and
experience than on textbook.
 the subjects are interdisciplinary, integrative and interactive
 Mr. Rivera, a new teacher believes that education is a process of development and is life itself,
therefore, experience related to the child's need and interest should be given primary consideration.
 Teacher V demonstrated the technique on how to group students according to their needs and
interests and how to use self-paced instructional materials.
 The practice of schools acting as laboratory for teaching reforms and experimentation?
 If it is billiard that brings students out of the classroom, let us bring it into the classroom. Perhaps, I
can use it to teach Math.
 the basis of a curriculum if the subjects are interdisciplinary.
 Human beings are capable of improving and perfect their environment
 When a mother ask her fourth year high school son what he would like to take in college, she is in a
little way applying
 The means and ends of education must be completely refashioned to meet the demands of the present
cultural crisis

NATIONALISM
 Rapid rise was in the 18th century
 Center of ideology is the concept of national sovereignty
 Aims for the preservation and glorification of the State
 Emphasis is on the development of loyalty, patriotism, national feeling and responsible citizenship
 Advocates: Jonathan Herbart, Johan Heinrich Pestalozzi
 On Education:
 The most important development was the creation of common language
 Stresses on the teaching of the principles of democracy and duties of citizenship
 Stimulates the development of the state which includes the control and support of public school
system
 Curriculum includes the teaching of grammar, geography and history
 Method of teaching gives emphasis on the content regarding on nature studies, physical exercises and
play activities.

CONSTRUCTIVISM
 A philosophy of learning which asserts that reality does exist outside of human conceptions. It is the
individual that construct reality by reflecting on his own experience and gives meaning to it.
 Learning is the process of adjusting one’s mental modes to accommodate new experience
 On Education:
 Scaffolding is integral to the theory of learning
 Jerome Bruner's idea that learning is constructing new ideas based on current and past knowledge is
the essence of .
 One learns Math by building on Math lessons previously learned. This is an application of the theory.
 After listening to the homily of the priest about fidelity, Cathy has a moment of reflection. Her
understanding of the value of fidelity has become deeper as she related this to her past experience
 What individuals learn depends on the meaning they give the new knowledge acquired.
 Man is a maker of meaning
 Man is a constructor of knowledge
 Learning approach based on relevant experiences
Two of the following learning theories have some influences on educational technology.
 flexible and creative
 One who enables learners to become discoverers of knowledge
 Attribute wheel
 Open and flexible
 For learners to learn, knowledge should be transmitted directly from teachers to learners.
 Student writes a reaction paper to an article read in the Internet. AND Student does group project
PowerPoint presentation to the class.
 Make her students derive meaning from what is presented
 memorization of facts for testing
 Hypotheses
 NOT Unquestionable laws
 Students learn by personally constructing meaning of what is taught.
 engage his students in convergent thinking
 the curriculum holds that the school role is to remake society
 Needs and interest of learners are prioritized
 Students construct and reconstruct meanings based on experiences
 A learning which asserts that reality does not exist outside of human conceptions. It is the individual
who constructs reality by reflecting on his own experience and gives meaning to it
 Learning is the process of adjusting one's mental modes to accommodate new experience

RECONTRUCTIVISM

 A philosophy that aims to awaken the consciousness of individual about the social issues, concerns
and problems that comfort him. This should involve him to look for solutions and engage in addressing
this social concerns and issues
 Primary goal is to achieve the elusive Social Change.
 Advocates: Theodore Brameld, George Counts, Paulo Friere
 On Education:
 Schools should originate policies and progress that will bring social reforms and others
 Teachers should be an instrument to encourage and lead students in program of social reforms
 Curriculum emphasis on social reforms as the aim of education. It focuses on student experience and
taking social actions on real problems.
 Method of teachings include the problem oriented type (students are encouraged to critically examine
cultural heritage), group discussions, inquiry, dialogues, interactions and community-based learning.
 The classroom will serve as a laboratory in experimenting school practices bringing the world into the
classroom.
 Involving students in extension activities such as community projects makes them aware of the
people's needs and problems, suggestion ways to minimize them if not totally solve them is identified
with
 Social problem
 NOT Promoting culture and arts in schools
 The class undertakes well-planned projects in the community.
 Prepare activities for social life and adjustment
 I must teach the child every knowledge, skills and value that he needs for a better future.
 Teacher is an agent of change
 reconstruction of current problems
 Focus on ideas for changing the school order
 Schools should develop in the students the ability to adapt to a changing world."
 Present trends and current issues of national and international interests are discussed in the
curriculum
 Scouting and Citizen's Army Training (CAT) give training in character-building, citizenship training,
etc. which leads to the creation of a new social order and a new society eventually.
 Activities planned by school clubs/organizations show school-community connection geared towards
society's needs.
 Focuses on the role of curriculum as a means in remarking society and rebuilding culture
 The curriculum which makes the school adopt approaches that seek a variety of methods to make
education more responsive to human social needs

BEHAVIORISM
 Rooted in the work of Russian experimental psychologist Ivan Pavlov and American psychologist John
Watson in the early 1990’s
 Asserts that human beings are shaped entirely by their external environment
 The only reality is the physical world
 Man by nature is neither good nor bad but a product of his environment. Hence, an autonomous acting
man is but an illusion since it negates the faculty of freewill
 Advocates: John Watson, B.F. Skinner

UTILITARIANISM
 Actions are geared toward the greatest total amount of happiness that one can achieved

RATIONALISM
Source of knowledge is the mind, independent of the senses
EMPIRICISM
 Source of knowledge is the sense-based experience
EXPERIMENTALISM
 Form empiricism and asserts that they only reliable form of knowledge is gained through scientific
experiments

HEDONISM
 Pleasure is the only good thing to the person
 Used as a justification in evaluating action by giving emphasis on ’how much’ pleasure can be achieved
and how little pain that the action entails
EPICUREANISM
 Considers as a form of ancient hedonism, it identifies pleasure with tranquility and reduction of desire
 Epicurus claimed that the highest pleasure consists of a simple and moderate life.

THE MORAL PRINCIPLES OF A TEACHERS

BASIC SKILLS OF A TEACHER

1. FUNCTIONAL SKILL: This involves the skill of a teacher in planning, organizing, controlling,
communicating, motivating, developing and managing.
2. ADAPTIVE SKILLS: Skills like creativity, dependability, resourcefulness, persuasiveness, discipline,
memory, perceptiveness and other personal skills related to self-management
3. PROFESSIONAL SKILLS: This refers to skills a kin to work content. It includes the teacher’s knowledge
of the subject matter to be taught, as well as his understanding of philosophical, psychological, legal,
social, historical dimensions of education
a. he professional teacher possesses an in-depth understanding of the principles governing human
behavior.
b. The professional teacher exhibits attitudes that poster learning and authentic human relationship.
B.1 attitude towards him/himself
B.2 attitude towards others
B.3 attitude towards peers, superiors, and parents
B.4 attitude towards the subject matter
c. The professional teacher possesses mastery of the subject matter
d. The professional teacher must possesses the competency to facilitate learning through appropriate
teaching skills
e. The professional teacher must be able to translate knowledge into practical/reality

ROLES DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF AN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHER AND A

SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHER AS STATED IN THE QUALIFICATION STANDARDS

A novice teacher is confronted with various apprehensions. One worries how to efficiently handle the
routines of classroom. To become an effective and competent teacher entails a tedious works. One must
be aware of the different roles, duties, and responsibilities a teacher must assume. These are:
–Teaches subjects
–Enrolls pupils/students
–Prepares effective lesson plans
–Prepares visual aids and other devices for instruction
–Sees to it that pupils/students in his/her advisory class provided with necessary textbooks when
available.
–Implements rules and regulations
–Conducts guidance services for his/her advisory class
–Evaluates pupils/students’ progress and provides various experiences for their continuous
development
–Supervises curricular and co-curricular projects and activities of the pupils/ students
–Checks/records the attendance of the pupils/students
–Keeps up-to-date anecdotal records of pupils/students
–Keeps school records and prepares required reports
–Keeps parents informed on pupils/student’s progress
–Attends and participates in in-service trainings and faculty meetings
–Executed the administration of school polices designed for the welfare of the pupils/student’s
–Maintains membership in professional organizations
–Works with other school personnel, parents, and the community
–Participates in the socio-economic development projects in the community
–Coordinates and cooperates with other teachers in school projects or activities
–Safeguard school facilities and equipment
–Does other related works
RLES DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF AN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHER AND A SECONDARY
S THE TEACHER AS A PROFESSION
The teacher as a person cannot be detached from a teacher as a professional. Other than the skills of an
effective teacher, the teacher as an individual person must possesses certain psychologically/personal
characteristics, such as:
A. Personality Characteristics
– A.1 achievement/Intelligence
–A.2 directness
–A.3 flexibility
–A.4 emotional stability
–A.5 self- motivation and drive
–A.6 dominance and self confidence
–A.7attractiveness and pleasantness
–A.8 refinement

B. Attitude
–B.1 Motivation to teach
–B.2 empathy toward learners
–B.3 commitment
–B.4 objectiveness
–B.5 buoyancy
–B.6 resourcefulness
–B.7 cooperativeness
–B.8 reliability and dependability

C. Experience
–C.1 year of teaching
C.2 experience in subjects taught
–C.3 experience with particular grade/year level

D. Aptitude / Achievement
–D.1 scores in ability test
–D.2 College grade/point average
–D.4 student teaching evaluation SCHOOL TEACHER AS STATED IN THE QUALIFICATION STANDARDS

TEACHER AS GLOBAL
DEFINITION OF GLOBAL EDUCATION: Study of Nations and People, that it is “an effort to help
individuals to see the world as a single and global system and to see themselves as participants of that
system.” Similarly, James Becker Says in his article, Goals of Global Education that the overall goal of his
aspect is to, “incorporate into the educational curriculum and the educational experience of each student
a knowledge and empathy of cultures of the nation and the world (and to) draw into existing courses of
study the illustrations and references to political, social and cultural themes. Students will be encourage
to take a global perspective, seeing the world as a whole.” With this in mind, teaching with the adoption
of the ideology of global education, children learn to perceive themselves as a participant of a large
global culture. Children learn of various cultures and cultural perspective which makes them better able
to relate and function in a one-world environment under teachers who are intellectually, professionally
and humanly prepares.

UNESCO defines global education as “a goal to become aware of the educational conditions or lack of it,
and aim to educate all people to certain world standards. It may also be defined “curriculum that is
international in scope”.
Multicultural education enables teachers and educators to give value to the difference in prior
knowledge, experiences of learners from diverse background and familiarity with student’s histories of
diverse cultures

THE TEACHER AS A CORPORATE PROFESSIONAL

Polished Look
–Dress suited for a professional
–Tasteful accessories (jewelry, bags, shoes, etc.)
–Tasteful make –up for female
–Personal hygiene

Polished Demeanor
–Professional walking
–The professional ‘Sit”
–The professional “handshake”

Polished Language
–Voice
–Gesture

Classification of Teaching Methods

–Traditional: old-fashion way of teaching
–Time-tested: methods that stood the test of time and are still being used at present
–Progressive: these are newer and more improved methods of teaching
- It makes use of the principles of learning
- It utilizes the principles of “learning by doing
- It provides for growth and development
- it liberates the learners
- it stimulates thinking and reasoning

THE TEACHER, SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY RELATIONS

Schools and community are linked together to provide support to parents who are charged with the
primordial responsibility to educate their children. Schools will not succeed without the participation of
parents. (NCBTD-Based In-Service Teacher Training Modules. The members of the community, in
addition to the parents and the school, include the local government units, the non-government agencies
civic organizations and all the residents

PARENTAL INVLOVEMENT: The influence of parental involvement on a student’s academic success

should not be underestimated. While brain power, work ethic, and even genetics all play important roles
in student achievement, the determining factor comes down to what kind of support system she has at
home.

School and Community Relations: The school and the community are the mainsprings of effective and
powerful forces that can create a wholesome climate for mutual gains and betterment
 PTCA
 Public safety, beautification and cleanliness
 Instructional centers in the community

Linkages and Networking with Organizations: The school can enjoy linkages and networking activities
with international, national and local organizations in the community for mutual benefits and assistance
needed
 International (Pi Lamda Theta, Innotech, World Council for Curriculum Instruction)
 National and local ( cross enrollment, joint researches)
 Networking (consortia, BIOTA, MATHED, MTAP, SUCTEA, NOPTI, FAAP, PACU-COA, PAASCU, AACUP
NOTED etc.)

NATIONAL COMPETENCY BASED TEACHER STANDARDS (NCBTS)

CURRICULUM. This refers to all elements of the teaching-learning process that work in convergence to
help students understand the curricular goals and objectives, and to attain high standards of learning
defined in the curriculum. These elements include the teacher’s knowledge of subject matter and the
learning process, teaching-learning approaches and activities, instructional materials and learning
resources.
• Demonstrates mastery of the subject matter.
• Communicates clear learning goals for the lessons that are appropriate for learners.
• Makes good use of allotted instructional time.
• Selects teaching methods, learning activities and instructional materials or resources appropriate to
learners and aligned to the objectives of the lesson.
• Teacher recognizes general learning processes as well as unique processes of individual learners.
• Teacher promotes purposively study.
• Teacher demonstrates skills in the use of information and Communication Technology in teaching and
learning.

PLANNING, ASSESSING & REPORTING. The domain of Planning, Assessing and Reporting refers to the
alignment of assessment and planning activities. In particular, the domain focuses on the:
(1) use of assessment data to plan and revise teaching-learning plans
(2) the integration of assessment procedures in the plan and implementation of teaching -learning
activities
(3) reporting on learner’s actual achievement and behavior. Communicates promptly and clearly to
learners, parents and superiors about the progress of learners.

• Develops and uses a variety of appropriate assessment strategies to monitor and evaluate learning.
• Monitors regularly and provides feedback on learners’ understanding of content.

COMMUNITY LINKAGES. The domain of Community Linkages focuses on the ideal that classroom
activities are meaningfully linked to the experiences and aspirations of the students in their homes and
communities. Thus the domain focuses on teachers’ efforts directed at strengthening the links between
schools and communities, particularly as these links help in the attainment of the curricular goals.
• Establishes learning environments that respond to the aspirations of the community.

PERSONAL GROWTH & PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT. The domain of Personal Growth and
Professional Development emphasizes the ideal that teachers value having a high personal regard for
the teaching profession, concern for professional development, and continuous improvement as
teachers.
• Takes pride in the nobility of teaching as a profession.
• Builds profession links with colleagues to enrich teaching practice.
• Reflects on the extent of the attainment of professional development goals.

CODE OF ETHICS FOR PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS

Pursuant to the provisions of paragraph (e), Article 11, of R.A. No. 7836, otherwise known as the
Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994 and paragraph (a), section 6, P.D. No. 223, as
amended, the Board for Professional Teachers hereby adopt the Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers.

Preamble

Teachers are duly licensed professionals who possesses dignity and reputation with high moral values as
well as technical and professional competence in the practice of their noble profession, and they strictly
adhere to, observe, and practice this set of ethical and moral principles, standards, and values.

Article I: Scope and Limitations

Section 1. The Philippine Constitution provides that all educational institution shall offer quality
education for all competent teachers. Committed to its full realization, the provision of this Code shall
apply, therefore, to all teachers in schools in the Philippines.

Section 2. This Code covers all public and private school teachers in all educational institutions at the
preschool, primary, elementary, and secondary levels whether academic, vocational, special, technical, or
non-formal. The term teachers shall include industrial arts or vocational teachers and all other persons
performing supervisory and /or administrative functions in all school at the aforesaid levels, whether on
full time or part-time basis.

Article II: The Teacher and the State

Section 1. The schools are the nurseries of the future citizens of the state; each teacher is a trustee of the
cultural and educational heritage of the nation and is under obligation to transmit to learners such
heritage as well as to elevate national morality, promote national pride, cultivate love of country, instill
allegiance to the constitution and for all duly constituted authorities, and promote obedience to the laws
of the state.

Section 2. Every teacher or school official shall actively help carry out the declared policies of the state,
and shall take an oath to this effect.

Section 3. In the interest of the State and of the Filipino people as much as of his own, every teacher

shall be physically, mentally and morally fit.

Section 4. Every teacher shall possess and actualize a full commitment and devotion to duty. Section 5. A
teacher shall not engage in the promotion of any political, religious, or other partisan interest, and shall
not, directly or indirectly, solicit, require, collect, or receive any money or service or other valuable
material from any person or entity for such purposes.

Section 6. Every teacher shall vote and shall exercise all other constitutional rights and responsibility.
Section 7. A teacher shall not use his position or official authority or influence to coerce any other person
to follow any political course of action.

Section 8. Every teacher shall enjoy academic freedom and shall have privilege of expounding the product
of his researches and investigations; provided that, if the results are inimical to the declared policies of
the State, they shall be brought to the proper authorities for appropriate remedial action.

Article III: The Teacher and the Community

Section 1. A teacher is a facilitator of learning and of the development of the youth; he shall, therefore,
render the best service by providing an environment conducive to such learning and growth.

Section 2. Every teacher shall provide leadership and initiative to actively participate in community
movements for moral, social, educational, economic and civic betterment.

Section 3. Every teacher shall merit reasonable social recognition for which purpose he shall behave with
honor and dignity at all times and refrain from such activities as gambling, smoking, drunkenness, and
other excesses, much less illicit relations.

Section 4. Every teacher shall live for and with the community and shall, therefore, study and understand
local customs and traditions in order to have sympathetic attitude, therefore, refrain from disparaging the
community.

Section 5. Every teacher shall help the school keep the people in the community informed about the
schools work and accomplishments as well as its needs and problems.

Section 6. Every teacher is intellectual leader in the community, especially in the barangay, and shall
welcome the opportunity to provide such leadership when needed, to extend counseling services, as
appropriate, and to actively be involved in matters affecting the welfare of the people.

Section 7. Every teacher shall maintain harmonious and pleasant personal and official relations with
other professionals, with government officials, and with the people, individually or collectively.

Section 8. A teacher possess freedom to attend church and worships as appropriate, but shall not use his
positions and influence to proselyte others.

Article IV: A Teacher and the Profession

Section 1. Every teacher shall actively insure that teaching is the noblest profession, and shall manifest
genuine enthusiasm and pride in teaching as a noble calling.

Section 2. Every teacher shall uphold the highest possible standards of quality education, shall make the
best preparations for the career of teaching, and shall be at his best at all times and in the practice of his
profession.
Section 3. Every teacher shall participate in the Continuing Professional Education (CPE) program of the
Professional Regulation Commission, and shall pursue such other studies as will improve his efficiency,
enhance the prestige of the profession, and strengthen his competence, virtues, and productivity in order
to be nationally and internationally competitive.

Section 4. Every teacher shall help, if duly authorized, to seek support from the school, but shall not make
improper misrepresentations through personal advertisements and other questionable means. Section 5.
Every teacher shall use the teaching profession in a manner that makes it dignified means for earning a
decent living.

Article V: The Teachers and the Profession

Section 1. Teachers shall, at all times, be imbued with the spirit of professional loyalty, mutual confidence,
and faith in one another, self-sacrifice for the common good, and full cooperation with colleagues. When
the best interest of the learners, the school, or the profession is at stake in any controversy, teachers shall
support one another.

Section 2. A teacher is not entitled to claim credit or work not of his own, and shall give due credit for the
work of others which he may use.

Section 3. Before leaving his position, a teacher shall organize for whoever assumes the position such
records and other data as are necessary to carry on the work.

Section 4. A teacher shall hold inviolate all confidential information concerning associates and the school,
and shall not divulge to anyone documents which has not been officially released, or remove records from
files without permission.

Section 5. It shall be the responsibility of every teacher to seek correctives for what may appear to be an
unprofessional and unethical conduct of any associate. However, this may be done only if there is
incontrovertible evidence for such conduct.

Section 6. A teacher may submit to the proper authorities any justifiable criticism against an associate,
preferably in writing, without violating the right of the individual concerned.

Section 7. A teacher may apply for a vacant position for which he is qualified; provided that he respects
the system of selection on the basis of merit and competence; provided, further, that all qualified
candidates are given the opportunity to be considered.

Article VI: The Teacher and Higher Authorities in the Profession

Section 1. Every teacher shall make it his duty to make an honest effort to understand and support the
legitimate policies of the school and the administration regardless of personal feeling or private opinion
and shall faithfully carry them out.

Section 2. A teacher shall not make any false accusations or charges against superiors, especially under
anonymity. However, if there are valid charges, he should present such under oath to competent
authority.

Section 3. A teacher shall transact all official business through channels except when special conditions
warrant a different procedure, such as when special conditions are advocated but are opposed by
immediate superiors, in which case, the teacher shall appeal directly to the appropriate higher authority.

Section 4. Every teacher, individually or as part of a group, has a right to seek redress against injustice to
the administration and to extent possible, shall raise grievances within acceptable democratic possesses.
In doing so, they shall avoid jeopardizing the interest and the welfare of learners who’s right to learn must
be respected.

Section 5. Every teacher has a right to invoke the principle that appointments, promotions, and transfer of
teachers are made only on the basis of merit and needed in the interest of the service. Section 6. A teacher
who accepts a position assumes a contractual obligation to live up to his contract, assuming full
knowledge of employment terms and conditions.

Article VII: School Officials, Teachers, and Other Personnel

Section 1. All school officials shall at all times show professional courtesy, helpfulness and sympathy
towards teachers and other personnel, such practices being standards of effective school supervision,
dignified administration, responsible leadership and enlightened directions.

Section 2. School officials, teachers, and other school personnel shall consider it their cooperative
responsibility to formulate policies or introduce important changes in the system at all levels. Section 3.
School officials shall encourage and attend the professional growth of all teachers under them such as
recommending them for promotion, giving them due recognition for meritorious performance, and
allowing them to participate in conferences in training programs.

Section 4. No school officials shall dismiss or recommend for dismissal a teacher or other subordinates
except for cause.

Section 5. School authorities concern shall ensure that public school teachers are employed in accordance
with pertinent civil service rules, and private school teachers are issued contracts specifying the terms
and conditions of their work; provided that they are given, if qualified, subsequent permanent tenure, in
accordance with existing laws.

Article VIII: The Teachers and Learners

Section 1. A teacher has a right and duty to determine the academic marks and the promotions of learners
in the subject or grades he handles, provided that such determination shall be in accordance with
generally accepted procedures of evaluation and measurement. In case of any complaint, teachers
concerned shall immediately take appropriate actions, observing due process.

Section 2. A teacher shall recognize that the interest and welfare of learners are of first and foremost
concern, and shall deal justifiably and impartially with each of them.

Section 3. Under no circumstance shall a teacher be prejudiced or discriminate against a learner. Section
4. A teacher shall not accept favors or gifts from learners, their parents or others in their behalf in
exchange for requested concessions, especially if undeserved.

Section 5. A teacher shall not accept, directly or indirectly, any remuneration from tutorials other what is
authorized for such service.

Section 6. A teacher shall base the evaluation of the learners work only in merit and quality of academic
performance.

Section 7. In a situation where mutual attraction and subsequent love develop between teacher and
learner, the teacher shall exercise utmost professional discretion to avoid scandal, gossip and preferential
treatment of the learner.

Section 8. A teacher shall not inflict corporal punishment on offending learners nor make deductions from
their scholastic ratings as a punishment for acts which are clearly not manifestation of poor scholarship.

Section 9. A teacher shall ensure that conditions contribute to the maximum development of learners are
adequate, and shall extend needed assistance in preventing or solving learners problems and difficulties.

Article IX: The Teachers and Parents

Section 1. Every teacher shall establish and maintain cordial relations with parents, and shall conduct
himself to merit their confidence and respect.

Section 2. Every teacher shall inform parents, through proper authorities, of the progress and deficiencies
of learner under him, exercising utmost candor and tact in pointing out the learner's deficiencies and in
seeking parent’s cooperation for the proper guidance and improvement of the learners.
Section 3. A teacher shall hear parent’s complaints with sympathy and understanding, and shall
discourage unfair criticism.

Article X: The Teacher and Business

Section 1. A teacher has the right to engage, directly or indirectly, in legitimate income generation;
provided that it does not relate to or adversely affect his work as a teacher.

Section 2. A teacher shall maintain a good reputation with respect to the financial matters such as in the
settlement of his debts and loans in arranging satisfactorily his private financial affairs.

Section 3. No teacher shall act, directly or indirectly, as agent of, or be financially interested in, any
commercial venture which furnish textbooks and other school commodities in the purchase and disposal
of which he can exercise official influence, except only when his assignment is inherently, related to such
purchase and disposal; provided they shall be in accordance with the existing regulations; provided,
further, that members of duly recognized teachers cooperatives may participate in the distribution and
sale of such commodities.

Article XI: The Teacher as a Person

Section 1. A teacher is, above all, a human being endowed with life for which it is the highest obligation to
live with dignity at all times whether in school, in the home, or elsewhere.

Section 2. A teacher shall place premium upon self-discipline as the primary principle of personal
behavior in all relationships with others and in all situations.

Section 3. A teacher shall maintain at all times a dignified personality which could serve as a model
worthy of emulation by learners, peers and all others.

Section 4. A teacher shall always recognize the Almighty God as guide of his own destiny and of the
destinies of men and nations.

Article XII: Disciplinary Actions

Section 1. Any violation of any provision of this code shall be sufficient ground for the imposition against
the erring teacher of the disciplinary action consisting of revocation of his Certification of Registration
and License as a Professional Teacher, suspension from the practice of teaching profession, or reprimand
or cancellation of his temporary/special permit under causes specified in Sec. 23, Article III or R.A. No.
7836, and under Rule 31, Article VIII, of the Rules and Regulations Implementing R.A. 7836.

Article XIII: Effectivity

Section 1. This Code shall take effect upon approval by the Professional Regulation Commission and after
sixty (60) days following its publication in the Official Gazette or any newspaper of general circulation,
whichever is earlier.

ETHICS GENERALIZATION
What is the definition of professional ethics? Professional ethics is defined as the personal and corporate
rules that govern behavior within the context of a particular profession. An example
of professional ethics is the American Bar Association's set of ethical rules that govern an attorney's
moral obligations.

What is the code of ethics? A code of ethics document may outline the mission and values of the business
or organization, how professionals are supposed to approach problems, the ethical principles based on
the organization's core values and the standards to which the professional is held.

Why is there code of ethics? A well-written code of conduct clarifies an organization's mission, values
and principles, linking them with standards of professional conduct. It can also serve as a valuable
reference, helping employees locate relevant documents, services and other resources related to ethics
within the organization.
What is the importance of professional ethics? Good Ethics is a fundamental requirement of any
profession. It is integral to the success of the business as well. Ethics is a system of moral principles
governing the appropriate conduct of a person or a group. Maintaining good ethics is being consistent
with the principles of correct moral conduct constantly.

What is the purpose of having a code of ethics? The word "ethics" comes from a Greek term meaning
"duty". Thus, a code of ethics consists of all the obligations that professionals must respect when
carrying out their duties. It includes the core values of the profession and the behaviour which should be
adopted; it's a code of professional conduct.

What is the difference between a code of ethics and a code of conduct? The terms “Code of Ethics” and
“Code of Conduct” are often mistakenly used interchangeably. They are, in fact, two unique documents.
Codes of ethics, which govern decision-making, and codes of conduct, which govern actions, represent
two common ways that companies self-regulate.

What are the Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers? 2. Preamble Teachers are duly licensed
professionals who possesses dignity and reputation with high moral values as well as technical and
professional competence in the practice of their noble profession, and they strictly adhere to, observe,
and practice this set of ethical and moral principles, standards, and values.

Why is it important to have a code of ethics for teachers? The code of ethics for teachers is designed to
protect the rights of the students, all the students. It is important
that teachers understand that when they get a teaching position they are agreeing to follow the code of
ethics You can't push your personal beliefs on students because they are a "captive
audience".

What are the ethics in teaching? Despite their contrasting lenses on moral development, when applied to
the teaching profession, these two ethical perspectives complement each other. Teachers should be
motivated by a universal respect for human life and also be guided by principles of caring.

What are the professional ethics of a teacher? As role models, teachers must follow a professional code
of ethics. This ensures that students receive a fair, honest and uncompromising
education. A professional code of ethics outlines teachers' main responsibilities to their students and
defines their role in students' lives.

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Organizational Plan
 Structured Classroom: The learning activities in a structured classroom are well-planned ahead of
time, and the procedures follow accepted rules and regulations established by the school.
 Flexible Classroom: In a flexible classroom, there is allowance for free movement, time allotment and
even in decisions regarding modes of undertaking the learning activities. It could be individualized
approach or Grouping.
Scheduling: Good time management is the key to a smooth flow of planned activities
Teachers must be able to plan thoroughly for their daily lessons and for additional activities such as:
 Parent – teacher conference after class
 Working with other teachers during occasional school events
 Preparing new teaching devices
 Advanced request for supplies and materials for the week’s lessons and for learning centers
 Supervising students along the corridors and school grounds or while eating in the canteen
Filler or Emergency Activities: If you will be able to finish the lesson ahead of time, be ready with
“fillers” or activities which are connected with the lesson

Tips for maintaining good time management

– Schedule all activities with corresponding time allotment ahead of time
– Provide enough time for everything you expected to happen
– Avoid rushing since you know have carefully allotted required time for every activity
– Be flexible with assignment
– Set the example by showing that you are time-conscious

Record keeping
– Daily attendance
– Students’ Progress
Physical Environment
– Maintaining cleanliness
– Using proper ventilation
– Avoiding unnecessary noise
– Bulletin boards and displays
– Seating arrangements

Discipline: Causes of discipline problems

– Overcrowded students in class
– Poor lighting facilities
– Inadequate ventilation
– Disorderly cabinets
– Inappropriate seating arrangement
– Near sources of noise

Prevention
– Cooperative learning, team learning, peer tutoring
– Switch form one technique to another as needed arises
– Patience, compassion, caring attitude, respect for others
– Warm, respectable relationship with students
– Unpretentious gestures
– Proper facial expression
– Kind words or praises
– Avoiding unusual closeness/favoritism and biased treatment

Common ways of establishing discipline/classroom control

– Discipline is students responsibility
– Discipline is the teacher’s way of establishing a desirable student-oriented environment for learning
– Discipline is coupled with effective teaching strategies and techniques
– Discipline is achieved through the effects of group dynamics on behavior

Tips to make the teacher a good disciplinarian

– Be prepared to face a class with multi-behavior tendencies
– Know your students well
– Show your sincere concern for their welfare
– Commendable behavior is reciprocal
– Be calm, poised and tactful
– Be firm at all times
– Be enthusiastic
– Practice good sense of humor
– Speak with good voice, volume and pitch
– Be humble

Common ways of dealing with discipline problems

Acceptable:
– Using verbal reinforces that encourage good behavior
– Using nonverbal gestures to dissuade them from mischief
– Dialogues could help discover problems and agree on mutually beneficial solution time out
– Awarding merits for good behavior
– A private, one-on-one brief conference
– Allowing students the freedom to express themselves

Unacceptable
– Scolding
– Harsh words
– Nagging
– Long sermons
– Keeping students in” detention area”
– Denying a student some privilege
– Using ridicule or sarcasm
– Assigning of additional homework
– Subtracting points from grades due to misbehavior

Establishing Routine: Routine is a regular procedure or a normal practice that is to be followed. It is a

 schedule of activities that is mostly time-spaced and is attuned to the lesson objectives. It contributes to
a smooth flow of activities this lessening the unnecessary disruptions. These include:
– Keeping tables and chairs in order before leaving
– Returning barrowed tools and materials after use
– Cleaning chalk board to be ready for the next topic
– Transferring from one room to another on time
– Order in waiting for ones turn in borrowing books
– Cleaning stains or drops after the lesson

21st CENTURY LEARNING GOALS

In order to address the challenges of the paradigm shift in the educational sector, the 21st Century
Learning Goals have been set as bases of various curricular worldwide
 21st Century Content
Among the emerging content areas are global awareness on finance, economy, business,
entrepreneurial literacy, civic literacy and health awareness
 Learning and thinking skills
These are critical thinking and problem-solving skills, about communication, creativity, and
innovation, collaboration, contextual learning, information and media literacy.
 ICT Literacy
This entails the use of technology in the context of learning, so that students know how to learn.
 Life Skills
These include leaderships, ethics, accountability, personal responsibility, and self- direction
 21st Century Assessment
These are authentic assessment procedures to measure learning outcomes

21st CENTURY DIGITAL FLUENCY

For developing basic digital skills, there is a need for new literacies to replace the 3 Rs.
 Solution Fluency
Capacity to define, design, and apply solution and also assess the process and the result
 Information Fluency
The ability to access and retrieve digital information (text, sounds, or video) while and accuracy students
are aware of context
 Collaboration Fluency
Teamwork with peers through an exciting experience of partnership in learning
Media Fluency
Capacity to analytical evaluation of messages from sources like the internet and other media such as
newspapers, magazines, televisions, etc.
 Creativity Fluency
Proficiency in art design, story-telling, or packaging messages with the use of artistic elements such as
font, color, lay –out, etc.
Digital ethics
This refers to the responsibility and accountability of using the digital world, such as citing sources.
The 21st Century Trends in Philippine Education

HISTORY OF PHILIPPINE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

1987 Constitution
–The State shall protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality education at all levels and shall take
opportunities steps to make such education accessible to all.
–The State shall enhance the right of teachers to professional advancement
–The State shall establish, maintain and support complete adequate and integrated system of education
relevant to the needs of the people

RA 7722 (Higher Education Act of 1994)

–The State shall ensure and protect academic freedom
–CHED is tasked by the state to identify ‘centers of excellence” in program areas needed for the
development of world class scholarship, nation building and development.

RA 9155 (Government of Basic Education Act of 2001)

–An act instituting a framework of governance for basic education, establishing authority and
accountability, renaming the Department of Education Culture and Sports as the Department of Education

RA 7796 TESDA Act of 1994

–EO 356 (Renaming the Bureau of Non Formal Education to Bureau of Alternative Learning System)
–Learning System)
–One of the functions of the Bureau of Alternative Learning System is to address the learning needs of the
marginalized group of the population including the deprived, depressed and underserved citizen

Batas Pambansa 232 (Education Act of 1982)

–Students have the right receive primarily through competent instruction, relevant quality education in
line with national goals and conductive to their full development as person with the human dignity
–Teachers shall be deemed persons in authority when in the discharge of lawful duties and
responsibilities and shall therefore be accorded with due respect and protection.

The UNESCO (United Nations Scientific and Cultural Organization)

–Learning to know
–Learning to do
–Learning to live together
–Learning to be

EFA (Education for All 2015)

–Institutionalize early childhood care and development
–Provide universal quality primary education
–Eradicate illiteracy
–Launch continuing education programs for adults and out-of-school youth

UN Millennium Development Goals 2015 (MGDs)

–Reducing by half the number of people, who live in extreme poverty

–Reducing death in mothers and children below five

–Making primary education accessible to all
–Reducing gender disparities
–Providing access to reproductive health services
–Pursuing national strategies for sustainable development
–Reserving environment resources losses
–Developing a global partnership for development

Child Friendly School System (CFSS)

–Initiated by the Philippine Government and UNICEF
–Characteristics of CFSS
-Gender sensitive and not discriminating
-Child centered
-Promotes good health
-Has the best interest of children in mind
-Works closely with children’s families

Magna Carta for Public School Teachers (RA 4680)

–Stability of employment
–Teachers shall enjoy academic freedom, particularly with regard to teaching and classroom, methods.
–Teachers salary at the very least will keep pace with the rise in the cost of living by payment of cost of
living index
–Compulsory medical examination foe free

Presidential Decree 1006 (Decree Professionalizing Teaching)

–Enacted during the time of President Marcos
–Teachers will undergo professional test jointly given by Civil Service Commission and Department of
Education and Culture
–RA7836 ( Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994)
–RA 9293 ( An Act Amending some sections of and Development Program (RA7836)
–Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT: CONCEPTS, NATURE, AND PURPOSES
The term “curriculum” conveys many things to people. To some, it denotes a specific course, while to
others it means the entire educational environment. It is a dynamic as the change that occurs in the
society. Hence, curriculum encompasses more than a simple definition. It is a key element in the
educational process; its scope is extremely broad, and it touches virtually everyone who is involved with
teaching and learning. In a broader sense, it refers to the total learning experience of individuals not only
in school, but in society as well.

Education or l reforms in the Philippines can be traced form different recommendations of several
educational initiatives, like the Philippine Commission to survey Philippine Education (PCSPE-1969),
Survey of the Outcomes of Elementary Education (SOUTELE-1976), the Philippine Commission of
Educational Reform (PCER) that focused on curricular reforms and National Competency-Based standards
for Teachers (NCBTS), which became the anchor of reforms in education from the basic to higher
education

What is Curriculum? From the Latin word curriculum (“course”), derived from currere “run or “move
quickly). A “course for tracing”

In educational usage, the “course of the race” stands for “course of study”
1. The Traditional Points of View
• In early years of the 20th century, “Curriculum was a “body of subject or subject matter prepared by the
teacher for the student to learn.” It was synonymous to the “course of study” and “syllabus”
• Robert M. Hutchins- curriculum for basic education should emphasize 3Rs, and college education should
be grounded on liberal education
• Joseph Schwab-“Discipline” is the sole source of curriculum. Thus, the education system curriculum is
divided into chunk of knowledge called subject areas in basic education, such as math science, English
etc…, and college, discipline may include humanities, sciences, languages, etc.
2. Progressive Points of View of Curriculum
• To a progressivist, “a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study, and list of course or specific
discipline do not make a curriculum,” This can only be called curriculum if the written materials are
actualized by the learner.
• John Dewey-Curriculum is based in Dewey’s definition of experience and education. He believes that
reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular elements.
• Caswell and Campbell viewed curriculum as “all experiences children have under the guidance of
teachers”.
• Marsh and Willis view curriculum as “all the experiences in the classroom which are planned and
enacted by the teacher, and also learned by the students.”

Major Foundations of Curriculum

The commonly accepted foundations of curriculum include the following:
1. Philosophical - relating or devoted to the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and
existence.
2. Historical - concerning history; concerning past events.
3. Psychological - affecting, or arising in the mind; related to the mental and emotional state of a person.
4. Social - relating to society or its organization.

Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

Philosophy provides educators, teachers and curriculum makers with a framework for planning,
implementing, and evaluating curricula in schools. It helps in answering what schools are for, what
subjects are important, how students should learn and what materials and methods should be used.
In decision-making, philosophy provides the starting point and will be used for the succeeding decision –
making process.

Four Educational Philosophies that Relates to Curriculum:

1. PERENNIALISM
Aim of Education- to educate the rational person; to cultivate the intellect.
Role of Education- Teachers help students think with reason based in the Socratic methods of oral
exposition or recitation and explicit or deliberate teaching of traditional values.
Focus in the curriculum- Classical subjects, literary analysis. Curriculum is constant. Curriculum trends-
use of great books and return to liberal arts.
2. ESSENTIALISM
Aim of Education- To promote the intellectual growth of the individual and educate a competent person
Role of Education- The teacher is the sole authority in his/her subject area or field of specialization.
Focus in the curriculum- Essential skills of the 3 Yrs and essential subjects of English, science, history,
math and foreign language
Curriculum Trends- Excellence in Education, back to basics, and cultural literacy
3. PROGRESSIVISM
Aim of Education- To promote democratic and social living
Role of Education- Knowledge leads to growth and development of lifelong learners who actively learn by
doing.
Focus in the curriculum-Subjects are interdisciplinary, integrative, and interactive. Curriculum is focused
on student’s interest, human problems and affairs.
Curriculum Trends- School reforms, relevant and contextualized curriculum, and humanistic education
4. RECONSTRUCTIVISM
Aim of Education- To improve and reconstruct society, since education is for change
Role of Education- Teachers act as agents of change and reform in various educational projects, including
research.
Focus in the Curriculum- Present and Future trends and issues of national and international interest.
Curriculum Trends- Equality of educational opportunities in education, and access to global education.

HISTORICAL FOUNDATION OF CURRICULUM

Philippine educations was greatly influence by the American educational system. The following
curriculum theories laid down their views on what curriculum is.
1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) presented curriculum as a science that emphasizes the student’s needs.
Curriculum prepares students for adult life. To Bobbit, objectives with corresponding activities should be
grouped and sequenced. This can only be done of instructional activities and tasks are clarified.
2. Werett Characters (1875-1952) - Like Bobbit, to Charters, curriculum is a science, and it gives emphasis
on student’s needs. The listing objectives and matching of these with corresponding activities ensure that
the content or subject matter is related to the objective. The subject matter and the objectives are planned
by the teacher.
3. William Kilpatrict (1871-1965) - Curricula are purposeful activities which are child-centered. The
purpose of the curriculum is child development. The project method was introduced by Kilpatrick, whose
model allowed the teacher and student to plan the activities. The curriculum develops social relationships
and small group instruction.
4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960) - Rugg, the curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child- centered.
With the statement of objectives and related learning activities, curriculum should produce outcomes.
Rugg emphasized social studies, and that teachers plan the curriculum in advance
5. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989) - He saw curriculum as organized around social functions or themes,
organized knowledge and learner’s interest. Caswell believes that curriculum is a set of experiences
6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) - as one of the authorities on curriculum, Tyler believes that curriculum is a
science and an extension of the school’s philosophy. It is based on student’s needs and interest. To Tyler,
curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and
values. The Process emphasizes problem-solving. The curriculum aims to educate generalists and not
specialists

Historical development shows different changes in the purposes, principles and content of the curriculum.
The different changes are influenced by educational philosophy, psychology and pedagogical theories.
This implies that curriculum is ever-changing, putting in knowledge and content from many disciplines.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

Psychology provides a basis for the teaching and learning process. It unifies elements of the learning
process and some of the questions which can be addressed by psychological foundations of education.
How should curriculum be organized to enhance learning? What is the optimum level of the students’
preparation in learning various contents of the curriculum?

Three groups of learning theories like behaviorism or association theories; cognitive-information

processing theories are considered to address the4 above questions.
1. BEHAVIORIST PSYCHOLOGY - Behaviorism dominated 20th-century psychology. It includes, among
others, the following:
 Connectionism-Edward Thorndike, which influence both Ralph Tyler and Hilda Taba who considered to
be two of the well-know curricularists.
 Classical conditioning-Ivan Pavlov
 Operant Conditioning-B.F. Skinner
 Modeling and Observation Theory- Albert Bandura
 Hierarchical Learning/sets of behavior and five learning outcomes- Robert Gagne
- Intellectual skills or” knowing how” categorize and use symbols, forming concepts and problem-solving.
- Information or “knowing what” knowledge about facts dates and names
- Cognitive strategies or learning skills
- Motor skills: and
- Attitudes, feelings and emotions learned through experiences

The listed learning outcomes overlap with the domains in the taxonomy of educational objectives, which
are cognitive, affective and psychomotor.

To the behaviorist, learning should be organized to students can experience success in the process of
mastering the subject matter. The method introduced in a step by step manner with proper sequencing of
tasks, which is viewed by other educational psychologist as simplistic and mechanical.

2. COGNITVE PSYCHOLOGY - How do learns store information? How do they retrieve and generate
conclusions? These are some of the basic questions asked by cognitive psychologists.
Advocates of cognitive psychology:
- Cognitive Development Stages- jean Piaget
- Social Constructivism- Lev Vygotsky
- Multiple intelligences- Howard Garner
- Learning Styles- Felder and Silverman
- Emotional Intelligence- Daniel Goleman

To the Cognitive theorist, learning constitutes a logical method for organizing and interpreting learning.
Learning is rooted in the tradition of subject matter and is similar to the cognitive development theory.
Teachers use a lot of problem-solving and thinking skills in teaching and learning, intuitive thinking,
discovery learning. These are exemplified by practices like reflective thinking, creative thinking, discovery
learning and many others.

3. HUMANISTICS PSYCHOLOGY - Humanist psychologists are concerned with how learners can develop
their human potentials. Traditional psychologists do not recognize humanistic psychology as a school of
psychology, however, observes view humanistic psychology as the third force learning theory after
behaviorism and cognitive development.
- Learning can be explained in terms of the wholeness of the problem and where the environment is
changing and the learner is continuously recognizing his or her perceptions-Gestalt Theory.
- Theory of human needs for self- actualizing persons- Abraham Maslow
- Non-directive lives= Carl Rogers

Among the humanistic psychologists, curriculum is concerned with the process, not the products; personal
needs, not subject matter, psychological meanings and environmental situations.
In summary, psychology has a great influence on the curriculum. Learners not machines, and mind is not a
computer. Humans are biological beings affected by their biology and cultures. The psychological
foundations will curriculum makers in nurturing a more advanced, more comprehensive and complete
human learning.

SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

Schools exist within social context. Societal culture affects and shapes schools and their curricula. The way
school buildings are structured and the way classrooms and students are organized reflect the cultural
views and values of the society. In considering the social foundations of the curriculum, we must recognize
that schools are only one of the many institutions that educate society. However, schools are formal
institutions that address more complex and interrelated societies and the world.

Society ever dynamic, is a source of very fast changes which are difficult to cope with and to adjust to.
Thus, schools are made to help understand these changes. However, some observations point out to the
fact that schools are conservative institutions that lag behind they are supposed to be agents of change.
Thus order for schools to be relevant, school curricula should address diversity, explosion of knowledge,
school reforms and education for all.

The relationship of curriculum and society is mutual and encompassing. Hence, to be relevant, the
curricula should reflect and preserve the culture of society and its aspirations. At the same time, society
should also imbibe the changes brought about by the formal institutions called schools.

What are the Characteristics of Good Curriculum?

1. The curriculum is continuously evolving. It must be a product of a long and tedious process of
evaluation and change. It has evolved from one period to another to the present.
2. The curriculum is based on the needs of the people. A curricular program must begin with those that
concern the people themselves. It reflects the needs of the individuals and the society as a whole. The
curriculum is a proper shape in order to meet the challenges of times and education more responsive to
the clientele it serves.
3. The curriculum is democratically conceived. A good curriculum is developed through the efforts of a
group of individuals from different sectors in society who are knowledgeable about the interest, needs and
resources of the learner and the society as a whole. The Curriculum is a product of many minds and
energies.
4. The curriculum is the result of a long-term effort. It takes a long period of time to go through the
planning, management, evaluation and development of a good curriculum.

5. The curriculum is a complex of details. A good curriculum provides the proper instructional equipment
and meeting places that are often most conducive to learning. It includes the teacher student-student
relationship, guidance and counseling program, health services, schools and community projects, library
and laboratories, and other school related work experiences.
6. The curriculum provides for the logical sequence of subject matter. It is a fact that learning is
developmental. Thus, classes and activities should be planned to achieve an orderly development of
subject matter and step-by step progress of the learner. There is a smooth transition and continuing
achievement of learners from one subject matter, classroom, grade, or school to another. A good
curriculum provides continuity of experiences.
7. The curriculum complements and cooperates with other programs of the community. The curriculum is
responsive to the needs of the community. The school offers is assistance in the improvement and
realization of on-going programs of the community. There is cooperative effort between the school and
the community towards greater productivity.
8. The curriculum has educational quality. Quality education comes through the situation of the
individual’s intellectual and creative capacities for social welfare and development. The curriculum helps
the learner to be4come the best that can possibly be. The curriculum support system is secured to
augment existing sources for is efficient and effective implementation.
9. The curriculum has effective flexibility. A good curriculum must be ready to incorporate changes
whenever necessary. The curriculum is open to revision and development to meet the demands of
globalization and the digital age.
The relationship of curriculum and society is mutual and encompassing. Hence, to be relevant, the
curricula should reflect and preserve the culture of the society and its aspirations. At the same time,
society should also imbibe the changes brought about by the formal institution called schools.

TYPES OF CURRICULUMN OPERATIONG SCHOOLS

Allen Glatthorn, as cited by Bilbao describes seven (7) types of curriculum operating in the schools.
1. Recommended Curriculum - proposed by scholars and professional organizations. The curriculum may
come from a national agency like the Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on Higher Education
(CHED), Department of Science and Technology (DOST) or any professional organization who has stake in
education for example like the PAFTE.
2. Written Curriculum-appear in school, district, division, or country documents. This includes documents,
course of study or syllabi handed down to the schools, districts, divisions, departments, or colleges for
implementation. Most of the written curricula are made by the curriculum experts with the participation
of teachers. These were pilot-tested or tried out in sample schools or population. An example is the Basic
Education Curriculum (BEC). Another example is the written lesson plan, made up of objectives and
planned activities of the teachers.
3. Taught Curriculum- what teachers implement of deliver in the classrooms or schools. The different
planned activities which are put into action in the classroom compose the taught curriculum. These are
varied activities that are implemented in order to arrive at the objectives or purposes of the written
curriculum. These are used by the learners with the guidance of teachers. Taught curriculum varies
according to the learning styles of students and the teaching styles of teachers
4. Supported Curriculum- resources like textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials which support and
help in the implementation of the curriculum. In order to have a successful teaching, other than the
teacher, there must be materials which should support or help in the implementation of a written
curriculum. These refer to the material resources, such as textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials.
Laboratory equipment, playground, zoos, and other facilities. Support curriculum should enable the
learner to achieve real and lifelong learning
5. Assessed Curriculum- that which is tested and evaluated. This refers to a tested or evaluated
curriculum. At the end of the teaching episodes, series of evaluation is done by the teachers to determine
the extent of learning or to tell if the students are progressing. This refers to the assessed curriculum.
Assessment tool like pencil-and –paper tests; authentic instruments like portfolio are being utilized.
6. Learned Curriculum- what students actually learn and what is measured. Refers to the learning
outcomes achieved by the students. Learning outcomes are indicated by the results of the tests and
changes in behavior, which can either be cognitive, affective, or psychomotor.
7. Hidden Curriculum- the unintended curriculum. This unintended curriculum which is not deliberately
planned but may modify behavior or influence learning outcomes. There are lots of hidden curricula that
transpire in the schools. Peer influence, school environment, physical condition, teacher-learner
interaction, mood of the teachers and many other factors to make up.
 Three Big Domains Of Objectives (Benjamin Bloom)
(1) Cognitive; (2) affective; and (3) Psychomotor
1. Knowledge - recall, remembering of prior learned materials in terms of facts, concepts, theories and
principles. It is the lowest cognitive level.
2. Comprehension -ability to grasp the meaning of material. It indicates the lowest form of understanding.
3. Application - the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situation.
4. Analysis - ability to break down material into component parts so that its organizational structure may
be understood.
5. Synthesis - ability to put parts together to form a new whole
6. Evaluation - Ability to pass judgment on something based on given criteria.

Affective Domain (Krathwohl, 1964) Domain Of Valuing Attitude And Appreciation

1. Receiving- students willingness to pay attention to particular event, stimuli or classroom activities
2. Responding- active participation on the part of the students
3. Valuing-concerned with the worth or value a student attaches to a particular phenomenon, object or
behavior
4. Organization-concerned with bringing together different values and building a value system
5. Characterization of value or value complex-developing a lifestyle based on a value system

Psychomotor Domain Simpson 1972

1. Perception-use of sense organs to guide motor activities
2. Set-refers to the readiness to take a particular type of action
3. Guided Response- concerned with early stages in learning complex skills imitation and trial and error
are some of the ways of doing.
4. Mechanism-responses become habitual. Performance skills are executed with ease and confidence
5. Complex over responses-skillful performance and with complex movement patterns
6. Adaptation-well developed skills is now very easy to
7. Origination-refers to creating new movements and patterns to fit the situation, showing creativity.

Components 2 Curriculum Content or Subject matter

All curricula have content, regardless of their design or models. To the subject centered view, content or
subject matter is another term for knowledge. It is compendium of facts, concepts generalization,
principles and theories. To the learner-centered view, the content relates knowledge to the
individual’s personal and social world and how he/she defines reality. According to Jerome Bruner,”
knowledge is a model we construct to give meaning and structure to regularities in experience”

Criteria in the selection of subject matter content or knowledge for the curriculum (Bilbao, 2009)
1. Self-sufficiency - According to Scheffler (1970), the prime guiding principle for content selection is
helping learners to attain maximum self-sufficiency in learning, but in the most economical manner.
Economy means less teaching effort and educational resources, less learner’s effort, but more results and
effective learning outcomes.

2. Significance - when content or subject matter will contribute to basic ideas, concepts principles, and
generalization to achieve the overall aim of the curriculum, since it is significant. It also significant if it will
develop learning abilities, skills, processes and attitude. Subject matter is significant if it will develop the
cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills of the learners. It can also be significant if the cultural aspect
will be considered.
3. Validity - The authenticity of the subject matter selected is it validity. With information explosion,
oftentimes, knowledge selected for school content may become obsolete. Thus, subject matter should be
checked or verified at regular intervals, to determine if the content that was originally valid continues to
be so.
4. Interest - For a learner –centered curriculum, this is the key criterion. A learner will value the content if
it is meaningful to him or her. Students’ interests should be considered and adjusted taking into
consideration maturity, prior experiences, educational and social value of their interest among others.
5. Utility - Usefulness of the content or subject matter may be relative to the learner who is going to use it.
Usefulness may either be for the present or the future questions like “will I use it in my future job? will it
add meaning to my life or develop my human potential?” or” will the subject matter be useful in solving
my current problems?” are considered.
6. Learnability - Subject matter in the curriculum should be within the range of the experiences of the
learners. This is clearly suggested by the psychological foundations of a curriculum. There are ways of
presenting subject matter or content which can easily be learned. Optimal placement and appropriate
organization and sequencing of contests are the two ways by which these can be done.
7. Feasibility - can the subject matter or content be learned within the time allowed, resources available,
expertise of the teacher, and the nature of the learners? Content selection should be considered within the
context of the existing reality in schools, in society and government.

Component 3 Curriculum Experiences

The core or the heart of the curriculum includes the different instructional strategies and methods that
realize the goals and use the content in order to produce an outcome teaching strategies convert the
written curriculum into instruction. Both the teacher and learner take actions to facilitate learning.
Whatever methods the teacher utilizes to implement the curriculum, there will be some guide for the
selection and use, such as:
1. Teaching methods are means to achieve the end. They are used to translate the objectives into action.
2. There is no single best teaching method. Its effectiveness will depend on the learning objectives, the
learners, and skill of the teacher.
3. Teaching methods should stimulate the learners desire to develop in the cognitive, affective,
psychomotor, social and spiritual domains.
4. In the choice of the teaching methods, the learning styles of the students should be considered.
5. Every method should lead to the development of the three domains: cognitive, affective and
psychomotor
6. Flexibility should be a consideration in the use of the teaching methods

Components 4 Curriculum Evaluation

All curricula, to be effective, must have the element of evaluation (Worthen & sanders, 1987), Curriculum
evaluation refers to the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness or value of the program process,
and product of the curriculum. Evaluation is meeting the goals and matching them with the intended
outcomes

The CIPP Models by Stufflebeam CIPP -

Context-Input-Process- Product. The Process is continuous and very important to curriculum managers,
like principals, supervisors, department heads, deans and even teachers.
Context - refers to the environment of the curriculum, the real situation where the
curriculum is operating. Context evaluation refers to situation analysis.
Input - refers to the elements of the curriculum, which include the goals, instructional strategies, the
learners, the teachers, the contents and all the materials needed
Process - refers to the ways and means of how the curriculum has been implemented. This component of
the CIPP looks into the entire operation of the curriculum.
Product - indicates if the curriculum accomplishes its goals. It will determine to what extent the
curriculum objectives have been achieved.

Within the evaluation process, smaller and more specific activities are needed to determine the
effectiveness of the curriculum. It includes assessment and measurement of learning outcomes, the
ultimate product of a curriculum. Methods include diagnostic; placement; formulative or summative
assessments or non-reference or criterion referenced measurement.
The components of a curriculum are distinct but are interrelated to one another as shown in the following
figure.

CRAFTING AND DEVELOPING THE CURRICULUM

Development connotes changes which are systematic. A change for the better means any alteration,
modification or improvement of existing condition. To produce positive changes, development should be
purposeful, planned and progressive. This is how curriculum evolves,
Some authors define curriculum as the total effort of the school to bring about desired outcomes in the
school and out-of-school situations. It is also defined as a sequence of potential experiences set up in
school for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting Howel and
Evans (1995) define curriculum as standard set of learning outcomes or task that educators usually call
goals and objectives, while other writers define curriculum as” the what of teaching”, or listing of subjects
to be taught in school.

Curriculum is a document which describes as structured series of learning objectives and outcomes for a
given subject matter/ area. It includes a specification of what should be learned, how it should be taught,
and the plan for implementing/ assessing the learning.
Curriculum Development, therefore, may be defines as the process of selecting, organizing, executing and
evaluating the learning experiences on the basis of the nature of the society or community. It is a
continuous process for the possibilities of improving the teaching-learning situation. Its goal is a positive
change; process and transformation in the lives of the learners based on the schools mission and goals.

MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Ralph Tyler Model (also known as Tyler’s Rationale)\he posited forum fundamental questions or
principles in examining any curriculum:

1. What educational purposes should schools seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that is likely to attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences can be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?

Tyler’s Model shows that in the curriculum development the following considerations should be made”
1. Purpose of the school
2. Educational experiences related to the purpose
3. Organization of the experiences
4. Evaluation of the experiences/ outcomes

Hilda Taba Model - She improved on Tyler’s Rationale by making a linear model. She believes that teachers
who teach or implement the curriculum should participate in developing it. Her advocacy was called the
“grassroots approach”

Presented seven majors steps her model, where teachers could have a major input.
1. Diagnosis of learners needs and expectations of the larger society
2. Formulation of learning objectives
3. Selection of the learning content
4. Organization of the learning content
5. Selection of the learning experiences
6. Organization of learning activities
7. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it.

Thus, looking at the curriculum models, the three interacting process in curriculum development are:
(1) planning; (2) implementing; and (3) evaluating.

The Francis Hunkin’s Decision - Making Model What sets

this model a part is its recommended first stage of curricular decision-making. The first stage requires that
participants to engage in deliberation regarding the nature curriculum and also its
educational and social political value.
This approach addresses the concerns of reconceptualists, of putting stress on the understanding the
nature and power of curriculum

The Model has seven major stages:

1. Curriculum conceptualization and legitimization
2. Diagnosis
3. Content selection
4. Experience selection
5. Implementation
6. Evaluation
7. Maintenance

CURRICULUM DESIGN MODELS

1. Subject-Centered Design model - focuses on the content of the curriculum. Corresponds mostly to the
textbook written for the specific subject. In this design, schools divided the school hours across different
subjects.
Subject Design - this is the oldest and so far the most familiar for teachers, parents and other layman. It is
easy to deliver, has complementary books, written, and available support instructional materials. The
drawback is that learning is so compartmentalized. It stresses the content so much that it forgets about
student’s natural tendencies, interests and experiences.
Discipline Design. Related to the subject design, but focuses on academic discipline. It is often used in
college.
Correlation Design - This comes from a core, correlated curriculum designs that links separate subject’s
designs in order to reduce fragmentation. Subjects related to one another, but each subject maintains
identity.
Broad Field design/interdisciplinary - it is variation of the subject-centered design. This design was
made to prevent the compartmentalization of subjects and integrate the contents that are related to each
other. It sometimes called a holistic curriculum because it draws around themes and integration.
2. Learner-Centered Design - Among the progressive educational psychologists, the learner is the center of
the educative process. The emphasis is very strong in the elementary level. However, more concern has
been placed on the secondary and even the tertiary level. In high school, the subject or content has become
the focus and in the college level, the discipline is the center. Both levels, however still recognize the
importance of the learner in the curriculum.
 Child-centered Design - attributed to the influence of John Dewey, Rouseau, Pestallozi, and Froebel. The
curriculum is anchored on the needs and interest of the child. This is not considered as a passive
individual, but as on, who engages with his/her environment. One learns by doing. Learners actively
create and construct meaning and understanding as viewed by the constructivists. Learners interact with
the teachers and environment. Thus, there is a collaborative effort on both sides of the plan lessons, select
content, and do activities together. Learning is the product of the child’s interaction with the environment.
 Experienced-Centered Design - This is similar to child-centered design. Although the child remains to be
the focus, experience-centered design believes that the interests and needs of the learners cannot be pre-
planned. Instead, experiences of the learners become the starting point of the curriculum. Thus, the school
environment is left open and free. Learners are made to choose from various activities that the teacher
provides. The learners are empowered to shape their own learning from different opportunities given by
the teacher. The emergence of multiple intelligence blends well with experience-centered design
curriculum.
 Humanistic Design - The key personalities in this curriculum design were Abraham Maslow and Carl
Rogers. Maslow’s theory of self-actualization explains that a person who achieves this level is accepting of
self, others and nature; is simple, spontaneous and natural; is open to different experiences; possesses
empathy and sympathy towards the less fortunate, among many others, Carl Rogers, on the other hand,
believed that a person can enhance self-directed learning by improving self-understanding and basic
attitudes to guide behavior. In the humanistic curriculum design, the development of self is the ultimate
obje4ctice of learning. It stresses the development of positive self-concept and interpersonal skills.

3. Problem – Centered Design- Generally, this design draws on social problems, needs, interests, and
abilities of the learners. Various problems are given emphases. In this curriculum, content cuts across
subject boundaries and must be based on the needs, concerns and abilities of the students.
 Life-Situation Design - The contents are organized in ways that allow the students to clarify view
problem areas. It uses the past and the present experiences of learners as a means to analyze the basic
areas of living.
 Core Design - It centers on general education, and the problems are based on common human activities.
The central focus of the core design includes common needs, problems, and concerns of the learners.

Dimensions of Principles of Curriculum design

 SCOPE - Tyler and Omstein (2004) define scopes as all the content, topics, learning experiences and
organizing threads comprising the educational plan. It refers to the coverage of the curriculum. It is the
depth and breadth of the curriculum. It includes time, diversity and maturity of the learners.
 BALANCE - Curriculum content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth of the particular
learning area of discipline. This will ensure that the level or are will not be overcrowded or less crowded.
 ARCTICULATION - When each subject matter is smoothly connected to the next, glaring gaps and
wasteful overlaps in the subject matter will be avoided. Teamwork among the teachers will enhance
articulation of contents in the curriculum.
 SEQUENCE - It is the logical arrangement of the subject matter. It refers to the deepening and
broadening of the contest as it is taken up in the higher levels.
 INTEGRATION - the horizontal connections are needed in subject areas that are similar, so that learning
will be related to one another. This will help the learner get a holistic or unified view of reality outlook in
life.
 CONTINUITY - The content repetition, review and reinforcement of learning is what is referred to as
continuity. Learning requires a continuing application of new knowledge, skills, and attitudes or values, so
that these will be used in daily living.

Curriculum Approaches
 Behavioral Approach - Anchored on the behaviorist principles, where approach to curriculum is usually
based on a blue print. In the blueprint, goals and objectives are specified, and contents and activities are
also arranged to match with the learning objectives. The learning outcomes are evaluated in terms of goals
and objectives set at the beginning. This approach begins with educational plans that start with the setting
of goals or objectives. These are the important ingredients in curriculum implementation for evaluating
the learning outcomes as a change of behavior. The change of behavior indicates the measure of
accomplishment.
 Managerial Approach - The principal is the curriculum leader and at the same time instructional leader,
who is supposed to be the general manager. The general manager sets the policies and priorities and
establishes the direction of change and innovation, and plans and organizes curriculum and instruction.
School administrators are less concerned about the content than about organization and implementation.
They are less concerned about subject matter, methods and materials than improving the curriculum.
Curriculum managers look at curriculum changes and innovations as they administer the resources and
restructure the schools

 System Approach - This was influenced by systems theory, where the parts of the total school district or
school are determined in terms of how they relate to each other. The organizational chart of the school
represents s systems approach. It shows the line-staff relationships of personal and how decisions are
made. The following are equal importance:
(1) Administration, (2) counseling, (3) curriculum, (4) instruction and (5) evaluation.
 Humanistic Approach - This approach is rooted in the progressive philosophy and child- centered
movement. It considers the formal or planned curriculum and the formal or hidden curriculum. It
considers the whole child and believes that in a curriculum, the total development of the individual is the
prime consideration. The learner is at the center of the curriculum.

The Six (6) Features of a Curriculum

1. Who teachers- The Teacher
2. Who do Teachers Teach- The Learners
3. What do the Teachers Teach- Knowledge Skills and Values
4. How to the Teachers Teach- Strategies and Methods
5. How much of the Teaching was Learned- Performance
6. With whom do we Teach- Community Partners

IMPLEMENTING THE CURRICULUM

In Curriculum development, the teaching and learning are actions necessary to accomplish a goal in
education. What is the role of teaching in curriculum development? So, what is learning in the curriculum
development?

Teaching as process in Curriculum The

process of teaching replicates the process of curriculum development. The implementation phase of
curriculum development is the actual teaching and experiencing of curriculum, as shown in
Figure 2

Feedback and Reflections

• Planning Phase - includes decisions about: (a) the needs of the learners; (b) the achievable goals and
objectives to meet the needs; (c) the selection of the content to be taught; (d) the motivation to carry out
the goals; (e) the strategies most fit to carry out the goals; and (f) the evaluation process to measure
learning outcomes
• Implementation Phase - requires the teacher to implement what has been planned.
• Evaluation Phase - a match of the objectives with learning outcomes will be determined.
• Process of Feedback and Reflection - to give information as to whether the three phases were
appropriately done and elicited good results.

Roles of Stakeholders in Curriculum Implementation

Stakeholders are individuals or institution that are interested in the school curriculum. Their interest
varies in degree and complexity. They get involved in many different ways in the implementation
because the curriculum affects them directly or indirectly.
 Learners at the Center of the Curriculum - These learners are the very reason why curriculum is
developed.

 Teachers as Curriculum Developers and Implementers - Planning and writing the curriculum are the
primary roles of the teacher. The teachers writes a curriculum regularly through a lesson plan, a unit plan
or a yearly plan. He prepares the activities for the students to do. The teacher addresses the goals, needs,
and interest of the learners by creating experiences from where the students can learn. He designs,
enriches, and modifies the curriculum to suit the learners’ characteristics.” No technology can ever replace
a teacher, it will only support the multifaceted role of the teacher.”
 Curriculum Managers and Administrators - They are people who are responsible in the formulation of
the school’s vision, philosophy, mission and objectives. They provide necessary leadership in evaluating
teaching personnel and school programs. The principle of command responsibility and institutional
leadership rests on the shoulders of the school administrators.
 Parents as Supporters to the curriculum - Parents are the best supporters of the school, especially
because they are the ones paying for their child’s education. Hence, they want to get the best of his/her
investment in education. This has an implication to what kind if curriculum is being offered in the school.
 Community Members as Curriculum Resources - Community members and materials in the existing
local community can very well substitute for what are needed to implement the curriculum. Respected
community members may be included in school boards; some can become resource speakers, etc.
 Other Stakeholders in Curriculum Implementation - Professional organizations like those of teachers,
lawyers, medical doctors, engineers and many others are asked by curriculum specialists to contribute in
curriculum review because they have a voice in licensure examinations, curriculum enhancement and
many more. Often, they have a better view of the industry where the graduates of the curriculum go.

The role of Technology in Implementing the Curriculum

Technological changes in education make its impact on the delivery of more effective, efficient and
humanizing teaching-and-learning. Increase in the use of information and communication technology
or ICT is an explosive trend that made it influence education, Educational technology has the
following roles in delivering the school curriculum’s instructional program.
• Upgrading the quality of teaching-and-learning in schools
• Increasing the capability if the teacher to effectively inculcate learning, and for students to gain mastery
of lessons and courses.
• Broadening the delivery of education outside schools through non-traditional approaches to formal and
informal learning such as open universities and lifelong learning to adult learners.
• Revolutionizing the use of technology to boost educational paradigm shifts that give importance to
student- centered and holistic learning.

Pilot Testing, Monitoring and Evaluating the Implementation of the Curriculum

• Pilot testing - this is a process where empirical data are gathered to support whether the material or the
curriculum is useful, relevant, reliable and valid
• Monitoring - is a periodic assessment and adjustment during the try out period. It determines how the
curriculum is working so that the monitoring report becomes the basis of decision on what aspects have to
be retained, improved or modified.

• Curriculum Evaluation - as part of total educational evaluation refers to a systematic process of judging
the value, effectiveness and adequacy of a curriculum. It is a process, product and setting which will lead
to informed decisions.

There are two ways of curriculum evaluation

(1) School-Based Evaluation (SBE) - an approach to curriculum evaluation which places the content,
design, operation, and maintenance of evaluation procedure in the hands of school personnel.
(2) Accreditation-this is a voluntary process of submitting a curricular program to an external accrediting
body foe review in any level of education: basic, tertiary or graduate school, to ensure that standards are
met. Accreditation studies the statement of the educational intentions of school and affirms the standard
of excellence.

ASSESSING/EVALUATING THE CURRICULUM

Curriculum assessment may achieve the following purposes:
1. Highlight curriculum expectations;
2. Gather information about what students know and can do,
3. Motivate and encourage teachers to meet the identifies needs of students
4. Provide evidence to tell how well the students have learned ; and
5. Obtain feedback that helps teachers, students and parents make good decisions to guide instruction

Intended Curriculum - refers to a set of objectives identified set at the beginning of any curricular plan. It
establishes the goal, the specific purposes, and the immediate objectives to be accomplished. The intended
curriculum specifies what the curriculum maker wants to do.

Implemented Curriculum - refers to the various learning activities or experiences of the students in order
to achieve the intended curricular outcomes.

Achieved curriculum - refers to the curriculum outcomes based on the first two types of curriculum, the
intended and implemented. The achieved curriculum is considered the product. It can be the learning
outcomes, or a material product itself, like a book, modules or instructional material.

What is evaluation? Evaluation is the process of determining the value of something or the extent to which
goals are being achieved. It is a process of making decisions or reaching a conclusion. It involves decision
making about student performance based on information obtained from assessment process. Assessment
id the process of collecting information by reviewing the products of student works, interviewing,
observing or testing.
Evaluation is the process if using information that is collected through assessment. The ultimate purpose
of any evaluation process that takes place in schools is to improve student learning. It entails a reasoning
process that is based on inference. Inference, which the process of arriving at a logical conclusion from a
body of evidence. Inference usually refers to the process of developing a conclusion on the basis of some
phenomenon that is not experienced or observed directly by the person drawing inference.

Evaluation is thoughtful process, used to understand things. Evaluation has been defined is a variety of
ways, all of which have at their core the idea of comparison. When we evaluate, we make comparison
between things, not the differences, summarize our findings and draw conclusion about results.

Evaluation is the judgment made about the assessments of students learning based on established criteria.
It involves a process of integrating information from various sources and using this information to make
inferences and judgments about how well the students have achieved curriculum expectations. Evaluation
involves placing a value on and determining the worth of student’s assessment. Evaluation is usually made
so that progress can be communicated to students and parents.
Evaluation provides information
• Directly to the learner for guidance
• Directly to the teacher for orientation of the next instruction activities; and
• Directly to external agencies for their assessment of schools functioning in the light of national purpose.

What is Curriculum Evaluation? Curriculum Evaluation is the process of obtaining information for judging
the worth of an educational program, product, procedure, educational objectives or the potential utility of
alternative approaches designed to attain specified objectives,

Curriculum evaluation focuses on determining whether the curriculum as recorded in the master plan has
been carried out in the classroom. In evaluating a curriculum, the following key questions are usually
asked:
1. Are the objectives being addressed?
2. Are the contents presented in the recommended sequence?
3. Are the students being involved in the suggested instructional experiences?
4. Are the students reaching to the contents?

Suggested Plan of Action for Curriculum Evaluation

1. Focus in one particular component of the curriculum. Will it be the subject area, the grade level, the
course or the degree program? Specify the objectives of evaluation.
2. Collect or gather the information is made up of data needed regarding the object of evaluation
3. Organize the information. This step will require coding, organizing, strong and retrieving data for
interpretation
4. Analyze information. An appropriate way of analyzing will be utilized
5. Report information. The result of evaluation should be reported to specific audiences
6. Reporting can be done formally in conferences with stakeholders, or informal through roundtable
discussion and conversation.
7. Recycle the information for continuous feedback, modification and adjustments to be made.

CURRICULUM INNOVATION
Innovations are inevitable as man continues to seek for development. With the demand brought about by
the fast-changing society. It is most likely that innovations will occur. In curriculum, changes and
modifications are being introduced to keep pace with the changing world. With emerging

theories of learning, instructional delivery and management, learning and teaching styles, modes of living
and other societal changes in science and technology led educator to introduce innovations.

Local and National Curricular Innovations

1. The 2002 Basic Education Curriculum
The Vision, Mission, and Rationale of the Curriculum
The Department of Education envisions every learner to be functionally literate equipped with life skills,
appreciative of arts and sports and imbued with the desirable values of a person who is makabayan,
makatao, makakalikasan at maka- Diyos.
This vision is in line with DepEds’ mission to provide quality basic education that is equitably accessible to
all and lays the foundation for lifelong learning and service for the common good.
The BEC was developed through a dynamic process. It started with the review of the existing basic
education curriculum in 1997, which look into consideration worldwide trends and Philippine realties.
Integrative Teaching as Mode of Instructional Deliver
Integrative teaching works best in the BEC because the curriculum is treated in a holistic manner.

The process is interactive, collaborative and innovative.

• Thematic Teaching - requires organization of themes around ideas. The theme provide focus and helps
learners to see the meaningful connections across subject areas. It links ideas to actions and learning to
life.
• Content- Based Instruction (CBI) - it is the integration of content learning with language teaching. The
language curriculum centered on the academic needs and interests of the learners. Thus, it crosses the
barriers between language and subject matter content. This approach aims at developing the learner’s
language skills.
• Focusing inquiry - it is an interdisciplinary approach that uses questions to organize learning. Learners
become creators rather than recipients of knowledge. Contents and concepts are given less importance
than the process of conducting an investigation and communicating what was learned to others.
Instructional process is built around inquiry, where teachers guide the students to discover answers to
questions. Using what learners already know as a starting point, they generate questions about things they
do not know yet. The design a method of investigation and gather information on their own.
• Generic Competency Model - the learners are enrolled in three to four linked or related courses or
subject areas. In Makabayan, for instance, competencies subject and can be clustered into personal
development, social competencies and work and special skills, the subject specialist teaches his/her
subject and activities will draw on processes and skills important to each discipline.

2. Third Elementary Education Program

Begun in 1996 and concluded in 2005 it was funded by the WB and JBIC, in response to the Social Reform
Agenda of the government. It is focused only on the elementary level with the goal to improve learning
achievement; improve completion rates and access to quality elementary education.

Advocacies:
In- service Training for Teachers (INSET); school improvement and innovation Facility ;( SIIF) Student
Assessment ;( SA), Educational Management Information System (E-MS); Procurement and Monitoring
Evaluation; Principal Empowerment

3. Secondary Education Development and Improvement Program (SEDIP)

It is a curriculum innovation that dovetailed the TEEP. It started in 2000 and ended in 2006. Its purpose is
to improve equitable access to secondary education in poverty affected areas.

Curriculum Reforms revolved around;

(a)Improving Teaching and Learning; (b) Improving Access to Secondary Education; (c) Facilitating
Decentralized Secondary Education Management.

4. The New Teacher Education Curriculum for BEED and BSED - Implemented by CMO 30,s 2004
• There are two streams in Basic Education; BEED- structured to meet the need of professional teachers
for elementary and special education program; and the BSED- need of professional teachers in the high
school in the Philippines
• The Curriculum is aligned to the National Competency-Based Teachers Standards (NCBTS)
• It is made up of three components- (1) General Education (2) Professional
Education (3) Specialization or content courses.

5. The Ladderized Curriculum for Bachelor of Technical Teacher Education (BTTE)

• The BTTE prepares teachers in technical-vocational education and training
(TVET) and higher education institutions that are equipped not only with strong theoretical
understanding of teaching and technology but also with exposure to industry
• The course is composed of four components;
– General education- consistent with CMO 59
– Professional Studies component
– Specialization component, and
– Instructional Technology component

6. Understanding the Design (ubD) - Based Curriculum

• UbD is a framework for improving student achievement and was designed by
internally recognized educators Grant Wiggins and Jay Mctighe, published bu ASCD
• The emphasis on” Backward Design”.
• It is a tool utilized for educational planning focused on teaching for
understanding
• It works within the” standard-driven curriculum” to help teachers clarify
learning goals, device revealing assessment of students understanding and craft effective and engaging
learning activities.

Understanding by Design (UbD) Based Curriculum Begun as

early as 2007 and was formally implemented in the Philippines thru the 2010 Secondary Education
Curriculum.

3 Stages of ‘Backward Design”

1. Stage 1 - identifying Results/Desired Outcomes (Content/Performance

Standards, Essential Understanding, Objectives- KSA, Essential Questions)
2. Stage 2 - Defining Acceptable Evidence/Assessment (Product/ Performance,
Assessment Criteria/Tools) Six Facets of Understanding (Explain, Interpret. Apply Perspective, Empathy,
Self-knowledge
3. Stage 3 - Learning Plan/Instruction (WHERTO)

W - Where us the unit going? What is expected? Where are the students coming from? H - Hooks all
students and holds their interest
E - Equipped students, help them experience the key idea an explore the issue R - Rethink
E - Evaluate T - Tailors
O - Organize

K - 12 Basic Education Curriculum

Republic Act 1053 (may 15, 2013): The Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013’
– The overall Goal of the K to 12 Curriculum
o Kindergarten +(6) six years primary education +(4) four years of junior high
school
+(2) two years senior high school
o Salient Features of the K-12 Curriculum
– Strengthening Early Childhood Education ( Universal Kindergarten)
– Making the Curriculum Relevant to the Learners ( Contextualization and
Enhancement)
– Ensuring integrated and Seamless Learning ( spiral Progression)
– Building Proficiency Through Language ( Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual
Education)
– Gearing Up for the Future ( Senior High School)
– Nurturing the Historically Developed ( College and Livelihood Readiness, 21st
Century Skills)

Brain Based Learning (BBL)

• It is an approach to teaching based on research in neuroscience
• It suggests that the brain learns naturally
• This techniques allows teachers to connect learning to students real life
experiences
• This kind of learning encompasses education concepts like
- Mastery learning
- Problem-based learning
- Cooperative education
- Multiple intelligence
- Learning styles
- Experimental learning

Emerging Interactive Teaching Elements from BBL

• Orchestrated Immersion - Learning environment are created to provide
authentic learning experiences. Ex. In the elementary level, teachers can use the school’s manifest to
identify trees, animals and other plants and find out how they live together.
• Relaxed Alertness - in BBL, efforts are made to eliminate fear while maintaining a
highly challenging environment. Ex. Teachers may play classical music when appropriate to set a

relaxed tone in the classroom. Bright lights are dimmed. Scented candles are lit to calm the senses. All
learners are accepted regardless of their various learning styles, capabilities and liabilities. This will
provide a relaxed and accepting environment. Children are motivated to bring the best of them and bring
out their potential
 OUTCOME BASED EDUCATION (OBE)
OBE is an approach to education in which decisions about the curriculum are driven by the exit learning
outcomes that the students should display at the end of the course. In OBE, Product defines Process. It can
be summed up as “results-oriented thinking”
Learning Outcome-Oriented Teaching and Learning?

The Bologna Process

• Quality assurance in the higher education
• A unifies educational system (mobility, transparency, and mutual recognition of
qualifications)
• Revise curricula; integrate student-centeredness and learning outcomes
orientation
• Pedagogical issue became central, along with the alignment of teaching and
assessment methods in accordance with learning outcomes
Experiential Learning Courses (ELC)
• This is anchored on the NCBTS in CMO, 30, 2004
• This feature of the new teacher education curriculum provides students with rich
practical learning experiences which are drawn out from the actual environment.
• Field study courses enable the students to observe, verify and reflect on various
events which relate to the concepts, methods and strategies previously learned
• These courses provide opportunities to capture other experiences which can be
further verified, confirmed and reflected on in relation to their becoming a teacher
Field Study Course Experiential Learning
• (FS1) Learner’s Development an Environment
• (FS2) Experiencing the Teaching-Learning Process
• (FS3) Technology in the Learning Environment
• (FS4) Understanding Curriculum Development
• (FS5) Learning Assessment Strategies
• (FS6) On Becoming a Teacher

Practice Teaching (Student Teaching) - this is the apex of all the ELCs. It is the total immersion of the
prospective teacher in the real-life of becoming a teacher. It is an integrated theoretical framework that
defines the different dimensions of effective teaching.

NCBTS define good teaching through the following:

- Domains - distinctive spheres of the learning process, and also a well-defined
arena for demonstrating positive teacher practices
- Strands - specific dimensions of positive teacher practices under the broad
conceptual domain
- Indicators - concrete, observable, and measurable teacher behaviors, actions,
habits, routines, and practices know to create, facilitate and support enhanced student learning.

The & domains of the NCBTS Framework

- Social Regard for Learning

- The Learning Environment
- Diversity of Learners
- Curriculum
- Planning , Assessing and Reporting
- Personal Growth & Professional Development

This Framework will allow teachers to self-assess their own performance against the Competency
Standards in order to identify area of strength, as well as areas that need to be developed further in order
for them more effectively as facilitators of learning.

Domain 1 Social Regard for Learning (SRFL) This

domain focuses on the ideal that teachers serve as positive and powerful role models of the value in the
pursuit of different types of social interactions with students exemplify this ideal.

Domain 2 Learning Environment (LE) This

domain focuses on importance of providing a social, psychological and physical environment within which
all students, regardless of their individual differences in learning, can engage in the
different learning activities and work towards attaining high standards of learning.
 Domain 3 Diversity of Learners (DOL) The DOL
domain emphasizes the ideal that teachers can facilitate the learning process even with diverse learners,
by recognizing and respecting individual differences and by using knowledge about
their differences to design diverse sets of learning activities, to ensure that all learners can attain the
desired learning goals

Domain 4 Curriculum (Curr) The

curriculum domain refers to all elements of the teaching-learning process that work in the convergence to
help students achieve their curricular goals and objectives, and to attain high
standards of learning defines in the curriculum. These elements include teacher’s knowledge of the
subject matter and the learning process.

Domain 5 Planning, Assessing & Reporting (PAR) This

domain refers to the alignment of assessment and planning activities. In particular, the PAR focuses on the
(1) use of assessment data to plan and revise teaching-learning plans; (2) integration
of assessment procedures in the plan and implementation of teaching-learning activities; and (3)
reporting of the learners actual achievement and behavior

Domain 6 Community Linkages (CL) The CL

domain refers to the ideal that classroom activities are meaningfully linked to the experiences and
aspirations of the learners in their homes and communities. This, this domain focuses on
teachers’ efforts directed at strengthening the links between schools and communities to help in the
attainment of the curricular goals.

Domain 7 Personal Growth & Professional Development (PGD)

The PGD domain emphasizes that ideal that teacher’s value having a high personal regards for the
teaching profession, concern for professional development, and continuous improvement as teachers.
DepEd order No. 40 s. 2012

(DepEd Child Protection Policy)

• “Policy Guidelines on Protecting Children in School from Abuse, Violence,
Exploitation, Discrimination, Bullying and other Forms of Abuse”
• Purpose of the Policy- DepEd shall promulgate a zero-tolerance policy for any act
of child abuse, exploitation, violence, discrimination, bullying and other forms of abuse”

Some Legal Bases of the CPP Philippine

Constitution: Article XV Sec. 3(b) - the state shall defend the right of children to assistance, including
proper care and nutrition, and special protection all forms of neglect, abuse, cruelty
exploitation and other conditions prejudicial to their development

PD No. 63 Art 59 (1974) - Child and Youth Welfare Code- Prohibiting any mental and physical violence
against children

RA 7610 - Special Protection of Children against Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Technology came from Greek word” techne”, which means craft or art. The term Educational Technology
refers to the art of craft of responding to our educational needs. Another word “technique”, with the same
origin, also may be used when considering the field educational technology, So, Educational Technology
may be extended to include the techniques of the educator. Technology is not just machines. It is a planned
systematic method of working to achieve planned outcomes-a process, not a product, Technology refers to
“all the ways people use their inventions and discoveries to satisfy their needs and desires” (The world
Book encyclopedia). Hence, Educational Technology refers to how people use their inventions and
discoveries to satisfy their educational needs and desires. I.e. learning.

Educational Technology
• Educational Technology is a “ complex, integrated process involving people,
procedures, ideas, devices, and organizations to those problems involved in all aspects of human learning,
“(AECT, 1977, as cited in Corpus & Lucido, 2008)
• Educational Technology “consist of the designs and environments that engage
learners… and reliable technique or method for engaging learning such as cognitive learning such as
cognitive learning strategies and critical thinking skills”
• Educational Technology is “a field study which is concerned with the practice of
using educational methods and resources for the ultimate goal for facilitating the learning process.
• Educational Technology, sometimes termed ad “Ed Tech”, is the study and ethical
practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate
technological processes and resources.
• Educational Technology includes, but is not limited to, software, hardware, as
well as internet applications, such as wikis and blogs, and activities.

• The term Educational Technology is often associated with, and encompasses,

instructional theory and learning theory.
• Educational Technology implies the use of all educational resources… men and
materials, methods and techniques, means and media in an integrated and systematic manner for
optimizing learning.
• According to modern educationists, learning not teaching is the crucial task of the
entire educational processes and emphasis of teachers is regarded as a system which facilitates learning
and makes learning effective as well as efficient. It is efficient in the sense that the learning with the use of
Educational Technology becomes easy and interesting, durable and comprehensive.

Educational Technology in a Broader Perception:

• In its global sense, it includes the entire process of setting of goals, the
continuous reforms of curriculum, the tryout of new methods and materials, the evaluation of the system
as an integrated whole and resetting of goals in the basis of the findings if evaluation and innovation.
• It is the component of curriculum reform concerned with the method where
curriculum reform is concerned with the content.
• It is the application of scientific knowledge about learning and the conditions of
learning to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching and training.

From the foregoing definitions of educational technology, it can be said that it is a very broad term. It is
the application of scientific findings in the method, process or procedure of working in the field of
education in order to effect learning. It embraces curriculum and instructional design, learning
environment, and theories of teaching-learning. It is the use of all human inventions for teachers their
mission to teach in order that students learn.

Technology in Education versus Technology of Education

• Technology in Education is concerned with the equipment, preparation of ad hoc
messages and integration with traditional teacher-centered activities.
• Technology Education is the most simply and comfortably defines as an array of
tools that may prove helpful in advancing student learning and may be measured in how and why
individuals behave.
• Technology in Education is the” application of technology to any of the processes
involved in operating the institutions which house the educational enterprise. It includes the application
of technology to food, health, finance, scheduling, grade, reporting and other processes which support
education within institutions

Technology of Education Technology

of Education deals with the active use of mass media and computer science for the individual pupils
learning process under the teacher’s supervision. This is more scientific, more
psychological and more pedagogical than technology in education.

Technology in Education will be useful if it is properly planned and organized on psychological principles.
Henri Dieuzeide (1970) has rightly observed,” The Transition from technology in education to the
technology of education involves a thorough appraisal of existing educational system, of its

objectives and of the means used to attain them, before any decision is reached to employ these new
techniques for specific teaching purposes. The Teacher-turned technologist can then gradually assume the
functions of an educational engineer, whose job is to increase the output of the entire scholastic machine.

Other Terms Associated with Educational Technology:

Instructional Technology - is a part of educational technology. It refers to those aspects of educational
technology that are concerned with instruction as contrasted to designs and operations
of educational institutions. Instructional technology is a systematic way of designing, carrying out,
and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives.

Technology Integration - means using learning technologies to introduce, reinforce, supplement and
extend skills
Educational Media - are channels or avenues or instruments of communication like books, magazines,
newspapers, radio, television, internet, and other hardware.

IN SUMMARY, Corpuz and Lucido (2008) clarify that Educational Technology is a broad term which is
oftentimes given a narrow meaning, to mean just hardware. However according to him:
• It refers to the use of all human inventions and discoveries to satisfy educational
needs and desired, like LEARNING.
• Inventions and discoveries can be devices, tools, equipment, activities,
procedures and processes.
• Included among human inventions are the various educational media.
• Educational technology is more than instructional technology in the same way
that education is more than instruction.
• Technology integration is a part of instructional technology which, in turn is part
of education technology, and
• Technology education is different for Technology in Education. The latter refers
to the application of technology in the operational education while the former refers to the application of
technology in the educative process that takes place in such education institutions.

Evolution of Educational Technology Educational

Technology can be back to the emergence of very early tools, like paintings on cave walls. Usually,
however, its history starts with the introduction of educational films (1900s) or Sidney
Pressey’s mechanical teaching machines in the 1920s.
 Use of the new technology during US WWII training of soldiers through training
films and other mediated materials. Today, presentation-based technology, based on the idea that people
can learn through aural and visual perception, exist in many forms, such as streaming audio and video, or
Power Point presentation with voice over.

The 1950s led to two major, still popular designs:

 Programmed Instruction (by Skinner): focusing on the formulation of behavioral
objective, breaking instructional content into small units, and rewarding correct responses early and
often.

 Bloom advocated a mastery approach to learning based in his taxonomy of

intellectual behaviors. He endorsed instructional techniques that varied both instruction and time
according to learner requirements. Models based on these designs were usually referred to as computer-
based training (CBT), computer-aided instruction or computer assisted instruction (CAI) in the 1970s
through the 1990s. in a more simplified form, the correspond to today’s “e- contents” that often form the
core of “e-learning “set ups, sometimes also referred to as web- based training (WBT) or e-instruction. The
course designer divides learning contents into smaller chunks of text augmented with graphics and
multimedia presentation. Frequent multiple-choice questions with immediate feedback are added foe self-
assessment and guidance.

The 1980s and 1990s

 Computer- based learning (CBL). Frequently on constructivist learning theories,
these environment focus on both abstract and domain specific problem solving. Preferred technologies
include macro-worlds (computer environments where learner could explore and build), simulations
(computer environments where learner can play with parameters of dynamic systems), and hypertext.
 In the mid-1980s, digitalized communication and networking in education
started and became popular by the mid-90s, in particular through the World-Wide Web (WWW), e-mail
and forums.
 There is a difference between two major forms of line learning. The earlier type,
based on either Computer Based Training (CBT) or Computer Based Learning (CBL)m focused in the
interaction between the student or and computer drills, plus tutorial on the one hand or micro- worlds
and simulations on the other. Both can be delivered today over the WWW.
 Today, the prevailing paradigm in the regular school system is Computer-
Mediated Communication (CMC), where the primary form of interaction is between students and
instructors, mediated by the computer. CBT/CBL usually means individualized (self-study) learning, while
CMC involves teacher/tutor facilitation and requires schematization of flexible learning activities. In
addition, modern ICT provides education with tools for sustaining communities and associated knowledge
management tasks. It also provides tools for students and curriculum management.
 In addition to classroom enhancement, learning technologies also play a major
role in full-time distance teaching. While most quality offers still rely on papers videos and occasional
CBT/CBL materials, there is increased use of e-tutoring through forums, instant messaging, video-
conferencing, etc.
 Courses addressed to smaller groups frequently use blended or hybrid deigns
that mix presence courses (usually) in the beginning and at the end of a modules) with distance activities
and use various pedagogical styles (e.g. drill and practice, exercise, projects, etc.)

The 2000s
 The emergence of multiple mobile and global technologies gave a new principle
to situated learning theories favoring learning-in-context scenarios. Some literature uses the concept of
integrated learning to describe blended learning scenarios that integrate both school and authentic
settings.

Perspective that Defines Educational Technology

1. Educational Technology as media and audiovisual communications

 The perspective grew out of the audiovisual (AV) movement in the 1930s, when
higher education instructors proposed that media such as slides and films delivered information in more
concrete, and therefore more effective, ways than lectures and boos did.
 This movement produced audiovisual communications or the “branch of
educational theory and practice concerned primarily with the design and use of messages that control the
learning process
 The view of education technology ad media to deliver information continues to
dominate areas of education and the communications industry, as late as 1986, the National Task Force in
Educational Technology equated educational technology with media, treating computers simply as
another medium
2. Educational Technology as Instructional Systems and Instructional Designs
 This view originated form post0 World War II military and industrial trainers
who were faced with the problem of preparing a large number of personnel quickly, Based on efficiency
studies and learning theories from educational psychology, they advocated using more planned systematic
approaches to developing uniform effective materials and training procedures.
 Their view was based on the belief that both human (teacher) and non-human
(media) resources can be part of an efficient system for addressing any instructional need. Therefore, they
equated “educational technology” with education problem solutions
 As these training personnel began to work with both university research and
development projects and K-12 school, they also influenced practices in both of these areas. Behaviorist
theories initially dominated and cognitive theories later gained performance
 In the 1990s, popular learning theories criticized systems approaches as being
too rigid to foster some kinds of learning- particularly high-order ones. Thus, the current view of
educational technology as instructional system is continually evolving.
3. Educational Technology as vocational training
 Also known as Technology Education, this perspective originated form industry
trainers and vocational educators in the 1980s.
 The believed (1) that an important function if school learning us to prepare
students for the world of work in which they will use technology and (2) that vocational training can be a
practical means of teaching all content areas, such as math, science and language.
 This view brought about a major paradigm shift in vocational training in K-
12nschools away from industrial arts curricula centered on woodworking/metals and graphics/ printing
shops toward technology education courses taught in labs equipped with high- technology stations, such
as desktop publishing, computer-assisted designs (CAD)m and robotic systems.
4. Educational Technology as computer systems (a.k.a educational computing
instructional computing)
 This view began in the 1950s with the advent of computers, and gained
momentum when they began to used instructionally in the 1960s
 As computers began to transform business and industry practices, both trainers
and teachers began to see that computers also had the potentials to aid instruction. From the time
computers came into classrooms in the 1960s until about 1990, this perspective was known as
educational computing and encompassed both instructional and administrative support applications.

 At first, programmers and systems analysis created all applications. Nut by the
1970s, many of the same educators involved with media, AV communications, and instructional systems
were also researching and developing computer applications
 By the 1990s, educators began computing became known as educational
technology

Benefits Derived from Educational Technology Educational

Technology is intended to improve, education foe the 21st-century learner. Situations today are
considered” Digital Natives” who were born and raised in a digital environment and
inherently think differently because of this exposure to technology. Here are some of the claimed
benefits of incorporating technology into classroom
A. Easy –to-access course materials. Instructors can post their course material or
important information on a course website, which means students can study at a time and location they
prefer and can obtain the study material very quickly.
B. Student Motivation. According to James Kulik, who studies the effectiveness of
computers used for instruction, “students usually learn more in less time when receiving computer-based
instruction and they like classes more and develop more positive attitudes toward computers in
computer-based classes”
C. Teachers must be aware of their students’ motivation in order to successfully
implement technology into the classroom. Students are more motivated to learn when are interested in
the subject matter, which can be enhanced by using technologies in the classroom and targeting the needs
for screens and digital materials that they have been stimulated by outside of the classroom.
D. More opportunities for extended learning. According to student completed in
2010, 70.3% of American family households have access to the internet. According to the Canadian Radio
Television and Tele communications Commission. 79% of homes have access to Internet. This allows the
students to access course material at home and engage with numerous online resources available to them.
Student can use their computers and Internet to conduct research, participate in social media, e-mail, and
play educational games and stream videos
E. Wide participation. Learning materials can be used for long-distance learning and
are accessible to a writer audience.
F. Improved student writing. It is convenient for students to edit their written work
on word processors. Which can, in turn, improve the quality of their writing. According to some studies,
the students are better at critiquing and editing written work that is exchanged over a computer network
with students they know.
G. Differential Instruction. Educational technology provides the means to focus on
active student’s participation and to present differentiated questioning strategies. It broadens
individualized instruction and promotes the development of personalized learning plans in some
computer programs available to teachers. Students are encouraged to use multimedia components and
incorporate the knowledge they gained in creative ways. This allows some students to individually
progress form using low-ordered skills gained from drill and practice activities, to higher level thinking
through applying concepts creatively and creating simulations. The ability to make educational technology
individualized may aid in targeting and accommodating different learning styles and levels.

Learning Theories that Shaped Educational Technology There are

three (3) main theoretical schools or philosophical frameworks of educational technology literature.
These are Behaviorism, Cognitivism, and Constructivism.

Behaviorism - this framework was developed in the early 20th Century with the animal learning
experiments of Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike, Edward C. Tolman, Clark Hull, B.F Skinner, etc.

Cognitivism - learning theory has undergone a great deal of change since 1960’s and 1970s. Cognitive
theories look beyond behavior to explain Brain-based Learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory
works to promote learning

Constructivism - this is a learning theory of educational philosophy whose primary belief is that “learners
construct their own meaning from new information, as they interact with reality or others with different
perspectives.”

Constructivist learning environments require to use their prior knowledge and experiences to formulate
new, related, and/or adaptive concepts in learning. The role of the teachers in this framework is to
become facilitator providing guidance so that learners can construct their own knowledge.

Dales Cone of Experience and the Three – Tiered Model of Learning by Bruner Dale’s cone
of Experience is a model that incorporates several theories related to instructional design and learning
process. During the 1960s, Edgar Dale theorized that learners retain more information
by what they ‘do” as opposed to what is “heard,” read”, or” observed. “His research led to the
development of the Cone of Experience. Today, this “learning-by-doing” has become known as
“experiential learning” or action learning.

The implications of the Core of Experience in the teaching-learning process

1. Do not use only one medium of communication in isolation. Rather, use many
instructional materials to help the students conceptualize their experience
2. Avoid teaching directly at the symbolic level of thought without adequate
foundation of the concrete. Student’s concepts will lack deep roots in direct experience. According to Dale
(1969), these rootless experiences will not have generative power to produce additional concepts and will
not enable the learner to deal with the new situations that he faces.
3. When teaching, don’t get stuck in concrete. Strive to bring your students to the
symbolic or abstract level to develop their higher-order thinking skills

The Three Tiered Model of Learning by Bruner Harvard

psychologist, Jerome S. Bruner presents a three –tiered model of learning. Where he points out that every
area of knowledge can be presented and learned in three distinct steps.

SYMBOLIC | ICONIC | ENACTIVE

It is highly recommended that a learner process from the ENACTIVE to the ICONIC, AND ONLY after to the
SYMBOLIC, The mind is often shocked into immediate abstraction at the highest level without the benefit
of gradual unfolding.

Roles of Educational Technology in Learning

Educational Technology plays various roles

 From the traditional point of view, it serves as presenter of knowledge just like
teachers. It also serves as productivity tool. With the internet, technology has facilitated communication
among people.
 From the constructivist perspective, educational technology is a meaningful
learning tool by serving a learning partner. It engages learners in” active, constructive, intentional,
authentic, and cooperative learning’

The following are the roles of technology in learning according to the constructivist perspective.
 Technology as tool to support knowledge construction
 For representing learners ideas, understandings and beliefs
 For producing organized, multimedia knowledge bases by learners
 Technology as information vehicles for exploring knowledge to support learning
by- constructing.
 For accessing needed information
 For comparing perspectives, belief and world views
 Technology as context support learning-by-doing:
 For preparing and simulating meaningful real-world problems, situations and
contexts
 For representing beliefs, perspectives, arguments, and stories of others
 For defining a safe, controllable problem space for student thinking
 Technology as social medium to support learning by conversing:
 For collaborating with others
 For discussing, arguing, and building consensus among members of the
community
 For supporting discourse among knowledge-building communities
 Technology as intellectual partner to support learning by reflecting:
 For helping learners to articulate and represent what the know
 For reflecting on what they have learned and how they came to know it
 For supporting learners internal negotiations and meaning making
 For constructing personal representations of meaning
 For supporting mindful thinking

Challenges of Technology in Education

The developments in the internet, the world-wide web in particular, and developments in multimedia
technology, are resulting in new approaches to designing and developing teaching and learning in higher
education. Here are some characteristics of such development as described by Bates
 Increase flexibility and access to learning, resulting in new markets being
reached, and in particular, the lifelong learner market.
 The use of multimedia to develop psycho-motor and intellectual skills
development, including problem solving and decision making.
 The use of internet technologies to develop knowledge management and
collaborative learning skills; and
 The use of internet to develop global, multi-cultural courses and problems.

Why use technology?

Almost all people from different sectors of society offer a number of different reasons to justify the use of
technology for teaching and learning. Following are four (4) of the most frequent reasons given for using
technology;
 To improve access to education and training
 To improve the quality of learning
 To reduce the cost of education; and
 To improve the cost-effectiveness of education

New technologies are fundamentally changing the nature of knowledge. However, we still need to
maintain the balance between teaching and learning done through face –to-face contact, and technology
base learning.

Integrating technology with teaching means the use of learning technologies to introduce, reinforce,
supplement and extend skills. There is no integrative process if for example the teacher makes students
play computer games to give them a rest period during classes. Neither is there integration, if the teacher
merely teaches students computer skills. Following are external manifestations of technology integration
into instruction;
 There’s a change in the way classes are traditional conducted
 The quality of instruction is improved in such as a way that it could not have been
achieved without educational technology.
 There is planning by the teacher on the process of determining how and when
technology fits into teaching-learning process.
 The teacher sets instructional strategies to address specific instructional
issues/problems
 The use of technology provides the opening of opportunities to respond to these
instructional issues/problem
 In sum, technology occupies a position (is a simple or complex way) in the
instructional process.

Levels of Integration
 Simple/Basic Integration- there is no substantial change in the teaching-learning
process form previous method. While technology helps, it does not play a pivotal role.
o Example: A teacher wants to show photos in her social studies class, but the
pictures are small. She decides to use the computer, scan the photos for computer projection to the class.
(A presentation software package)
o Result: Good class presentation followed by discussion
 Middle Level Integration- there is purposeful use of technology to support key
learning areas.
o Example1: A teacher uses computer-based Trigonometry software, projected in
the class using a projector to supplement his teacher-centered class presentation
o Result: an interactive class using software
o Example2: A teacher ask her students to find information on H-fever in the
internet. Students are to create an information leaflet giving a family health tips on H-Fever.
o Result: Creative skills are employed by students
 High-level Integration- in these examples, technology is the central instructional
tool.
o Example 1: to provide information on the ASEAN Region, the teacher assigned a
newsletter computer production by the group
o Result: increased social skills through group work; planning, creatively, computer
skills

o Example2: The Rizal School has a partner school in the U.S.A a joint science
project allows, the Philippine and U.S, schools to exchange information on indigenous herbal plants in both
countries. Video conferencing is held involving students of both schools.
o Result: A more sophisticated technology-supported project demonstrating global
communication and socially relevant research.
o A New Learning Environment through Application of Educational Technology
o “Effective teacher best interact with students in innovative learning activities,
while integrating technology to the teaching-learning process
Meaningful Learning - gives focus to new experiences that are related to what the learner already knows.
Students already have some knowledge that is relevant to the new learning. Students are willing to
perform class work to find connections between what they already know and what they can learn.

Discovery Learning - Students perform tasks to uncover what is to be learned. New ideas and new
decisions are generated in the learning process, regardless of the need to move on and depart from
organized set of activities.

Generative Learning-learners are active, attend to learning events, generate meaning form those
experiences and draw inferences, thereby creating a personal model or explanation to the new
experiences in the context of existing knowledge.

Constructivism - the learner builds a personal understanding through appropriate learning activities and a
good learning environment. Learning consists of what a person can actively assemble for himself and not
what he can receive passively. The role of learning is to help the individual live/ adapt to his personal
world.

Through the integration of educational technology in the teaching-learning process, learners have this
four learning domains:
Learners:
 Are active ,purposeful learners
 Set personal goals and strategies to achieve these goals
 Make their learning experiences meaningful and relevant to their lives
 Seek to build an understanding of their personal words so they can work/live
productively
 Build on what they already know in order to interpret and respond to new
experiences.

The Computer as Tutor The computer is a tutor in this new age of learning. It does not replace the
teacher, although it assumes certain roles previously assigned to teachers, who now has to take the
new roles of
facilitator and guide. Computers will become an integral component of the future classroom and not
a mere machine that can deliver routine drills and exercises.

Examples of Computer-assisted instructions (CAI)

 Simulation programs
 Instructional games
 Problem solving software
 Multimedia encyclopedia and electronic books

Understanding Multimedia and Hypermedia

Multimedia- an audiovisual package that includes more than one instructional media (means knowing),
such as text, graphics, audio animation, and video clip. According to Moore. It simple
means “multiple media or combination of media combined in a product whose purpose is to
communicate information.
Hypermedia- is multimedia packaged as an educational computer software, where information is
presented and student activities are integrated in a virtual learning environment.
Characteristics of Hypermedia applications
 Learner controlled-this means the learner makes his/her own decisions on the,
flow or events of instruction. The learner has control on such aspects as sequence, pace, content, media,
feedback, etc. that he/she may encounter in the hypermedia learning program.
 Learner was a wide range of navigations routes- for the most part, the learner
controls the sequence and pace of his path depending on his ability and motivation. He has the option to
repeat and change speed, it desired. Of course, at the start, the learner may choose the learning activities
he prefers. Meanwhile, the teacher has the prerogative to determine suitable learning objectives.

Technology in the Classroom There are

various types of technologies that can be or currently used in traditional classrooms. Among these are:
• Computer in the classroom. Having a computer in the classroom is an asset to any
teacher.
With a computer in the classroom, teachers are able to demonstrate a new lesson, present new material,
illustrate how to use new programs, and show ne websites.
• Class website. An easy way to display a student’s work to create a web page
designed for the class. Once a web page is designed, teachers can post homework assignments, student
work, famous quotes, trivia, games, and so much more. In today’s society, children should know how to
use the computer to navigate their way through a website, so why not gave them one where they can be
published author.
• Class blogs and wikis. These are variety of Web 2.0 tools that are currently being
implemented the classroom. Blogs allow for students to maintain a running dialogue. They work as tool
for maintaining a journal of thoughts, ideas, and assignments as well as encourage student comment and
reflection. Wikis are more group-focused to allow multiple members of the group to edit a single
document and create a truly collaborative and carefully edited finished product.
• Wireless classroom microphones. Noisy classrooms are daily occurrences. With
the help of microphones students are able to hear their teachers more clearly. Children learn better when
they hear the teacher clearly. The benefit for teachers is that they no longer lose their voices at the end of
the day
• Mobile devices. Mobile devices such as clickers or smartphones can be used to
enhance the experience in the classroom by providing the possibility for professors to get feedback
• Interactive whiteboards. An interactive whiteboard that provides touch control
of computer application enhances the experience in the classroom by showing anything that can be on a
computer screen. This is not only aids in visual learning, but it is interactive, so the student can draw,
write or manipulate images on the interactive whiteboard.
• Digital video-on-demand. Replacement of hard copy videos (DVD, VHS, etc.) with
digital video accessed from central server (e.g. SAFARI Montage). Digital video eliminates the need

for in-classroom hardware (player) and allows teachers and students to access video clips immediately
but not utilizing the public internet.
• Online media. Streamed video websites can be used to enhance a classroom
lesson (e.g. united streaming, teacher tube, etc.)
• Online study tools. These are tools that motivate studying by making studying
more fun and individualized for the student
• Digital games. The field of educational games and serious games has been
growing significantly over the last few years. The digital games are being provided as tools for the
classroom and have a lot positive effects, including higher motivation for the students.
• There are many other tools being used. These may include: digital cameras, video
cameras, interactive whiteboard tools, documents cameras, or LCD projectors
• Podcasts. Podcasting is relatively new invention that allows anybody to publish
files to the internet where individuals can subscribe and receive new files from people by subscription.
The primary benefit to pod casting for educators is quite simple. It enables teachers to reach a student in a
way that is both “cool” and a part of their lives. For technology that only requires a computer, microphone
and internet connection, pod casting has the capacity of advancing a student’s education beyond the
classroom. When students listen to the pod cast of the students as well as their won, they can quickly
demonstrate their capacities to identify and define “quality”. This can be a great tool for learning and
developing literacy inside and outside the classroom. Pod casting can help sharpen student’s vocabulary,
writing, editing, public speaking, and presentation skills. Students also learn skills that will be valuable in
the working world, such as communication, time management, and problem-solving.

The most traditional but very effective technology in the classroom According
to Horace Mann, a noted American Educator, “indeed, in country have I ever seen a good school without a
blackboard, or a successful teacher who did not use it frequently?”

A chalkboard is available classroom equipment and the overhead projector (OHP) which has become quite
popular in schools. Like other state –of-the art instructional tools, the teacher has to learn from proper
techniques using chalkboards and OHPs to maximize it use and make it an effective and efficient
instructional equipment.

Teaching and Learning with Visual Symbols As implied

in Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience a teacher should not use only one medium of communication in
isolation, but rather use many instructional materials to help the students
conceptualize his experience. Thus, the use of visual symbols in teaching and learning is important. It
may be laborious on the part of the teacher, but the use of technology in preparing such materials may
help. These visual symbols include drawings, cartoons, strip drawings, diagrams, charts, graphs, maps, etc.

Drawing – A drawing may not be the real thing, but it’s better to have a concrete visual aid than nothing.
To avoid confusion, it is good that the drawing correctly represents the real thing.

Cartoons – A first cartoon tells it story metaphorically. The perfect cartoon need no caption. The less the
artist depends on words, the more effective the symbolism, for the symbolism conveys the message.

Strip drawings - these are commonly called comics or comic strips. According to dale the more accurate
term is “strip drawings.” Make use of strips that are educational and at same time entertaining.

Diagrams - it is any line drawing that shows arrangements and relations as a part of the whole, relative
values, origins and development, chronological functions, distribution, etc.

Types of diagrams: Affinity Diagrams - use to cluster complex, apparently unrelated data into
natural and meaningful groups.

Tree Diagram - use to chart out, in increasing detail, the various tasks that must be accomplished to
complete a project or achieve a specific objective.

Fishbone Diagram - it is called “cause-and-effect diagram. It is a structured form of brainstorming that

graphically shows the relationship of possible causes and sub-causes directly related to and identifies
effect/ problem. It is commonly used to analyze work-related problems.

Charts - It is a diagrammatic representation of relationships among individuals with organization it

includes the following:
 Time chart-is a tabular time chart that represents data in ordinal sequence.
 Tree or stream chart- depicts development, growth and change by beginning
with a single course (the trunk) which spreads out into many branches; or by beginning with the many
tributaries which then converge into a single channel.
 Flow chart-is a visual way of charting or showing a process from beginning to
end. It is a means of analyzing a process. By outlining every step in a process, you can begin to find
inefficiencies or problems.
 Organizational chart- shows how one part of the organization relates to the other
parts
 Comparison and contrast chart-used to show similarities and differences
between tow thins, (people, places, events, ideas, etc.)
 Pareto chart- is a type of bar chat, prioritized in descending order of magnitude
or importance from left to right. It shows at a glance which factors are occurring most.
 Gantt chart- it is an activity time chart

Graphs- there are several types of graphs:

 Circle or Pie graph- recommended for a showing a part of a whole.
 Bar graph- used in comparing the magnitude of similar items at a different
entities to seeing relative sizes of the parts of a whole
 Pictorial graph- makes use of picture symbols
 Graphic organizer

Maps - it is a representation of the surface of the earth or some apart of it

Kinds of Maps
1. Physical map -combines in a single projection data like altitude, temperature,
rainfall, precipitation, vegetation and soil.

2. Relief map - has three dimensional representations and shows contours of the
physical data of the earth or part of the earth.
3. Commercial or economic map - also called product or industrial map since it
shows land areas in relation to the economy.
4. Political map - give detailed information about country, provinces, cities and
towns, roads and highways. Oceans, rivers and lakes are the main features of most political maps.

Project Based Learning Multimedia Corpuz and

Lucido (2008) explain that project-based multimedia learning does not only involve use of multimedia for
learning. According to them, students end up with a multimedia product to show
what they learned.
 They are not only learners of academic content, but they are at the same time
authors of multimedia product at the end of the learning process.
 The goals and objectives of a project are based in the core curriculum a laid down
in the curricular standards and are made crystal clear to students at the beginning of the project
 The students work collaboratively over an extended time frame.
As they work, the employ like skills, including decision-making
 Their learning task ends up with a multimedia presentation through their multimedia product