Polymer Composites for Civil and

Structural Engineering
Polymer Composites for Civil and
Structural Engineering

by

L. HOLLAWAY
Professor
Composite Structures Research Unit
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Surrey

rm
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
First edition 1993
© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 1993
Origina1ly published by Chapman & Hall in 1993
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover Ist edition 1993

Typeset in 10/12 pt Times New Roman by Thomson Press (India) Ltd.,

New Delhi

ISBN 978-94-010-4946-7 ISBN 978-94-011-2136-1 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-94-011-2136-1
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Preface

Synthetic polymers and fibre reinforced polymer composite systems have

become increasingly important to the civil and structural engineer over the
last decade and now have a wide range of applications in a variety of
engineering fields.
A large percentage of all fibre reinforced products are made from un-
saturated polyester resins reinforced with glass fibre. However, epoxy and
toughened epoxy resins and the high technology thermoplastic polymers,
together with the carbon and aramid fibres, are playing an ever more
important role in structural engineering, particularly in the aerospace
industry, but increasingly in the construction field, and this trend is likely
to continue, as chapter 1 convincingly demonstrates. Polymer composites
have unique advantages over more conventional materials and these
advantages can be enhanced by correct design technology; the engineer has
the opportunity to design the composite material and the structural system
simultaneously.
An attempt has been made to combine, within one book, information on
the various composite systems currently in use in construction, together with
fabrication processes, mechanical and physical properties of the matrices,
fibres and composites, analytical and experimental testing and design
techniques and jointing methods. The section on failure theories is a generic
presentation in that structural composites generally consist of various
multi-ply laminates which will fail when subjected to a sufficiently large load.
It will be realized that the failure of composites is complicated because of
the many different ways in which structural systems can collapse. Therefore,
this section can serve only as a guide to the prediction of structural integrity.
The aims of this book, therefore, are to provide a simple guide to the
principal aspects of the theory and use of composites in construction. It is
directed at consulting engineers and designers of polymer composites in the
mechanical and civil engineering industries, but will also serve as a reference
source for advanced undergraduates and postgraduates studying materials,
and material scientists interested in the utilization of composites in
engineering.
I would like to express my appreciation to those of my past and present
postgraduate students and research assistants at the University of Surrey
who have directly and indirectly encouraged and helped me to produce this
book. I am particularly indebted to Professor B. Grieveson, Consultant to
VI PREFACE

the Department of Civil Engineering, with whom I have had many hours of
technical discussion and who read the draft of the book and made many
valuable suggestions. Finally I would like to thank my wife, Pat, for her help,
patience and encouragement.

L.H.
Contents

1 Introduction 1
References 10

2 Characterization and mechanism of fibre matrix materials 12

2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 Mechanism of reinforcement of fibre reinforced polymers 12
2.2.1 Fibres 13
2.2.2 Matrix 13
2.2.3 Interface 13
2.3 Geometrical aspects 14
2.4 Properties of fibres, matrices and composites, elastic properties of
continuous unidirectional laminae 18
2.4.1 Longitudinal stiffness 18
2.4.2 Transverse stiffness 19
2.5 Stress and strain distribution around fibre ends of discontinuous fibres 21
2.6 Elastic properties of short fibre composite materials 23
2.7 Polymeric materials 24
2.7.1 Thermoplastic polymers 25
2.7.2 Thermosetting polymers 25
2.7.3 Foamed polymers 26
2.7.4 Elastomers 26
2.7.5 The major thermoplastic resins 27
2.7.6 The major thermosetting resins 27
2.8 Fibres 28
2.8.1 Glass fibres 29
2.8.2 Carbon fibres 31
2.8.3 Aramid fibres 33
2.8.4 Synthetic fibres 34
2.8.5 Prestressing fibres 36
2.9 Mechanical properties of polymers 38
2.9.1 Creep deformation and rupture 40
2.9.2 Time dependent behaviour: long-term tests 43
2.9.3 Experimental techniques to determine creep properties 47
2.10 Mechanical properties of fibres 48
2.11 Mechanical properties of structural composites 50
2.12 Stress-strain relationship for fibre/polymer materials 54
2.13 The deformation characteristics of composites 55
2.14 Fatigue in composite materials 56
2.14.1 Matrix cracking 57
2.14.2 Delamination 57
2.14.3 Fibre breakage and interface debonding 58
2.14.4 Fatigue behaviour 59
References 61

3 Laminate theory: macro analysis of composite laminates 63

3.1 Introduction 63
3.2 Isotropic lamina 64
3.2.1 Elastic properties of a randomly oriented fibre lamina 64
viii CONTENTS

3.3 Orthotropic lamina 65

3.3.1 Orthotropic lamina: arbitrary orientation 66
3.4 Properties of laminates 69
3.4.1 Stress within individual laminae 71
3.5 Yield strength of polymers 74
3.6 Strength theories of unidirectional laminae 75
3.6.1 Longitudinal tensile strength 75
3.6.2 Transverse tensile strength 76
3.6.3 Longitudinal compressive strength 77
3.6.4 Shear strength 79
3.7 Strength and failure criteria of orthotropic laminates not loaded in the
principal directions 80
3.7.1 Maximum stress theory of fracture 80
3.7.2 Maximum strain theory of fracture 82
3.7.3 Interaction theory (Tsai-Hill failure criterion) 82
3.7.4 Grant-Sanders method 86
3.8 Characteristics of laminated composites 86
3.8.1 Laminated composite beam behaviour 87
3.8.2 Laminated composite plate behaviour 89
3.9 Design of composites 94
References 94

4 Measurements of engineering properties of fibre reinforced polymers 96

4.1 Introduction 96
4.2 Uniaxial tension 96
4.2.1 Tension test procedure 97
4.3 Compressive tests 99
4.4 In-plane shear tests 100
4.4.1 The uniaxial tensile test on a symmetric ± 45° coupon 100
4.4.2 Off-axis test 100
4.4.3 Rail shear test 101
4.4.4 Torsional shear of a thin-walled tube 102
4.5 Flexural tests 103
4.6 Interlaminar shear tests 103
4.6.1 The three-point load interlaminar shear test 103
4.6.2 Iosipescu shear specimen 104
4.7 Impact behaviour 105
4.7.1 Impact test techniques for composite materials 105
4.7.2 Observations on the impact tests 107
4.8 Non-destructive testing techniques 107
References 109

5 Processing techniques: thermoplastic polymers, thermosetting and

thermoplastic composites 111
5.1 Introduction 111

PART 1
5.2 Processing methods for the manufacture of reinforced thermosetting polymers 111
5.2.1 Open mould techniques 113
5.2.2 Closed mould techniques 116
PART 2
5.3 Processing methods for the manufacture of unreinforced thermoplastic
polymer items 121
5.3.1 Profile products 122
 CONTENTS ix
5.3.2 Film-blowing polymer sheet 122
5.3.3 Blow moulding 122
5.3.4 Co-extrusion 123
5.3.5 Highly orientated grid sheets 124
5.4 Processing methods for the manufacture of reinforced thermoplastic
composites 124
5.4.1 Film stacking process 125
5.5 Manufacturing faults 125
5.5.1 Porosity 126
5.5.2 Prepreg gaps and fibre alignment 126
5.5.3 Prepreg joints 126
5.5.4 Resin micro-cracks 126
5.5.5 Resin shrinkage 127
References 127

6 End-use performance properties of structural polymer composites 128

6.1 Introduction 128

PART 1
6.2 Specification and quality control 128
6.3 Thermal properties 130
6.4 Chemical resistance properties 131
6.4.1 Effects of chemicals on polymers 132
6.4.2 Natural weathering of polymers 133
6.5 Sound insulation 135
6.6 Ligh t transmission property 136
6.7 Abrasion resistance 136

PART 2
6.8 Durability 137
6.9 The fibre behaviour of polymers 139
6.9.1 Reaction to fire: test on materials 140
6.9.2 Fire resistance: test on structures 141
6.9.3 Smoke generation characteristics 144
6.9.4 Method of imparting flame retardancy to GRP 145
6.10 Repair of composite materials 146
6.1 0.1 Types of repair 146
6.1 0.2 Bonded repairs 148
6.10.3 Bolted repairs 149
6.10.4 Techniques for modelling and analysis of composite repairs 149

PART 3
6.11 End-use performance properties of geosynthetics 149
6.11.1 Introduction 149
6.11.2 The utilization of geotextile reinforcement 151
6.11.3 Geotextile characteristics 151
6.11.4 Strength characteristics 151
6.11.5 Durability 154
6.11.6 Effects of oxidation 154
6.11. 7 Effects of hydrolysis 154
6.11.8 Effects of external chemicals 155
References 155
X CONTENTS

7 Low density rigid foam materials, sandwich construction and

design methods 157
7.1 Introduction 157
7.2 Rigid plastic foams 157
7.3 Phenolic foam 158
7.4 Rigid polyurethane foam 160
7.5 Expanded PVC foam 161
7.6 Urea formaldehyde 162
7.7 Uses and manufacturing processes of polymer foams 162
7.8 Mechanical testing of rigid polymer foams 164
7.8.1 Compressive strengths 165
7.8.2 Flatwise tension test 166
7.8.3 Shear test 168
7.9 Sandwich laminates: beams 168
7.9.1 Shear stress in the core 170
7.9.2 Thin face sandwich beams 172
7.9.3 Thick face sandwich beams 174
7.9.4 Characteristic behaviour of a sandwich beam 174
7.10 Buckling of sandwich struts with thin faces 176
7.11 Buckling of sandwich struts with thick faces 177
7.12 Wrinkling instability offaces of sandwich struts with cores of finite thickness 178
7.13 Buckling of sandwich panels 179
7.13.1 Buckling of thin face sandwich panels 179
7.13.2 Buckling of thick face sandwich panels 181
7.14 Bending of simply supported panels with uniform transverse load 182
7.15 Simply supported sandwich panels with edge load and uniform transverse load 184
i16 Summary: a guide for design of sandwich beams and struts and panels
with edge loads 184
Appendix 185
References 186

8 Bonding and bolting composites 187

8.1 Introduction 187
8.2 Adhesive bonded joints 187
8.3 Modes of failure 190
8.4 Tubular lap joints 195
8.4.1 J ointing closed section members 195
8.5 Theoretical solutions to bonded joints 198
8.5.1 Single lap joint: elastic analyses 198
8.5.2 Double lap joint: linear classical theory 200
8.5.3 Single and double lap joint: non-linear analysis 200
8.6 Adhesive stress-strain characteristics 201
8.7 Physical considerations during the bonding operations 204
8.7.1 In-service properties of adhesives 204
8.7.2 Surface preparation 204
8.8 Flaws in adhesive bonds 205
8.8.1 Adherend thermal mismatch 205
8.9 Mechanical joints 206
8.9.1 Introduction 206
8.9.2 The failure modes 207
8.10 The influence of various parameters on the failure mechanisms of bolted
composites 210
8.10.1 The geometric factors 210
8.10.2 Fibre orientation, resin type and method of manufacture 211
8.10.3 Bolt fit 212
8.10.4 Clamping force 212
References 213
 CONTENTS xi
9 Numerical examples for fibre-matrix composites 215
9.1 Introduction 215
9.2 Axial tensile forces in composite systems 215
9.3 Buckling of members under axial compression forces 229
9.4 Bending moment on a composite beam example 233
9.5 Sandwich beam construction 236
References 244

Glossary 246

Appendix: ASTM specifications 251

Index 255