A Treatise On Lathes and Turning Simple Mechanical and Ornamental 1000177405

r
.'.y" .
A TREATISE
ON
LATHES AND TURNING
SIMPLE, MECHANICAL, AND ORNAMENTAL
BY
W. HENEY NOETHCOTT
AiriBOB or A TBBATlaX OK 'THB THaOBY AMD ACTIOH OF THB SIUII XXOINS'
SECOND EDITION
WITB THRBS BUHDRED ASD TBIBTT-KIOBT ILLVaTRATIOSS
LONDON
LONGMANS, GEEEN, AND CO.
1876
Alt right* teierved

TO
EDWABD CAFFIN, ESQ.
MASTER OF THE WORSHIPFUL COMPANY OF TURNERS.
Mt BEAR Sib,
As a member of Ancient and Honourable G-uild,

your
I beg to dedicate to
you,
its Worshipful Master, this second
edition of treatise on
' Lathes and Turning.'
my
The useful measures of technical advancement gurated

inau-
by the Turners Company, and so warmly promoted
by yourself, tend greatly to artistic skill and

encourage
honourable emulation amongst craftsmen ; and I trust that
attempt to the mysteries and secrets of the craft

my expose
will not be considered treasonable.
I am, dear Sir,
Your obedient servant,
HENRY NORTHCOTT.
PEEFACE.
'
The present volume is intended as a
* Handbook for the
use of students in mechanics, amateur turners, and others
who are interested in the art of turning. Proficiency

in this most useful art is not to be acquired from books
alone, but I beUeve the information given in the ing

follow-
be taken as sound and practical, whilst

pages may
the lathes, tools, and appliances described are those of
the present day.

The first part is devoted mainly to the description
of the principal varieties of lathe in use. The second
part treats of turning with hand tools in hard and
soft woods, ivory, "c., also, in iron and the metals
generally; this part includes screw chasing, drilhng,

fret sawing, and other subsidiary operations. The
third part describes the self-acting lathe and its uses,
including screw cutting, boring, turning irregular shapes,

wheel cutting, milling, slot drilling, planing, "c. The
fourth part is on ornamental turning, with a tion

descrip-
of the ornamental lathe, the ellipse,the eccentric, the
geometric, the compound geometric and other chucks

;
the eccentric, ellipse, rose and other ornamenting

instruments, the spherical slide rest, "c., "c. The
whole being illustrated by three hundred and thirty-

VUl FREFAGB.
eight engravings of lathe apparatus and eiuimples of
turned work, of which ninety-nine new to this

are
edition.
Messrs. Sir Joseph Whitworth and Co., Messrs.
Fairbairn, Kennedy, and Naylor and other eminent
makers were good enough to furnish me

with the
photographs from which the illustrations of lathes
were engraved. To Mr. Henry Perigal, F.E.A.S.,
"c., "c., I am
indebted for much valuable information
and aid in connection with the special subject of
geometric turning. And last, but not least, Mr. James
Kasmytb has kindly contributed chapter ' ening

Hard-
a on
and tempering steel tools.'
I add that I hope shortly to publish sequel

may a
to this work in the form of volume devoted

a ex-
dudvely to *
Examples of Plain and Ornamental
Turning.'
W. H. NOBTHCOTT.
SomfZEnc Clvb, Lokimk^ 1876.

CONTENTS.
PAOB
Wbat 18 the lathe 1
Definition of turning 1
Invention of the lathe 2
Course of improvement in the lathe ^8
Hand lathes 5
Double gearing 6
Slide-rests 7
"
Modesof making slide* rest automatic 8
Self-acting lathes 9
Sur"cing do 10
Screw-cutting do 11
On leading screws 12
Duplex lathee 14
Ornamental do 14
Special do 15
Driving by treadles 16
"8t and looee pulleys 18

,,
Modes of reversing 19
Home-made lathes 21
On the choice of a lathe 22
'Points' of a good lathe 23
Technical terms 25
On hand-tool turning 28
Driving chucks SO
.
Universal mandrils 34
Temporary chucks 3d
Spring do 37
Mode of using the chucks 38
Tools for soft wood turning 40
Tools for hard woods 42
On grinding tools 44
Cutting position of tools 45

X CX)NTENTS.
PAOK
Placing the tool-rest . .

46
Callipers 47
Woods used for turning 48
Chittingspeedsfor woods and ivory . .

50
Turning a cylinderin soft wood .....

52
Mode of holding the tools . . .

54
Polishingsoft woods 57
Turning in hard woods ........

58
Polishing do 59
Turning a box 60
"
sphere 62
vHJttS ,. .. ,. ," " ".

OO
"l ,. .
Chinese balls .
64
"
,^
spiked articles 65
Hand-turping in metals . "

67
Qualities of iron .........

68
Annealing steel . . . ... .

,69
Turning cast ircm .........
70
brass and gun metal 71
"
Cutting anglesof tools for metal .

72
Centres and carriers . .

73
Driving chucks .........

74
Mandrils .........
75
Hook tools 76
Mode of holding do .77
Metal-turningtools 79
chisels .
'. .80
jj . . .
Tools for cast iron 82

Tools for brass and cast iron 83
Cutting speeds for metals .

85
Polishing cast and wrought iron .....

86
How to turn wrought iron . . . . .

88
.
Knocking work on and off mandrils . ,

.91
.
Screw chasing 93
Drillingand baring 96
Drills,"c 97
Mode of using drills 98
Rhymers 101
Pin drilling 102
Boring bits 104
Chucking work for boring 106

.......
The boring rest 108

The D- bit 110
r
CONTENTS.. XI
PAOB
Lapping and grindingholes 112
Hand drills . .
.118
Cironlar sawing 114
Fret do 115
Making millingtools . . .
116
chasing do 117
"
Buffingand polishing 117

lathe
The self-acting 118
Slide rest of do 123
taming
Self-acting 128
Chucks and drivinginstraments 181
Slide-Test tools for metals "
188
Guttingspeedsfor self-actingturning 186
Lubricatingthe cuttingtools .
187
Speeds of trayerse 188

General instruction for turning 189
Turning a long shaft 142
TheLstaj 148
Springtools . . . . ... . .
146
Using the standard plugs . . .

148
Conical turning 149
What is a screw 151
Early modes of cutdng screws 152

Whitworth standard threads 153
Shape of screw threads 154
Change wheels 156
Calculatingwheels 157
Screwingtools for woods 159
Landing places ,,
161
Instructions for screw cutting 162
Self-acting
drilling . . . .
164
Turning irregularshapes .
167
Wheel cutting 177
Bevel do ....:.... 184
Spiralwheel cutting 185
Hack cutting 186
Circular cutters 186
Instrument formaking cutters 189
Flutingand slotdrilling 193
Planingand slotting 197
Repairingtools 201
Tool forge 205
Hardening and temperingsteel tools 205
231 CONTENTS.
PAOB
The ornamental lathe 210
Trayening mandril 218
Ornamental aiide-rest 215
Overhead apparatus 217
Ornamental turning 218
Tools for do
.
220
.
Screw traversing 224
Ornamental engraving 229
Slide-rest applied to engraving 288
The eccentric chuck and its uses 287

"
The eccentric cutting instrument 241

. " . . .
The ellipse chuck 245
The ellipse cutting instrument 250

......
The rose do do 258
Straight line chucks 262

. .
Bo8e engine lathes 268
Combination of ornamental apparatus 264

, . . . .
Double counting 266
The compensating index 278

"
The geometric chuck 276

" "
Geometric turning 280

. .
The compound geometric chuck 298
Ornamental cutting and carving 808
The curvilinear apparatus 806
The spherical slide-rest 807
Turning skew or oblique work

......
809
Ornamental drills : 810

. . " . . . . .
Universal cutting instrument 810
The spherical chuck 811
The spiral chuck 811
The spiral apparatus 812
Drilled work 818
Spiral do
.
814
Examples of drilled and other work 814
Sharpening tools 315

I
ILLUSTBATIONS.
-""^
LATHES AND TURNING.

nouBs
Simple hand lathe 1

with aUde-rest 2
n "
Compound slide-rest 8
and sor"cmg
Self-actdng elide lathe,
10-in. centres . . .
4
Slide break lathe,21-m. oentree 5
Duplex screw-catting lathe,lO-in. centres " . . .
6
Duplex self-acting lathe with break 7
Screw-cutting lathe for foot power, 5-in. centres . " .

8
Railway axle lathe , .

9
Railway wheel lathe 10

Double lathe for bolts and studs 11
HAND-TOOL TURNING IN WOODS, "c.
DriU-chuck 12
Prong driver 18
Cross do 14
Taper screw chuck 15

Five pin or platechuck 16
Cone chuck 17
Uniyersal mandril 18
Male and female screw chucks 19 " 20
Chuck-plate "
21
Pin-wrench 22
Tools for taming soft woods 28 "
80
hard woods and ivory 31 " 50
" ^ .
Position of gouge and soft wood chisel in use . .

51
soft wood scrapingchisel do .52
" .
hard wood do do 58
"
XIV ILLUSTRATIONS.
nauiuB
Hand-tool rest or tee 54
Outside callipers 55
Inside do 56
Indicating do 57
Handle for tunung tools 58
Vase (example of turning)

stem 59
Mode of using cross kerf driver . . . . .

.60
Snufl^-box (example of turning) ....

61 "
62
Vase (example of turning) .

63
Object with six spikes (example of tuminff) 64

(ipleof turSng) . . . .
Cube with intermd spikes ...

65
Polygon with internal

spikes(example of turning) . .
66
Vases, "c. (examples of turning) 67
HAND TOOL TURNING IN METALS.'
Lathe centres for lightand heavy work . . .

68 "
69
Female do 70
Carriers or drivers for round iron,flat iron and screws 71 " 73
Centrepunch and cone centre punch " . . .

74 " 75
Driving chuck . . .
,
76
Die do 77
Round mandrils and screw mandrils 78 "
80
....
Hook tool for hand-turning 81

Tool- rest for metal turning 82
Position of hook tool when in use . . \ . .

83
Hand- tools for metal turning . . .
84 "
90
Handle for do 91
Position of metal-turningchiiselsin use . . .
.92
Polishingtools for metals .

93
Position of tools in use .94
Scraping tools for brass and cast iron .

95 "
104
Position of tools in use 105
Glazing clamps and emery sticks ....

106 " 107
Position and angle of chisel for turning brass ....

108
SCREW CHASING BY HAND.
Male chasing tools 109

Female do 110
.
ILLUSTRATIONS. XV
DRILLING AND BORING.
Drilla . . .
" 111"116
Pin counter-sinkB,rhymers
drills, . . . .
116 " 120
American drill and chuck .

121
Faceplate 122
Cup or 8-8crew chuck 123
Boring tools 124"126
Boring rest . .
127
Die stay or steady bearing 128
Boring wrench *
., . . ... . .
129
Lead grinderor lap . , . .
ISO
Faceplateclamps 131
Hand-drilling instrument .
,
. . .
132
MISCELLANEOUS OPERATIONS.
Circularsawing machine " . .

' 138
Fret-cuttingsaw . . . . .
134
Specimens of fret-sawing .".".". . .

135 " 136
SELF-ACTING LATHES AND THEIR USES.
End eluration of slide-rest 137
Front elevation of universal lathe 138

End elevation of do (left) 139
End elevation of do (right) 140
Square centre . .
.' . . . . .
141
Long do 142
Standard plug and ring gauges 143
Four-jaw chuck 144

chuck
Self-centering 145
Slide-rest tools 146"157

Varieties of screw-threads 158
Screw-cuttingtools for wood 159 "

160
Screw-tool with shiftingblade 161
Boring-bar and centres 162
Wheel-cutting apparatus 163

Circular cutter for wheel cutting 164
Spindle for flycutters 165
Circular cutter for grooving 166

XVI ILLUSTRATIONS.
Apparatus for making circular cutters .

167 "
168
Drilling
instrument 169
Drills for do 170"171
Planinghead 172
tool
Slotting 178
Forge 174
ORNAMENTAL LATHES AND THEIR USES.
Ornamental lathe "

175
Slide-rest tools for woods and irory,"c "
176 " 186
Eccentric chuck 187
,, patterns 188"189
Eccentric euttinginstrument ""....
190
chuck
Ellipse 191
,y pattern 192
cuttinginstrument
Ellipse "
198
" patterns 194"196

instrument
Rose-cutting 197
,, patterns 198
Combination patterns 199 " ^217
Greometric chuck (simple) 218
Patterns made by do 219 " 806
Compound geometricchuck 807

Figuresmade by do 808"828
Sphericalslide rest 824
Examples of obliquework 825 " 326

Drills for ornamental work 827 "
880
Cuttinginstrument """".....
881
Spherical chuck 882

Spiral chudc SSS
Egg-shell Tase . . " ^

884
Drilled picture frame .
*
885
Hollow spiral work 886 " 887
Drilled work (examples) 888
LATHES AND TUBNING.
; PAET !"
DEFINITION OP TURNING.
The lathe is essentially an instrument by which stances

sub-
are rotated an axis under such

upon ments
arrange-
that they be cut and smoothed, *
turned '
may or
by suitable tools. Turning is then the act or operation

of shaping bodies by means of the lathe.
In its simplest form a lathe consists of two fixed
points or centres, between which the object to be
turned is rotated, and a chisel or other cutting tool is
so held that all the portions of the material projecting

beyond the plane in which the point of the tool is
moved are cut as the object rotates, leaving

away a
smooth cylindrical surface. Lathes however are now
made of complex configuration, and

very many tions
opera-
besides that of simple turning are performed by

their instrumentality. In some cases, instead of the
tool being stationary, and the object rotated, turning is
performed upon a stationary object by a revolving tool.
In other although the work is rotated and the

cases,
cutting point is stationary, the operation is not termed
'
turning, but '

drilling or
*
boring/ according to the
B
2 LATHES AND TURNING.
nature of the when

cuttingtool employed. Generally,
a body
cylindrical is produced by continuous rotation,
it is said to be turned whether the cuttingtool or the
work is rotated. If a circular hole is made in a rotating

object,the operationis termed turning only when a
turningtool is employed to remove the surplusmaterial.

If the hole is made by a revolvingtool it is not usually
said to be turned, although the operationmay have
been performedin the lathe.
The earliest form of lathe is no doubt of prehistoric

invention. It can at no time have been much more
elementary than the rude instrument used from time
immemorial in Eastern countries. This lathe is gene-

rally
formed of two short wooden stakes or pegs driven
into the ground at a suitable distance apart, each

carryinga short pointedpieceof wire or even wood,
to act as centres or supports for the objectto be turned.
The work is rotated by means of a bow, somethinglike
a fiddler's bow, the stringof which is twisted once or
twice round the work to giveitthe necessary hold. In
the East the turner squats upon the ground and holds
the chisel with one hand, whilst with the other he
moves the bow backwards and forwards so as to cause
the work to rotate first in one direction and then in the
other. The chisel is guided and steadied by the work-

man's
great toe.
Lathes of this kind are still employed in India,
China, and other Eastern countries,and apparentlyno
attempt has been made by native workmen to improve
upon them. the
Notwithstanding rudeness of the lathe
however, it must be admitted that Eastern turners are
able to produce some very fine specimens of turned
work.
were concurrentlyeffected in the generalconstruction

and workmanship of the lathe,the mode of fixingthe
lathe centres, the use of a movable poppet, the rangement
ar-
of the tool rest, "c., and the lathe would
now become a reallyuseful and eflSdent machine.
As the use of machinery extended so the value of
the lathe became more apparent, and its applications

more numerous. It is adapted to the production of
largerand heavier work by the addition to the lathe
head of double gearing for reducingthe speed and creasing

in-
the power. The uncertain hand of the turner
would find a substitute in the slide rest " a mechanical
hand at once stronger and more exact than the human
hand. Some simple means are devised for moving the
handle of the slide rest from the lathe itself,

and the
tool then becomes self-acting.

By a mere extension of
the slide rest the

principle, lathe bed is itself formed
into a sUde for the tool carrier,and with a leading

screw or other tool-moving mechanism we have that
most useful of all machines "

^the Self Acting Slide
Lathe.
Specialadaptationsof the lathe to the purposes of
certain trades or certain work have been, and are,
continuallymade. Many of these lathes with Iheir
adjuncts possess great interest,and have been worked
out with great ingenuity. For the purposes of the
present work however, the lathes described and chiefly

alluded to will be hand lathes,or simple lathes intended
for the productionof moderatelylightturningin metals
and wood with hand tools ; the lathes,used

self-acting
by the mechanical engineerin the productionof steam
engines and other machinery; and the ornamental

VARIETIES OP LATHE. 5
lathes,employed in the execution of light fancy or
ornamental turnery, chieflyin ivory and wood. A few
special lathes are described in connection with the self-
actinglathe.
The hand lathe, at no very distant date the only
one in use, is now chieflyused by wood tamers and
amateurs. One of these is shown at Fig. 1 ; a is the
bed; b the cone-poppet or headstock; c the screw-
poppet ; d the tool-rest ; e the treadle. These lathes can
be bought anywhere, and at prices varying from 21. to
20^. Their capabilities

are rather limited, but they are
well adapted *
to teach the young idea how to turn.'
A better constructed lathe, of similar properties,as

made by Messrs. Easterbrook and AUcard, is shown at
Fig. 2. In this lathe a is
the bed, which is of metal;

/ is the cone, or fast head-
stock, also of metal, with a
steel mandril and gun-

metal bearings; c is the
moving or screw head-
stock, with a hand-wheel
and tightening lever ; d
is the tool-rest and holder;
e the treadle for the feet;
/ is the chain connecting

the treadle to the crank j A ;
(^ is the gut band passingJ

over the driving pulley i
on the crank-shaft, and
communicating motion to the cone of the lathe-
spindle; k, k are handles for listening the head-stock

6 LATHES AMD TUEKING.
and rest-holder firmly on to the bed in a convenient
position;6, J are the two standards or supports for the

lathe-bed; mis the back-board, or shelf, for placing
tools and instruments within reach of the work-
man's
upon
hand.
In these lathes, whether driven by the toot or by
eteam, it ia impossibleto produce work requiringmudi

force. Although ample power may be available, the
strap is insufficient to transmit it to the lathe-spindle,

and the capabilityof varying the speed is but small,
and unsuitable for any but smaU variations in the dia-
meter
of the work. Lathes are therefore fitted with
double or back gearing,which enables them to be used
upon much heavier work, and of course renders the
lathe much more serviceable. This double gear complishes

ac-
its object by diminishing the speed and

THE SLIDE BESrr. 7
iQcreafdng the power in a corresponding proportion.

It is variouslyarranged,but usuallyit is set at the back
of the lathe-spindle,
as shown in several of the lathes
illustrated. The neatest arrangement is that in which
the wheels are enclosed in the cone-pulley;but this
is not so powerfiil,nor is it so accessible as outside
gearing.
The capabilitiesof these lathes can be stillfurther
increased by the addition of a aUde-rest, but then they

can scarcely be considered 'hand-lathes,' as that term
is used to denote those lathes with which the work is
performed by hand-tools, or tools held in the hand.
The slide-rest,Fig. 3, is a sort of mechanical hand,
or instrument to be used instead of the hand, for hold-

ing
the tools and applying them to the work. The
example given in the figureis of plain but convenient

construction. The part a bolts down upon the bed
with the projectingpiece between the bars of the bed;

" is a handle, by moving which the sUde c is caused to
move upon a ; ^ is well fitted upon c, and is moved
around a central pin, and adjusted at any required

angle,by the screw e ; by moving the handle / the
shde is caused to traverse along d. The tool is

g
placedin a convenient positionon g under the screws,
two of which are tighteneddown to hold the tool firmly

in place. By the use of the sUde-rest,the operator is
enabled to turn plane surfaces,parallel
bars, articles of
regulartaper shape, true curves, "c., far better and
faster than when the tool is held in the hands. Some
varieties of work, however, can be turned better by

hand than by slide-rest tools.
When using these mechanical hands, it is only

necessary "
after they are properlyadjusted "
to turn a
small handle, and the tool is caused to move along in
the required direction. Even this small amount of
hand-labour may be rendered unnecessary by making

the slide self-actingthat is,causingthe "
motion of the
lathe itself to move the handle and work the slide,so

as to cause the tool to move. This can be done in
many different ways. The when

slide-rest, in use, is
fastened on the lathe-bed, just oppositethat portion

of the work it is desired to turn. A fingeris fastened
to the work, a star-wheel to the handle of the screw,
and the work is set in motion. This in revolving,

finger,
strikes againstthe teeth of the wheel, and causes it and
the screw to revolve slowly; and, consequently,

the
slide,upon which the tool is mounted, is caused to ad-

vance.
This, however, is a clumsy method, but seldom
used. The most convenient plan is by means of an
eccentric on the the

lathe-spindle, motion of which is
communicated by a wire or cord passingover-head to
a lever and ratchet-wheel, on the screw of the slide-
rest. The neatest, but not so convenient a plan as the

10 LATHES AND TDKNING.
The rest, and consequently the tool, will then verse

tra-
or slide along the bed without further manual
assistance.
A lathe of this sort is shown at Fig. 4, which is
taken from the lathes made by Messrs. Fairbaim,

Kennedy, and Naylor, of Leeds. The cone-spindle
carries a supplementary con^puUey, for giving motion
to the mechanism.
self-acting This lathe is automatic
on both the and

longitudinal transverse motions "
that
is to say, the motion of the slide-rest along the bed is
automatic, as also is the motion of the tool along the

slide of the slide-rest.
These lathes are seldom made smaller than with ten
or twelve-inch centres, and the bed is usually made

very long ; but as in some cases the whole length of
bed is not required,it is customary to utilise the employed

un-
length by placing one or more headstocks
upon the bed. These are removed when very long

shafts have to be turned.
Self-acting
surfiudng-lathes
are for turning up large
plane sur"ces, and are generallymade very massive
and heavy. The beds of these lathes are seldom made
of any great length,but their centres are raised very
high, so as to admit articles of large diameter. The
slide-rest is not required to travel any great distance

along the bed parallelto the line of centres, its chief
motion being required parallelto the face-plateacross

the bed, at rightanglesto the line of centres. In large
there
surfacing-lathes is some little difficulty
in getting
the proper variation of speed. The best are constructed
so that the number of revolutions diminish as the tool

VABIETI"S OP LATHE. 11
travels from the centre, so as to keep the cuttingspeed

constant.
Many lathes are constructed for both and

siirfacing
traversing.They have the beds of moderate length,
and moderately high centres, and are adapted to turn
articles of small diameter and good length,surfaces of
moderately large diameter, and also cylindersof rate

mode-
size and length. Such a lathe is illustrated at
Fig. 5, which is a Slide Break Lathe, 21-inch centres,

made by Messrs. Fairbaim, Kennedy, and Naylor.
These are used only by mechanics.
The lathe in greatest request is the self-acting

screw-
cutting lathe. This is able to perform all the work of
those described, and, in addition, is capable of cutting

screws of any incUnation or pitch. In some of these
the rack and pinion for traveramg are done away with
and
altogether, the saddle of the rest is caused to travel
along the bed by means of a screw called a leadingscrew.

When this is the case, the screw is used aUke for ordi-
nary
sUding up or traversingand for the

screw-cutting,
variation in relative speed of traverse being gained by
means of wheels termed *
change wheels.' By changing
the wheels connecting the lathe-spindle
and the ing
lead-
screw, any required relative speed is obtained
between these two. Thus, for ordinary plain turning

or traversing,the would
lathe-spindle run very much
"ster than the leadingscrew. For cuttingfine screws
or screws of fine pitch,wheels woidd be put on which
would cause the screw to run somewhat faster than for
traversing. To cut a moderately coarse thread, say,

the same pitch as the leading screw the
itself, lathe-
12 LATHES AND TDBMNQ.
spindlewould be connected to the leadingscrew by

such wheels as would cause the two to revolve at the
same speed,or at the same angular velocity

; and for
cutting screws or spiralsmuch coarser than the lead-

ing
screw the lathe-spindle

must be caused to revolve
much slower than the screw. For most lathes the
leading screw is made with two threads to the inch "
that is,it has to revolve twice to cause the saddle and
tool to traverse one inch along the bed. Other bers

num-
of threads are also used, but two is the most
convenient for generalwork. If other numbers be used
they should be even "

such as 4 to the inch,and 8 to the
inch, unless the pitchbe 1 to the inch. Such pitches

as f ths or ^thsshould be avoided.
It is obvious that, to cut a perfect screw in the
lathe,the leading screw must itself be perfect. This,

however, is not always the case, even in these days
of *
perfectionof mechanism.' And even should the
screw be perfectlytrue in the first place,it does not
long remain so, in

especially those lathes in which the
ordinarytraversingmotion is derived from the screw ;
as the screw soon gets out of truth and unequally

worn. In most lathes the greater part of the work is
done within a foot or two of the cone centre, or, in
other words, there is more short work done than long ;

and, as only a few inches of the leadingscrew are used
to obtain the required traverse of the rest, it follows

that these few inches are much more used and quently
conse-
more worn than the remainder. With a screw
thus injuredit is utterly

impossibleto originate
or cut
a perfectscrew of any pitch. This cause of deteriora-

tion
is obviated to some extent by usingthe screw only
14 LATHES ANJ) TURNING.
when the screw is used for both screwingand traverse
turning. The largerand heavier lathes

screw-cutting
are employed solelyby mechanics; there are many
different designs,but that given at Kg. 6, which is
Sir Joseph Wliitworth and Company's Duplex Lathe,

embodies, perhaps,the latest improvements.
Sir Joseph Whitworth and Company also make an
excellent form of Duplex Lathe, Fig. 7, which differs
from the last mainly in being adapted to turn large

short articles. The bed has an opening,or gap, which
increases the heightof centres, and provisionis made
for boltingon an additional slide-rest. Screw-cutting

lathes of smaller size and lightermake are employed
by mechanics and also by gentlemen amateurs. One
of this class of good design is given at Fig. 8.

The slide-rests for screw-cutting and other lathes
are made of many varieties. Some are made to slide
along the bed past the headstocks, which is very
convenient. The headstocks are fastened down as
usual, but the slide-rest is fastened to the front side
of the bed. The Messrs. Muir, of Manchester, have a
patent for a neat plan of lathe of this sort, in which
there is a double bed, or bed formed of a casting,,

having three longitudinalbars or faces, the centre one
being rather wider than the others. The headstocks

slide upon one of the outside bars and half the inside
bar, and the slide rest travels upon the other half of
the middle bar and the other outside bar.
Ornamental lathes are the ones chieflyused by

amateurs; as, althoughthe work to be done in them
is not so large and substantial as that to be done in
lathes, yet
screw-cutting it is far more ornamental.
r
^
VARIETIES OP LATHE. 15
delicate, and beautiful. Ornamental lathes are also
used by ladies ; and, as a great deal depends upon the
taste and of
lightness touch of the operator, it is not
unfrequent to see work produced by lady and gentle-

man
amateurs which equals,if not surpasses, in beauty
that produced by the professional
turner. These lathes
are made very light,but very accurate; they are
similar to the hand-lathe without back gear, the mental

orna-
work being produced more by the aid of pendent

inde-
instruments than by the lathe itself,

although
the lathe has to be fitted up in a peculiarmanner to
allow of these instnunents being applied and veniently

con-
used.
In addition to these there are many lathes designed

for work,
special or the manufacture in largenumbers
of one article of peculiarshape. Fig.9 is a lathe made
solelyfor turning railwayaxles. The ends only of the
axle having to be turned, it is put in the lathe, as
shown, and both ends are turned at the same time by

separate tools. This lathe is also shown as made by
Sir Joseph Whitworth and Company.
Fig. 10 is a lathe made by Messrs. Fairbairn, Ken-
nedy,
and Naylor,for turning railwaywheels on their
axles. Both wheels are turned at once, two tools being

employed on each wheel.
Fig. 1 1 is a neat lathe,by the same makers, fo r

turningbolts and short work. There are two complete
lathes on the same bed, and the saddle having only to
traverse a short distance,it is moved in a simpleman-
ner,
as will be seen.
The lightersorts of lathe are driven by

frequently
the foot.
operator's This, of course, renders the work
somewhat more laborious, and until one becomes
accustomed to the unsteadiness of the motion it is more
difficult to produce good work with lathes of this kind.
The inconvenience wears off to a great extent after
practiceand use ; but of course this unsteadiness does
not affect tools held in the slide-rest.
For many sorts of ornamental work, professional

turners preferto drive their lathes by the foot,because
of the delicacywith which they can adjustthe pressure
and speed. There are many plansfor drivingby foot,
but in all the power derived from the pressure is municated
com-
to a shaft underneath by a treadle and
crank. Sometimes the treadle and crank are connected
rods,and
by connecting sometimes by flatchains passing
over the trucks or pulleys.The latter planis preferred,
owing chiefly
to its having less friction. If connecting
rods or links be used they must be hooked on to the
crank or treadle pins, so .that,should anything get

under the treadle "
the foot,for
operator's instance "
when beingpushed down, the treadle being stopped

by the obstacle,the Unk shall unhook. Otherwise, if
the connection were the
rigid, momentum of the wheel
fly-
would urge the treadle down with such force as
would crush the operator'sfoot,or, if the obstruction
were of a harder nature, would fracture or strain some
of the mechanism.
In working with foot-treadles of ordinaryconstrue-

tion,when the treading
ceases, the weightof the treadle
and connectingrods, or chains and cranks, causes the
crank to take such a positionthat no pressure ever

what-
on the treadle will cause the crank to again move.

This positionis known as the *
crank being on the
centre.'
MODES OP DRIVING LATHES. 17
In order to again start the lathe,the operator must

move the crank off the centre by hand before mencing
com-
treading. Now, as in ornamental turningit is

not unfrequentlythe case that both hands are engaged
and cannot well be spared,it is very annoying to find
that the lathe cannot be started without havingto move
it by hand ; this inconvenience can be obviated in so
simplea manner, that the wonder is that the plan is
not more frequentlyadopted. By balancingthe weight

of the treadle and crank by a counter weight,the crank
can be made to stop at any point in its circle of lution.

revo-
That should
pointor position be chosen which
is the most convenient for fi:om.

starting This arrange-
ment
has another advantage: it lessens the vibration,
and reduces the power requiredto drive the lathe.
The power to be obtained by the treadle is neces-
sarilysmall ; but Messrs. Muir, of Manchester, have

patentedand brought into use a method of drivingby
many treadles and many feet. The power obtained in
this case of course increases with the number of men
employed in treading. Lathes of considerable size can
thus be driven; and the plan is obviouslyof great

value on board ship,where men to tread can be had
without any extra expense, and where, perhaps,owing

to a break-down of the engines,no other power is
obtainable. When steam or other motive power is to
be got, no one would think, except in the cases before
stated,of drivingby foot power.

Slide and surfacinglathes are driven
continually in
one direction,and generallyfrom a small shaft,called

a counter-shaft,placedover the lathe,and driven from
the main shaft by a belt. This shaft is either stopped

c
18 LATHES AND TUENING.
or started by means of a pairof pulleyson the counter-

shaft,
one fastened to the shaft,and the other, termed

the loose or idle pulley,free to run round upon it.
When the belt is sUpped on to the loose pulley,that

pulleyis set in motion upon the shaft,but the shaft
itself remains still. When, however, the belt is sKpped

on to the fast pulley,not only does the pulleyrevolve,
but, it being fastened to the counter-shaft,the shaft
revolves also. This motion is then communicated from
a cone-pulleyon the. counter-shaft,to the cone-pulley

of the lathe-spindle,
by a belt passing over both. In
lathes
self-acting the direction of motion is the same ;
but when the saddle of the rest has travelled the whole
lengthof the bed, or as far as is it is reversed,

required,
or caused to go back again,without either reversingor
stoppingthe lathe itself.
however,
Frequently, these lathes are constructed to
cut or traverse only in one direction ; and when the
saddle has travelled bs far in that direction as the nature
of the work requires,the mechanism connectingit with

the is thrown
lathe-spindle out of gear, and the saddle
moved back along the bed by the workman himself.
Screw-cuttinglathes are also driven from a counter-shaft,

but in a different manner. When the rest and saddle
requireto be reversed, it is usuallydone by drivingthe

lathe-cone in the opposite direction,the tool being
thrown out of cut until the motion is again reversed,
and the saddle is in
travelling the originaldirection.
The lathe-cone is reversed by reversing the counter
or driving-shaft.There
auxiliary are many methods
of doing this,but the most generalis to have two straps

or leather belts, one passing straightaround the two
of the saddle is time wasted. It is a good plan,

therefore, to make the pulley on the main shaft of
two sizes, that size which drives the lathe during

its return stroke being made largerthan the other.
This has the effect of causing the return of the saddle
to be accomplished in less time, and consequentlyless

time is wasted.
The belt-guidehaving a considerable distance to
travel, the motion of the lever-handle which actuates
the slide is much too great for ease of manipulation.

The belt employed also, if worked hard, gives some
little trouble by stretchingand breaking ; nevertheless,
the motion is very noiseless,and is communicated and
reversed without any injuriousshock to the mechanism
or work.
In order to do away with the inconvenience arising

from the length of travel of the reversinglever,a plan
has been devised which and
effectually in a simple
manner accomplishesthat object,and which is espe-
cially
applicableto those lathes in which starting,
ping,
stop-
and reversing,
are effected by self-acting
means, or
through the motion of the lathe itself. In this plan the

use of two straps is retained, and the two loose pulleys
on the counter-shaft are also used, together with the
drivingpulleyon the main shaft of either one or two
sizes. The loose pulleys on the counter-shaft are, how-

ever,
only half their usual width, and no belt-guideis

used, the straps always remainingin one place on their
respectivepulleys. For the fast pulley between the
others is substituted a caused

friction-clutch, to revolve
with the shaft by being fastened thereto by a feather
and groove, which, however, permits it to have a slight

MODES OP DRIVING LATHES. 21
slidingor longitudinal
motion on the shaft. The inside
rim of the pulley is turned taper to fit the tapering

parts of the iriction-clutch. The clutch is moved by a
lever to gear with either of the pulleys,or into a
positionbetween the two and out of contact with both.
In the former case the clutch, and consequentlythe

intermediate shaft, partakesof the motion of that pulley
with which it is in contact. In the latter case the shaft
remains still. In this plan the motion of the lever
handle is not more than one-third or one-fourth of that
necessary in the other plan with shifting

belts.
In addition to these, there is also a method for
drivingand reversing,by means of a singlebelt,three

bevel wheels and a double clutch. It is, however,
much inferior to the two plans described.
"
I
Amateurs are advised to purchasetheir lathes of a
'
respectablemaker, and not to attempt to make one for
themselves. It may be generallyconsidered that when
an amateur makes his own lathe " although he himself
consider it a remarkable work of genius in

may "
it will
reality be found to be of little value. This may
be an unwelcome truth to many mechanical aspirants,
but it is not the less inexorable ; and I am constrained
to intimate it from having been a spectator of many

such miscarriages. I have even heard of a wooden
slide-rest and wooden chuck

elliptical having been thus
constructed. But these 1 have not seen. J
In purchasinga lathe,the tyro must not suppose that
all those made for the same purpose are necessarily

alike. Each maker has his own and
peculiarstyle, though
al-
lathes differ much in design and workmanship,

each maker probably considers his own make the best.
The designof a lathe more afiects

especially its nience
conve-
and usefulness,and the workmanship the quality

and accuracy of the articles manufactured in the lathe.
With regard to the workmanship there can be but one
opinion,and that is that it cannot be too good or too
accurate. Money spent in burnishing,or otherwise
uselessly
ornamenting a lathe is money wasted ; but
money spent in procuring accuracy of workmanship is
well invested.
There is a vast difference between good work, or
mechanical ornament (ifI may so express myself),and

useless or tawdry ornament. A good mechanic will
leave those edges sharp which form joints,so that the
joint can scarcelybe seen, whilst terminal edges he
will chamfer or round off,to prevent them hurting

'
the operator, or being bruised or broken off,and left
ragged themselves. By judiciously

shapingthe nent
compo-
parts of a machine, he will contrive to give the

whole a finished,and
graceful, mechanical appearance,
which would otherwise be wanting,and this he does
without extra expenditure,and without impairingthe

usefulness of the machine. Whereas another will cut a
number of beads and mouldings on his work, burnish a
great portion of it,make as much of the machine as
and
possible bright,'
*
paintthe unpolishedor *
black '
portion of some flaming colour, and daub it with gilt

or bronze. This he does imagining he improves the
appearance of his work, whereas he impairsit. The
beads and sharp edges and anglesweaken the article
considerably,and, in course of working, they arc
certain to be bruised and indented in some way,

and the hand seems always to be knoclsiing
against
ON CHOOSING A LATHE. 23
them, and being cut or scratched. They also serve as
receptaclesfor dirt. Burnishing machinery usually

has the appearance of being done to cover defects,
and the style becomes what is known amongst chanics
me-
as *deep scratch and high polish/ Gaudy

colouringsoon loses its bloom, but in whatever state
it may be it impartsto the mechanism such a tawdry

appearance as to excite the ridicule of every sensible
man.
As to the design of a lathe,that depends so much

on the fancy of the user, and is so much a matter of
opinion,that it is difficult to lay down many arbitrary

rules. When one is accustomed to use a lathe of
any particular
design " even though it be in reaUty a
bad arrangement "
being famiharised with its defects
and inconveniences, one is apt to overlook its bad
features,and be prejudicedin its favour. The ing

follow-
however, be mentioned as a few of the main

may,
pointsof a good lathe : "
1. It should be constructed wholly of metal, for

although some are of opinion that the introduction of
wood is advantageous,as preventing that injurious

jarringor *
chattering'which frequentlyannoys the
operator, and renders it difficult for him to produce

good work, I believe the notion to be almost exploded
amongst mechanics " beingalwayscaused
^the chattering
by the weakness of the mechanism or by the inattention
or the imskilfulness of the operator.

2. The various parts should be as strong and massive
as without
possible, clumsiness.
3. The bed should be and

thoroughlyunyielding,
stand immovably firm and level.
4. The spindleshould be of good size,and its bear-

ings
not too close together.

5. Conical bearingshardened are perhapsas good as
any. When well made, with proper care and occasional
regrinding,they will last a long time, and give but
little trouble ; but if left unlubricated,screwed up too
tightor improperly,or if the metal of the headstock
yieldto the pressure of the screw, then in either case
the necks *bind,' get hot, abrade, and cause great

trouble and annoyance.
6. The starting and reversing handle should be
within easy and convenient reach of the operator.
7. The slide-rest should have a motion independent

of the ordinaryscrew, for throwing the tool in and out
of cut. For this

screw-cutting motion is very able.
valu-
8. The tool-holder should be one of those allowing

the tool to be placedat any angle or convenient tion
posi-
on the tool-plate.
9. All wearing or working surfaces should be vided
pro-
with oU holes for lubrication,and those holes
likelyto get filled with dust or gritshould be furnished
with proper stoppers.

10. All slidingsurfaces should be scrapedto a good
bearing,and without grinding.
There are certain technical terms and expressions
used by turners which should be understood by learners.
These terms vary accordingto the but

locality, I beUeve
the meanings here given to them are those most rally

gene-
received.
*
Traverse *
and
turning,' traversing,' *
sliding-up,'
are the expressionsvariouslyused to denote those
TECHNICUi TERMS. 25
operationsin which the tool is caused to move along

the lengthof the bed, the tool being set either parallel
or nearlyso to the line of centres, and by which the
work produced is of the same size throughout,or

nearly so.
*
Surfece- and
turning,' surfacing,'
' *
facing-up,'
are
used to denote those operationsin which the tool does
not slide along the bed, but across it,at rightangles

to the line of centres, and in cuttingproducesa plane
smrface.
'
Burr,' fash,'and * *
raw-edge,'
are generallyused to
denote the edge or angleof junctionof two cuts, at right

angles,or less than rightangles,to each other. Such
edges are usuallyrather sharp,or wire-edged,and jfre-
quently inflict serious cuts and gashesin the workman's
hands, should he happen to touch the edge whilst the
work is in motion. When cuttingholes in metal the
orifices of the hole, and espedaUy that one from which
the point of the tool makes its exit when cutting,are

frequentlyexceedinglysharp and dangerous to touch.
'
'
Trueingup is the expressionused to denote ing
turn-
an article for the sake of having a smooth

up
surface, and without regard to size, and would be
accomplishedwhen the rough castingor forginghad

all the black or scale turned off.
*Hold up to size,'or *not to hold up to size.' When
an objecthas been turned to certain dimensions, if all

the black or scale is turned off,it is said to ^
hold up
to size ;'but if when the proper dimensions are attained,
patches of scale are still seen, the article is said ^
not
to hold up to size.'
*
True,' *
out of truth.' Sur"ces are said to be *
true
'
26 LATHKS AND TURNING.
when smooth and when

level,cylinders perfectly
cylin-
drical,
and so with other shapes. Articles are said to
'
*
run true when, in the case of a surface, the surface
revolves in a plane at right angles to the centre of
lathe spindle,and in the case of a cylinderwhen it
revolves concentrically.
*
Chattering,'
or
*
is
shattering,' the characteristic
term apphed to a peculiar noise,made generallyby

the rapid vibration of the article turning. The noise is
very unpleasant. When once heard it is not soon to be
forgotten,and it is a tolerably
sure signthat something
is wrong. Work produced while this chattering is
'
going on is usually '

out of truth and wavy.
'
'
Thread of a screw is that part raised above the
surface of a cylinderupon which the screw is cut.
Screws may have several threads.

'
The *
pitch of a screw is the distance from thread to
thread, or the distance

longitudinal which the thread
advances in one revolution of the spindleupon which
the screw is cut.
'Drunken pitch'is the term used to denote a badly

made screw. When the thread advances faster during
some portionsof a revolution than at others,or a screw
has an uneven pitch,or one not uniform, it is said to
drunken.
'
'
Centres are the indentations made at the ends
of articles,for retainingthem in place whilst being

turned.
*
'
Catch in is the expressionused when the tool in
cuttingsuddenlyjerksdeeper into cut, and either digs

out an hole
irregular in the material,or throws it out
of the centres, or jerks the tool out of the operator's

PAET n.
PDAIN TURNING WITH HAND-TOOLS.
In order to describe the simplestoperationsfirst,I

shall commence with instructions for plainturningwith
hand-tools in the simplelathe. It is necessary that the
operator should have a good knowledge of the use of
these tools before he can become a good workman at
either the slide and lathes,or

screw-cutting the mental
orna-
lathes. In the working of slide-lathes,

and
others of that sort, it is frequentlynecessary to make
use of a hand-tool to touch out some corner or curve
which it is difficultto come at properlywith the tools
in the slide-rest. It is also far easier to judge of the
correct shape and method of using tools in the slide-
rest when one thoroughly understands the cutting

action of hand-tools. As these tools are held in the
operator'shands, and guided by him, he very soon
feels when they are out of order, or applied in the
position. But when tools do not cut aright

wrong
in the slide rest, the workman has to rely on his
sightalone to inform him of the fact,and this to the
inexperiencedis seldom sufficient.
In ornamental tiuning,hand-tools are stillmore quently

fre-
required,and for this work especially,

should
the operator be able to use them with
dexterity and
certainty,
as the slightest
slipor clumsy touch would
PLAIN TURNING WITH HAND-TOOLS. 29
result probably in the work being spoiled. The mary

pri-
lessons should be learned a rough or strong
upon
lathe of some sort, as, although it the
may appear
easiest thing imaginable to use these tools, it is,
nevertheless,generallyfound upon trial that some of
them "
ûnless carefullyused " are extremely apt to
play awkward tricks.
I do not mean to say that the difficulty

is very
great, because it is not: with cautious handling no
mishap need occur. But it is,however, desirable to
guard againstaccidents,which, if they were to happen,

would perhaps damage beyond repair the delicate
mechanism of the ornamental lathe. Those who are
totallyunacquainted with turningshould at first take
a few lessons Irora a in

proficient the art, acquiringby
this means much rudimentary but necessary ledge,
know-
which could scarcelybe gathered from a book.
There are many professional

turners who make it their
business to teach amateurs in all branches of the art,

and also to procure for them the necessary fancy
woods, and any instruments they may require. I
think the present work will furnish the reader with
most of the information these gentlemen could municate

com-
; but I would, nevertheless,advise beginners

to watch
attentively the movements of a good turner,
as, by this means, they will best be able to form an
idea as to how they should proceed themselves.

The lathe itself having been previouslydescribed
and illustrated at Fig. 2, I shall proceed to describe
the chucks or instruments for communicating the
motion of the lathe-spindle

to the work. These
chucks or drivers are screwed either on to the male

30 LATHES AND TUBNIKG.
screw on the spindleend or *nose* of the lathe, or

into the female screw of the spindle. Chucks are not
only necessary for giving motion to the work, but in
some cases for and holdingthe

firmlyfastening material
in a convenient positionfor allowing the tools to be
applied to it As the articles to be chucked vary

g^tlyrize,.hape, in ".d m.."u"l, Ae chuck,
n.Z
be constructed variously.Many will,however, answer
equally well for hard and soft woods, and ivory. A few
can be used for

indiscriminately these materials and
metals, but, as a rule, metals requirechucks of greater
strengthand different construction. The drill-chuck,
Fie. 12. Fig. 13.
Fig.12, is made either of brass or cast or wrought iron.

The dotted lines denote that it is fitted with a female
screw for screwing on the spindleend. It also has a
taper square, or taper round hole to receive a set of
tools,and
drilling also the two drivers.Pigs.13 and 14.
Fig. 13 is the prong driver for the softer varieties of
wood. Fig.14 is the cross kerf driver. Both are made
of steel,and the latter is used mostlyfor the hard woods,

ivory, bone, and small work in metals. When these
drivers are used, the work is always supported at the
other extremityby the screw centre. The taper-screw

chuck. Fig.15, is made of metal, and screws on the
male screw of the mandril. The taper-screw itself is

PLAIN TUMPING WITH HAND-TOOLS. 31
made of steel,and is fastened to the body of the chuck
by a screw thread,so that if the screw be broken off or
damaged, another can be substituted. This chuck is
used for either soft or moderatelyhard woods. It is
not well adapted for hard wood or ivory,althoughit is

made
occasionally to answer for them. Any attempt
to chuck metals with it would result in the breaking
or of
spoiling the screw. Generally,this chuck is used
for holding pieces of wood from half an inch to six
inches in thickness. Thinner pieceshave not sufficient
substance to give the thread the requisiteamount of
Fie. 14. Fie. 16.
holdingpower. When the wood exceeds six inches in
length,it must be supportedat the other extremityby

the centre, or by a proper bearing or stay. This chuck
may be very convenientlyused when it is required

to turn any recesses in moderately thick pieces of
wood; but when this has to be done in the case of
very it is
long pieces, inconvenient to support the other
end by the screw centre, as that centre would then be
in the of the tool. In cases such as this, the

way
exterior should be turned, whilst the end is supported
by the centre. This, of course, can be done without
inconvenience; the centre is then removed, and the

work supported by a wooden bearing,whilst the in-

terior
is being operated upon, and the requiredrecess

or cavityturned out. A piece of wood is then made
to fit the mouth of this cavity,and to form an ment

abut-
for the centre while the outside is being finished.

If the cavitybe sufficiently
large to allow the centre
and the spindleto enter, the former may be forced into
the wood at the bottom of the cavity. In this case no
stopper is required.
Sometimes, after the cavityis made, it is requiredto
remove the work from the chuck, and change ends
with it,in order to get at the end which hitherto has
been against the chuck. In this case, remove the
work, and on to the same chuck screw a piece of thin
flat wood, which turn down to the size of the mouth
of the cavity,
or to fit the cavity rather tightly. The
article being then gently pushed on to this stopper,
and the centre forced into the hole made by the taper-
screw, the work may be finished with ease. When this
plan is followed, the end of the article on the stopper
or chuck, as well as the cavity,is certain to run as
'
'
true as may be required.
The five-pin
or Fig.16, is also
plate-chuck. of metal.
'
It screws on the mandril end, and its body or
*
boss
is of the same shape as the chuck last described, only

instead of being furnished with a taper-screw, it has
five steel from
pinsor pointsprojecting its face. These
pins are arranged as is shown in the figure. This
chuck is used almost wholly for holdingthin pieces of

soft wood.
The cone-chuck is made of metal and screwed on
the spindleend. Its construction will be understood

PLAIN TUBNIKG WITH HAHD-T00L8. 33
by referringto Kg. 17, The projecting pin a is of
steel, and has a screw cut upon It to receive the nut
b. The cone c is also of metal, but sometimes for
temporary use it is made of hard wood : it slides on
the pin a. This chuck is used for turning piecea of

wood of large diameter, and having a hole through
them. Articles of this sort are by ite means chucked
true or concentric with their central holes. The
universal mandril, Fig. 18, is used for the same scription

de-
of object as the last,than which for many
it is somewhat better.
purposes
Fi6. 18. Pre. 17.
The mandril a is of steel,the ends are carefiilly

hardened, and are furnished with centre holes for ning
run-
between the ordinary lathe centres. It is driven
by means of a carrier or driver. The mandril is
screwed throughout almost its whole length, and is
fitted with a nut b, and washers c c. When it is quired

re-
to turn any article having a hole through it of
a size for which the operator has no mandril, a piece

of hard wood is taken and bored through with a hole
rather smaller than the mandril thread. This wood
being then twisted on the mandril, a thread is formed

34 LATHES AND TUBNIXG.
in the hole which holds the piece finn enough to allow

the wood to be turned, to the size required to fit the
bole in the article requiring the

F,(,, ]g_
mandril. This wooden socket should
fit the hole nicely, otherwise the
work turned out on it will be '

out
of truth,' or eccentric with its hole.
The article is forced on the wooden
socket, and the nut b screwed up so
as to hold it firmly between the two
washers. It is, of course, necessary

that the length of the wooden socket
should be somewhat less than the
length of the hole in the article to be
turned upon it ; otherwise the washers
will tighten up against the socket,and

wiD not exert any holding or gripping
power on the article itself.
The double or male and female screw chucks. Fig.
1 9, are of metal : a is the male, B the female chuck.
The male chuck is made to screw on the mandril end.
The projection in front is cut with a fine screw thread,

Buch aa is used for the covers of fency boxes. The
purpose especiallyit is very useful. Four or five
screws, such .as are shown at Fig. A, are made to fit in
common all the holes in the plate.

Any rough piece of wood which it is wished to
fasten to the plateis laid on its face, and two or more
holes,in convenient positions,

are made in the wood
by a gimletpassingthrough the holes in the platefrom

behind. The screws are then used to fasten the one to
the other. These should be inserted in such positions

that they may take into those parts of the wood which
do not require turning,and not into any place where

they would project and be in the way of the tools.
The holes being made all over the plate give every
chance of the screws being properlyarranged.
Temporary chucks, for which this plate is used as
an attachment, are merely cavities turned out of a
sohd piece of wood fastened to the chuck-plate,

as
explained. The recess or cavity "

or it may be a jection
pro-
to take into a cavity " îs turned so that the
article may fit it rather tightly. Such chucks as these
are frequentlyrequired: they are used

principally for
holding half-turned articles whilst they are being

finished.
The work to be chucked may be of either hard or
soft wood, or ivory,"c.; but these chucks do not
possess sufficient holding power to answer well for
metals, although a chuck of hard wood is sometimes
used to hold small spheresof brass whilst being turned.

Wooden cup-chucks are very inexpensive, they are
easilyand readilymade, and do not damage the tools
should be
theyinadvertently allowed to come in contact
with them. The great objectionto their use lies in the

liabiUty,
or rather of
certainty, their shrinking,warp-
ing,
and gettingout of truth and out of shape. For
this reason chucks of universal use are made of metal ;
but when, as is frequentlythe case, a peculiarchuck is
needed for only one or a few and, these

articles, done,
it is of no further service,the wooden chucks are far
preferable.
Spring chucks are tnade of either box-wood or
metal, and screw on the spindle-end.They are formed
in several parts or staves, something like a cask. These
staves, having considerable elasticity,

spring open ; so
that an article to be held by one of the chucks being

inserted in the mouth of the chuck, and the staves
compressed upon it by means of ringswhich encompass

the staves, is held whilst being turned. These rings
are sometimes made to compress the staves by being
slid towards their largestdiameter. And sometimes
the outside of the staves is screwed, and the ring is also

cut with a correspondingscrew ; the staves are then
compressed by twistingthe ring round so as to advance
it towards the largestdiameter of the chuck. In some
cases these chucks are very convenient, but as they

have onlylittle power of variation in size or expansion,
their use is limited.
necessarily Some turners, ever,
how-
have such a great likingfor them that they keep

them in all sizes. In most cases, a chuck turned from
a solid piece of wood fastened to the chuck-platewill

be found to answer just as well. Split or spring
chucks are used for wood and ivory,and occasionally
for metals.
There are numbers of other chucks used by turners
in wood and ivory,but those described are probably

amongst the best and most generallyuseful. Many

lathes are furnished with chucks in great number and
but,
variety, as a rule, one half of them are utterly
valueless and never come into requisition.It is a bad
plan to buy too many chucks with a lathe. Turners
will find it much to their advantage to purchaseat first
only those which are of great use and extended cation,

appli-
and to add other chucks as they find they
require them.
Most good lathe-makers make all their work to
standard sizes, and use standard Whitworth screw
threads; so that any chucks purchased even years

after the lathe,can generallybe relied upon to fit the
spindleand *
rim true.'
As before mentioned, chucks are usuallymade of
metal ; "
for the larger sorts cast iron is the best
material,but for some of the smaller ones, wrought

iron is to be preferred. Brass is frequentlyused for
both large and small chucks; but, beyond its liability

non-
to rust, it possesses no advantage over iron.
On the other hand, it is much more costly,it is more

easilybruised and indented, and is much more some
trouble-
to keep clean. The hands of the workman are
also somewhat soiled by touching brass,and this does
not conduce to the production of dean and unsoiled
work.
Chucks are generallyput on by hand, the threads
of the screws being well fitted,but not made so tight

as to prevent this being done. The usual mode is "
afler removing the centres and clearingaway all dirt
from the spindle-endand also from the chuck itself"
to hold the mouth of the chuck againstthe nose of the

PLAIN TUENING WITH HAND-TOOLS. 3^
Spindleby the right hand, the left hand being at the
same time applied to the and

driving-strap, the
cone and spindle caused slowly to revolve in the
same direction as for turning. After a chuck has
been used for any but very lightwork, it will be found
to be jammed up againstthe collar of the spindletoo

tightlyto allow of its being started by the hands. The
chucks, therefore,are all furnished with some means for
applyingthe power of a lever to unscrew them. Those
described are shown with a small hole in the bosses, in

order that they may be removed by the pin and circle
wrench, as shown at Fig. 22. This method is as neat
and convenient as any.

Some tiuners are in the habit of takingup a drill
or an old piece of iron and forcingit into the pin-
Fio. 22.
holes; but this is a very bad practice,and is only

followed by careless workmen. When this slovenly
method is resorted to, the pin-hole soon becomes
bruised out of shape,and so much enlarged,that the
proper instrument is rendered useless. Taper-pinsare

not good instruments to use for this purpose, and they
should be discarded, except in those cases where but
littleforce is required,and that not frequently.

The tools required for turning soft woods are very
few and simple. The professionalturner seldom uses
more than half a dozen, and with these he can manage

to produce a' great varietyof work. The bobbin or
40 LATHES AND TUKNINQ.
spool turner, with the aid of one tool only "

the gouge,
and occasionally
the and chisel ^will turn out
gouge "
twelve dozen or more of the bobbins used in spinning

and other factories in one day. That number is
generallyconsidered a da/s work. It can therefore
be readilyimagined that there is no time to waste
in putting down one tool and taking another.

up
Although a workman does so much, he seldom appears
to be in any violent hurry, but continues his work
almost with the celerityand regularityof a

easy
machine. These tools,besides being so few, are quently
fre-
very rough, and they are usuallysurpassedin

that respect by the lathe yet an amateur, with the
;
best of lathes and number of tools,would scarcely

any
succeed in doing half that quantityof work. Indeed,
I am inclined to think that he would consider it a very
good day'swork if he had completed one dozen or one
twelfth the number.
It will be understood that the above refers only to

turning in soft wood. Turners in hard woods and
ivory require a much more extensive Collection of
tools ; and the number is never complete, but requires

continual additions for the variation in the nature of
the work to be done. Many sorts of work require

tools of such peculiarshape that they are only useful
for that purpose for which they were designed. As,
however, these differ only in shape but are alike in
it
cuttingprinciple, would be if it were
unnecessary "
possible "
to describe all those used. When the
operator becomes acquainted with the of

peculiarities
a few of the principaltools,he will seldom have much
difficulty supposing him " to be possessedof a due

PLAIN TURNING WITH UAKD-TOOLS. 41
amount of common aenae "

in contriving tools which
will enable him to satisfactorily

execute description
any
of work he may have in hand, The tools most gene-
rallyin use for soft woods are those shown ; namely,
the gouge Fig 23, chisel Pig. 24, scraping chisel Fig.
25, diamond point, or V tool Fig. 26, cranked chisel
Kg. 27, cranked point Fig. :38, cranked round Fig.
Fio. 20. Flo. 27.
1
2d, and parting tools Fig. 30. The gouge and chisel
are those in most frequent use. These differ altogether

from those used for hard woods and ivory ; but the
others do not differ so much, being of similar shape

somewhat differently
ground.
The hard-wood tools are shown at Figs.31 to 50.
The uses of these tools wiU be spoken of presently.

42 LATHES AND TURNINQ.
I may, however, mendoii here that, although to the
inexperienced the tools may appear to be so very

eye
much alike that they may be used indiacrimmately
for hard and soft woods, that is not the case. They
do differ materially. If the soft-wood tools be used
for hard materials, their edges will soon not only

very
be blunted, but knocked off altogether; and they will
require considerable regrinding before they can again

be applied to their legitimateuse. On the other hand,
when hard-wood tools are used upon soft substances,

the tool may not get damaged the work does,
although
as it cannot be done nearly so smooth as with the
tools. The woody fibres do not get cut or

proper
44 LATHBS AND TURNING.
entirely,and is the result of their own careless and
slovenlygrinding. On examining the tools,it ia found

that, uistead of the cutting edge being formed of two
etraightsurfaces, or one straightand the other cave,

con-
as it should be, it ia ground with convex surfaces,
Fie. 46. Fia. 47.
tl
or surfaces formed of such a collection of curves that I
am not sufficiently
a geometrician to give a name to
them. The same tool, ground by a careftil person,
will work as well as can be wished.
Fie. fil.
Should the operator be unable to judge of the proper
angles by the eye, it will be better for him to cut out
a piece of thin sheet-iron or brass to fit the tool when
properly ground, and to grind the tool to this gauge

when it gets out of order.
PLAIN TUBNING WITH HAND-TOOLS. 45
The angle for soft woods is from 25" to 40", for hard
wooda fttim 60" to 80". The angles for various hand-
tool edges, aa well as the positions of the tools,are

shown in Figs. 51, 52, 53. An attentive examination
and comparison of these will be useful to the reader.
The tools illustrated are those mostly in use. Only one
size of each is shown, but most of them should be had
in many sizes, fur both right and left hand work.
In addition to the chucks and cuttingtools,other

instruments are required ; some of which, such aa
tool-rests, vary with the sort of lathe with which they

are used. The chucks and tools are the same, however,
for almost all lathes. The tool-rest,or tee, Fig. 54,
seen in the lathe at Fig. 2, is necessary as a support for
the tool when cutting. If the lathe be a simple hand-
46 LATHBS AND TUBNINO.
turning latbe, such as that shown, and adapted only to
that kind of work, then no alteration of rests is required.

If the lathe be one with a and
slide-rest, we wish to cute
exe-
any hand-turning,it ia generallythe better plan to

remove the slide-rest altogether. But if the lathe be a
slide and screw cutter, the slide-rest cannot at all times
be removed so easily. It is not, therefore,worth while
to be at the trouble of removing it,unless absolutely

in the or the turning to be executed will
way, occupy
a considerable time. "When this is the case, the
moving or screw headstock should be taken off,and

the shde-rest altogethertraversed along the bed until
past the place where the headstock is to be fastened.
The headstock is then replaced, and a
Fio. 54. rest-holder and rest placed on the bed
between the headstocks, and fastened
down in any convenient position.This

rest-holder and rest is similar to the
one shown in positionon the lathe-bed
at Fig. 1, and needs no separate illus-

tration.
It can be moved anywhere along the bed
of a lathe between the headstocks, can be placed at
any distance from the hne of centres to accommodate
differences in diameter of the work, and can also be
placed at any angle to the line of centres. The rest, or
tee, can also be raised to any height,for the better commodation

ac-
of any of the tools,and can also be set
with the edge of the rest either parallelto or at an
angle with the line of centres, as is found most nient

conve-
for the work in hand.
Care must always be taken that the rest-holder be
firmly bolted to the bed of the lathe and the rest, and
fiwleoed tight in ite socket before the work ia menced.

com-
It may otherwise result in a serious smash of
the tools,of the work, or of the operator's fingers.

A pair or two of different sized callipersare also an
indispensablepart of a turner's collection of tools.
Those shown at Kg. 55 will be found of convenient
construction. They are used as gauges for turning to
any particularsize,and the same pair answers equally

well for measuring either internal or external work.
In Fig. 55 they are set for external and at Pig. 56 for
internal meaauremenfa. Those illustrated at Fig. 57
are of capital construction, but they are not well
adapted to soft woods "

indeed, they are seldom used
with woods at all,but principallyfor metal. The culiarity

pe-
of these consists in one of the 1^ being
formed to act as a spring, so that when appUed to any
article which is not turned small enough, the spring
1e^ opens.
Attached to the lower part of the leg is a pointer
extending up the aide of the leg aa shown ; the ex-
tremity of this pointer is made " by the springingout

of the leg " to indicate the extent the article is above
the requiredsize. I believe that these callipers

were
devised by a workman at the establishment of Messrs.
Penn " Son at Greenwich, and am inclined to think
they would be much more used were they better
known.
The gauge is formed of a graduated slipof steel
slidingin a stock of either the same material or bra?s.
This is used to measure the depth of holes,cavities,

or
recesses, and for other purposes. Another convenient
instrument is the temporary tool support, or arm-rest,

which is simply a piece of steel with its end cranked
up for about half an inch. It is set in a handle, and

is used with the cranked part up, on the ordinaryhand-
tool rest, as a temporary or moveable support for the
tool,and to obviate the continual of shifting
necessity
the rest itself.
The woods used

chiefly for plainturningare alder,
applewood, box, beech, holly,lignum vitaB,
mahogany,
and pine. A great many other woods are used, but
chieflyfor ornamental purposes, and then more for
their rarityand colour than for any other superiority

they possess over those above mentioned. Amongst
the more beautiful sorts are the African black wood,
black and green ebony, cam wood, Spanishyew, king
wood, "c. These, and a multitude of other sorts, can
be procured of dealers in foreignwoods in wholesale
quantities.They can also be purchasedin small lots
preparedfor the lathe in various sizes,of almost any

small-lathe and tool maker. Many of the sorts, how-
ever,
are rather expensive; and therefore the tyro will

not find it advantageousto learn turningwith them,

but is recommended to have considerable practiceon
the cheaper sorts, before attempting to exhibit his
skill on expensivehard wood and ivory.

Woods for turningshould be thoroughlydry, and
well seasoned. It is great follyto use wood just as it
comes from the tree. Even when it appears dry, it is
a good plan,when it can be followed, to partially

turn
out an article and let it remain in a dry warm place

before it.
finishing It is very annoying to find, after
having completed a very fine specimen of turning,that
m
.Ij- ""r two it
ahoLrigTof
crackingin
tudi-
rections,which, however, is the almost certam result
of usingwood not seasoned.
If the wood be bought in the log,a pieceshould be
cut out somewhat nearlyof the requiredaze, the waste
corners being sawn off and preservedfor future use,
either for portionsof turned articles or for inlaying.

The shavingsof some of the ornamental woods are very
useful for other
dyeingand staining woods.
These woods difier much in density,and cally

theoreti-
should have tools ground differently
for each
difference in hardness. however,
Practically, this is
not necessary, they being divided into two classes "
soft and hard woods. Alder, apple wood, pine, ma-

hogany,
and beech belong to the former class,and are
turned with the soft-wood tools.
Nearly all the woods used for ornamental work,

and lignum vitas belongto the class of hard wood, and
are turned with the hard-wood tools. Box wood and
holly occupy an intermediate and

position, can be
worked equallywell with either sort of tool. Ivory is

E
very similar in texture to some of the hard woods, and

is easilyturned by the same tools, and in a manner
similar to hard wood ; but being more expensivethan

even the fancy woods, care should be taken that there
is no unnecessary waste of material in working it.
Besides these substances, there are others used by

the ornamental turner. Amongst them may be tioned
men-
jet, cannel coal, bone, glass,Derbyshire spar,

cocoa-nut shell,coquilla nut, ivory nuts, and india-
rubber "
the latter both in its usual state and vulcanised.
These can be turned with the tools used for the various
woods and metals, but they each require pecuhar

treatment. Woods differingin density, besides quiring
re-
different tools,require different treatment in
other respects. In the matter of speed lies one great

pointto be observed by the turner : but this is a point
whereon authorities differ greatly. For instance,when
turningsoft wood, some advise that it should be run at
a few hundred feet per minute, and others at as many

thousand. Many also are of opinion that it cannot be
rotated too rapidly; but this is a mistake. It is very
well known that when a tool is appliedfor some time
to wood in rapid motion, the tool gets hot from the
the
firiction, extreme edge becomes of a blue colour,
which indicates that its temper is reduced, and its cut-
ting
power is damaged. We judge fix)m this that the
motion is too rapid,and we reduce it accordingly. If

the tool be that is,appliedto
apphed intermittently, the
cut for a few seconds, then removed for a short space

and the
re-applied, wood may be revolved much faster
than if the cutting were made continuous. This
obviously arises from the "ct of the tool being

instruments,I will endeavour to give fuller information
as to the method of usingthem in actual practice. To

this end it wiU be as good a plan as can be adopted
if a few examples be chosen, and the various steps to
be taken and course to be pursued in turning them

be detailed
fiilly and explained. In order to cate
communi-
as much information as these examples

possible,
shall be of as varied a nature as can be chosen from
amongst those of any use, and I will endeavour so to
describe the mod/us operandithat even those persons

who have not had the advantage of seeing such work
performed, shall stillbe able to form a tolerably

cor-
rect
idea of the method of proceeding.

The First example shall be very elementary. We
will suppose that we require to turn a cylindrical

piece of wood, say 12 inches long and 4 inches in
diameter, the wood to be one of those in the class of
soft woods. First,select a piece of the requiredsort

of wood, largeenough to contain the but
cylinder, as
little above that size as is obtainable. If this piece

have any rough projectionsor corners, they should be
chopped off with a hatchet. The inexperiencedturner

will find it easier to judge of this if he take a pair
of compasses and finds the rough centre of each end of
the wood, and from that centre draws a circle rather
larger m diameter than the cylinderis to be turned.
By roughlychopping away the wood outside the circle
at each end he will bring the wood somewhere about
the requiredshape. This chopping is not absolutely

but the shaping is more quicklydone in this
necessary,
whilst the chances of knocking off the edge
manner,
of the tool are much lessened.
If the centre be fixed in the hole of the lathe spindle,

it must be taken out, or if any other chuck be on the
spindlenose it must be removed. The drill-chuck can
then be screwed into its place,and the prong-driver.

Fig. 13, put into the hole of drill-chuck. The centre
of one end of the wood is then placed against the

centre of the driver, and held there by the left hand,
whilst the right hand pulls the shifting headstock
along the bed up to the work, and then fastens it
down on the bed. The hand wheel of the headstock
is turned so as to force the centre pointof the spindle

into the centre of the end of the wood, the pressure at
the same time forcingthe prongs of the driver into the
other end of the wood. The greater the depth to
which the driver is embedded in the wood, the more
power it will drive, or the heavier the cut it will take
without slipping. Unless forced in tolerably

deep, a
heavy cut, or sudden jerkcaused by the tools '
catching
in,'will cause the prong to slipand act as a drill,
cutting
a round recess, instead of a simpleindentation. rences
Occur-
of this sort should be avoided as much as possible,

as, although no great injuryis done to the lathe or
chuck, the work is rendered untrue, and would probably

requirere-turning. After the centre and the driver are
properlyforced up, the pressure should be taken off,

and the centre just removed from that end of the wood
to allow of a drop of oil being put into the indentation
of the centre. The lathe should then be pulledround

a few times by hand, whilst the rest holder and the rest
are adjustedconveniently and

in position height. By
moving the lathe in this way an accident of otherwise
frequentoccurrence is prevented,
as ifthe wood be at all
54 LATHES AND TDBNING.
in shape,or
irregular run out of truth, and the rest be
adjustedclose to the place in the wood having the least
radius,it is obvious that on the

starting lathe the part
of greater radius will come round into contact with
the top of the rest, and the belt drivingthe lathe will
either slip,
or the wood be burst from its centres, and
projectedwith force into the face,or perhaps

operator's
through a window, if one be near. This occurrence
should be avoided even more than

carefully the last.
Take a pair of callipers,

Fig. 55, and set them by a
graduated straightedge or rule to the required dia-

meter,
namely four inches. Set the lathe in motion,

at the rightspeed,and apply the gouge. Fig. 23, to the
wood, until the whole length is reduced nearly to the
rightsize,as indicated by the caUipers. When down,

the rest will probably be too far from the work, and
The chisel,
requirere-adjusting. Fig.24, or the scraping
chisel.Fig.25, is then to be apphed till the callipers
will just drop over the work.
It must be remembered that, for a pair of caUipers

to gauge properly,they must be appliedto the work
at right angles with

precisely the line of centres. If
held ever so slightly

across, the indications will be correct,
in-
as the work will have

necessarily to be turned
too small, to allow the legs to

calliper pass over ; the
hypothenuse of a right-angledtrianglebeing greater

than its base.
And now a few words to explain the manner of
holdingand applyingthe tools whilst turning the wood
down to size.
The tools being placedin suitable handles " 58

^Fig.
VB a good shape "
^theyare graspedby both hands, the
PLAIN TUBBING WITH HAKD-T00L8. 55
left being placed on the tool itself,

not for from the
cuttingedge, and the rightupon the end of the handle
fiirthest from the edge. The cuttingend is then placed

on the rest, and iQclined upwards, something like
Fig. 51. The left hand is presseddown upon

the tool so as to keep it firm upon the rest,
and suffident is put at the end of the
pressure
handle by the right hand to keep it steady in
cut. The tool is traversed or guided along
the rest by the left hand, but the point is
forced into the cut, and raised or lowered by

the right.
All the tools "
^whether for sending or
cutting " are held in a similar manner, but
those for scraping are placed upon the rest
and applied to the work horizontally,

as
shown at Hg. 52. The chisel.Fig. 24, should

not be used as a scrapinginstrument, not being
adapted to that work ; but the scrapingchisel,
Fig. 25, be used in that manner with good effect,
may
if the edge be kept very keen and smooth. When
usiog the scraping tools,the rest must be lowered to
allow the top of the tool to come level with the centre.
The chisel.Fig. 24, should be held inclined as at Fig.
51, with its cutting edge oblique to the axis of the
work.
The work in hand is not yet finished,however, as it
yet requires to be made of the right length. Take

the gouge, lay it on its side on the rest, with its bottom
towards the end to be cut off,and its point inclined
rather above the centre of the work. Qrasp the end of
the handle firmlywith the righthand, if turningdown
the right-handextremityof the wood, but with the left

hand if turningthe left extremity,and graduallypush
the cuttingedge towards the centre, loweringthe point
of the tool as it approaches the centre. It requires
some Uttle skill to use the tool in this manner, as if
allowed to turn over to its usual a terrible

position,
'
*
catch in and considerable damage is the frequent re-
sult
Care should be taken not to allow the edge of
the tool to come againstthe steel centre, or the chuck.
If the end thus turned requiresto be very true it
may be touched over with the diamond pointor V-tool,

Fig.26, held flat on the rest with its cutting edge in
the positionshown for soft-wood scraping tools at
Fig. 52. One end of the example having been turned,

its length,12 inches,should be marked off,the super-
fluous
lengthturned away, and the end finished in the
same manner as before. The rest should never be
allowed to remain too far from the work, as that
.lessens the workman's command over his tool, and

renders the latter far more Ukely to '
catch in.' The
trouble of adjustingthe rest is not very great, nor does
it take much time. The beginner should more pecially

es-
be careful about the positionand of

stability
his rest. Although the experienced turner is also
it is
careftil, more from habit than necessity
: as to
him it makes but Kttle difference whether the rest be
rather too far from the work, or even whether it be
firmlyfastened to the bed or not.
The beginnershave
great difficulty is to hold the
tool stillupon the rest, as, when the work happens to
be irregularin shape,they cannot prevent the tool fix)m

goingin and out with the But
irregularity. this should be
overcome as soon as possible,

because every movement
of the sort is fatal to the productionof true work. A
good workman, however rough the wood may be, can
manage to hold his tools as firmlyas if held in the
slide-rest. By firmness is not meant but

rigidity, a
sort of elastic steadiness of the tool on the rest, which
produces good work with little damage to the tools,

and Httle exertion on the part of the workman. The
reader m"^ find it somewhat difficult to understand
the difference here indicated,but he will soon discern
it if he carefullyobserve two turners, one good and
the other bad, at work. Soft woods are rendered
somewhat smoother than when only turned, either by

holdinga sheet of againstthe
glass-cloth wood whilst
it is in rapid motion, or by taking a handful of fine
shavings,and pressingagainst the revolvingsurface.

Curved portions are smoothed over beautifullyby
pressingthe flat part of the gouge againstthem, whilst
in motion in the lathe. The gouge must be firmly

held, so that, although not cuttingat all,it is nearly
on the point of cutting,
and when moved along care-
fiiUyover the surface of the wood it has the effect of
bm'nishingthe work, by compressing those fibres on the
immediate surface. Such polishis generallymore lasting

than that obtained in other ways. It is that
possible
the absolute truth of the work may be somewhat
impaired,but not to any appreciable

extent.
The rest of the soft-wood tools are used in the
same manner as those for hard wood, and I will there-

fore
choose the next example of the latter material.
Let the example selected be the stem of a vase or
pedestal,of the shape given at Fig. 59 ; its extreme

58 LATHES AND TDENING.
dimensions being, say, 6 inches long and 1 inch in
diameter. Choose a piece of wood and cut it out
roughlyto a cylindrical explained.

shape,as previously
The prong- driver can be used,but perhaps it will be
Fig. 69. better to use the driver shown at Fig.14, called

the cross-driver.
This driver is one of the neatest and most
convenient I have ever seen, although it does

not appear to be much used. It holds more
firmlythan the b not

prong-driver, so likelyto
splithard wood or ivory as the other, and
turned work driven by it will run true if
frequentlytaken from the lathe,and again returned

to place. Ejiock out the prong-driver
its from the
chuck, and replace it by the cross- driver. If the
wood be not very hard both driver and centre may

be forced into the wood in the same manner as
was explainedin the last example for soft woods.
Fig. 60. Very hard woods, ivoryand metals,to be

driven by this driver require two grooves
or saw-kerfs cut at right angles to each
other, see Fig. 60, and also the tion

indenta-
for the centre should be produced

by a centre-punch.The work is put into
the lathe, and the headstock and tool rests adjusted

precisely
as before described in the first example. Set
the lathe in motion : for that size of work it should volve

re-
about 2,000 times per minute, and with the tool

at Fig. 34, roughlyturn the wood until nearlyof the
rightsize. Then with either of the tools at Figs.31,

32, or 33, square off*the ends and bringthe pieceto
the proper length. Set the callipers
to the size of
the laigestplace,and turn that place to its right
60 LATHES AND TCRMKO.
is shown in Fig. 61, and we may suppose it to be made
in hard wood. Take any suitable piece of wood, put it

in the lathe, and turn down one end
^'
*
of it parallelfor a length rather more
the length of the proposed box,
!than and of
off the end
cut the
a laiêr diameter.
slightly
of the
length off from

piece so turned,
the remainder
True
and
of the piece.
Take off the drill-chuck and the driver, put on a
spring-chuckof suitable size, and fasten the piece of

turned wood into this,allowing rather more than the
body of the box to projectfrom the chuck. With the
requisite tools square off the edges of the projecting

end, and hollow out the wood to the depth and size
requiredfor the interior ; the depth is best measured
by using the turning square, and the diameter of the
cavity by setting the callipersas shown at Fig. 56.
Take a pair of dividers, and make a line
around the wood showing the width of the
I rim or ledge a. Fig 62, and turn that tion

por-
down to its proper size. Then mark
off the width of the part h, and turn that
to its intended size. Take the partingtool,

Rg. 41, and make a groove such aa c so
as to cut off that part of the box and leave the piece of
wood for the cover in the chuck. Now turn a cavity
or recess in that to allow the rim a to fit into it *
hand
'
tight and to the depth push the two parts
proper ;
closelytogether, and then touch off the bottom of the
box, making it quite flat or dightly concave.

Remove the wood altogeUier
from the chuck and re-
PLAIN TDENING WITH HAND-TOOLS. 61
verse it,that is,placethe bottom of the finished part into

the chuck, takingcare not to bind it in tightenough to
injure it,and also before touchingthe work with the
tools,takingcare to adjustit so that the turned part

runs perfectly
trua The outside of the cover can now
be completed,and the box is then finished.
It is necessary that the inside of the box be taken
out before the rim or ledge a is turned, because the
removal of the interior wood allows the ring remaining

to contract If,therefore,the rim were turned firstit
would contract and become smaller on the removal of
the core. If the wood be not of a very expensivesort

this core can be removed in and
shavings, the shavings
used for polishingthe box ; but when such boxes are
made of expensivewoods or ivorythe core should be
removed entire,so as to save the material for another
smaller box, or to be otherwise useful.
To remove the centre entire,a set of interior partmg

tools such as Figs.42, 43, is required. A groove is first
cut parallel
to the sides of the box, as shown by the
space between the two dotted lines in Pig.62. That
tool of the set of partingtools havingthe shortest point

is then inserted and
carefully, is followed by the others
of the set, imtil a groove parallel

to the bottom of the
box is cut out. This groove is shown by the space

between the two other dotted lines. When these grooves
are cut it is obvious that the core of the box will fall out,
and the inside can be finished to its proper size by the
ordinarytools. In some cases, when the box is large,

the core must be removed from two places,
by making
a hole of the depth of the cavityin the centre of the
core, and inserting tools both

the parting from this hole
and from the circular groove as before.
62 LATHBS AND TUENING.
The Fourth example is that of a spherein ivoryor

hard wood " ^we will suppose it to be a billiard or
ball.
bagatelle
Take any suitable piece of ivory,put it into the
lathe to be driven by the cross-chuck,and turn one end
of it as nearly to the spherical

shape as you can judge.
Take a piece of thin metal, and driU a hole through
it of the same diameter as the sphere required. To
drill a circular
perfectly hole in sheet metal is a cult
diffi-
matter, the better plan therefore is to drill the
hole rather smaller,and then to broach or ryme it out
to its full size. CarefuUy cut the sheet iron or metal
across the hole, so as to leave one perfecthalf circle,

or it may be less
slightly than half the circle. This is
for a gauge. Fasten the rough ball in a spring-chuck,

leavingnot less than half outside the chuck's mouth,
and and gentlyturn
carefully down the part immediately
outside the chuck nearlyto the diameter of the quired
re-
sphere. Eemove the work from the chuck, and

replaceit so that one half of this ring is inside the
chuck and the other half outside. Carefully

turn down
the projecting
part of the article to fit the sheet metal
gauge, remove itfrom the chuck, replaceit in a reversed
and
position, again turn the projectingpart to fit the
gauge. The ball should now be a perfectsphere. But
not many workmen are able to bring it nearlyto that
shape without many more changes of position,

and even
then it is not absolutely

spherical But balls can be
thus turned perfectfor

sufficiently most purposes, if
great care and patiencebe exercised.
For a Fifth example the vase Fig.63 may be selected.
Take a flat piece of the requiredwood, saw off the

PLAIN TDENING WITH HAND-TOOLS. 63
comers, so as to roughlybringit to a circular shape,and

planeoff one side. Put the taper-screw chuck. Fig.15, on
Fio. 63.
the spindleof the lathe,make a small hole in the centre
of the wood, but no deeper than is required,and twist
the wood on to the screw of the chuck, takingcare that

the planed surface beds well against the face of the
chuck. Set the lathe in motion headstock

(theshifting
is not now required),true up the edges of the wood,
both on the surface and the side, making the latter
nearlyof the rightdiameter. Eough out the interior
of the vase, rough down the exterior nearly to its
proper shape,after which finish turningout the interior,

and then also complete the turning of the edge and
exterior body of the vase ; and remove the work from
the lathe. Take a rough pieceof auy common wood
rather laiêrthan the edge of the vase, and not less
than 1 inch thick. Screw this upon the same chuck,

and turn in it a ring or groove of such a shape as wm
allow the mouth of the vase to fit it, both inside the
mouth and outside the rim of the mouth. Bub a
little good chalk about the groove of this wooden
chuck, and gentlytack the mouth of the vase on to its
place,care being taken that it beds well down on the
chuck ; and that no of

particle dust or gritbe allowed
to get between the surfaces of the work and the
chuek, as that, of course, would cause the article

to run out of truth, and the turned portionsto be of
unequal thickness.
These wooden chucks will hold

generally work ciently
suffi-
fast to withstand a good-sizedcut being taken
off,but it is safer to work gently especially

at
" first "
and not to subjectthe work to any jerk from pushing

the tool suddenly into cut Should the work slip,a
little more whiting will generallyimprove the holding
power of the surface.
For the present case, as the substance of the turned
work is very thin,and the surfaces in contact are not of
good anglesfor fast holding,it will be as well to bring

up the shiftingheadstock, to put on a little gentle
pressure, and the support of the centre "
^the mouth of
the screw hole in that end of the wood being previously

turned out a little to fit the centre. The remainder
of the vase can now be finished without againshifting

the work.
The centre screw hole can be stoppedup either with

coloured putty, or by a plug of the same sort of wood
as the article is made of. The vase can be turned
without this hole being made, but as the hole is in the
bottom and out of sightit is no disadvantage.

For our Sixth example,let us take the pieceof work
usuallytermed Chinese balls. In this there are several
balls contained one inside the other, and without any
joint,
so they must be turned out of the solid pieceof
ivory.
First turn the outside sphere,as explainedin the
fourth example. The tools for turningthe interior balls
are sold in sets suitable for the work, of the shape shown
at Fig. 44, but of various sizes. Two or more holes
PLAIN TURNIiVG WITH HAND-TOOLS. 65
must be turned to admit those curved tools. The

smallest one of the set is then inserted in the hole, and
worked sideways,so as to turn a portion of the groove
which forms the inner sphere. The work is then moved
re-
from the chuck, and replaced so that the tool
can be introduced through another hole. Another
portion of the groove must then be cut as before,

and so on until the innermost sphere is detached. The
next in size of the tools is then taken, and the next
sphere turned in the same manner, the operation being

continued until the whole of the balls are completed.
By the addition of a guide to the tools, as at Fig. 48,
the of turning is
difficulty much reduced, but to turn
these balls properly requires great care and patience.

The amateur must not, therefore, let a few failures
discouragehim.
Besides spheres being turned in this manner, with
other balls inside them, spheres, cubes, and solids
Fig. 04. Fio. 66. FiQ. 06.
"f
of almost number of sides can be turned having

any
spikesand other shapes inside them, as at Figs. 64, 65,

66. Most of these things require tools especially
adapted to the work, but cutting on the same principle
as those already described. It will not be necessary
to give more examples, as those already chosen are
LATHES AND TDENINQ.
sufficient to indicate the general mode of procalure

for almost
any article that the lathe is calletl upon to
make.
materials,it will suffice if I explainthe methods adopted

for tm-oingthe metals first mentioned.
Some specimens of wrought iron "

Low Moor, for
example " are very easilyworked in the lathe, the

shavings coming ofi* in lengths,having one side of
and
great brightness, with a pecuUar metallic click,
well understood by the experiencedturner. Although
this descriptionof wrought iron is so easilycut, the
tools goon lose their keen alges,but the points are

seldom broken off. When, therefore,a largequantity
of this iron has to be turned, it is a good plan to
temper the tools harder

slightly than for other work.
There are other of wrought iron, which

descriptions
turn only with great difficulty,
as the tools are tinually
con-
being broken off, although their keen edges

fire not materiallyblunted. Other sorts again contain
veins of vitrified oxide, so hard that the tools are
blunted immediatelythey are appliedto the work, and,

if not soon removed, their edges are cracked away in
such a manner as to require much grinding to again

fit them for use. These hard veins do not always
arise from the descriptionof iron, but from tions
imperfec-
in its manufacture. Iron is also sometimes met
with containingnumerous hard patches,and small pins

of steelyiron ; this is known by the term '
pinny iron,'
and is,equallywith the last,the utter abhorrence of
the turner.
Sometimes, but not often,iron of this sort may be
turned by running it very slowly : at other times no
manoeuvring on the part of the workpian will enable
him to turn it,but when the tool is applied,its edge is
quicklyrubbed away, without cuttingthe metal. And

UAND-TUENING IN METALS. 69
if the tool be pressedwith more* force to its work, the

friction is so great tliat sufficient heat is generated to
quicklyreduce the temper of the tool to a deep blue
colour. When this has been done, the tool usuallyhas

to be not only re-ground,but re-temperedbefore it can
again be used. These hard pins may sometimes be
removed, or generallysoftened somewhat, by two or
three heatingsand quenchingsin water or oil,followed

by a careful annealing.
Steel is turned by the same tools,and in the same
manner as wrought iron. If carefullyannealed no
whatever
difficulty is found in turning it,nor are the
tools much damaged or soon blunted.
Most amateurs, and many professionalturners, do
not pay that attention to the softeningof their steel
that they should do. They either put it into the lathe
just as it is cut from the bar, or, if heated at all,the

steel is generallyconsidered annealed
sufficiently when
thrust into the ashes of the forge,and allowed to get

cold. Sometimes, indeed, it is not even allowed to do
that ; but directlyit ceases to be red hot "

still hot
enough severelyto burn the hands when touched, it is
immersed in the coolingtrough. All these practices

are to be condemned, as it is bad policyto attempt
to turn steel that is not properly and thoroughlyan-
nealed.
The labour expended in annealing it is far
from being thrown away, as, when well annealed, the

steel may not only be turned with greater ease and
with less damage to the tools, but it may be driven
much faster and turned with greater certainty

of being
*
true.'
Cast iron is generally

rough-turnedby hand with the
same tools as wrought iron and steel,but it is finished

by tools fix)m
altogether
differing those used for ing.
rough-
Some sorts of cast, iron are so soft that they can
be turned like cheese (I must, however, admit I have
never turned this latter material). Other sorts are very

hard, and for rough turning require tools ground to an
angle much less acute than that used for wrought iron.
But the same tools are used for both

finishing hard and
soft cast iron.
The outside skin or scale of cast iron is frequently

'
so very hard that the tools will not *
touch it. It is there-
fore
a good plan either to chip off,or grind away a small
portionof the scale, so that the tool may be appUed to
its cut first at the place so cleared of scale,and worked
away from it. When once the tool is imder the scale,
it will seldom be much injured,but if the article be
rather out of truth, and will not admit of a cut of
sufficient depth being taken off it to get below the
scale,then the workman has a great deal of difficulty

in gettinghis tools to '
stand,'and in his
finishing work
perfectly
true.
The edges and corners of castings, when

especially
small, are frequentlyhard or
'
chilled,'not only at the
surface or scale,but for some depth in the metal. It ia
not often that annealing will soften or remove this

'
chill,'nor do I know of any simple process whereby
this may be done effectually.Ordinary turning tools
will not remove these chilled portions,but an old file
or a pieceof grindstoneforced againstthem will gener-

ally
do so. The operation is rather slow, however,
and no dependence can be placed on the truth of the
work so done.
HAND-TUKNING IN METALS. 71
Malleable cast iron midway

occupiesa position tween
be-
cast iron and wrought iron. When thoroughly

malleableised " ^which,by the way, is not always the
case "
the iron may be turned as easilyas ordinary
wrought iron, the tools being perhaps blunted rather
sooner. When, however, the cast iron has been but
malleableised,half
imperfectly the turner's time is taken
up in grinding and repairingtools. There is now far
greater chance of gettinggood malleable iron than
there used to be ; the art of converting cast iron into
malleable iron being better understood.
Brass and gun metal are also to be obtained of every
degree of hardness ; but for articles to be turned the
metal is usuallyof medium and

density, then it is cut
without much These

difficulty. metals are turned with
tools similar to those used for cast iron, but at a
greater speed. When turning them care should be
taken that the brightr"iys of the sun are not allowed
to fall directly
on the work, otherwise the lightreflected
from the shining metal surfaces will so much dazzle
the operator'seyes, as to greatlyinconvenience him,

and in time to permanentlyimpair his visual powers.
In metal turning of all sorts, but brass

especially
turning,the shavingsflyofi* from the tool with force
sufficient to projectthem many feet from the work, and

as, when detached, the shavingsare of a high tempera-
ture,
when they fall upon the naked skin the sensation
produced is far too warm to be agreeable. A hot
inside
shavingfalling a workman's shirt sleeve,or down
his neck inside the collar,will usuallycause him to
drop his tools and commence shaking himself with
considerable vigour and earnestness. These shavings

appear to have a peculiarknack of findingout all the
most tender and sensitive parts. Projected into the eye,
I have known a steel shaving.produceblindness ; jected

pro-
around the eyes, metal shavingswill often raise
a blister,and cause the most exquisitepain,which is
only to be thoroughly appreciated by those who have
experienced it.
With regard to the rotation of objectsin the lathe,
the metals are treated in the same way as wood and
ivory,the work being set in motion, and the tools ap-
phed to those parts to be reduced ; but the manner in
which motion is communicated to the work is somewhat
different from that for woods. Whereas long piecesof

wood are usuallydriven by a drivingchuck, and ported
sup-
by one centre, long piecesof metal are supported

by both centres and are rotated by a separate driver.
The centres used for ordinarymetal turning are very
much the same as those for woods, the angles only
as will
differing, be seen on to Figs.68
referring and 69.
Fig. 68 is best adapted for wood, or very small metal
work. The angle of its point is 60". Fig.69 has an
angle of 80", which is a good angle for ordinary metal-

turning. Both centres are of steel,with their points
careftiUyhardened and tempered. The part under the
shoulder is made to screw into,and nicelyfit the centre
hole of the lathe spindle. The wrench or instrument
for screwing and unscrewing them is shown at Fig.22

in positionfor use. The internal, reverse or female
centre. Fig. 70, is of steel, made to fit the lathe-
spindlein the same as the last ; but instead of

way
being fonned with a coned point,it has a coned recess,
as shown by the dotted lines. The ordinary carrier

HAKD-TURNING IN METALS.
or driver for round iron is shown at Fig. 7 1 : it is made
of iron and fitted with a steel screw.
The caraer,or driver for flat and iron is shown

square
at Fig. 72 ; it is made of two pieces of flat iron, and with
the tightening
screws of steel. The carrier for screwed
74 LATHES AND TURKINO.
work, at Fig. 73, is of either iron or steel ; the hole
TiQ. li. Fio. 76.
9
shown through it,is tapped with a screw thread of the
same size and pitch as the article to be driven.
Various sizes of each sort of carrier are in very fre-

76 LATHES AKD TL'BKISG.
are drilled with small holes, countersunk to fit the
lathe-centres,and afterwards carefullyhardened. The
shape of the mandril end is shown enlargedat Fig. 79.

Fio. 79- It must nm perfectlytrue, and ehould
be either quite parallelor very slightly

tapered.Many sizes are required. The
screw mandril, Fig. 80, is of steel,and
has a true standard thread cut upon it.
This thread may be either rightor left
handed, or both, as seen in the figure.

The mandril ends are made of the same
shape as the last,and are hardened. Screw mandrils
of various sizes and pitchesof thread are in frequent

request. The tool-rest,Fig. 82, is of wrought iron.
Fig. 80.
and its shank is turned to fit the socket of the rest-
holder of the lathe. Other shapes than that shown
are occasionallyrequired for peculiarwork.

Fig. 81 is the ordinary hook tool used for roughing
wrought iron, steel,cast iron, and malleable iron ; a
is the case or holder and h the tool,which, fitting

a
groove the whole lengthof the holder, can be slid farther
out as the tool wears away. It will be noticed that the
tool passes through a sort of staple,so that by twisting

the handle c in one direction the tool is firmly fastened
between the stapleand the bottom of the groove in
the holder ; and by twistingthe handle in the contrary

nA.N"T)-TUIWISG IS METALS.
direction, the tool is

released and can be
withdrawn entirely
from its place There
are two sorts of this
hook tool : one has its
cutting edge ground

off to a round shape
as at B, the other has
a pointed or angular
cuttingedge as at a.
The tool having a
round cuttingedge is
used entirely for
roughing ; the angular

tool is used for ing
rough-
down any small
works in metal, and
for trueing up the
ends of articles,the
sides of collars,and
flat Hhoiilders. Both
tools are held in the
same manner, and the

in
position which they
cut is shown at Fig.
83, a being the work,
and b the tool. The
rest or support for tlie

tool is that shown at
Fig. 82.
The handle c of the
tool-holder is grasped
by the right hand of
78 LATHES AND TUHWNG.
the operator ; the extremityof the holder farthest from

the poiot of the tool is laid on the shoulder, the left hand
Fig. 82. being placed upon the holder
between the handle, c Fig. 81,

and the shoulder, and the point
of the tool held about level with
the centre of the woA.
This is a effective tool,

very
but its use is not easilylearnt.
Beginners find it difficult to
prevent the tool 'catching in'
and taking a much deeper bite out of the metal than is
or desirable. When this occurs, the work,

necessary
the tool, or the lathe-centre is certain to receive some
Fia. 83. damage ; and in certain cases
the operator is lifted off his feet
before he knows what the ter

mat-
is. After the use of the tool
is learned, it is one of the easiest
to manage. It will cut off the metal in large deep

shavings, and may be held and guided by a couple of
fingers. All workmen should be able to use this tool
from either shoulder.
These hook-tools should vary in shape accordingto

the height of the user, as will be evident to all who
examine the illustration,Fig. 83. The difficulty

of
using increases with the angle of the tool ; the tool
being a lever of the first order, of. which the 'heel'
or point bearing on the rest is the fulcrum. The
weight is applied at the cutting edge, and the power
at the other end of the handle. It will therefore be
understood that the nearer the cuttingedge is to being

HAND-TURNING IN METALS. 79
in a vertical line passingup through the fulcrum or heel
of the tool,the less will be the force required at the
other end to counterbalance this weight on the cutting

edge. The weight,of course, is the resistance of the
metal to being cut.

There are other varieties of this tool in which the cut-
ting
part is shaped so that the handle has to be placed

under the shoulder, instead of on it ; they are used in
Fiaa 84. 86. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90.
r ..
""4 f.
hi
M
H
P
the same manner as the first mentioned, but I do not
consider them equal in efficiency,

and facility
of using.
Both sorts, however, may be manipulated with very

little exertion,the workman only having to guide the
tool, all the weight of the cut being borne by the
tool rest. I have nevertheless seen illustrations of a
workman using a tool of this sort, and hanging on to it
as though his life depended on the amount of force he
could expend upon the tool. Such illustrationsare not
true to good practice.

80 I"ATHES ASD TCRXING.
The other tools for roughing iron are the graver, Fig.
84, the side tool Fig. 85, bolt head tool Fig. 86, and
Fi8. 91. cranked tool Fig 87 ; there are numbers of
others, but these are amongst the best. The
is of almost universal application. It

graver
is merely a square rod of steel,ground off to
a diamond shape, and haKlened at the end.
The point and the two projecting sides form
the cutting edges.

The side tool ia made of a triangularrod
of steel, ground off as seen in the figure.
The point,and the side of the triangle pro-
ceeding
from the point,form in this case the
cutting edges. As its name implies, it is
used for side work, such as for turning the
sides of collars,the ends of cylindrical

rods,
"c. ; and this it will do, either to the right
or left hand.
The bolt Iiead tool is only used for tolerably

heavy work ;
it has four cuttingedges,and
will take off a very heavy cut. The cranked
tool has two cuttingedges. It is used cipally

prin-
for turning the sides of collars, or
parts at an angle to the centre line of the
work, which it does with greater truth than
the other tools sometimes used for that
purpose.
The chisels.Figs. 88, 89, 90, are used for smoothing
and sometimes finishing
articles of wrought iron, cast
iron, malleable iron and steel. They are all used in a
handle as shown at Fig. 91, and are generallymade

with three shapes of cutting edge, flat as in Pig. 88,
HAKD-TUBNISG iS METALS. 81
angular as in Fig. 89, and half round as at Fig. 90.

This difference, however, is only in the grinding, their
sections being alike. The under edge of all these tools
is serrated, so as to give tliem a better hold on the rest,
and prevent them from slipping off. The position for

holding them on the rest will be seen by referringto
Fig. 92.
Fig. 93 is the tool used for polishingwrought iron
and steel. Its bottom is laid on the rest, so that the
cutting edge is just level with the centres (see Fig. 94) :
it is then moved carefullyalong the rest, and only a
very slightcut, or scraping of metal is taken off by it.
Meanwhile the surface of the wnrk is kept well moistened
with oil or water. This tool requires considerable care
and caution prevent its catching in,'but,

'
to when it is
SZ LATHES AND TUBS[NG.
properly used, a very brightsmooth surface is given to
the work.
Caet iron is smooth-turned by the tools or scrapers

shown at Figs. 95 to 103. These are of various shapes for
various kinds of work, but they are all of the same side
section as given at Fig. 104 ; and their cutting edges

being all ground off at rightangles,they may be used
either side uppermost. They are placed flat the

upon
rest, with the cutting edge about level with the centres
(see Fig. 105). The tools for roughing wrought iron,

cast iron, and steel are made with a cutting angle of
between 60" and 80" ;

and for polishingcast iron and
brass, with an angle of 90".
The clamps,Fig. 106, and the glazingstick,Fig. 107,

are used for polishingcast iron, wrought iron, malle-
84 LATHES AKD TUESINQ.
some hundredweights of brass and gun-metal, and,

having tried all the tools,have found the hook-tools
liable to '
catch iii'; the round-section tool liable
very
to slipoff the rest, and to require a deal of forcing to
make it take a good cut the tool

square-section to be
;
good, but only applicable to straight-work; but the
ordinary round -noaed chisel,Fig. 90, to be well adapted

for roughing sort of brass. It can be used either
every
straightor curved work, it is not Uable to '

catch
upon
in,'does not require violent forcing, will take a light
or heavy cut, does not easilylose its edge, and when
dull It should be ground with

ia easilyground. a
of about 80", and placed the

cutting angle upon
fio, 108. rest, as shown at
Fig. IDS. For ishing

fin-
or ing
smooth-
brass and
gun-
metal, the same
scraping tools are
used, and in the
same mannerasfor
cast iron. With regard to these tools, some prefer

them to be thick and clumsy,and use them upon the ordi-
nary
reat others use thin and to prevent

; very scrapers,
'
chatter' placea piece of hard leather between the rest
and the tool,to act as an elastic cushion, and todeaden the
vibration. The best-formed scrapers are those thin at
the cuttingedge, but increasingin thicknessand strength

graduallytowards the handle ; and these can be used
upon
the naked rest without chatter. The chasing or
wood-turning rest is the best for use with these tools ;
it should not be too far from the work, and should be

adjusted so that the tool edge will come justlevel with
the line of centres.
With regard to the proper speedfor turning metals,

it will at once be seen that owing to their being harder
than wood, they should be driven at a lower speed
whilst being cut.
For wrought iron a speed of from 18 to 22 feet per
minute is found to answer welL Veiny iron or pinny

iron must be turned at a much slower speed.
Steel well annealed will turn well at 18 or even 20
feet per minute, but if improperlyannealed a speed of

14 or 15 feet can seldom be exceeded without ing
damag-
the tools.
Brass of medium or u"ual densityshould be driven
at about 100 feet per minute ; if very hard, the speed

should be about 40 feet, and for very soft about 150
feet per minute.
Lead is usuallyturned when being driven at about
200 feet per minute.
It will be understood that these speeds apply only

to hand-tool turning,and then only for small diameters.
When the diameter of the work exceeds 1^ or 2-
inches the circumferential speed for turning must be
reduced.
slightly This necessityarises from the tool
being longer in contact with the metal and having less

to cool between
time, comparatively, the cuts. ever,
When-
in turning,the tools get much or quicklyblunted,

or their edges become of a yellow or blue tint,the
workman may conclude that he is drivinghis work too
fast ; and he must then regrindhis tools,and reducie the
speed of the work. When polishingmetal work it is
driven much faster than when turning it. Wrought

8G LATHES AND TURNING.
iron and steel are sometimes smoothed over after the
tools with a fine file ; but the practiceis not to be commended,

re-
as work is rendered untrue by much filing.

Some workmen have a and
great objectionto files, will
not allow one to come near their work, others scarcely

take a pieceof work from the lathe without its having
been filed to excess. The former is prejudice,the
latter is laziness.
Work requiringgreat truth should not be touched
with a file,other work may be rubbed over once or
twice with a smooth file without being injuriously

affected. When a file is used it should be either a
'
smooth '
or a
'
dead smooth '
and not a new file. Its
'
surface should be moistened with oil,and all *

pins or
of
particles iron jammed between the teeth removed
before using. The file should be gentlypressedupon

the work, and pushed slowly forward as when filing
work in the vice, the article being revolved about
double the speedused when turningit. After this filing,

the work is polishedin the usual way.
When thepohshing tool.Fig. 93, is used as before-
mentioned, no filingnor further is required,

polishing
the surface being left very smooth and bright. But for
poHshing those shapes in wrought iron and steel where
the polishingtool is not admissible,and for polishing

filed work, emery cloth of various degrees of coarseness
is pressedagainstthe rapidlyrevolvingwork. A little
oil is generallyused on these metals, but for cast iron
an:! brass the emery cloth is used dry. For polishing

curved work in iron and steel the glazingstick is also
used. There are two sorts of these tools,but both are
of the same shape,and made of soft wood cut to the

shape shown at Fig. 107. Oue, however, is dipped in
glue and then into emery powder, and allowed to get

dry before using "
this is used mostlyfor cast iron. The
other is dipped into a mixture of emery and oil,and

pressed againstthe work wet "
this latter is used
chiefly
for wrought iron and steel.
The clamps,Fig. 106, are perhaps the best instru-

ment
for bars
polishingparallel of iron and steel. Some
emery and oil being placed in that groove of the clamps

which best fits the work, the instrument is placed over
the work, so as to hold it between one of the grooves or
notches. The handles are then pressedtightly

together,
and the clamps moved slowlybackwards and forwards
upon the rapidlyrevolvingmetal, until the tool marks
are obliterated,and the surface of the work is bright

and smooth. In course of using,the oil dries Up, and
the emery gets wasted; it is necessary therefore to
frequentlysupply a little more and oil to the

emery
grinding surfaces. Brass is left tolerablysmooth by

the scrapingtools,but if a littleextra poUsh be required
it is given it by means of very fine well-worn emery
cloth used dry " new emery cloth does not answer so
well. When either iron, steel,or brass has to be very
brightlypolished,a little crocus, rottenstone, or rouge
powder on a piece of soft chamois leather, is applial

to the work and gently pressed against the rapidly
revolvingsurface.
Let us now take an example or two to illustrate the
usual mode of procedure in turning metal by hand-
tools. The first example shall be the same as in wood,

or a plain cyhnder, say, 6 inches long and 1 inch
diameter but in wrought iron.

88 LATHES AND TUKXIXG.
First cut off a piece of rod iron, about 1| inch
diameter and 6^ inches long, and if the ends be very
smooth
rough, slightly them over with a rough file or
by putting them againstthe grindstone.

With the centre punch. Fig. 74, knock in a centre
mark at each end of the piece,as nearly in the middle
of the end as can be managed. The cone- centre box.
Fig. 75, is the best instrument for the beginner to use
for this purpose, as with it he is more Ukely to centre
his work correctly. When using it, to ensure cen-
it is only
trality necessary to place the work in a vice,
and apply the cone to its end, as shown in the figure,
taking care to hold it upright,and then give a smart
blow to the slidingpunch with a hammer.
Put both centres in the lathe,and adjustthe head-

stock to receive the reqnired lengthof work ; then run
the hand over the iron so as to revolve it and to see
whether it is trulycentered. If it be not, hold a small
pieceof chalk steadily

on the rest, and againstthe work,
so as to just touch those parts which are farthest from
the centre. Eemove the work from the lathe and knock
tlie centre-mark towards

sufficiently that side touched
by the chalk, to counteract the Eeplace

eccentricity.
tlie work in the lathe,and if it do not then run true,
continue chalking it and forcingthe centre towards the
chalk marks until the iron runs as true as required.

Absolute truth is not necessary, but no part should be
as much out of truth as tlie rough iron is largerin

diameter than the finished size required,otherwise some
portion of the black sade will be left unturned, and

the work will not *
hold up to size.'
Now knock in a deeper indent with the indent

HAND-TUKNING IN METALS. 89
punch ; put the drivingplateon the and

lathe-spindle,
see that the pin or arm is fastened on firmly,as, if
loose,it may flyout and do some injury. Put a carrier
of the right size on one end of the piece of iron, and

put the iron between the centres with the carrier
towards the and

driving-plate, so that the arm and not
the screw end of the carrier engages with the driving-

pin. A Uttle oil being then dropped about the other
centre, the work is ready to be put in motion.
The moving centre should be kept well oiled,as if

allowed to get dry, the surfaces will abrade and cut
each other so as to throw the work out of truth, and

also to wear away the extreme point of the lathe
centre. The deeper point made by the indent punch

acts as a cavityfor holdingthe oil,and it also prevents
the work touchingthe point of the centre ; the deeper

cavityshould always be made either with the indent
punch or a drill when much has to be done to the
work.
In using the carriers,

it is a bad plan to make a large
carrier do for small work, as it is very clumsy, and in
revolving rapidlythe unbalanced momentum of the
carrier causes the slightwork to vibrate, so that the

turned parts are not true "
the tighteningscrew of the
carrier is also liable to be broken off when thus used.
The rest. Fig. 82, is to be put in to the rest-holder,

and adjusted so that the point of the round-nosed
hook-tool. Fig. 81, will just be on a level with the
centre, when the tool is held in position

on the shoulder
"
the rest must be firmlyfastened in place,as it has to
bear considerable pressure.

Set the spring-indicating,
Fig. 57, or other callipers,
90 LATHES AND TUKNING.
to the required size "

1 inch. With the pointhook-tool
or a bide tool,turn off the end of the iron, either quite
fiat,or slightlyconvex, as required. Reverse the
work in the lathe,and turn off the other end to shape,

and so as to make the work the proper length. Then
commence anywhere in the length of the work, and

with the round hook-tool held as directed, rough down
the metal nearlyto its proper diameter. It is best to
do this first in several narrow bands at intervals of
an inch or so along the rod ; as these turned portions

then act as a guide in roughing down the other parts
without having to use the callipers.When all that
portion is roughed down, again reverse the work in
the lathe,and rough down that portion of the work
previouslycovered by the carrier. Now take the flat
chisel.Fig. 88, and turn down several bands to the
finished size,or very nearly so ; and finish turningthe

whole length in the same manner as before, carefully
usingthe callipers
at short intervals to see when the right
size is attained. In puttinga carrier on to work which
has been smooth- turned, in order to prevent the pointof

the tighteningscrew jamming againstthe bright work
and disfiguringit, a piece of sheet brass or copper
should be bent to a ring to encircle the work and come
between it and the carrier. The work being turned to
size can now be polishedby any of the methods viously

pre-
explained "
the relative positionsof the tools
and work of various materials are shown at Figs. 1)2,

94, 105, 108. The figuresexplain themselves to a
great extent.
For a second example, take a brass ring,say ot
diameter,
l.]j-inch 1 inch wide, and having a hole
*
punch is to be stronglycondemned, so also is that of
using the ordinarysteel-faced hammer direct upon the

mandril end.
In hammering such articles as wheels or pulleyswith

armsv on and off mandrils, they should not be rested
upon the rim, but upon the boss or the metal nearest
the hole ; and if the rim project in the way, a collar
should be put on the mandril between the boss and
mandril block, to transfer the force of the blow to the
boss of the pulley.

To return to the example which is now on the dril,
man-
put a carrier on the end of the mandril, and let the

pointof the tightening
screw jam againstthe flat,cut
on the mandril end. Place the mandril between the
centres, and put a drop of oil about the centre previous

to screwing the spindletightup. The centres should
be screwed up only just tightenough to hold the work
between them without looseness ; so tightthat when
the end of the carrier is taken in the and

fingers, the
work pulled round, the workman can just feel the

resistance.
Now adjustthe rest for using the round-nose chisel,

Fig. 90, and with this tool rough the work all over,
and reduce it nearly to its right size. Eemove the
rest, and put in that one shown at Fig. 54 ; adjust

this for using the scrapingtools. With Fig. 95 finish
the edge of the collar, and, with Fig. 96, finish the
sides " polish the whole, if required,by any of the
methods described. These scrapers should be kept very

keen and smooth ; after grinding they shoidd be rubbed
on a good oilstone until the stone marks are removed,

and the cuttingedges are smooth and bright. They
SCREW-CHASING. 93
should not be allowed to get very dull ; but whenever
they become slightly

so, a few rubs on the oilstone will
restore the edges. A good keen scraper, properlyused

on brass,will produce a surface brightand
beautifully
smooth.
Surfaces are turned in the same manner, but with
the rests facingthe work, the truth or flatness of the
surface beingjudged by a edge, which

straight is merely
a piece of thin steel with its edge brought to a perfectly

line.
straight
SCREW-CHASING.
Besides the work alreadydescribed, screws can be
cut in the hand-lathe by means of suitable tools ; and
this method can frequentlybe convenientlyfollowed in
other lathes,even those constructed

especially for screw-
cutting,owing to the mechanism being required for
purposes which renders it inconvenient to alter its rangement.

ar-
The hand operationof cuttingscrews

is termed the tools used F^^- 1^- ^"- ^ 10,
chasing,and
are called chasers or combs. The tool
shown at Fig. 109 is the outside
chaser, and Fig. 110 is the inside
chaser. These tools are the exact shape

of the grooves of the screw, and are
also inclined to the same extent ; they

are to be procured of standard threads
of all tool makers, and the method of
making them will be hereafter explained.

One of these tools will answer for cutting a screw
upon any diameter of work, and a skilful workman
can cut a thread of double or quadruplethe pitch; but

fhis is an operationthat not many can manage factorily.

satis-
For cuttingleft-hand threads,the chasingtool must
be inclined in the other direction,althoughfor a shift

make-
the right-handtool is used

occasionally to cut
threads of reverse inchnation. This is not difficult to
do, but there is not the same of producing a

certainty
true thread. With the proper tools it is equallyeasy
to cut rightor left-hand threads.
The method of using these chasingtools is extremely
simple,but is not easilyacquired. A short tion

explana-
will give the reader a good idea how to proceed,
but practicealone will enable him to cut a screw with
truth and certainty.

The work upon which the outside screw is to be cut
having been turned somewhat largerthan the diameter
of the outside of the required thread, it is held in the
lathe precisely
as for turning,but if driven by a carrier,
the tail of the carrier should be tied to the driving
arm of the lathe, to prevent any
*
stopping about.'
The ordinary hand-tool rest for iron can be used, but
the rest used for wood-turningis the best for the pur-
pose.
Whichever is used, the top edge must be quite
smooth and free from ruts or grooves, and its edge
should also be parallelwith the line of centres ; it
should be fastened at such a height as will bring the

edge of the chasingtool just level with the centres ;
also it must be close to the work.
The chasing tool is held in one of the ordinary

handles, and appliedin a very similar manner to the
metal-turningchisels,being for heavy screws pressed

againstthe work by the workman's shoulder. The tool
SCREW-CHASING. 95
is not, however, held since

stationary, that would only
result in cuttingas around the work as
many grooves
tlie tool had teeth ; but it is pressedagainstthe work,
and traversed or pushed along the rest at a speed de-
pending
on the speed of the lathe and the pitchof the
screw. To traverse the tool thus appears to be very
easy, but it must be considered that for every fractional
part of a revolution of the work, the same fractional
part of the pitchof the screw must have been traversed
by the tool,otherwise the pitch is drunken,' and * the
screw is useless.
Beginners will find it easier to take the graver,
Fig. 84, and first strike a deep scratch with the point
on the work, and at about the inchnation of the thread.
This scratch then acts as a guide for the chasingtool,and

'
makes it far easier to '
catch the thread of the screw.
With bad iron no workman, however good, can

make sure of gettinga true and good thread, as the
chaser cuts deeper into the soft places than it does
into the hard ; but, with good metal, threads can be
chased by hand almost as correctlyas by any other

method.
For chasing brass the tools should be thinner than
for iron. Chasers which have been used until ground

too thin for iron, are better than new tools for brass.
When cuttinga thread on wrought iron or steel,the

surface of the metal should be kept moist by soapsuds,
or oil and soda-water ; but brass and cast iron do not
require this treatment. Screw threads are cut nally,

inter-
by means of the other chasingtool.Fig. 110. The
same rest is used, but it is fixed across the line of centres
at the same heightas before ; and the work being put

in motion, the chasing tool is pushed along the face

sur-
inside the hole, until the thread is properlycut.

The hole to receive a thread should be turned out
rather smaller than the thread is required to be, so

as to allow of the removal of any scratches made when
startingthe chaser.
Both of these chasingtools are ground on the face,

so that the correct shape of the thread is always re-
tained,
and the tools are only made somewhat thinner ;
this is easilycompensated for by raisingthe tool-rest
rather higher.
DRILLING AND BORING.
When holes are requiredthrough various materials,

it is frequentlymore convenient to cut them out with
specialtools than with the turning tools ; indeed, with

hand-tools it is difficult to cut out holes or recesses of
any great depth,but this may very easilybe done by

means of tools called drills or boring tools.
Sometimes these operationsare performed with the
work in motion, and the tool still; and sometimes with
the tool in motion, and the work a fixture. Whatever
the material of the article through which the hole is to
be made, the mode of making the hole is very similar ;
but the tools differ,as in the operationof turning.

The tools for woods are shown at Figs.Ill, 112, and
113. Fig. Ill is the gouge, Fig. 112 the centre bit,
and Fig. 113 the spiralbit.
The tools for metal are shown at Figs. 114 to 120 ;
Fig. 114 is the common drill.Fig. 115 the spiraldrill,

Fig. 116 the pin drill.Fig. 117 the cutter drill.
Fig. 118
the countersink drill,and Figs. 119, 120 are rhymers
DRILLING AND BORING. 97
or broaches. All these drills are made with a tapering

square end, as will be seen, to fit the hole of the drill-
chuck, alreadydescribed and used for other purposes.
Fig. 111. Fig. 112. Fig. 113. Fig. 114. Fig. 116.
The spiraldrills are sold in sets, under the name of
American drills,and are accompanied by a special

holder or chuck. They are used much more in America
than here, but are now coming into very generaluse.
Fig. 116. Fio. 117. Fig. 118. Fig. 119. Fig. 120.
They are not, however, an American invention,although

most are made there. The is made
spiral with a gra-
H
VO LATHES AKD TUENIKG.
dually-increasing
pitch or rise. All the other drills can
also be bought at the tool maker's ; but it will quently

fre-
be found convenient to make them, as they

are not difficult to manufecture. The spiral drill with
its chuck 13 shown at Fig. 121.
The article through which the hole is to be made is
Fio. 121.
centered, as for turning, or, at any rate, a
centre mark knocked into the place where

the hole is to be made ; the drill for use is
then put into the drill-chuck, on the lathe-
spindle,and set into rapid motion ; one
centre-mark is then put againstthe point of

the drill,and the other against the centre
of the moving headetock. This headstock
being fastened down conveniently on (he
bed, the hand-wheel is moved round so as
to force the article againstthe point of the
revolvingdrill. It will be understood that
the article itself must be prevented from

revolvingwith the drill,otherwise, of course, no hole
will l"e made.
For holes of the ordinary size, the article is held
stationaryby the hands, and then the workman is
enabled to ascertain the amount of strain there is

upon
the drill,by the amount of force he has to exert in
keeping the work still. When the strain is too much
for the drill,the workman must not screw up so fast,

or the drill will be broken off in the hole.
With wood, the strain is seldom sufficient to damage

a drill,and therefore it does not require such careful
management ; but with metal the case is different. The
strain must be carefullywatched ;

and it will require
Or to take a and
shilling, drill a series of holes through
it edgewise "
each hole to be a diameter of the circle
of the coin "

until the whole of the interior metal is
removed, and the two faces or films,with the figured

impressions,are held togetheronly at the extreme
edge by the small piecesof metal left between the holes.
This is,however, done, the silver shavingskept,and the

interior filled up with some composition of lead,and
the coin again passed into circulation ; and as this is
done for gain,it is evident that the time thus spent

cannot be very long,or it would not pay.
When a hole is to be tapped with a screw thread,
the drill must be the size of the bottom of the thread
of the male screw or tap, and therefore it is usual to
keep two sizes of standard drilk^-one called the tap
drill,to make holes the size for tapping,

or for a male
screw to be screwed into,and the other, called the

clearance drill,for making a hole the size of the out-
side
of the screw, and to allow the screw or bolt to be
passed through it without screwinginto it.
Workmen keep sets of these drills of all the
various standard screw sizes in generaluse. The size

should be marked on the square shank of each drill,
and it should not be altered ; but when a drill wears
small, it should be re-drawn, and again ground to
proper size,as this prevents confusion and mistakes.
It is usual to have a standard drill gauge, or a piece

of flat
steel,having a series of the proper sized holes
through it,and to these holes the various drills are
ground, and not to any measurements taken from an
ordinaryrule by the callipers,

as measurements thus
taken are both uncertain and unsatisfactory.

îii%u^ boles to be drilled in articles placed be-
tween the centres, it is usual to drill the hole half
from each end, and if this be done

carefully the two
holes will generally

meet pretty well in a line and form
one hole, but this is not suflSciently

exact if the hole
be required to receive a and
spindle, act as a bearing
to it. In this case the hole should be drilled out from
each side, but with a drill rather smaller than the
intended hole, and then a sharp drill of the proper

size passedthrough,all from one end.
Or, instead of the last drill,the rhymer,Fig.119,

should be passedthrough; the work beingforced into
cut very elowly,and keptwell lubricated. This rhymer
is lubricated for cast iron also,but not for brass,except

in cases where it rubs a great deal,when a littleoil may
be put about the flats of the tool,but not at the cutting
edges. Ehymers will generallymake a smooth hole,
but it is usuallyfound that the hole is very slightly
largerat the end where the rhymer is inserted,and
therefore it is advisable to the hole in
put it tljrough
the same direction as the spindleis to be worked.
For articles where

drilling the drill is requiredto
come completelythrough,it is a good plan to use a
sort of chuck in the place of the centre of the moving

headstock, as the drill'spoint is apt to get damaged in
coming againstthe hard steel centre. This chuck is
made with a deep recessed mouth, and with a shank to
screw into the placeof the centre. For long work it
should not be used until the drill or rhymer is nearly

through,as for such work it has not the same steady
effectas
directing the centre ; but for thin work this
instrument should always be used, as for that it lias
greater steadying
power.
The pin,or recess drill,Fig.116, is used to cut
102 LATHES ASD TUBSING.
recesses to receive the heads of screws, "c. A hole of
the size of the pin must first be made with an ordinary

drill,the pin-drillbeing then used, the recess is cut out
concentric with the small hole.
The cutter drill,Fig. 117, is more of a turning tool

than a drill ; it is
very useful for turning up the
bosses of levers, or other articles which cannot be tened

fas-
in the lathe. The cutter itself can be moved in
Fia. 122.
or nut in the slot,and fastened by the wedge at its
back, to enable one cutter to turn bosses of different
sizes. The cutter can also be removed, and one of any
other shape put iu its place.

The countersink drill,Fig. 118, is used for sinking
counter-
the mouth of a hole, to enable it to receive the
head of an onlinary screw flush with the surface. All

DBILLING AND BOBINO. 103
those drills are used in tlie drill-chuck, and the work
is pressed against them by the screw centre aa plained.

ex-
Although these operationsare of it is

great utility,
generally preferableto effect the drillingoperations
with the work in motion and the drill stationary; aa
when the work is fastened to the lathe-spindle,

we
are better able to drill the hole concentric with any
given part of the material, and with greater certainty

of having a true and straighthole. It is also easier to
watch the progress of the tool, and more convenient to
remove the tool than the work from the lathe, to allow
the hole to be cleared of shavings. At the same time
it Is more difficult to fasten the work than the drill to
the lathe-spindle,
but the other advantages much more
than counterbalance this, as there are several trivances

con-
for receivingand holding the work.
Amongst these the face-plate,Fig. 122, and the
eight-screwchuck. Fig. 123, Fio. 123.
will be found of moat service.
They both screw on the spindle-

nose like the ordinary chucks,
and the illustrations render a
descriptionof them imneces-
sary.
The tools used for work in motion are the same
in cuttingprincipleas those described ; they are, ever,

how-
shaped somewhat differentlyfor convenience of
The smaller sizes made like Fig. 124,

holding. are
which is the ordinary drill 'bit'; these are kept of
two sizes, for 'tap' and 'clearance.' The laiêr

sizes are made like Fig. 125, which is the boring bit j
104 LATHES AND TUESINQ.
these are also made Id two ^zes for roughing and
finishing.
For long holes the cylinder,or D-bit, Fig. 126, is
well adapted, and its use is strongly recommended,
espedally for small or moderate sized holes.
There are numbers of other ments

instru-
Yjg^
used for drillingand boring,but

they are all modifications of the ones
described, made with moveable and
expanding cutting parts, and they are
not to be recommended. The moveable
parts are always getting out of order
or becoming detached from the rest of
the tool and lost ; besides which they

are all more expensive. Some very
good mechanics are partialto these
contrivances, and amateurs especially

are taken with their ingenuities;but
for my own part, I prefer the simpler
tools.
In addition to the drills,

"c., there are several other
instruments used which I will now describe. The
boring-rest,Fig. 127, is made to fit the socket of the
rest-holder, and when ia

Fi8. 127. Fig. 128.
, , , ,.
placet" have the centre une
of the two slots shown, actly

ex-
level with the centres
of the lathe.
The die-stay,Fig. 128,

is a small cast-iron frame
fastened to the lathe-bed
when in use, and having grooves to receive various

DBILUNG AND BORING. 105
sized wooden or metal dies,or bearings,as will be
seen. These bearingsare adjustedto the height of

centres by moving the screw underneath.
The boring wrench, Fig. 129, is merely a piece of
iron bent to the shape shown. ^"8. 129. 130.
Laps, or lead grinders.Fig. 130, are
cylindersof lead or copper, cast on to a
square iron spindleor stem ; they are fully

care-
turned up and
parallel very slightly
under the standard sizes.
Flat articles are most conveniently

driven by the and long
face-plate, articles
by the chuck.
eight-screw The manner of
attaching work to the former depends

altogetherupon the shape of the article,
and no will give
description an idea of
all the methods employed. The operator

will very frequentlyhave to devise means
for attachinghb work, but this is not at all difficult.
Any means may be employed that will not twist or
strain the article,or in revolvingcome in the way

of the lathe-bed or tools.
A set of bolts of various lengthsand with T-heads
are very useful,and a set of four of the clampsshown at
Fig. 131 are exceedinglyconvenient. In fig. 131.
using these,the work is held againstthe

and
face-plate the bolts of the clamps are
put into its most convenient slots. The
small screw is adjustedso as to raise the
end of each clamp rather more than the thickness of
the work off the the largebolt being then

face-plate,
tightenedin all the four clamps, the work is pinched
106 LATHES AM) TURNING.
at four placesbetween the face-plateand the end of
the clamps.
It is generallynecessary that holes should be
bored as nearly as possible

concentric with the rest of
the work. For instance, when the article is a spur

wheel or a pulley,it is necessary that the hole should
be made concentric, or true, with the teeth of the
wheel, or the face of the pulley; so that when the
hole is made, on drivingthe article on a mandril the
rim will run true, and will not require much to bd
turned off it,or more from one side than from another.
When certain parts of articles have to remain turned,

un-
it is a good plan to chuck the work true with
those portions,without regarding the parts which

have to be turned; so that, when these latter are
rendered true the

by turning, whole article is nearly
true.
As the surface of the plateis quite true, it is evi-

dent
that the surface of the article,or those points

of the surface which are against the face-plate,
will
run true when the hole is bored and the work put on
to the mandril. But there is no such guarantee that
any part of the edge of the article will be true ; it is
therefore necessary, before the

tightening bolts finally,
to set the edge or rim true, in the same manner as
when centeringa piece of iron. A piece of chalk is
held againstthe work in motion, and, as those parts

showing the chalk marks are the farthest from the
centre, a tap with a hammer or mallet is given to the
article at those points,to drive them nearer the centre
.of the lathe. This is repeateduntil the chalk touches
either all round, or at when

oppositepoints, the clamp
bolts may be tightenedand the boringcommenced.
When the work is properlychucked, it should be set
in motion, and the placewhere the hole is to be mence

com-
should be trued up. The boring-restis then
put in place,just in front of the work ; care being

taken not to put it near enough for the bolts in revolv-
ing
to strike againstit.
There are two holes in this ; the
boring-rest large
one is for the boring bits,the small one is for the drills.
One of these holes is placed just oppositethe centre of
the work, and the proper drill or bit is put through it ;

the other end of the bit is* furnished with a centre
mark, into which the centre of the moving headstock
must be placed,and the cuttingedge of the drill forced
into the revolvingwork, by moving the hand-wheel and
forcingout the screw.
The rectangularhole in the boring-rest

onlyprevents
the bit from revolving; besides this,it has to be kept
steady,especially
at the commencement of the hole.
If the hole be a small one, the boring-wrench is put

on over the drill,and the other end of the lever forced
down by the workman's left hand. When the hole is
a large one, the pressure thus obtained is not enough ;

but a largerlever of the same sort is then used, and a
good heavy weight hung on to its end, and kept there

whilst the bit is cuttingits way through the hole.
If the article be of wrought iron or steel,the ting

cut-
edge of the bit must be kept moist with soapsuds

or soda-water ; but with brass and cast iron this is not
required.
In cuttinglargeholes out of the solid,all the rial
mate-
cannot be removed by one instrument. A small
drill must first be sent through,to be followed by a

series of others,each takingan increasing

cut, until the
requiredsize of the hole is nearlyobtained, when the
last bit should be carefully

sent through ; but it must
not be made to take so heavy a cut as the bits pre-

ceding
it.
In taking a series of .heavy cuts at the hole, the

metal composing the article" if
especially cast iron or
brass "
will be rendered rather hot by the fidction ; it is,
therefore,a good plan to allow the article to cool fore
be-
passingthrough the finishing

or last bit. If this
be not done, and the hole is finished whilst the rounding

sur-
metal is hot, it will be found that, when the
metal has cooled, the finishingbit is unable to enter
again,owing to the contraction of the metal.
It may, however, happen that the spindleto work

into the hole has been made rather under the standard
size. In this case it will be advisable to take advantage

of this expansion and contraction of the metal, and
make it subservient to our purpose, by boring the last
cut but one with a dull bit,and taking a heavy cut.
The metal wiU then be made very hot, and the hole
will expand ; so that if the bit

finishing be then quickly
passed through,the result will be that when the metal
cools the hole will again contract, and form a closer
fit with the turned

spindlepreviously too small. These
little facts are small in themselves, but, by bearing

them in mind, they may be
fi'equently turrie"l to useful
account.
It is scarcelynecessary to observe that,in all cases,
care must be taken not to exceed a certain heat, or to
allow the work to get hot enough to lower the temper

of the tool.
Long cylindrical
or other shaped articles,
through
which a hole is required,cannot be conveniently
attached to the face-plate; and therefore, for these
the eight-screwor bell-chuck,Fig. 123, is used.
articles,
The chuck being put on the the
lathe-spindle, article
is inserted between the screws, which are then screwed
down to encompass and hold

tightly it. The beginner
will probably have some httle difBcultyin adjusting
these screws so as to hold the work true ; but the
matter is much simphfiedby tracingthe inside set of
screws and afterwards

first, adjustingthe outside ones.
These screws should be set down tightenough to
prevent the article slipping

; but if when the hole is
made, the material will be thin,care should be taken
not to set the screws down tighterthan as

necessary,
otherwise the metal will be compressed, and the hole
rendered out of shape in their neighbourhood. When
the articles to be drilled are too long for this chuck
alone, the ends are turned up true for an inch or two ;
and one end is then chucked true, and held between the
outside set only of the screws of the chuck, whilst the

other end is supported by being run in the die-stay.
This is fastened to the lathe-bed at the proper place,
and a wooden or metal bearing,
having a hole the same
size as the end of the work, is put into the V's,and justed
ad-
so as to bring the centre of the work in the line
of lathe-centres. The lathe is then set in motion, and

the hole drilled in the usual manner.
For these long articles the best tool I know of is
the D-bit, shown at Fig. 126. This tool is not half so
much used as it ought to be, and, when used, it is in
conjunctionwith several other drills,and in sucli a

DRILLING AND BORING. Ill
roundabout manner that very few have patienceto use
it at all. These other drills are, however, quite un-

necessary after the D-bit is once started. The best
manner of proceeding is as follows : First,place the

and
in position,
boring-rest with an ordinarydrill,of
the same size as the D-bit, drill out a recess about ^
or \ of an inch in depth. Eemove the boring-rest,
place
the centre-mark in the end of the D-bit, against the
centre of the headstock, and screw up carefullyuntil
the drill is cuttingfairly
: the hole may then be bored
through with ease and the certaintyof its being true.

The drill must be kept well lubricated with soda-water
and oil,and removed,

occasionally and the hole cleared
of shavings. If the hole be more than a foot long, it

will be better to drill it half from each end ; and, if
great truth be required,two of these drills should be
used as in the other cases. As in long holes it is
rather diflScult to keep drills well moistened, the work-

man
will find it a good plan to have a small syringe,

and squirtthe lubricant into the hole with force ; by so
doing, not only will the drill be kept wet, but the
shavings will,in a great measure, be washed out and
the hole cleared.
On comparing the D form of drill with others,it will

be found that the cuttingedge is onlyequal to half the
diameter of the hole ; at the same time the drill stem
is strong and well able to stand torsional strain,to

which drills are mostly subject. In the ordinarydrill
the cutting alge is equal to about one and a half
diameters of the hole, whilst the stem is not nearly

so well calculated to bear the strain. It therefore
appears reasonable to conclude that the D-bit is better

132 LATHES AND TUENINO.
adapted than the others to cut a long hole out of the
solid,or indeed to cut a long hole out at all ; and this
is found to be the case. I would undertake, with it
alone, to drill a one-inch hole through a shaft thirtyor

fortyfeet long.
Holes requiredto be very smooth and straight,
or
which requireto be very slightly

enlarged,are ground
out on a lead or copper lap.Kg. 130. Also in the
case of articles which have been hardened or case-
hardened, the action of the fire is sure to have had a
slighteffect upon the hole. In some cases the hole is
siighdy
bent ; in others,the surfece is rather blistered ;
and in all cases it is rendered somewhat rough. All
these imperfectionsare removed by grindingthe hole
out on a lap.
The method of usingthese lapsis very simple: they
are put between the lathe-centres,and driven by a
lathe-carrier in the ordinaryway. The surface of the
lap is covered with a coat of fine emeiy powder and oil ;
the emery may be caused to stick to the lead by being

forced
slightly into it by a few taps with a hammer. The
hole is then put on the lap,which is set in rapidrotation

and the article moved up and down; being vented
pre-
from moving round with the lap,the inside of
the hole is ground by the adheringemery. The emery

and oil must be continually and
replenished, the face
sur-
of the lap kept moist with it,as, if allowed to get

dry, the two surfaces will '
bind' or clingto each other,
and abrasion will result.
If the article be heavy,precautionshould be taken
of turningit over, so as to grind every portion of the
hole aUke ; otherwise the weight of the article,pressing

all on one side of the hole, will cause it to be ground

more on that side than the others,and the hole will be
rendered non-circular.
Care must also be taken to keep the middle of the
lapwell suppliedwith emery, and not to grind one end
or the two ends of the hole largerthan the middle.
This, however, is a very common occurrence, and quires

re-
some little address to get over. Where ticable,

prac-
it is also advisable to reverse the direction of
the lathe occasionally,

as sometimes, in lappingout a
hole, the hole will draw itself onwards, and the work-
man's
whole force will be insufficient to prevent its
itself on,
tightening and binding. In this case, the best
plan is to either let the work go round with the lap,

and to immediatelystop the lathe and drive the work
back with a mallet before it gets cool and contracts
Fig. 132.
firmlyon to the lap; or to reverse the direction of the
lathe,when the hole will generallyrun back of its own
accord, unless it is gone on too far and become very

tight. It is sometimes a very difficultmatter to get
work off a lap when the grindingsurfaces have been
allowed to get dry and to abrade themselves.
I
114 LATHES AHD TURNING.
It U often convenient to be able to drill a

very
small hole in an article without having to put it in the
lathe, and the hand drill shown at Fig. 132 is a very
neat instrument for tillspurpose.
MISCELLANEOUS OPERATIONS.
A circular saw appliedto the hike enables one to
do a great deal of work. The Baw is mounted on a
spindleplaced between the IfUhe-centres. This spindle

has a collar,between which and a washer and nut the
saw is fastened ; the spindle ends are hardened in the
same manner as ordinarymandrils. The saw table is
made with a shank to fit into the rest-holder, and
it has a fence or flange,for regulatingthe thickness
of the wood to be cut. These circular saws should
not be very large; nor must the user ima^ne that he
can cut
up thick or heavy work "
the power required
116 LATHES AND TUSNINQ.
Kg. 134. The saw frame formed is of an ordinary

hand firame,and may be removed from the lathe and
iiaed by hand when coaveQient. The spindle driving

the saw frame carries a small drill at its outer end.
Figs. 135 and 136 are reduced fret-work patterns.

Very small serrated discs are also used in the lathe
for nicking, or cutting the grooves in the heads of
screws, cuttingoff lengthsof small piecesof iron, "c.

Such saws should be well lubricated, or they will not
work satis"ctorily.
Plain miUiog tools are made by pressingsmall round
blank pieces of steel againsta fine-threaded tap revolv-

ing
in the lathe ; the screw, in revolving,

causes the
blank miUing tool to revolve slowly also,and its edge
to become cut with a concave screw thread. When
the millingtool so cut is properly hardened, it may be
used to produce other miUing tools,but these will be
convex ; the convex tools may again be used to repro-

duce
concave tools similar to the first. In these cases the
tools are reproduced by simple pressure and rotation,
a little oil being placed against the surfaces in contact
MISCELLANEOUS OPERATIONS. 117
Screw-chasingtools are made from a master-tap,-the

tap being driven in the lathe,whilst the blank chasing
tool is pushed againstit and supportedon the chasing-
rest, exactly as in the operationof chasing a screw,
except that the blank chaser is generallyheld with its
face downwards. Lubrication should be the

plentiful,
pressure nearly uniform, and the blank tool held as
straight
as possible.
The various tools used in turning,"c., can, when
very dull,be sharpened by means of a grindstonerota-

ted
in the lathe. The stone must be kept moist, and

great care must be taken not to lower the tiemper of
the steel tool by excessive friction. The tools should
be held firm and steady on any convenient support,

otherwise the stone will soon get out of truth by ing
wear-
faster one placethan at another. The tools should
also be traversed slowly along the surface of the stone
to prevent groovi,^.
Small stones, driven at a greater speed,are also ful
use-
for grindingthe surface of ironwork which has to
be but
polished, which is not requiredabsolutely
true.
After grinding,these and other surfaces are polished

more highly,by being held againstrevolvingglazers
and buff wheels. These polishingwheels are mounted
on a and
spindle, are covered with thick leather, to
which is glued a coat of emery powder. It is usual
to have several of these wheels on one each

spindle,
wheel being covered with a coat of different sized
emery, from coarse to fine. The coarsest is first used,
and then the next finer,the last or buff wheel being

covered with soft chamois leather,and no emery used
with it.
PART m.
THE SELF-ACTING LATHE.
Various and
self-acting screw-cutting lathes have
been alreadynoticed,but I shall here describe another,

which is designed as a universal lathe; inasmuch as
many operationscan be performed by its aid,which are
usuallyperformed in two or more separate lathes,or

are not done in the lathe at all. This lathe is also of
great service both to the amateur and to the engineer

for privateamusement and use. I have myselfmade
one, in all essential particulars
as shown in these draw-
ings,
and have found it answer extremelywell.

As there are many peculiaroperationsto be scribed
de-
in connexion with this lathe,it will be sary

neces-
that the reader should thoroughly imderstand its
construction. To this end I have given several ings

draw-
to scale,and these I will now proceed to explain.

The bed is of cast iron, and is shown in section at
Fig. 137; it is carried upon two standards in the
usual The cone head-stock is cast solid with the

way.
bed, which is much neater than having them separate,
and is quite as convenient an arrangement The
boring out of the bearingsfor the spindlerequires

perhaps rather more care, but on the whole there is
a saving of labour. The spindlehas conical nesks.

â:
\
I
1^
I
THE SELF- ACTING LATHE. 119
which can either run direct in conical holes in the

metal of the headstock, or hardened steel or wrought-
iron bushes can be inserted as shown, which latter is
the better, although rather the more expensiveplan.

The front neck of the spindleis solid with the spindle,
but the other neck slides on a feather,and is set up by
two nuts behind it.
The thrust is taken inside the headstock by two
adjustablenuts, with antifriction washers, as shown;

of these washers there should be at least two, and one
of them should be brass,the other of hard steel. The
spindleis bored throughoutwith a half-inch hole. The
change-wheels are carried direct upon the spindleend

without any socket, the nut shown inside being only
used as an abutment for the l)08s of the change-wheel.
The large gear-wheel is keyed to the and
spindle,
bears againsta slightshoulder on the key, which again
is prevented from moving towards the neck by the
shoulder of the key groove. The small gear-wheelis

made of wrought iron, and has a long continuation or
boss, which nicelyfits upon the spindle,and carries
the cone-pulley.
There is another nut on the spindlejustbehind the
small pinion,the use of which is to connect the

gear
cone-pulley
to the when
spindle, the singlespeed only
Ls required. In this case the nut is screwed fast against
the pinion,so as to hold the cone firmlybetween the
nut and the large gear-wheel "

this latter wheel
being prevented from receding by the arrangement of

shoulders just mentioned. When the back gearing is
requiredfor slow speeds,the nut is screwed the other
and slightly
jammed againstthe lock nuts. The
way,
cone-pulleyand pinion are then free to move round
upon the spindlewithout moving the large wheel.

By then moving the eccentric handle, the back wheels
are thrown forward to gear with the wheels on the
cone and spindle. The eccentric handle cannot be
seen, but the motion will be understood by referring

to Kg. 139.
For Ught lathes,this nut-lockingmotion is to be
preferredto the usual arrangement ; first,

because it is
more accessible,and secondly,because the usual lock
nut, unless balanced, causes a great deal of oscillation

of the lathe,when running at high speeds. The front
of the largewheel on the spindleis turned plane and
divided, so that by the addition of a simple inder
pointeras shown, it may be used as a division plate.

This pointermust be turned down, or removed when
not in use.
The outside of the has

spindle-nose a coarse screw
thread to receive the various chucks and driving-plates,

the inside has a fine thread for taking the centres, "c.
The screw-headstock is of the usual internal screw
pattern. It has a transverse slide moved by a screw for
the
setting centre out of line,and a handle, by moving
which the spindleis held firmlyin its place without
shake or vibration. The spindleis graduated,so as
to serve as a guide for depth when and boring ;

drilling
and it is fitted at the nose with a screw of the same
size and thread as the cone spindle,to receive all the
centres in common.
The instead
lathe-spindle, of directlydrivingthe
drives
leading-screw, a shaft A at the back of the lathe-
bed. This shaft can be driven by change-wheels at any

THB SELF-ACTING LATHE. 121
speed within the range of the wheels ; usually,how-

ever,
it will be driven at the same speedand in the same
direction as the itself,by

lathe-spindle means of a 40-
tooth wheel on both the spindleend and the back shaft,

through an intermediate wheel of seventy or other venient
con-
number of teeth. The intermediate wheels are
carried on a radial arm in the usual manner ; but the
amateur may need a word of explanation to enable
him to understand the arrangement.
The lug or bracket carryingthe shaft has a circular
flange,to which is bolted the radial arm B by means
of two small bolts passingthrough curved slots cut in
the arm, and screwing into the metal of the bracket.
These curved slots allow the arm to be shifted some
distance around
radially the centre of the shaft a and
thus to accommodate change-wheelsof different sizes.
This arm has also two straightparallel

slots,as iseen;
one of these is used to fasten a spindlea to the arm
by means of a nut on the other side, and the other slot
is used
occasionally to carry another spindle or stud
when double intermediate wheels are necessary. This
second stud is usuallymade of the full size of the
holes in the change-wheels, which revolve directly

upon it,but the stud a is made much smaller, and
the wheels do not revolve upon it, but are fastened
upon a socket h which fits the stud a and runs upon it.
The socket is made wide enough to receive two wheels,

the wheels being held upon it and prevented from volving
re-
by a key and nut.
It will be seen, therefore,that the radial arm can be
shifted round the shaft to bring the slots nearer to,

or farther and
from, the end of the lathe-spindle, the
stud carryingthe wheel-socket can be shifted anywhere

along the slots in the arm. The uses of these powers
of adjustment will be more speciallyobvious when
is treated
screw-cutting of.
The shaft a is supportedat the other end by another
bracket springingfrom the lathe-bed, and at the treme

ex-
end of the shaft there is provision for taking

change-wheelsfor driving the leading-screw.By ferring
re-
to Fig. 140, which is the end elevation of the
lathe, this arrangement of wheel gearing will be
understood. The intermediate wheels are carried by

a radial arm in the same manner as at the end already
described. The wheels shown in placeare those used
for ordinarytraversing. A 20-tooth pinion on the
shaft A drives a wheel of 95 teeth on the socket by

and a 21-tooth pinionon that socket drives a wheel of
100 teeth on the end of the leadingscrew.

There being an equal-sized wheel on both the lathe-
spindleand the shaft a, it is clear that this shaft must
make the same number of revolutions as the spindle. .
The intermediate socket 6, of Fig.-140, being driven

from the shaft a by a pinionof 20-teeth gearing into a
wheel of 95 teeth, it is equallyclear that for every

revolution of the shaft,the socket b will only make f^
of a revolution ; and the socket driving the leading-
screw by a pinionof 21-teeth gearing into a wheel of
100 teeth,it will be seen that for every revolution of
the will only make

socket, the leading-screw -^V ^^ *
revolution,and for every revolution of the shaft A, the
leadingscrew will make but -^j^ of -|ôf a revolution.

The shaft A must therefore revolve times
22^-f- to cause
the leading-screw
to reyolve once. The leading-screw
THE SELF-ACTING LATHE. 123
has four threads to the inch, so that for one revolution
of the screw, the shde-rest carryingthe tool is moved
along the lathe- bed one-fourth of an inch. It wiU
therefore requirefour revolutions of the leading-screw

to traverse the tool one inch, and to cause the four lutions,
revo-
the lathe spindle must rotate 22^^x4=90^^

times. Work turned with these wheels would sequently
con-
have 90.^cuts to the inch ; and by altering

the wheels, almost any required speed of traverse
may be obtained, as will be hereafter explained.

The slide-rest is perhaps the most important part of
a screw-cuttinglathe,and it is in this that there is the
greatest extent of variation in design. In the lathe
now imder notice, the saddle c of the rest is in one
casting; its shape will be best seen at Fig. 137, which
is a side elevation of the slide-rest and a section of the
bed.
The front part of the saddle carries the mechanism
for gearing with the leading-screw.This consists of
two half nuts c, which are brought togetherto clasp

the leading-screw,
or are separated,by a curved slot-
platerf,the action of which is better seen in the front
elevation. The half nuts are so shaped as to work in
slides attached to the saddle; the two screws "

^the
heads only of which are seen "

go through the slot
holes and screw into the metal of these half nuts. The
screw at the centre is merely for the purpose of ing

keep-
the in
slot-plate proper position.
On the other side of this platethere is a horizontal
spindlepassing through the front flangeof the rest,

and having on its inside end a worm-pinion gearing
with the and
leading-screw, on its outside end a handle.
This pinion and spindleare for traversingthe saddle
along the bed by hand, which^ of course, can only be

done when the half nuts are withdrawn from the screw.
To traverse the saddle in this manner, the handle is
quicklyturned roimd by hand, when the threads of the
leading-screw
act as the teeth of a rack. Besides this,
it is convenient in other ways ; as when the screw is in
motion, this spindleis necessarily

also in slow rotation,
so that if it be requiredto move the rest a very short
distance at the usual speed of traverse, it is much more
convenient to place the hand or knee against the

handle and prevent it than
rotating, to throw the half
nuts into contact with the leading-screw. By venting

pre-
the handle the
rotating, rest may be started at
any point; but when the is used, either

leading-screw
the rest must be moved by hand until the threads of
the half nuts coincide with the spaces of the leading-

screw, or the operator must wait, with the rest ary,
station-
until the spaces of the screw come round to coincide
with the nut threads.
The saddle-slide D has a long movement, exactly

at rightanglesto the bed. It has also three dovetail
grooves planed in it,to receive similar shape bolt-heads

for other
fastening mechanism or work to the slide.
The movement of the slide D is obtained from a
screw passingthrough the top part of the saddle. This
screw e has 10 threads to the inch. In front it is fitted
to receive a handle for hand rotation, and at the back
it has a worm-wheel of 21 teeth, driven by a three-
threaded worm on the shaft A.
For every revolution of the back-shaft the worm-
wheel will make one- seventh of a revolution, and

THE SELF-ACTING LATHE. 125
during one-tenth of a revolution of the screw e the
slide D will traverse one-tenth of an inch. For every

revolution of the back-shaft, it is plain tliat the slide
p will move one-seventieth of an inch. When,
therefore,the speeds of the lathe-spindle
and shaft A
are alike,the surface traverse will have 70 cuts to the
inch.
The worm-wheel is not directlyconnected to the
screw Bj but is free to revolve upon it without nicating

commu-
its motion to the screw, so that the slide may
be traversed by hand or not moved at all. The
worm-wheel is kept in place by the tail plateg ; but
when it is wished to travei-se the slide D automatically,

the slidingclutch / is pushed forwards to gear with
a correspondingclutch on the boss of the worm-
wheel. The clutch / is only capable of a sliding

motion on the screw, but it cannot be revolved
without the screw revolvingalso. When not gearing

with the clutch on the worm-wheel, the clutch /
partakesof the motion of the screw, but when in gear
with the worm-wheel, the motion of that wheel, de-

rived
from the worm of the back-shaft, is communi-

cated to the shding clutch,and necessarily
also to the
screw and
itself, the slide D is consequently caused
to traverse.
There is other mechanism attached to the back of

the saddle, but that will be described when of
treating
its uses.
The thread of the screw e is square. It beginsjust

behind the worm-wheel, and continues the whole
lengthof the spindle. The bearingfor the screw e in
the front part of the saddle is not in the metal of the

saddle but the

itself, screw goes through a smooth hole
in the largerscrew A, which has a much coarser pitch,

and is screwed into the saddle.
This coarse screw is about half an inch longerthan

the nut formed for it by the saddle. It has a double
thread, and its pitch is equal to one turn in three-
quarters of an inch. As just mentioned, this screw
is hollow, and its hole serves as a bearing for the verse

tra-
screw Sj which latter screw has upon it two lock
nuts on each side of the bearing. These nuts serve
as shoulders to the screw e, and give means of taking

up its end play and preventing *
loss of time.' side
Out-
the saddle the screw h terminates in a lever handle,

as seen in the front elevation. The end of the screw
e is fitted to receive a handle, and also the division
plate shown in place,and into which takes a spring

attached to the handle of the screw h. The compound
slide has a Willis's tool-holder,permittingthe tool to be
fastened down on the in

tool-plate any position by
the top
merely tightening nut. The holding-plate
can
be shifted round the pin in the centre, to any nient

conve-
place.
The upper or tool-slide is moved by hand only,by
turning the small handle attached to the end of the
traverse-screw. The traverse screw is held in placeby

two small lock nuts inside,so that by adjustingthese,
all end play may be prevented. If found more venient
con-
for any pecuhar positionof the rest, the

traverse-screw may be removed and changed end for
end, so as to have the handle on the other side. The

bottom part of the slide has a stout pin,which fits
into the rest-socket. By means of this,the slide may

admit
occasionally a pieceof work either for turningor
boring,of larger size than the real height of centre.
This gap, when not in use, is filled up level with the
rest of the lathe-bed by a properlyshaped casting.

The lathe is arranged to be driven from overhead
by a countershaft,carryinga suitable cone-pulley.One

of the arrangements for stopping and reversingthe
motion of the lathe,which have been described,is also
introduced.
The drawings are taken from a five-inch lathe,with
bed long enough to admit articles three feet long. In
the engraving,however, the bed is shown shorter,to

save space.
SELF-AOXma TRAVERSE AND SURFACE TURNING.
I now come to those operationsin which the hand
of the operator plays,as it were, but a secondarypart,

the tools being held by hands far steadier and more
certain in their movements than in the previouscases.

The workman now has to select the proper cutting in-
strument,
to place it in the most convenient for

position
and
cutting, to set the lathe,or such parts of the lathe
in motion, as will move the tool in the requireddirec-
tion.
He has then to keep a watchful eye on the lathe
and tool until the work, or a certain part of the work,

is completed.
Some writers " probably not practically
acquainted
with mechanism
self-acting "
have asserted that to work
these machines requires neither skill nor previous

knowledge of the work, all the motions being auto-
matically
performed. Such assertions are absurd and

SKLP-ACTING TUENING. 129
untrue, as, althoughan inexperienced

hand may soon
be instructed to attend to these machines, the work

produced is of very inferior and
quality, of small tity.
quan-
By comparing such work with that produced
by a similar lathe worked by a good hand, a able
remark-
difference will be perceived. Not only so, but
as these lathes are valuable and requireto be kept in

good order, it is bad policyto
manifestly entrust such
machines to the hands of ignorantand inexperienced

workmen. For a man to be a thorough good man
work-
at the lathe,he
self-acting must have experience,
carefulness,and patience.
intelligence,
Success in these operationsdepends but littleupon
the imaginationor taste,and not much upon education ;
indeed, nothingbut experiencewill enable a man to be
a thoroughgood hand at the lathe.

self-acting I can
tell how
scarcely it is,
but a workman lookingat a piece
of work can usuallytell at a glance whether it was
done by an amateur or a mechanic.

professional This
distinction does not rest with

altogether the qualityof
the work, since,although work done by the amateur
may apparentlybe as true as the other, there is never-

theless
a different look about it which it

distinguishes
from that done by a workman.
It is not intended by the foregoing

to dissuade teurs
ama-
from this
attemptingto practise branch of ing.
turn-
Quite the contrary ; as by the exercise of greater
care and intelligence,

amateurs will have difficulty
no
in producingwork which will be quite good enough

for their purpose, and leaving the question of time
altogether
out of the account, amateurs can become as
good turners as mechanics.

professional
K
ISO LATHES ASD TUBSISQ.
I will first describe the chucks and tools,and wards

after-
their uses.
The square centre, Fig. 141, is a steel centre fitting

f". 141. Fis. 143. the centre hole of the lathe-spindle
and the screw-spindle. It is turned
to the same angle as the ordinary

centre, but cut down with four flats,
I leaving four edges which convert
the centre into a cuttmg ment.

instru-
The long centre, Fig. 142, will
be found convenient when turning

long small work ; it is the some as
the others, except in being smaller

and longer.
The standard plug and ring, Fig. 143, are cylin-
Fia. 143. drical instrumente used in gauging the
sizes of turned work. They are used in
exact fittinginstead of than

callipers,
which they are much more exact and
more certain to ensure uniformity. Good

mechanics use them in all standard sizes.
The travelling
steadybearing,or stay,
is an instrument which is attached to
die slide-rest to hold and support long

slender metal rods whilst being turned. The standard
is screwed to the shde-rest, the die-holder is firmly

fastened to the standard, and has power of adjustment
horizontally. The dies are of steel,and have power
of vertical adjustment by means of screws. The velling
tra-
bearing is shown in place, properly arranged

for use, at Fig. 137. Three or four sets of dies will
TOOLS FOR SELF-ACTING TURNING. 131
be found to answer every "

purpose. This is the best
form of stay I know of,but some workmen, instead of
the die and holder, use a piece of plain iron shaped

like an inverted L? and attached to the standard on
the in the
slide-rest, same manner as the die-holder is
in this arrangement.
A socket bearing is merely a hollow cylinderof

iron, fitted with six or eiglit
screws, and sometimes
used when turningportionsof long shafts. It is slipped
on to an unturned or rough shaft,and by moving the

set screws is adjustedso that its surface runs true.
The socket is then used as a bearingfor the shaft,by

being caused to run in the dies of the shown
die-stay
at Fig.128.
Another modification of this bearing is sometimes
as, when the shaft to be turned has large

necessary,
collars on it, the socket cannot be sKpped on to the
shaft. In these cases, a bearingsuch as the last is used,

but made in halves, which are when
put together, on
in place.
The four-jawedchuck. Fig. 144, is a very useful
contrivance for chucking and holdingwork beingwhilst
turned or bored ; it is very like an ordinaryface-plate,

but has four jaws on its face,which are moved in or
out, towards or from the centre, accordingto the size
of the work, by turningthe screws at the edge of the
plate. These jaws being turned out in steps,articles

diameter be chucked without
varying greatlyin can
much movement of the jaws. Articles such as rings

be chucked or held by their inside surface by
may
puttingthem on the outside of the jaws and screwing
from the centre.
k2
132 LATHES AND TtlENING.
There are various modifications of this chuck in
use, in which the jaws are simultaneously moved

towards or from the centre, without having to move
each by a separate screw. But these self-centering

jaw-chucks, as they are termed, are useful only for
circular work, whereas the one described will chuck
work of almost any shape. The chucks

self-centering
are, however, much liked by amateur mechanics, but
are not used to any great extent by practicalmen, as,
although occasionallyconvenient, most varieties are too
clumsy and complicated to give continued satisfaction.

A self-centering
chuck is shown at Fig. 145, by moving
any one screw the three jaws move tcêther.
The tools used in the slide-rest for self-acting
turn-
TOOLS FOE SELP-ACrmQ TURNIKG. 133
ing are various. The ones described have been found
effective,and they are as simple as any. Most men

work-
have some slieht

Fie. 145.
" "
,.". , .
difference in then: tools,
but the difference is
usuallyobtained without
impairing the cutting

power of the tool, and
also in most casea out
with-
increasing its effi-
dency.
Amateurs are food of universal tools : mechanics
seldom or never use such, and although they are
very pretty to look at, their use cannot be mended.

recom-
Fig. 146 is the ordinaryhook tool. Fig. 147 is the
Fi9. 146. Fi8. 147. Fie. 148. Fia. 149. Fia. 160. Fie. 151.
side-hook tool ; these are made for cuttingboth to the
rightand left hand. Fig. 148 is the square-nose, Fig.

149 is the round-noee tool. Fig. 150 is the knife tool,
made both right and left hand. Fig. 151 is a simple
134 LATHES ASD TUBSIKQ.
roughing tool. Figs.148, 152, 153, are spring tools.

Fig. 154 is a simple tool and holder, sometimes made
with a triangular instead of a round tool. This tool
is merely a piece of round steel,ground off as shown.
Fig. 155 is something like the last, but adapted to
lightwork: the tool is made of a flat piece of steel,

ground and held in a holder as shown. The cutting
part of this may alao be made with a round edge, with
a square edge, or with an angular edge. Such tools
all work very well, and are both easily made and
readily ground when dull. Upon the whole, the
Fi9. 162. Fis. 153. Fis. 164 Fia. 166. Fia. 156. Fia. 157.
amateur will find these tools and holder to be as useful
as any he can get. Fig. 156 is the ordinary holeing

tool. Fig. 157 is the compound holeingor internal
turning tool.
The metals turned by these operations being those

already mentioned, no further remarks on them will be
necessary ; but work to be tm-ned by self-acting

tools
requires different treatment, in some respects,from that
of the same material turned by hand-tools.

136 LATHES AND TUEXING.
owing to difference of materials. The speeds are
somewhat under those for hand-turning,because, in
the
hand-turning, tools are withdrawn
frequently from
cut, and so have time to cool, whereas,

partially in
turning,the
self-acting tool is cutting,and
continually
without any time to cool.
The speed cannot be ascertained with certaintyby

the speed at
calculating which a certain workman drives
his lathe,nor even by taking the average of a good

number of workmen.
The average speedin largeworkshops will generally

be under the average speed in small establishments,or,
in other words, the average speed in establishments
overlooked by the master will usuallybe found above
that of estabhshments overlooked by a foreman. other

An-
more remarkable fact is,that the speed in hot

weather will often be less than the speed in cold
weather. I will mention that these results are not
owing to any pecuUarityin the metals, and will now
leave the reader to account for them accordingto his
fancy.
There are many littledodges practised
by workmen,
in
especially warm weather, to render the work easier.
Amongst these I may mention running the lathe at too
slow a speed, taking a number of lightcuts, keeping

the lathe in motion seemingly with a heavy cut, but
(?) to
forgetting throw the traverse mechanism into
gear. I have seen many of these little tricks,and have
practised
most of them myself.
The power required to drive a lathe when cuttingis
in realitya point worth serious consideration,but very
little attention is usuallygiven to it. Nothing causes
SELF-ACTING TURNING. 137
one to form better ideas of this than having to drive
the lathe by foot. Most workmen would profit

by a
few months at a foot lathe,as with the best of tools the
work is rather ; but, with

tiring a badly shaped tool,
the work is stillmore laborious, and the difference is
readilyperceivable,
so there is a weighty reason for
the
altering tool to a good cuttingshape. It has always
been my impressionthat,with the same power, a larger
quantityof metal can be cut off with hand-tools than
with tools
self-acting ; I cannot, however, assert tively
posi-
that this is the case.
Cast iron and brass are both turned dry ; but iron
and steel should be lubricated.

sufficiently Lubrication
makes a great difference in the power required to drive
the lathe against

a certain cut, reducingit considerably
;
and also the cut is much smoother, and the work and
tool being kept cool, a much faster circumferential
speed is permissiblewithout injury to the tool. The
heatingof the tool and work, besides doing the former

an injury,is a positive
waste or loss of power, as, for
every unit of heat produced,772 foot-poundsof power

are lost.
The lubricating
liquids
are various. Oil is good,but
expensive; soapsuds are also much used ; but perhapsa

solution of common soda in water is as good and cheap
as anything. A little dirty oil, or oil that has run
through bearings,may be advantageouslymixed with
the soda-water. Water, if used alone, would cause the
work and lathe to be covered with rust half an hour
after using ; the addition of soda not only softens the
water, but to a great extent the

prevents its rusting tallic
me-
surfaces. Soda-water very seldom rusts wrought

iron or steel ; but, dropping on the cast-iron surfaces of
the lathe,and allowed to stay some time, it will fre-

quently
result in spots of rust. As, however, the soda-

water is not used in turning cast iron, and the bright
cast-iron parts of the lathe are generallyoily and
subject to rubbing, this is not found very mental.
detri-
Except in the cases mentioned, hand- turners in metal
do not often use lubricants ; this is owing to

chiefly the
of making
difiiculty them fall on the rightspot. In self-
actingturning this difficulty

does not exist,as the spout
of the soda-water pipe is attached to the and
slide-rest,
travels with the tool; it is either carried by a can
mounted on the saddle of the rest, or, what is a much
better plan,it is suppliedthrough small flexible piping,

from a tank or reservoir placed overhead, so as to give
it some slightpressure. It should be caused to drop
just on the cuttingpoint of the tool,or where the tool
engages with its cut. It should not be niggardlysup-

plied,
not only because it is but
inexpensive, because
it can be partlycollected in a tray placed under the
tool, and returned again to the reservoir. At the
same time, it is both useless and inconvenient to be too
profusein lubrication.
When filing
iron, it can be driven at about double
the cuttingspeed,no lubrication being necessary, except

a few drops of oil on the file.
The number of cuts to the inch, proper for metals,

varies from about 100 fine traverse to about 40
rather coarse. In exceptionalcases, these figuresare

very much within the mark. By the 100
expressions
and 40 cuts to the inch, is meant that the work must
rotate 100 or 40 times whilst the tool's point travels

along the work one inch.
pieces of
Straightcylindrical metal are placed be-
tween
the centres and driven by a carrier, Fig. 71,

as in hand-turning. Articles with smooth cylindrical
holes are forced upon a round mandril, Fig. 78.
Articles with screwed holes are put upon the screw
mandril. Fig. 80. articles having

Cylindrical screw-
threads on them are driven by the screw-carrier.

Fig.73. Large articles are generallyfastened to the
face-plate.
Fig. 122, or to the four-jawed chuck,
Fig. 144.
An example or two, showing how articles in metal
should be turned, will now, probably, convey more
generalinformation than any other mode of tion.

explana-
In rod
turning a cylindrical of wrought iron or
steel,say twelve inches long and one inch diameter,

the modus operandiwould be generallyas follows : "
The pieceof rough iron should be about 12^ inches
long and lînch diameter. Knock in a centre mark at
each end, as near the centre as can be judged ; put a
carrier on the bar and place it between the centres ;
firmlyfasten the moving headstock down in place,taking

care that the spindleof the headstock is not screwed
out too far,and that it is locked by the locking lever.

Now, without further trial as to centrality,
put the
left-hand knife tool.Fig. 150, in the rest,bring it up to
cut, and true up the end of the rod. Eemove it from
the centres, change ends with the carrier,and reverse
the positionof the rod in the lathe,- With the same
tool turn this end off until the rod is nearly the
proper length,remove the work from the lathe, take

off any small projecting piece of metal that may be
left at the centres, and knock in small new centres.
Take out the ordinarycentre from the spindleof the
moving headstock, replaceit by the square centre, Fig.

141, put the work again between the centres, and
place a tool in the rest, with its blank end againstthe

work, raisingthe rest in its socket until the middle of
the blank end of the tool comes about level with the
centres. Put some oil about the square centre, and a
drop on the blank end of the tool. Set the lathe in
motion, move the tool carefullytowards the work,

until the blank end presses against it, and taneously
simul-
carefiilly
screw up the hand- wheel, so as to
force the square centre into cut. This must be done
until the work, in revolving,

touches all round against
the tool, which may then be withdrawn, and slight
pressure given to the square centre alone for a few
rotations. The work is then removed from the lathe,

reversed, and the other end centred trulyin the same
manner, after which it is taken from the lathe, the

square centre is removed, and replacedby the ordinary
centre. With a small drill in the spiralor other drill-
stock,drill a hole into each end of the rod, at the centres,

about
T^ \ inch deep. Wipe
01 the centres clear of
gritor sha\ing8,and put the work again in the lathe ;
also put a drop of oil on the centre. Now, with a sharp

knife-tool,touch over the ends, and bring the bar to
the exact lengthrequired. Take out the knife-tool,and

substitute one of the tools at Figs.146, 15], 152, 154,
155. Set the at 1^^ inch,
callipers and adjustthe
tool to cut the bar to that size. Push down the handle
of the slot-plate
so as to throw the traverse mechanism
into gear, and reduce throughout to this size. With
a sharp tool, carefullyturn down about ^^^th of an
inch at the end, to let the standard cyUndricalring,

Fig. 143, fit on tightly. Withdraw the tool very
and
slightly, take a cut over the whole length,to duce
re-
it very nearlyto the size of the small portion at

the end. Some turners would now finish the rod by
it with
filing a smooth file; others would take a very
slightcut ofi* it with a sharp spring tool, Fig. 153.
The of
peculiarity these tools is, that they cannot
* catch in,' they being so made that any extra ance

resist-
will cause the cuttingedge to springaway from the
cut, instead of going deeper into it. If the rod be
requiredvery exact in size and it

parallelism, is not
fitted into the ring entirelyby tools, but is left very
slightly
too large,and is then ground to size, either
by the emery clamps, Fig. 106, or by forcinga piece of
copper or lead againstthose parts requiringto be duced
re-
"
^meanwhile supplyingthe
plentifully surfaces
in contact with emery and oil " or by slowlyrevolving

the work in one direction and appljring
a rapidlyvolving
re-
glazingwheel, held in the slide-rest,

to
copper
the surface of the work, and causing the glazer to
traverse along the placesrequiring
to be reduced. This
cylinderor rod must be cooled each time before trying

it into the gauge ring, as otherwise, even if fitted
exactlywhen hot, it will contract and become a very

bad fit when cold.
piecesof iron very long compared with their

With
will be found in turningthem
diameters, great difficulty
in the usual manner, owing to the shaft springing
away from the tool. This springingalso increases
as the tool gets to the middle of the shaft ; and, as
the ends are supported in the centres and prevented

from swerving,the shaft is turned largerin the middle
than at the ends. Long bars are first centred in the
usual manner, and then straightened;after the bar
is roughly turned, it will frequentlyrequire to be again

straightenedbefore the finishingcut is taken off it;
Bars and shafts are prevented from swerving in
several ways, the most convenient is by a steadybear-

ing
or along the bar with

stay, travelling the tool,but
in some cases it is more convenient to use a fixed bear*
ing for the purpose. In the latter case, if the shaft be
not too weak, a small place is carefullytrued at

up
the middle of the bar, and that placeis caused to run
in the die- stay fastened to the bed. Sometimes, ever,

how-
the shaft is too weak to allow the place to be
turned true, owing to the great vibration then the

up ;
socket or collar bearing previouslydescribed is put on
in place,and a true bearing obtained by adjustingthe

set screws. The socket itself is then run in the die-
stay. When the inverted L travellingstay is used it
must be very firmlyfixed, and a plentifulsupply of
soda-water allowed to faU on the work just behind the
tool,not only for lubrication but to wash off the shav-

ings.
It is also a good plan to looselytie a pieceof

stringor leather around the shaft between the tool and
stay, and to the stay to keep shavingsfrom gettinginto

the bearing. When the shavings are allowed to
remain on the shaft they are very apt to get between

the bearingsurfaces of the stay and shaft,the latter is
therefore forced outwards towards the tool, a distance
turned larger. These alternate large and small places

will continue the whole lengthof the shaft.
A similar result is also produced when the tools
point breaks off and is left unchanged "

^the distance
between the point and the stay being thus slightly

increased,the tool cuts a largerdiameter. When the
stay reaches this placehaving the largerdiameter, the

shaft is forced deeper into cut, and is turned smaller
until the stay reaches the small part, when it is again

turned and
larger, so on.
Should there be a flat upon the shaft of greater

length than the stay, this flat will cause the tool to cut
a correspondingprojectionon the shaft, and when
the stay in travelUngreaches this projection

a flat will
be cut by the tool in a similar manner. When turning

long shafts made of bad iron, the ribs of vitrifiedoxide
or veins of dirt in the iron will not allow a sharp point,
to remain on the tool ; consequently,the tool, being
blunt, will not cut these hard places,and the shaft is
turned of an oval or irregularsection, instead of being

truly circular. I have found it thus ; and, in spiteof
every precaution,this irregularity
has been continued
nearly the whole length of a shaft,the various gularities

irre-
shiftingtheir positionas in the former
cases.
Notwithstandingthese defects and difficultiesthe
L-stay is a useftil tool,and with good iron and proper

care, the work may be depended as being practi-
cally
upon
true and circular. Its and
simplicity ready ap-
phcation to its work are its chief recommendations,
and cause it to be more used than most others. But
the stay illustrated at Fig. 137 is on the whole prefer-
SELF-ACTING TURXIXG. 145
able, for though it is somewhat more complicated,it

has advantages in use not possessedby any other. In
this instrument the dies may be adjusted to take the
differences in size caused by the successive cuts without
the positionof
altering the instrument. Any variation
in the size of the shaft does not therefore affect its
central position,
nor do the foregoingconditions alter
its size throughoutthe length.

Metal dies are used in the stay,and a set of three or
four pairsof them will answer for all the different sizes
of work which need such support. The dies are readily

removed and others and
replaced, are adjusted
easily
to nicelyfit the shaft,without having any tendency to
displaceit. It is generally
more advantageousto let
the dies claspthe shaft just behind the tool,as in this
positionthey may be slid along past the end of the bar
whilst the extreme end of the bar is being turned.
Then, as the tool traverses, the dies follow it up and
come to the placejust turned,when they can be

easily
adjustedto fit it without even stoppingthe lathe. The
top of the standard also carries the water-can, which is
arrangedso that it can be raised or lowered and swung
round on the and

uprightspindle, it can also be moved
on its supportingarm, which has preciselythe same
action as the radial arms carryingthe change wheels.

The whole of this apparatus can be removed if in the
way'of any largework.

For turningsurfaces the work is either put upon a
mandril or fastened to one of the chucks, whichever is
most convenient. When the is

ordinary face-plate
used, the work is fastened to it,just the same as for
boring ; care being taken that the bolts it on

fastening
L
146 LATHES AND TUBNING.
do not come in the way of the tool. The jawed chuck,

Fig. 144, will however generallybe found the most
convenient, as with thiA there are no bolts requiredto

hold the work, and almost any shaped work can be
chucked in any positionwithout much trouble. In
turning large surfaces it must be borne in mind that
the speed of the work passingthe tool increases as the
tool goes from the centre, the angularvelocityof the
work must therefore be reduced as the tool recedes in
order to keep the cuttingvelocityas nearlyconstant as
possible.
For traverse turningthe cut is almost always taken
that
right-handed, is from the rightto the left or from
the moving headstock to the cone-headstock. For face-turning

sur-
the cut is generallytaken in the same
relative direction,that is,from the centre to the cumference.

cir-
The same tools will therefore generally .
answer equallywell for both cases, the tools

straiglit
having only to be placed at about rightangles to the
surface to be cut.
Sometimes, however, it will be more convenient to
use the cranked tools for and

surfacing, this is more
the
especially case when the work is on a mandril. In
turning up the edges of articles of largediameter these
cranked tools are also much more convenient than the
straighttools " îndeed,unless these tools be used, the

work cannot be turned, as the rest cannot always be
^
shifted to a convenient positionfor using the other
tools.
straight
The spring tool?*.Figs. 148, 152, and 153, are
equally useful for surfaces as for cylinders,and they

are used for all materials. They are made of shapes
SBLF-ACTIXG TURNING. 147
Other than straight,

so as to fini."hout curved corners
and placeswhich would otherwise require the appli-

cation
of hand-tooLs. These for ordinary
spring-tools
turningare made from f to 1 inch wide on the cutting
edge. For curved work they are sometimes used four
or six inches wide, and even at that width answer well.
When surfacing,
especialcare must be taken that
the and
spindle, consequentlythe work, has no end
play. This may be prevented by adjustingthe lock
nuts of the When

lathe-spindle. the work is supported
by both centres, the spindleis kept from moving ways
end-
by the pressure of the forcingscrew, and any

looseness of the spindlein its necks is not then of much
moment, but when, as in surfacingon the face-plate,

the end pressure is absent,any movement of the spindle
endways causes and
irregular untrue work. For very
delicate y?ork the spindlewill sometimes require re-
adjusting
with the changes in the temperature of the
room in which the lathe is placed. Such cases are very

and
exceptional, as a rule the fewer times the adjusting
nuts are meddled with, the better the lathe will work.
For turningthe insides of articles or making large
holes,the left cranked tool will be found useful,but
the ordinarytools of this sort are too largefor any but
the work.
largest The tools at Fig. 156 will therefore
be found the most convenient ; these are the

precisely
same in shape and in use, but they are made more
slender,to allow them to go into deep recesses or holes,

without rubbing againstthe side of the hole.
The auxiliarytool-holder. Fig. 157, is also useful
for requiring long reach.

turningin positions A tool
such as is used in it is shown in its place. When turn-
L 2
ing out raised rather

holes the tool is frequently higher
than for other work ; the traverse motion is used in the
same manner as for turning cylinders.Care should
always be taken not to let the tool go too far through,

otherwise it will come againsteither the face-plate
or
the and
spindle-nose, these will be seriouslydamaged.
If the hole be required of a certain standard size,it
shoukl be gauged by turningit large enough to let the
standard plug fit nicelyin. When the hole is to be
used *
rough
'
or without *
lappingout,' the plug must
be fitted into the work when the latter is cold. But if
the hole is to be lappedout, the better plan \b to let the
plug fit the hole nicely,when the metal surrounding

the hole is warm with turning,as it will then contract
and
slightly, when cold will be a little too small ; but
after it is ground out on the lap,the hole will be the
rightsize.
The workman must be careful in tryingthe standard
plug into a hole that it is put in and

fairly not on one
side,and also,if the hole be warm, the standard must
be removed immediatelyfrom the hole, as if allowed to
remain it will be found that the hole will contract on
the plug, and there will be in getting

great difficulty
the latter out again. Should the workman at any time
neglectthis precautionand get the gauge shrunk in,he

should not use force in removing it unless gentler
methods fail. The best way to get it out is to hold
the outside of the article to the fire so as to cause it to
againexpand, cold water being dropped upon tlie pro-

jecting
parts of the plug to prevent it from expanding

also. If this be carefullydone, the gauge will generally
drop out without force being necessary. No workman
should, however, allow himself to be thus caught more
than once.
Besides being able to turn either cylindersor siu:-
faces in this lathe,cones and angles of any degree can

just as easilybe produced.
It will be seen that the motion of the rest along the
bed is always parallelto the bed, so that with the line
of lathe centres also

parallel with the of
bed, cylinders
uniform size will be produced by that motion.
The motion of the slide D along the saddle of the
lathe described, is always at rightanglesto the bed, so
that under the same conditions as the last the surface
produced by this motion will be a plane surface.

By puttingboth these slides in motion at the same
time, it will be seen that as the tool travels along the

bed it will also recede from the centre, and a cone will
be cut instead of a cylinder. The angle of this cone
will depend upon the relative speed of these two tions.

mo-
If the cone so produced be cut into two along

the centre line,the section will be an isosceles triangle
with the perpendicularequal to the distance the tool
travelled along the bed, and a base equal to double
the distance the tool receded from the centre, or the
figureeach side of the centre will be a right-angled

trianglewith a equal to
perpendicular the longitudinal
motion of the tool and a base equal to its transverse
motion.
The actual distance travelled by the tool will be
equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of
the base and perpendicular. Now we see the relation
each motion bears to the figureproduced, it becomes
an easy matter so to speed the two slides to produce

required cone or taper, by means of the change-

any
wheels at each end of the lathe-bed.
Short anglescan be produced in a simple manner,

by moving the small compound rest to the required
angle,and traversingthe tool by hand.
Taper, shafts of very slightangle can be turned
with the ordinarytraverse of the saddle along the bed,

but the lathe-centres must first be shifted out of lelism
paral-
with the lathe-bed. This is readily done by
tiu'ningthe screw, the head of wliich is seen in front of
the headstock, and so moving the centre of the screw-
headstock out of its position. If the rod has to be
larger at that end than at the other, the headstock
must be moved from the operator, or from the tool ;
but if it is to be smaller at that end, then the centre
must be shifted towards the workman. One end of the
shaft will be largerthan the other by double the tance

dis-
the centre is moved out of line. These sizes
will be of
altogetherirrespective the length of the rod,
but the tool is supposed to travel the whole distance
between the centres.
The headstock being set, the* work is proceeded

with in the usual manner.
Some lathes are constructed with a moveable cone-
headstock,for tiu-ningout taper holes ; but these are
very troublesome to adjust and re-adjust. The lathe-
spindlebeing set at an angle,the change-wheelsgear

badly,and altogetherthe plan cannot be recommended.
Taper holes can easily be turned by settingthe

small rest at an angle,and by the method first q)oken
of" speedingboth the slide movements.
cyliader,the base is the pitch,and the hypotheuuse

is the spiralUne.
Now, the old mechanics, before the screw-cutting
latlie was invented, used to take advantage of this pro-
perty
of the cylindrical
spiralto enable them to scribe
de-
a screw-thread. The sides of the triangle,

as
above, were laid down on a piece of stiff paper, or on
a piece of thin sheet metal, and this trianglebeing

wrapped round the cylinder upon which the screw
was required,the course of the thread was scratched
on the cylinder,the groove cut out with hammer and
chisel,and smoothed over with a file. This operation

was sometimes modified, but the principle
was always
the same.
It may appear but,

surprising, rude as the method
is,screws were cut much faster and much better than
one would imagine ; and many men clung to the old
method long after the lathe

screw-cutting was invented
and in general use.

The amateur reader may not have thought so, but
in the preceding operations of self-acting

turning,
screws have been cut. In turning up a shaft as scribed,
de-
the tool has cut a screw the whole lengthof

its cut. If the traverse has been sixtycuts to the inch,
a spiralwas described which, if developed,would be a
with
triangle, a base of one-sixtieth of an inch ; and
that this is a screw may easilybe practically

proved.
When a hole
drilling through a long pieceof iron,both
ends of which are turned up true, one being gripped
in the four-jawchuck, and the other running in wooden
bearingsin the it is frequently

die-stay, found that the
wooden beimugs act as a nut, and the screw formed

SELF-ACTING SCEBVT-CUTTIXG. 153
by the traverse marks has sufficient power to pull the
article out of the chuck. It will, therefore, be easily

seen that,in ordinarytraversing,
a very fine screw is
described, and that to cut what is usually known as a
screw we only require a coarse traverse cut.
It is evident that the depth and shape and pitchof

a screw-thread should bear some relation to the use of
the screw and the diameter of the cylinderupon which
it is cut. For instance,it would be absurd, where great

strengthis required, to cut a very large thread on a
smaU shaft,but the two should be so proportionedthat

both are equallystrong.
After a largeseries of experiments,and comparisons
of screws in use, Mr., now Sir Joseph Whitworth, the
well-known engineer,laid down certain proportionsfor

screws, which are known as the Whitworth Standard
Threads. This standard is now in almost universal use,
much to the advantage of engineers and macliinists.
These threads are given in the followingtable :"
Whitwobth Standard Screw Threads,
Square threads are usuallymade double of the gular

an-
thread for
pitches, the same diameter of shaft.
The Whitworth threads are all made of a common
angle of 55**,and are slightly

rounded, both top and
bottom.
The angularthread is the most easy and convenient
to make, but it is frequentlyadvisable to use threads
of other shapes,the most usual of which are shown at
Fig. 158.
The rounded angular thread a is almost always
used for general engineering purposes, bolts, and
screws. The square thread b is used for the largest
and most powerful screws ; frequentlythe thread for
these purposes is made of the shape of c and times

some-
of g. The deep rounded angular thread d is
Fig. 168.
mostly used for small sUde-screws. The round thread
e is mostly used for large tangent worms, which are
also made
frequently similar in shape to the teeth of
spur-wheels. Small tangent screws are usuallymade

with an angular thread. The acute thread / is used
for screws gearinginto wood.

It will not be supposed that because a table is laid
down it must in every case be adhered to : but for dinary

or-
where
engineeringpractice, the threads have to
stand the same strain as the bolt,and it is necessary to
divide this strain the

equally, above table will be foimd
useful. It will very seldom be necessary to use a coarser

SELB^-ACTIXG SCREW-CUTTING. 155
thread than that given for a shaft of a given diameter,

but very frequently will
largecylinders have to be fitted
with threads of fine pitch.

The pitchof a screw is not at all dependent upon
the diameter of the cylinder upon which it is cut.
Thus, if a screw be cut upon a cylinderof one inch or
one foot diameter, if the movement of the slide-rest be
the same, the pitch or number of threads to the inch
in lengthwill be the same in both cases. Also in both
cases the will

lathe-spindle revolve the same number
of times whilst the tool traverses one inch. If, there-

fore,
we want a screw of a given pitch,we have to
calcidate the wheels required to obtain the requisite

number of turns, whilst the tool traverses one inch or
one foot,the diameter of the shaft need not be thought

of at all.
In the lathe described,the changes,when possible,

should always be made at the right-handend of the
bed where the shaft A drives the screw, because then
the motion of the other mechanism is unchanged.

For all ordinary traversingand screw-cutting,
there will be no the
necessityfor altering relative speed
of the and
lathe-spindle back-shaft, there being room
for the required alterations at one end only, but for
finer pitchesthan 90.^ to the inch or coarser than
about 1 in 5.înches,the change-wheels must be applied

at both ends, which enables us to get a traverse as fine
as over 1,300 turns to the inch, and as coarse as one
turn in 6 or 7 feet.
I will here give a table of the wheels requiredfor

the pitchesin most generaluse. It is convenient to
have an extended list preparedand engravedor stamped

on brass, as it saves much time otherwise spent in

calculatingthe required wheels.
In the table given below, it will be seen that
all the changes are arranged for the right hand
only of the bed. If,however, the workman requiresa

pitchof 100, 200, or 500 turns to the inch, he can easily
arrange this and without much trouble, by putting on
largerwheels at the other end to make the shaft A run
{ J,or y\^the speed of the So

lathe-spindle. also when
,
coarser pitchesare required,he can use any of the
wheels given in the table for a coarse pitch,and

render it much coarser by change-wheels,arranged on
the other end of the lathe-bed, to cause the shaft A
to rotate much faster than the lathe-spindle.

SELF-ACTING SCREW-CUTTING. 157
These wheels will all produce right-handthreads,or

the tool will traverse from right to left. To produce
left-hand threads the same wheels will do, or wheels
having the same ratio ; but another intermediate wheel
must be placed upon its stud, and attached to one of
the slots of either of the radial arms.
The operator will not have much in

difficulty ranging
ar-
this wheel ; as it matters littlewhereabouts it is
placed,so that it gears with the other wheels. It only

has the effect of alteringthe direction of motion, the
relative velocities the
remainingprecisely same.
The pitchesgiven,althoughthose mostly in use, are
not by any means the only ones required,the workman
should therefore be able to calculate for himself the
wheels required for any given pitch. I have known
men in workshops make rather a mystery of their
method of calculatingchange-wheels; but the method
is extremelysimple,and the knowledge of arithmetic
required not very profound.

For pitch whatever the lathe spindle must
any
make the same number of turns as the proposed screw
has in an inch or other givenlength,in the same time
that the leading-screwmakes the number of turns
required to traverse the tool the same distance.
Thus, supposing a pitch of seven threads to the inch
is required,then the number of revolutions of the latho
spindlewill be seven, to four of a leading-screwhaving

^ in pitch,the lathe having to revolve the number of
threads in the inch of the requiredscrew, whilst the
leading-screwrevolves the number of times necessary

to move the tool one inch. Knowing the ratio the
speed of the screw bears to the work, it is an easy

158 LATHES AND TURNtNG.
matter to calculate the wheals that will give these
speeds.
Many workmen can calculate the changes required
for any whole number of threads to the inch, but
cannot do so for any broken or fractional pitches. In
fractional pitchesare
reality, almost as easy to calculate
as whole numbers, as we have only to multiply the
fractional pitchby any number that will eliminate the
fraction,or in other words to find a distance in which
the pitch becomes a whole number. For example : "
Suppose we require to cut a screw having a pitch of

inch
1-^f^ "
that is 1 turn in 1^^ inch "
Then the required screw will make 10 turns in
1 yî^
X 10 = 1 3 inches. And a of
leading-screw 4 threads
to the inch will make 13x4=52 turns in the same
distance. The and

speeds of lathe-spindle leading-
screw are then 1 3 and 52 respectively.
Again, if we want a thread of ^^ in pitch. One
turn in -^ôf an inch gives ^x22 = 3 inches for 22
turns. Whilst the lathe rotates 22 times the tool must
traverse 3 inches, and this with the same leading-screw

gives the speeds of lathe and screw as 22 and 12
respectively.
When the changes are properlyarranged,the work
in the centres, and the requiredshaped tool in its place,
the handle d can be pushed down so as to connect the
slide-rest with the and

leading-screw, the lathe set in
motion the
precisely same as for ordinarytraverse ing.
turn-
When, however, very coarse pitchesare required,

say anythingover a 2 or 3-inch pitch,the motion of
the saddle and leading-screwis so fast compared with
the that
cone-pulley very great power is required to
IGO LATHES AND TURNING.
pitch is very limited. Many planshave been proposed,

nnd are in use, for making one email slip or blade of
steel do for any pitch,by placing it in a holder so con-
Fio. lei. trived as to swivel, and to place the cutter
at any required angle. Most of those I
have seen are much too clumsy and

sive
expen-
to be recommended ; that shown at
Fig. 161, and devised for my own use,
works well, and its simplicitycan be seen
from the sketch. A small piece of round
steel,fittinga hole in the tool holder, is
ground at one end to the shape of the
thread. This being properly hardened and
tempered, is placed in the hole of the
holder and held firmly at any required

angle by tighteningthe screw at the side, the holder
being slit to allow of contraction. Any angle of the
tool ia of course obtained by moving round the circular
piece of steel in its hole.
The angle or inclination of the thread can very
readily be ascertained by calculation ; but the simpler

plan is to place the tool as near the angle aa can be
guessed, then to set the lathe in motion and cut a
small portion of the thread, after which the tool can be
properly adjusted by comparison with the part of the

thread already cut.
For internal threads tools similar to Fig. 156 are
used, but with their cutting etlges ground to the shape

of the they are intended to cut. For larger
groove
holes requiringscrew-threads the tool-holder at Fig. 1 57
be usetl,carrying a tool blade of the right shape.
may
Or, if the workman wish to be economical in liis

very
tools, a tool-holder may be used carrying the same
tools as and in a similar manner to Fig.161, previously

described. One however,
disadvantage, attends the use
of this tool and holder" it will not cut a thread the
entire depth of the hole, as the end of the holder jects

pro-
into the hole farther than the point of the tool it
carries.
These holders are placed in the slide-rest in the
same manner as the ordinarytools,and the holders
may all be used to carry tools shaped to cut either
wood or metals or other materials.
The ordinary working threads are usually cut

almost to size with a singlepoint tool, and finished
with a chasing-tool
or tool of many points,held either
in the hand or slide-rest. If held in the rest, this tool
should be constructed on the springplan,as such tools
produce better work.
Other exceptional
comparatively threads are begun
and finished by single-point
tools : the first cut being
taken by a tool rather smaller than the requiredgroove,

and the screw finished by a sharpwell-groundtool of
the rightsize.
For ordinarythreads of fine whether
pitch, internal
or external,it is a good plan "

ûnless the thread go
the entire lengthof the shaft,or quitethroughthe hole
"
to turn a groove around the cylinderor in the hole
where the thread is to terminate. This groove acts as
'
a
'
landing-placefor the pointof the tool,and vents
pre-
the pointbeing broken off* in withdrawing it
from cut.
The same objectis effected for square or any shaped

threads of coarse pitch by drilling
a small hole in the
M
shaft at the spot where the screw groove is to end. If
the screw is to have several threads, a hole must be
drilled for each. It is also a good plan to turn down
a very small portionof the metal at the commencement
of the thread, whether internal or external,to the size

of the bottom of the threads ; this acts as a guide to
the workman, as, when the tool
screw-cutting reaches
this place,the thread is cut to the proper depth.

There are one or two features in the slide-rest which
are used and

mostly for screw-cutting work of the Uke
nature, to explain the uses of which it will be better
to take an example in and

screw-cutting, go through
the operationwith the reader.
Suppose it to be required to make a screw of, say,

10 threads to the inch on a steel cylinder,the screw
'
when cut to be used as a
*
hob or
'
master-tap.'By
referringto the table,we see that the pitchcorresponds
with a diameter of f of an inch, and if we were making
an ordinary tap, that is the size we should turn our
steel,but for a master-tap the diameter must be larger

by double the depth of thread. The steel should be
turned down to this size and to the usual shape for a
master-tap. The smaller part to be made the size of
the bottom of the thread on the larger.

The turned steel being placedbetween the centres,
take either of the external screw tools, ground to
the requiredangle and shape,and placeit in the tool-
holder of the takingcare

slide-rest, to have it as nearly
as possibleat rightanglesto the line of centres.
The requisitechange-wheelsbeing put on in place,
throw the nut of the into

leading-screw gear, and just
move the lathe around by the left hand, whilst screw-
ing the surfacing

slide towards the work with the right,
until the pointof the tool justtouches the surface.
Unscrew the small screw which fastens the handle h
to the let the index-spring

slide-rest, rest in one of the
divisions of the division-plate

on the slide-rest screw,
and move the handle h upwards towards the left
hand. This will have the effect of withdrawing the

tool from againstthe work. The lathe is then set in
motion the reversed way until the motion of the leading

screw bringsthe tool's pointat the right-handend of
the work. Now move the slide screw one or two sions
divi-
of the plate,bring the handle A back to its usual
which
position, will throw the tool againinward, and
start the lathe in the forward direction. The tool will
then traverse along the surface,and cut a spiralline.

At the end of its cut withdraw the tool by moving up
the handle A, reverse the lathe,and, whilst the slide-
rest is running back, move in the tool one or more
divisions of the index plate. When the tool gets to
the end, again reverse the lathe and throw the tool
into cut. Proceed in the same manner until the quired

re-
depth is attained.
To cut a good screw, the tool must be sharp and of
the rightshape,and especialcare be taken that it has
plenty of clearance and does not rub at the sides.
The lubrication must be plentiful,

and the finishing
cuts slight.
The tool should always be withdrawn beforethe
lathe is stoppedor reversed,and its point must not be
allowed to come againstthe right-handlathe-centre.

It will generallybe expedient to tie the lathe
carrier to the drivingarm, and when a tool is changed,
M 2
care must be taken to re-adjustit so that it will enter
the groove alreadycut.

The amateur will probably imagine that if he were
to cut a groove in a cylinderon reversinghis lathe the
tool would run back in the groove ; but this is not the
case. He will find on that

reversing, the lathe-spindle
will run back some distance before the tool will mence
com-
moving ; this,as is owing

previouslyexplained,
to the clearance between the teeth of the wheels, and
play of the leading screw, "c., and is termed '

loss of
time.'
SELF-ACTING DRILLING, BORING, etc.
The operationsdescribed hitherto under the above
head can all be performed with ease in the self-acting

lathe ; the various motions of the however,
slide-rest,
afford the means of doing some classes of work which
cannot be managed in the hand-lathe. The work in
Fie. 16^.
most of these cases is fastened to the saddle of the
slide-rest and does not rotate ; the boring tool,how-

ever,
rotates between the lathe-centres. The required

traverse is obtained by moving the slide-rest along the
bed, and not by any movement of the cuttingtool.
The boring bar. Fig. 162, is the instrument in most
generaluse, and very useful and efficient it is. It is

placed between the lathe-centres,and is usuallydriven
by a carrier. A glance at the figurewill show the
reader that it is simply a straight
bar of metal
^gene- "
DBILLJN6, BOEINQ, ETC. 165
rallysteel. It is centred at the ends like a mandnl,

and has two or three slot holes cut through it to ceive
re-
various shaped cutters ; these cutters are fastened
in place by a small wedge driven in the slot at the
back of the cutter preciselythe same as at Fig. 117.

Several cutters are shown in the bar, to give the
reader an idea of the manner in which each sort is
fastened in proper placefor use.
The cutters used in this bar have only two cutting

points ^frequently
" only one "
^but for large holes a
stouter bar is used, and the cutters are more numerous,
being 4, 6, 8, or any higher number according to the
size of the hole. They are arranged round a boss
which can be keyed to the bar in any convenient part

of its length; the cutters are fastened to this boss by
being wedged in a dovetailed groove. This ment
instru-
is driven in the lathe in the same manner as the
last. Frequently,every alternate groove of the cutter
boss is fitted with a piece of hard wood, which, bear-

ing
against the side of the hole, steadies the bar, and,

by preventingvibration,causes a better hole to be made
than when all the grooves are fitted with cutters.
When either of these instruments is used, the work

throughwhich the hole is to be bored is fastened to
the receivingplateof the slide-rest by bolts,or by any

other convenient means, and so that the axis of the
required hole shall coincide with the line of lathe-
centres. The work must of course have a rough hole
through it to allow the boring bar to be put in place.

The cutter is then set to take the proper depth of cut,
and the lathe being set in motion and the handle d
the leadingscrew
depressed, will carry the work forward
against the rotating cutters, and the hole will be
bored.
All large holes should be bored at one operation-^

that is,when the finishing
cut is taken, the hole should
be gone through without stoppingthe lathe,as otherwise
if the hole be bored partlythrough and the lathe then
stopped long enough to allow the metal to get cool,

the hole will neither be smooth nor parallel.
For boring with the small bar, one of the cutters a
or b is used. The cutter a is also used for facing up

the end of the hole, or recessing,the same as the drill
at Fig. 116. For facingup the boss or sides of a hole,

the cutter c is used, and for cutting a screw inside or
outside a hole in an article which cannot be veniently

con-
attached to the face-plateof the lathe, the

cutters d or e are used.
These two last cutters are, however, but seldom quired,

re-
and their use is very inconvenient owing to the
of reversingthe
difficulty lathe and running the work
back. Nevertheless, with care and patience,these tools
will enable the operator to cut a very good thread in
the cases mentioned without the expensive apparatus

otherwise required. When cutting a screw by this
means, the change-wheels for the pitch must of

proper
course be used to obtain the traverse of the work.
In some cases where the strain on the cutter is such
as to cause the bar to swerve from its work or vibrate,

it will be found expedient to steady the bar by running
it in the bearing at Fig. 128, as near the cutter as it
can conveniently be placed.

168 LATHES AND TURNING*
The frame castingalso carries another vertical shaft,

longer than the former, and which revolves in a long
boss forming part of the frame. At its lower end the
shaft is fitted to receive a change-wheel,driven either
directlyby a wheel on the other shaft,or, through

douHe or singleintermediates, placed on a socket
which revolves on a spindleattached to the radial arm.
This arm radiates from the centre of the longerver-

tical
shaft,and is fastened at any required angle by

tighteningthe nut on the boss of the frame casting.
This nuty it may be mentioned, should have a left-
handed thread. The arm has a slot for the

receiving
intermediate spindlein the usual manner.
The top of the vertical shaft has a largecollar or
disc,and to this is fastened another disc or iron plate,

and these are so fitted as to be quitefree from shake,
or in fact to be like one piece.
The fasteningis made by two bolts with T-heads
fitted into a circular under-cut groove in the top plate,

and passingthrough the collar on the vertical spindle.
The edge of one disc is graduated,and the other has a
pointerattached to it; the top plate may therefore
be moved round any number of divisions,and there
fastened by tighteningthe nuts below. This ment

move-
is easilymade by hand, but, if preferred,the

edge of one of the discs can be made into a tangent
wheel, and a tangent screw attached to the other.
The movement may then be made with greater ease
and exactness by moving the tangent screw one or
more turns.
The top surface of the upper disc is fitted with a
number of holes tapped to receive screws of the same

TURNING IBREGULAB SHAPES. 169
and
fidze, also a large hole in the centre, which is also
tapped. The tapped holes serve for a shaper-

fastening
plate,or cam plate,to the upper disc,and the central
hole serves to keep the in position,
shaper-plates by
means of a into it,and
pin fitting also a hole
fitting in
the shaper-plates.
The screw of the surfacingslide is continued wards
out-
past the worm-wheel and clutch behind, and is

there fitted with a bearing on which the guide
sliding
is placed,and fastened there by a nut, on the extreme
end of the surfacing-screw.The slidingguide has
three holes through it,the central one is the bearing

for the screw, and the outside ones are made to fit the
guide bars, and slide upon them. The slidingguide

has also several other holes underneath for attaching
various rubbers. The shape of the rubber will vary
with the shape of the copy-plate. In some cases the
rubber is a fiat bar, in others a roller on a small
and again in
spindle, others an angularpoint.
On the lathe being set in motion, the bevel-wheel
on the shaft A will drive the first vertical and
spindle,
the motion will be communicated to the other vertical
and consequentlyto
spindle, the discs and the shaper-
plate fastened to the disc. The in
shaper-plate, volving,
re-
presses against the rubber attached to the
sUding guide, and this guide will be moved on the
slide bars, and will cause the surface screw also to
reciprocateor move endways in its bearings. The

motion
reciprocating of the screw will of course be
partaken of by the surface slide,and tool attached to
that slide.
When using this apparatus, before startingthe

lathe, care must always be taken to move the nuts
which act as collars in front to the surface screw, a
sufficient distance on the screw to allow of its so
; should
reciprocating this not be done, some part of
the mechanism will be strained or broken.
The velocityof the motion

reciprocating of the
screw will vary according to the shape of the copy-

plate,and its shape therefore will govern the shape of
the work produced. The rubber is kept up against
the copy-plateby a weight attached by a cord to the
surface slide. The cord is passed over a pulleyat back,

so that the surface slide may be moved anywhere on
the saddle without the

influencing pressure againstthe
the only difference being that
shaper-plates, the farther
the surface- slide is moved from the centres, the higher

will the weight be raised off the ground.
The rubbers should be of steel,nicelypohshed and
hardened ; the copy-platesare also best made of steel,
but I frequentlyuse both cast and wrought iron.
The surface-slide should be kept well oiled,so as to
slide freely,as then the weight required to keep the
rubber in contact with the shaper-plateis not so great.

No more weight should be employed than is absolutely
necessary.
The shape of the copy-plateis not as a rule very
difficult to ascertain,but the shape of that plateis not
always the shape of the figure to be produced ;

althoughfor most required shapes a copy-plateof the
same shape,having equal angular velocitywith the
figureturning,can be made to produce its counterpart.

If we use a circular placed eccentric
copy-plate,
with the copy-plate disc, the figureproduced by a
TURNING IRBE6ULAB SHAFfiS. 171
point-tool
on a surface attached to the will
face-plate
be determined by the positionof the point of the tool,
its distance fix)m the lathe-centres,and whether above
or below the centres.
1. It is,therefore,essential in most cases that the
tool's pointshould be level with the centres.
2. With equal revolutions of copy and work, and

when the tool's point describes a figuremuch smaller
than the eccentric plate,the figureproduced is cardoid,

or shaped like a heart, and this shape will gradually
become more decided, and become
finally looped, as
the figurebecomes very small.
3. When the figureis of the same size as the copy-
plate,its shape will also be the same, namely, an
eccentric circle,and this rule appliesto other shaped

copy-plates.
4. When the figureis made much largerthan the
its shape
copy-plate, is still the same as the copy, but
the will
eccentricity not be increased,the motion of the
tool's pointbeing the same in every case.
The tool's pointdescribingan eccentric circle on a
surface,if this pointbe traversed by the leadingscrew

in the usual manner, an eccentric cyHnder is produced,
and this cylindermay be turned the entire lengthof
the distance between the lathe-centres,as in ordinary
traverse turning.
For producing an the copy-platemust
ellipse, be
an ellipsehaving equal rotations with the lathe-
spindle,or it may be an eccentric circle rotating

twice whilst the work revolves once. In either case
the shape of the ellipseproduced will be determined

also to a great extent by the positionof the tool's
point. By alteringits position, of

ellipses almost any
proportionmay be made from one copy-plate.
Parallel eccentric circular,and parallel and
elliptic,
other shaped shafts,are thus produced by traversing
the tool in the usual manner.
Taper eccentric circular,taper eUiptic,

and other
shaped articles,
are turned also just as for plaincon-
centric
circular turning,namely, by moving the head-
stock out of line, or speeding the surfecingslide

screw.
Spiraleccentric and
circular,spiralelliptic, other
shaped articles,
are turned by giving the simper-plate
a faster
slightly or slower speed than the work. In
the case of the former, the line passingthrough the

concentric and eccentric centres, and in the other case
the long diameter continuallyalters its positionat

every revolution of the "work. Thus, when turning a
spiralelliptic
shaft,if the difference between the speeds
of the work and copy-platebe the one-hundredth of a
rotation, then at every rotation of the work, the long

diameter of the eUipsewill be of
^-J-^^ a revolution hind
be-
or in advance of the same diameter of the ellipse

which was cut at the last rotation. At the end of
twenty-fiverotations of the work, the long diameter

will have shifted just quarter round, at rotations
fifty
just half round, and at one hundred rotations the
will
spiral have made one complete turn. This work
is very singularin appearance ; when cutting,it looks

like and reallyis a double-threaded screw or spiral,
and is cut with a slow traverse of the tool. If the
copy-platerotate faster than the work, the spiralwill,

be left-hand ; if slower, it will be right-hand.
TUKNTNG IRREGULAR SHAPES. 173
The pitch of the spiraldepends upon the relative
speeds of work, copy-plate,and screw. The figure

makes one complete turn in every one hundred or
other number of rotations ; the pitch of the spiralwiU

consequentlybe the distance traversed by the tool
whilst the work has rotated one hundred times. The
article may be made of a taperingspiral-elliptic,

or
other the head-stock, or speedingthe

shape,by shifting
surface slide.
When the leading screw is driven in the usual
manner by the change-wheels,the spiralis formed of
one continuous line,but it may be formed of a series
of separate circles,
by disconnectingthe leadingscrew
and back-shaft, and by moving the leading screw a
certain portion of a rotation by hand after turning

each circle.
A secondaryspiralor screw may be cut upon these
shapesin almost any and

position, either with rotating
driUs,revolving cutters, or ordinary tools,as is most
convenient.
Some of these shapes,both wood and metal, can
be cut with the same tools that are used for ordinary
turning,but
cylindrical in most cases the work is
better performed by revolvingcutters in the wheel-
cutting apparatus, or other frame made to carry a
cutter, but without the slides.
The shapes to be produced are almost unhmited,

and I purpose givingmore information on this point
when treatingof ornamental turning. The foregoing
examples are given mostlyto show how all the various
motions may be combined, each being capableof inde-

pendent
alteration and arrangement.

The "c.,
shaper-plate, will not admit of very rapid
using,and in most cases it is advisable to keep its
speed as slow as possible. When the work is such
that revolvingcutting tools are used, the lathe is only

required to move very slowly; in these cases, therefore,
the lathe must not be driven by the belt in the ordi-
nary
but by the worm and wheel oa the leading

way,
screw. This manner of drivingI find convenient for
most work when the copy-plateruns at the same speed

or faster than the lathe-spindle.
The irrûlarshape mechanism is very useful when
applied to turning cams, the cuttingtool being either
tiie ordinary slide-rest tool or a revolvingcutter, cording

ac-
to the shape and size of the cam. They are
thus turned far better and cheaper than by the old
process of chippingand filing

to a template.
Another useful applicationis to the cutting of
curved slots and grooves ; this is done by a rotating
drill in a frame, guided automatically
by a properly-
shaped copy-plate.
It will be understood that when articles are to be
turned of irregulartransverse section only,the work
and copy-platemust make equal rotations ; when the
positionof the shape is required to vary, there must
be a slightdifference between the number of rotations.
By giving the copy-platea very slow motion pared

com-
with the work, instead of the article being

turned of irregular transverse section, it is turned
circular, but of irregular longitudinal
section. For
instance, by means of this mechanism, we can produce

taper shafts and angular work. The shaper-plate
for
this work must be a portion of a true and

spiral, the
may be made with a slot,or long hole through it,and

fastened to the either by
disc-plate one or two screws/
The slot-hole allows the of

eccentricity the plateto be
varied,which is very convenient, and this is the plan

I adopt in my own practice. Many sorts of work for
which the eccentric circle copy-plateis applicablewill

present themselves to the reader's mind, but I will
mention one or two. The of

connecting-rods steam-
engines,"c., require to be turned largertowards the
middle, and the boundary lines of their longitudinal

section form portionsof curves of very high radii.
These shapes are very readilyobtained by an eccentric
circle for the copy-plate, speededto get the rightlength

of chord. The faces of pulleysfor belts again require
to be curved, and this curve can be givento any extent,

and either to one pulleyor to any number on the
same shaft,by the repeatedrotations of an eccentric

circle for the copy or guide-plate.
of other shapes,
By using guide-plates, moulded
shafts are produced. The drawing-rollers

of spinning
machinery, ships'bolts with countersunk heads, "c.,

can be turned with as littleattention on the part of the
attendant as shafts,the shapesbeing

plaincylindrical
Care
produced automatically. must, however, be taken
on changingtools to put the cuttingpoint of the fresh
tool in the same placeas the pointof the tool removed.
This is essential.
precaution
A shaper-plate
can also be arrangedto automatically
throw the tool out of cut when and
screw-cutting, to
do a great deal of other useful work, and the same
apparatus will do a great varietyof ornamental work,

but its uses in this respect will be explainedhere-
after.
WHEEL-UUTTING. 177
WHEEL-CUTTIKO.
To be able to cut wheels ia a great desideratum,

and wheel-cuttiogengines being rather expensive,not
only the amateur, but the professional uiechanic, will
find it very convenient to have a small apparatus

attached to the lathe to answer that purpose ; and as
that apparatus is useful for other work, its cost will be
but small in comparison with its uses.
The contrivance shown at Fig. 163 answers its pur-

pose
well, and is a very valuable addition to the lathe.
It consbts of an upright A with its bottom planed,

178 LATHES ASD TUBSING.
and a slot-hole through it, and two slides at right-

angles to each other traversed by the screws a and h.
The positionof these slides,with regard to each other,

is immovably at right angles, but the slides caa be
placed at any angle with the surface of the lathe-bed,

by slacking the nut c, and moving round the slides ;
the back surface of the slide a and the front surface of
the upright A being fitted to each other, so as to allow
of the fonner being swivelled and fixed in required

any
positionby tighteningthe nut c.
The bottom of the upright is arranged to be bolted
to the receivingslide of the slide-rest,and this can be
done in and
position, the traverse of the slides
any
made to have any required angle with the fine of lathe-
centres. All these' adjustments are useful, ns will be
seen.
Both slides should have means of taking up wear or
slackness, by being fitted with a loose strip d. The
moving part of the fixint slide carries projectingarms

fitted with bearingsfor receiving the cutter spindle B.
'^^^ ***P bearing is an neck
ordinary parallel
Fie. 1C4.
bearing, with a moveable cap ; the bottom is
a centi'e point bearing,the end of the cutter
spmdle is turned to a centre, and rotates in a"
corresponding female centre in the footstepe.

This footsteppasses through the arm of the
slide and is screwed each side, and fitted with
adjusting nuts for taking up wear of the

any
cutter spindle,and preventingend play and
shahe. The cutter spindle shown in place is

far carrying a cutter for wheel-cutting in metals.
One of these instruments is shown at Fig. 164 it is

;
WHEEL-CDTTIKG. 179
placed on the spindle and held between the collar and
the nut/, a small key on the spindle,and a key groove

in the cutter, more effectually
preventing the latter ping
slip-
round on the former. All the cutters should be
made with the same sized hole and key groove, so that
they all be used alike the spiodle,by removing

may on
one and substituting any other. The top end of the
cutter spindle has a spur-wheelg keyed on it,and this
wheel is geared into by a small pinion A attached to
the pulley i. Both the pulley and the pinion revolve

freely on the spindle /. i A are a pair of guide
pulleys carried by an arm tached
at-
^"'- ^^^
to the spindle / in
the manner shown ; these leys

pul-
may be shifted round
and placed in any convenient
position.
The spindleat Fig. 165 is
for carrying cutters for wood ;
one of these cutters is shown
in place, it is merely a flat
piece of steel filed at one end
to the shape required, and

nicely sharpened on the stone.
oil-
The spindlecarries a small
pulley on its other end, and is

driven withoutthe intervention
of gearing,as a greater speed is

requiredfor cuttingwood than for metals. This spindle
is made to fit into the bearings of the instrument in the
same manner as the one shown in place at Fig, 163.

180 LATHES AND TURXIJCG.
The wheels used in mechanism are termed spur-
worm-wheels,
wheels, bevel-wheels, spiral-wheels, lique-wheels
ob-
and racks.
Spur-wheelsare those whose teeth are cut on a
h
cylinder. The wheels g and are spur-wheels, they
are used to transmit motion when the axes are parallel
to each other.
Bevel-wheels have their teeth cut on frustra of cones,
and are used to convey motion when the axes are at an
angleto each other, but in the same plane.

Skew bevel-wheels are very similar to the last,but
are used to communicate motion when the axes
are at an anglewith each other, but not in the same
plane.
Worm-wheels are those driven by an endless screw
or worm, and are used to obtain very slow motion
when the axes are in different planes,and at an angle

to each other.
Spiral-wheels
are portionsof many-threadedscrews,
each tooth being a portionof the thread of a screw of
coarse pitch; they are used when the axes are in dif-
ferent
planes,and at an angle to each other, and when
the motion is not required to be reduced so much as
with an ordinary worm and worm-wheel.
Hooke's oblique wheels are the same as the last.
One wheel is a portionof a right-handedscrew of many
threads ; and the other a portion of a left-lianded
screw. They are used to communicate motion under
the same conditions as spiu- gearing,but when the
motion is required to be absolutelyuniform, and

without jerk. These wheels are much more used on
the continent than in this country. Many excel-

very
WHEEL-CUTTIKG. 181
lent specimenswere exhibited in the. Paris Exhibition,

1867, appliedto various purposes.
Eacks may be considered as spur-wheelsof infinite
radii ; in these the teeth are cut on flat rods of metal,

and they are geared into by spur-wheels.
Worm-racks are those geared into by a worm or
worm-wheel.
The methods of strikingout the various shaped

teeth, the relative values of the involute,epicycloidal,
Willis',and other shaped teeth,"c., form no part of
the present work.
Most small gearingis now constructed accordingto

the approximate epicycloidalmethod of Professor
Willis. Almost all the old had

millwrights a method
of their own for strikingout their gear teeth,and of
course each method was considered by its user better
than all the rest. There is stilla number of different
sorts of teeth in use, but whatever shape of tcoth be
used, the method of cuttingit is the same.
The pitch line,or pitch circle of a wheel, is the

circle which has a common boundary with the wheel
with which it is geared. The inverse ratio of the
diameter of the pitch circles of any two wheels, as
well as the inverse ratio of the number of teeth in the
wheels, will give the velocityratio.

The pitch of a wheel is the distance between the
centres of two adjoiningteeth,measured on the pitch

line.
"
For small gearingthe pitch is now generallyex-

pressed
by the number of teeth to an inch of diameter.
By ten pitch is understood that for every inch of its
diameter a wheel contains ten teeth ; if the wheel were

five inches in diameter, it must have teeth.

fifty The
simplicityof this mode of calculatingthe pitches

renders it very convenient, and causes it to be exten-
sively
used.
Small wheels, whether of wood or metal, are almost
invariablycut out of the solid material. The wheel
is first bored with its requiredhole, then turned to the
size of the outsides of the teeth,and then the teeth
are formed by cutting out the spaces between the
teeth. Generallythe cuttingout is performed at one
operation,that is, the whole cut is taken at once ;
sometimes the bulk of the metal is taken out with a
plaincutter, and the teeth are finished by a cutter of
the proper shape.

Whatever the shape of tooth, it is obvious that the
cutter must be made with a cuttingedge the shape

and size of the required space. And these vary for
every diameter, as the reader may see by striking

out, with dividers, on paper or tin,a pinion of say
twenty teeth and a wheel of 100 teeth. The larger

the wheel, the smaller the space. It is certain that a
difference of one tooth in the size of two wheels must
make a difference in the size and shape of the spaces.
This difference is so very small, however, that it can
scarcely be detected, and practically,

one cutter will
answer for wheels of considerable difflerence in dia-

meter.
The cutters are rather expensive articles,

but
it is bad policy to use a cutter for wheels to which it is
not adapted, for the sake of savingan extra one. They

can be bought of any size and shape, and instructions
for making these instruments and others of like nature
will be given hereafter.

moving the handle 6, either of which will (;ause the
revolvingcutter to be carried past the work, cuttingon

its way a groove, which is the space between two teeth.
The slide being then moved back, and the division-plate

moved as many divisions as will give the pitch of the
wheel, another space is cut in the same manner.
Bevel wheels having teeth smaller as they near
the apex of the cone, of which the pitch surface
is a frustrum, it is impossibleto use a cutter which
will cut the space between two teeth at one operation.

For a bevel-wheel the cutter is of the size and shape
of the smallest part of the space between the teeth.
The slide of the apparatus is placed parallelto the
pitchsurface of the wheel, and inclined wards,

down-
slightly
so as to cut one side of the tooth the divi-
first, sion
plateis then moved until all the spaces are cut in
this manner, after which the instrument is adjusted to

finish the other side of the tooth in the same way.
Skew bevels are cut the
similarly, slide beingplaced
parallelto the pitch surface,but inclined up or down
according to the amount of *

skew,' or inclination of
the teeth.
Worm-wheels are cut with the slide b parallelto

the lathe-centres,
and inclined up or down according
to the direction and pitch of the tangent screw by
which the wheel is to be driven ; the traverse of the
cutter being obtained' by moving the screw b. Very

however
frequently, "
for
especially those purposes for
which the fit between the wheel and its tangent screw
is required to be very nice "

^worm-wheels are cut by a
worm-cutter, that is a cutter the facsimile of the one to
work into the wheel, but made of steel,and serrated.

WHEEL-CUTTING. 185
The spaces are first roughly cut by means of any

other cutter, rather smaller than the finished groove,
but no traverse is given it,the slide of the rest being
merely moved in and out, so as to cut a curved recess
instead of a straightgroove. This being done all
round, the worm-cutter is substituted for the other,

the carrier is taken off the mandril, and both centres
are oiled,so that the wheel and its mandril may rotate
freely.The cutter is then adjusted to the rightheight,

and to the middle of the wheel's thickness,it is put in
rather slow motion, and set into the grooves alreadycut.
In its rotation it causes the wheel itself to rotate, and
being forced into cut by turning the slide rest-screw,
the grooves are accuratelycut, and a good fit between
the wheel and its worm ensured.
Spiraland obliquewheels are the same, and they are

manufactured in the same manner. I have cut them
in the lathe with singlepoint tools,in the same manner
as worms, which in fact they are. They can, ever,

how-
be more manufactured
satisfactorily by circidar
cutters.
The ordinaryspur-wheel cutters are used, and the
apparatus arranged preciselyas for worm-wheel ting.

cut-
The traverse is obtained by change-wheelscon-

necting
the cone to the leading screw, and moving the
slide-rest along the bed, the leading screw being

rotated by a handle on the end of the tangent screw,
and by its rotation drivingthe lathe-spindle

through
the change-wheels. The cutter is drawn out of cut
on its return traverse by the handle 7i,as in ordinary

screw-cutting.The wheel is divided, not by the vision-plat
di-
in the usual manner, but by placing a

186 LATHES A5D TURX156.
wheel of the same or double the number of the teeth
of the required wheel on the end,

lathe-spindle and
moving it forward one or two teeth in gear with the
wheel it drives,for every cut taken.
For the piece of

rack-cutting metal to be cut is at-
tached
to the "ce plate of the lathe in a horizontal
position,the cutter slide placed exactlyvertical ; the
spindleis then horizontal. Motion is given to the
cutter in the same manner as before, except that the

gut need not pass over the two guide pulleys,
but direct
on to the pulley t. The traverse for the cut is of
course obtained by moving the screw 5, and the pitch

is divided by moving the screw of the shde-rest.
With regard to spur-wheels,they are generally

circular,but and
elliptical other shaped spur-wheels
are frequentlyrequired to transmit variable motion.
Wheels of irregularshape can be turned by the
apparatus, and in the manner previouslydescribed;

they can also as readilybe cut by using tjie wheel-
cutting apparatus, combined with the shaper-plates.
Dividing the teeth must, in these cases, be done by
hand, the division-plate
not being applicable.
The diameter of the wheels to be cut in the. lathe-
centres is of course limited ; but those who wish to cut
largerwheels can do so with the same cutting appa-

ratus,
but by having another spindlefastened to the
lathe-bed at rightanglesto it. One end of this spindle

*
can carry a division plate,and the other end be
screwed to receive various sized studs for carryingthe

wheels to be cut. The wheels must projectand come
just outside the edge of the lathe-bed,the cuttingappa-

ratus
is placed in the same relative positionwith the
MILLING OR CIHCULAB CUTTEB MAKING. J87
work as before, and the whole operation is conducted
in the same manner.
By this means wheels of any required diameter can
be cut, up to 6 or 8 feet,but the pitch must not be
very coarse.
MILLING OB CIBCULAB CUTTER MAEINQ.
The very small cuttera used for cuttingwatch wheels
are fimall pieces of steel turned to shape, and portions

of the metal 61ed to convert the circle into a ting
cut-
away
instrument. This method is also used
occasionally
for largerwheels, and for cutters for other purposes,
but only in the absence of the proper instrument.
The laigercutters, whether for wheel-cutting or any

other purpose, are, according to the best practice,care-
fiillymilled or serrated in a machine for the purpose.
The cutters made by the machine are much
better than the ordinary cutters in every
respect. Their cutting principleis almost
perfect,they are far more durable, and are
hardened with greater certainty of not
flying or warping. Of course, the work
produced by them is also of a superior

quality.
A wheel-cutter is shown at Fig. 164,
and an ordinary tap-cutter at Fig. 166.
All these are cut by means of a machine
or instrument applied to the lathe. Some of these
cutters, of good workmanship, are exhibited

very
at the Patent Office Museum, South Kensington, by
Mr. Bodmer, of Manchester, and a machine for their
"
manufacture was shown by Messrs. Fairbairn and Co.,

of Leeds, in the Exhibition of 1862.
The contrivance described at Figs. 167 and 168 is
different from, and I believe somewhat simpler than,

those in ordinaryuse. It consists of a base plate a,
which is fastened to the plateof
receiving the slide-rest
by two dovetail bolts 6, in the same manner as the
rest of the apparatus. The nuts of these bolts are,
however, fitted into recesses to be out of the way of the
slide. The bottom of the plate a is cast with a rib,

which is planed to fit lengthwisein the groove of the
receiving plate of the slide-rest. This rib answers
the double purpose of strengtheningthe platea, and
keeping the apparatus in proper position,with one
of its slides parallelto, and the other at right angles

with, the line of the lathe-centres.
The top face of the plate a has two cheeks, form-
ing
the sides of a short slide,and into which fits the
lower part of the slide c. Tins slide is at rightangles

to the lathe-centres,and is traversed by the handle d
at the back of the instrument, the link e fonning a
connection between the handle d and moveable part

of the slide c. The top of the slide c also has cheeks
forming the sides of another slide/ at rightanglesto

the under slide.
The slide / is a casting of the shape shown, and
forming a frame or standard for the cutter sjnndle ff.

This spindle is of hardened steel, and runs in the
neck of the frame, and also in a hole in the lower
part of the slide /, as will be understood from the
dotted lines.
The cutters are small serrated piecesof steel,form-

MILLING OR CIRCULAR CUTTER HAKIKG. 189
190 LATHES AND TUHNING.
ing frustra of cones. One is shown in place,its lower
edge is just level with the lathe-centres. The cutters do
not screw directlyinto the but

spindle, into a receiving
piece which is screwed to the and
spindle, forms a part
of it. The pieces
receiving vary in shape,accordingto the
cutter to be used. Some of the cutters are very small,

and therefore will not admit of a hole through them ;
they are therefore made solid,with a small projecting

screw, which is screwed into a piecemade
receiving for
the purpose. The pulleyfor drivingthe spindleand

cutters is placed between the two bearings of the
and being screwed

spindle, shoulder
againsta slight on
the spindle,
acts as a collar to keep the latter in place.
The two small pulleysat the side are merely used as
guides for the drivinggut, which is brought irom a
large pulleyon the shaft overhead, under the guide-

pulleysand around the pulleyon the cutter-spindle.
If we had to cut teeth longitudinally
on and around
a cylinder,a simple revolvingcutter carried by the
slide-rest,and moved along the cylinderby the leading

screw, would ans\i"er oiu: piurpose, and we could pense
dis-
with the slides of the instrument just described ;
but the reader will see, by referringto the figures

of
circular cutters, that the teeth have to be cut on curves
of different radii and peculiarshape. The slides of the
milling instrument are devised to enable us to pass

round these curves, and their action is very simple.
Whatever shape cutter we wish to serrate, we place
a h on
shaper-plate the raised sides of the base plate,
of such a shape that, on the handle d being pulled
out, the bottom slide shall be traversed from the lathe-
centres " a distance equal to the heightof the curve of

of the instrument should not be altered until the rations

ser-
have been made all round one side,after which

the should
shaper-plates be transposed,and the other
side of the blank cutter serrated in the same manner.
The rotatingcutter should be kept well moistened, and

the whole operation conducted in much the same
manner as wheel- cutting.

There are one or two peculiarities
with respect to
the size of the small cutters for the instruments,and

the shape of the which
shaper-plate should be stood.
under-
The cutters for serratingthe blanks for wheel-
cutting must not have a greater diameter than that of
the curves forming the sides of the wheel teeth,plus

double the depth of the serrations or teeth.
The guides i may either be round or pointed "

if
pointed,the curve of the will

shaper-plates not be the
same as the curve the cutting-wheelhas to describe.
When these curves difier in shape,there is some culty

diffi-
in findingthe shape of the platenecessary to pro

duce the requiredcurved movement of the cutter ; and
a specialapparatus will be required to facilitate the
finding of the curves of the shaper-plates.It is
therefore more convenient to have shaper-plates

the
same curve as the blank to be milled, but in this
case the ends i of the guides must be made circular,

semi-
and with a diameter equal to the diameter of
the wheel-cutter, minus double the depth of the rations.

ser-
The speed of the cutters should be from 25 to 60
feet per minute, according to the qualityof the steel
composing the blank cutter.
Worm-cutters are milled in much the same manner

FLUTING, FACING AND SLOT DRILLING. 193
as the ordinarycutters, it beingonly necessary to con-

nect
the leadingscrew to the lathe-spindle by a train

of wheels which will produce the required pitchof
worm" rthe same wheels, in fact,as were used in
cuttingthe worm. The serrations are spacedby the
division-plate,
as before ; but in this case every ment
move-
of a division of the platenot only moves the

blank cutter round the distance between the serrations,
but moves the shde-rest and rotatingcutter along the
bed " â distance
corresponding to the traverse of the
screw for that portion of its revolution.
Fly-cutters can also be cut by the millinginstru-

ment
with greaterprecision than they can be filed up.
The cutter is fastened in the the spindle
cutter-spindle,
itselfis then placedbetween the lathe-centres,
with the
cutter blade lyinghorizontal. The millinginstrument
is used in the same manner, and with the same shaper-
platesand same diameter of cutter as for a circular
blank intended to cut wheel teeth of equalpitch. The
in
division-plate this case is not necessary, but care
must be taken to hold the blank immoveable

fly-cutter
in the horizontal position.
FLUTING, FACING AND SLOT DRILLING.
is not
Wheel-cutting the onlyuse of the wheel-cut-
ting
apparatus ; it is obviouslyof use in many other
of analogous
operations nature.
Many classes of machinery require long fluted

rollers,long pinions,"c., and these fluted rollers and
long pinionsbeing merelyspur-wheels of small diameter
but wide face,are cut in preciselythie same manner as
-
I
and
spur-wheels, with revolvingcutters the same shape
as the groove to be cut.
The drawing rollers of spinningmachinery also are
fluted with a series of shallow angular grooves, and
these are easilydone in the lathe by a circular revolv-

ing
cutter.
Key-groovingin shafts,grooving taps and rhymers,

cuttingsquare, hexagonal,and polygonal shapes,either
parallelor taper, are also easy of accomplishment with
circular cutters, the motion being attained by shifting

the slide-rest very slowlyalong the bed. The number
of grooves is obtained by moving the the

division-plate
Fig. 169.
^^BBwSiS?*''
:^=SZ-IF"=aS:-~- _.c-;H!lltrrB ;-"'"'""'

..
requireddistance, and the taper is obtained by shifting

the screw headstock out of line,as for tapert urning.
Spiralgrooves of coarse pitch,spiralrhymers,spiral
spiralsquares, and polygons,are
drills, cut by revolving
cutters, the and
lathe-spindle leadingscrew being con-
nected
with a train of wheels of such a ratio as will
produce the required pitch. The number of

grooves
being obtained by moving the wheel on the lathe-
spindleor leading screw, and putting it in

gear at a
place one-third, one-fourth or other part of a turn
from the former place.

For all sph-alflutingthe revolvingcutter must be
FLUTING, FACING AND SLOT DRILLING. 195
placed at the same angle as the inclination of the
thread, and for coarse the lathe-spindle

pitchedspirals
must not drive the but
leading-screw, the leadingscrew
must drive the and work,
lathe-spindle the motion of
the lathe being much slowet than that of the screw.
The leadingscrew is itself actuated by hand by means
of the worm and wheel at its end ; the motion must
be very slow, and a^ regularas possible. The tangent

screw is hinged, to allow its being withdrawn from
gear with the wheel when the leading

screw has to revolve separately.
By using the circular cutter in tion
conjunc-
with the vibratingslide-rest,
squares
or polygons,either straightor spiral,
can
be cut of very irregular

longitudinal
tions.
sec-
The drilHnginstrument. Fig.169, affords

a ready and effective means for doing
much useful work. This instrument is merely a steel
rotatingin
spindle, a long steel bearing,which is made
square on the outside for fittingthe ordinary tool-

holder. The steel spindlein front is fitted with a
male screw, and also a hole for receivingthe various
drills and cutters, and at back it carries a grooved

pulley,by which the drills are driven by a gut from a
pulleyon the shaft overhead.
The drills for usingin this instrument are shown at
Figs.170 and 171.
The flat-faced drills are much used for cuttingkey

grooves. The shaft in which the groove is to be cut
being placedbetween the lathe-centres and held without
moving ; the instrument

drilling is placed in the tool-
holder, with its centre just level with the lathe-centre.
The drill should be at rightangles to the surface to be
cut, and therefore of course quite horizontal. In using

the drill,it is put into rotation, its point
*^"' ^'^'
kept lubricated,and a cut taken by ing
mov-
the surface slide farther in. The
slide-rest is moved alonguntil the drill has
taken a cut of the required length; it is
then set farther in to take another cut,

and is again traversed along the groove.
This is continued until the key-grooveis
made the depth required. Slot-holes and
mortices are cut in and

connecting-rods boring-bars,
"c., by continuingthe depth of the slot until the drill
"
^which should be rather smaller than the finished
slot "
^has cut rather more than half through the shaft.
The shaft is then turned half round, and the drill worked
the other side until the hole is through ; after Avhich a
proper-sizeddrill is worked quite through from one
side to finish the slot.
Key-grooves and mortices are made in this manner
much faster and better than by the old method of
chipping,and filing.
drilling,
Flat grooves and slots may be drilled spirally
by
givingthe required relative speeds to the lathe-spindle
and leadingscrew. The same methods are applicable
to woods and all the metals.
By turning the drilling

instrument a quarter round,
so as to be at rightanglesto the face-plate,
grooves and
slots may be cut in work on the face-plate radially,"
by having the work stationary,

and moving the surface
slide of the rest ; concentric and circular,by having

PLANING AND SLOTTING. 197
the drill and

stationary, moving round the work. volute
In-
spiralgrooves or slots may be cut by having

both the work in rotation and the drill the
travelling,
and
lathe-spindle surface-screw of the rest being con-
nected
by changes. And eccentric-circular,

elliptic,
cardoid, and cam grooves, by using the revolvingdrill
with the irregular-shape
turningapparatus in the manner
alreadydescribed.
PLANING AND SLOTTING.
Amateurs who wish to make their own turningand

other apparatus will find a planing head very useful.
There are many varieties of this contrivance,all derived

from the planingmachine of the engineers. It is,of
course, far better to have a small plane apart from the
lathe, " a separate or specialmachine in fact ; but this,

of course, is more expensive.
In those instruments applied to the lathe,the slide
of the rest is generallyused as the plane sUde, and to
this is attached the work, the tool being carried by a
frame with a slide for obtainingthe side traverse. All
the tool frames I have seen are much too heavy and
clumsy " so much so as to make it almost necessary to
use a block and tackle to take them on and off the
bed. Another varietyof planingapparatus has revolv-

ing
cutters instead of the ordinarytool. This ment

instru-
cannot, however, be recommended.

One of the uses to which a planingapparatus is often
applied is to plane the V-slides of the various chucks
and cuttinginstruments ; and in order that these may
be so planed,the tool must be carried by a swivelling

198 LATHES ASD TUESIXQ.
head, or a head which will enable the tool-slide to be
placed at any requiredangle.

The contrivance shown at Fig. 172 is designed for
use with the lathe shown at Figs. 138, "c.
It confflsta of a hollow caat-iron box or frame, or tool
head, which is planed to fit on the lathe-bed, where it is
firmlybolted ; it ia,of course, removable at pleasure.
The box frame terminates in firtnt in a circular
flange, to which is bolted the slide-head, this also
is circular ; the bolts fasteningthe two togetherhave

dovetail heads, and fit into a circular dovetail groove
cut in the back part of the slide-head. The bolts
come through ike flange,and are then fitted with nuts,
as will be seen. It will easilybe understood that the
slide-head can be turned round in either direction,

and to any extent without difficulty,
as the dovetail
can easilybe made if

self-acting necessary, but that I
leave to the ingenuityof the amateur. The speed for

cutting should be rather less than when turning.
Wrought iron and steel requirethe same lubrication as
for turning.
So far as the plane-head is concerned, a cheaper
apparatus can be used, inasmuch as the head-iShde and
tool-holder can be dispensedwith, and the small pound

com-
slide-rest and holder belonging to the lathe
used instead. This is not quite so complete ; theless,

never-
I can vouch for its answering the purpose. It
also can be adjustedto cut at any angle,and it has the
additional advantage of allowingof the adjustment of

the slide for positionand height.
Hitherto I have only spoken of the plane-headand
the slide,and mentioned that the work must be versed
tra-
backwards and forwards under the tool ; this
traverse, of course, can be obtained from the screw,
but to do so is inconvenient and inadvisable. It should
be obtained from a crank arm with adjustablethrow,

and forming part of a largewheel of about 12 inches
diameter, fastened horizontally

on the bed, and geared
into by a small pinion of about twenty teeth, on a
spindle,having a small pulley for receivingmotion

from the overhead shaft,by means of a leather belt or
a gut line. The crank arm is connected to the saddle
by means of a strong connecting-rod.

The most convenient manner for usingthe apparatus
is to place the plane-headnear the cone headstock with
the shde projectingtowards the righthand, the crank-
wheel is placed between the slide-rest and the screw
headstock. The travel of the work is of course forwards

PLANING AND SLOTTING. 201
and backwards, a distance equal to double the eccentri-

city
of the crank arm. The throw of the crank should
always be adjusted to give the saddle a traverse equal

only to the lengthof the work to be cut.
It is easy to combine the plane-headand the traverse
mechanism in one, but this is not so convenient as
having them separate, because the traverse mechanism
is useful for other purposes. For instance, with the
traverse apparatus and a tool,such as Fig. 173, placed

in the slide-rest,
slotting
or paring may be efficiently
Fig. 173.
accomplishedon work fastened to the of

face-plate the
lathe. The circular motion of the lathe, and the
straight
line motion of the saddle-slide,
allow a variety
of useful work to be done which would otherwise
requirethe laborious use of the chippingchisel and file.
Amongst such work may be mentioned cuttingkey-

ways in the holes of wheels, and other articles,
paring
the curved parts of the bosses of levers that will not
admit of being turned, shapingthe edges of work that
cannot convenientlybe fastened to the slide-rest and
planed.
The traverse mechanism is also useful in tion
conjunc-
with the frame
drilling for and
slot-drilling other
work.
AITENTION TO THE LATHE, REPAIRING TOOLS, etc.
Lathes and tools,beingsubjectedto usage and wear,
need care and attention to prevent unnecessary damage,

and occasional renovation to repairthe deterioration
from ordinarywear.
resulting
The wearing surfaces of the slides should be kept
lubricated with good clean oil,and dust or grit of any
sort prevented gettingabout them. However much
care be taken, it is not possibleto keep off all dust ; it
is,therefore,advisable to take
occasionally apart the
wearing surfaces,and clean off all the oil and dust
adhering to them, taking care to well lubricate the
surfaces before againsettingthe apparatus to work.
Proper holes should be made to allow of easy
applicationof the oil, and these holes should always

be kept open and free from dirt,as otherwise they are
worse than useless.
It is difficult to prevent grit gettingbe-

especially tween
the surfaces of the slide-rest and bed ; but this
must be done as much as possible,or the surface wiU
soon become scratched with deep lines, and also

*
untrue/
Soda-water does not rust wrought iron, but if
allowed to remain on un-oiled cast iron for any length

of time, rust will be formed ; this, if not allowed to
get very deep, may be rubbed off with a piece of oily

waste, without leavingany disfiguration.
The various slides of the lathe and rest should be
tightenedup as soon as they wear slack and begin to
vibrate,all well-made lathes having their slides pro-

vided
with a loose cheek and side screws for the pose
pur-
of takingup the wear.
The necks of the lathe-spindle

must also be screwed
togetherwhenever the spindlebeginsto vibrate,or give

endways againstthe cut.
ATTENTION TO LATHE, ETC. 203
Aa a rule, all meddling with the adjustableparts of

the lathe is to be avoided, and no change made unless
required, which, with proper usage and good manship

work-
to begin with, will in every part be very

seldom.
The lathe-centres must be

occasionally looked to,
and a spare set kept on hand. With use the stationary
centre will get blunt, and they both, even with care,
will sometimes get broken off; they will then need
and
re-turning, to that end must be first annealed, and
then screwed into the and
lathe-spindle turned to a
gauge. The proper angle must always be retained.
They must not, therefore, be turned at random, but

turned carefully
to fit a thin sheet steel gauge made to
the rightangle. They must then be hardened and
tempered,after which placed âin in the centre hole
of the spindle,
to see whether they run true.
It will sometimes happen that theywere not screwed
up quite tightwhen being turned, or that a bit of dirt
was between the surfaces that should have been in
close contact, and sometimes the centre will warp in
the hardening. In either of these cases, on the centre
being returned to the and

lathe-spindle, set in motion,
it will be found that the pointswill not run true, but
will be eccentric or erratic. An untrue centre in the
would
lathe-spindle cause the work turned on it to be
eccentric to the centre mark, so that when changed

end for end the turned part will run eccentric,and the
shaft will be untrue.
An untrue centre in the screw-spindle

may or may
not make any difference ; this depends on the position
of the point when in its place. If the point of the
untrue centre and the point of the proper centre be in
a vertical line, the work will be either very slightly

raised or lowered, and very little,if any, ence
differ-
be made to it; but if that line be horizontal,

the work turned between the centres will be either
rather largeror rather smaller at that end than at the
other.
Should a tool or drill break off,and become much
damaged, it must be annealed, and brought to shape

roughly again by forging or after
filing, which it is
hardened and tempered, and ground again to the right

shape for use.
Most of the ordinary tools are hardened and pered

tem-
at one heating,the tool being made red-hot for
some distance, and the cutting part only quenched in
water, the heat in the remaining part being generally

quite sufficient to reduce the steel until the proper
coloured oxide is formed. When the end of the tool
is quenched it is usual, on drawing it out of the water,
to rub the hardened part quickly on a piece of brick,

as this brightens it somewhat, and allows the colours to
be better observed. When the requiredcolour appears

the whole tool is quenched in the cooling trough.
Other more delicate tools are first hardened altogether,
and then tempered by being held on a lump of hot
iron until the colour appears, when they are again

immediately immersed.
Circular cutters requirethat the water of the cooling
trough should be and
still, not oscillating
or in waves ;
the hot cutters must also be immersed and

flatly moved
quickly but steadilyup and down under the water.

TEMPEBING ^TEEL TOOLS: 205
They are best held by a three-branched spring made
of wire, and paased through the hole ; the wire does
not interfere with the cooling, as it allows the water
free access to the hole, which is a great desideratum, as
otherwise the contraction is unequal, and the cutter
'
frequently either warps out of truth or
*
flies "
that is,
cracks. These cutters require to be carefullytempered,

but, so far as my experience goes, it makes no ference
dif-
whether they are tempered by being placed

on a hot lump of iron, or immersed in oil and
*
blazed off.'
For heating tools and for hght forgiug the neat
little forge shown at Fig. 174,

'^'
made by Messrs. Haudyaide, of
Derby, is commended to the
notice of amateurs.
Emery when
glazing-wlieels,
worn smooth, are renovated by
first washing off all the ing
remain-
then coating with

emery,
good glue, and rollingin emeiy

of the required degree of ness.
fine-
When the glue is dry the
wheel is again ready for use.
The following remarks on tempering tools have
been kindly contributed by Mr. James Nasmyth.
HARDENING AND TEMPERINQ STEEL TOOLS.
Whatever be the of
efficiency the construction of a
lathe or other machine for cutting metal and other
materials, the excellence of the result must ultimately

depend not only on the proper form of the tool which
operates on the work, but also on its capability

to retain
its cuttingedge. This depends on the tool possessing

the proper degreeof hardness and temper.
Before proceeding to the immediate subject of
these remarks, it may be as well to say a few words
on the subject of the treatment of steel in forgingit

into the form of the tool required. In this respect,
whatever be the form of the tool,it is most important

for the preservationof the originalgood quality of
the steel that, in forgingit into the required form,
the lowest degree of red heat should be given to the
steel as may be consistent with its capability

to ceive
re-
the desired form by the action of the hammer.
Any degree of heat beyond that which is just visibly

red in daylightrisks a permanent injuryto the quality
of the steel.
In forgingall such tools as are of a flat form it is
highly desirable that the finishingblows should be
given on the flat,and not on the edge or sideways

of the tool. Attention to this apparently trifling
observation will be well rewarded by the enhanced
durabilityof the tool so produced.

' '
In respect to *
hardening and *
tempering of steel
tools,they are two distinct processes ; hardening first,

tempering afterwards. The first induces the maximum
of hardness, accompanied by brittleness; the second

has reference to modifying that hardness, and so
gainingin exchange a certain degree of toughness.

For the majority of tools employed in self-acting
lathes and planing machines, in which cast iron, steel,
and brass, is turned or planed,steel tools when pro-
The mode by which this tempering process is most
convenientlyattained is by grinding the part of the
tool we desire to temper so as to render it bright,and

then, by resting it on a piece of red-hot iron, we
thereby communicate to our hardened tool such

'
a degree of heat as shall modify or

'
let down the
hardness, and induce such a degree of toughness as

will best suit the requirementsof the case. The gress
pro-
of re-heating effected in this manner is easily
observed by the brightenedsurface of the tool ing
acquir-
in succession a series of prismaticcolours : "
Thus, 1st. Pale straw colour.
2nd. Brass colour.
3rd. Deep brass colour.
4th. Kedish purple.

5th. Purple.
6th. Blue.
7 th. Slate blue ;
beyond which slate blue all remaining hardness, such

as required for the of
generality purposes, terminates,
and the steel returns to softness.
According to the purpose to which the tool is to
be applied,the degree of temper or modification of the
originalfull hard condition may be arrested by plung-

ing
it into cold water the instant the colour indicating
'
the desired '
temper has come on.
1, 2, 3, as from the above list,serve well for most
wood-turning tools.
3 and 4 for screw-taps and drills,

and for chisels
for chippingiron 9,nd brass.

5, 6, 7, for springsor such purposes where a cer-
TEMPEBING STEEL TOOLS. 209
tain degree of elasticity be required in conjunction

may
with a
moderate degree of hardness.
very
To nothing as to the importance to practical

say
mechanics of a thorough knowledge of the art of
hardening and tempering steel, on

which the final
efficiency of all our lathes, planing, and other metal-
working machines depends, we

would earnestly mend
recom-
to the amateur workman to devote few hours

a
to acquire the art of hardening tempering steel

or
in accordance with the brief practical hints we

have
endeavoured to give in the preceding remarks on

the
subject.
James Nasmtth.
21Q LATHES AND TUENIKO.
PART IV.
TOE OSNAHEin'AL LATHE.
As mentioned before, the ornamental lathe is very
similar to a hand-tool lathe with slide-rest,its chief

difference being in the addition of certain appliances,
to iacilitate and make more convenient the apphcation
of the various ornamental apparatus. The bed of the
lathe, Fig. 175, is of metal, and supported on two cast-
iron standards, which it is unnecessary to show in the
illustration. These standards the cranked shaft

carry
with drivingcone, and also the treadle.
Sometimes these lathes are fitted with chains for

THE ORNAMENTAL LATHE. 211
communicating the motion of the treadle to the crank,

and sometimes with the ordinaryconnecting-rod.
They
are seldom driven by other than foot power ; and as
the work performed is as a rule very the

light, ing
work-
parts are made no stronger than is necessary to
resist vibration.
The drivingpulleysare usuallytwo, of different
sizes,placedon the crank-shaft,and grooved for gut

bands. The gut used seldom exceeds three-sixteenths
inch in diameter, whilst one-eighth

inch gut is sufficient
for the overhead motion. These gut bands are either
nicely spliced,or jointed by hooks made specially

for the purpose. The former plan is considered the
neatest, but the latter is most convenient,as the gut

can be unhooked readily
; also,as the guts requireto
be of different lengthsfor the overhead apparatus,
a short length can be hooked on, or taken off,as
required.
The is
largercone-pulley used to drive the lathe-
spindle; the smaller cone is generallyemployed to
drive the various cuttinginstruments throughthe head

over-
motion. Sometimes the lathe only requiresto be
driven, sometimes the cuttinginstruments only,and

both
occasionally are set in motion at the same time.
The screw headstock is very similar to the one
alreadydescribed,only of a much construction

lighter ;
it is sometimes fitted with a hand-wheel, and times

some-
with a hole and pin. It can be moved along the

bed and fastened at any placerequiredby turningthe
hand-screw underneath the bed.
The cone headstock is of somewhat peculiar

con
struction. The spindlehas on it the usual cone pulley

p2
and this cone has its front edge divided into several
lines of divisions ; at each of these divisions there is a
small hole drilled,and the pointera carries a small pin

to fit into these holes. The index-pointeris so made
that it may, when not in use, be shifted out of the
way without the trouble of removing it altogether; and
it also has the power of adjustment for height by

means of the screw and nut shown. The division
plate is usuallydivided into circles of 960, 360, 200,

180, 144, 136, 120, 112 and 96 divisions.
These lathes are seldom fitted with double gearing,

as the nature of the work is not such as to require
great power. Slow motion is, however, jfrequently
necessary, and is obtained by means of the tangent
screw h working into correspondingteeth cut on the
edge of the wheel c. This wheel is termed the segment
divider,and has another use assignedto it. It is rated

perfo-
with seventy-two holes at the side,and into these
holes are sometimes fitted two pinsin such that
positions
the lathe in rotatingwill cause them to come in contact
with the segment stop d^ and so prevent the lathe-
spindlemaking more than a certain portion of a tion.

revolu-
The segment stop d also has a power of ment

adjust-
by means of the screws shown, so that should a
movement be requiredto commence or end at a point

on the work representedby a space on the segment
wheel between two divisions,these screws can be so
moved up or down as to meet the segment pin and minate

ter-
or commence the motion at the requiredpoint.

The segment stop and this power of adjustment are
both very useful, and are frequentlyrequired. It is a
distinct apparatus from the division plateof the lathe,

and is used for a different purpose.
The has
lathe-spindle also another which
appliance,
givesit a very useful motion, usuallycalled a ing
travers-
or pumping motion; and lathe-spindles

so structed
con-
are termed traversingmandrils. The spindle

itself is made of hard steel,and is for some length,in
addition to the part that runs in the bearings,turned
perfectlycylindricaland parallel.Any part of this
parallelportion will therefore pass into the hardened
steel bearings of the spindle,and will fit the bearings

equally well. At the a short distance
back, the spindle,
after it has passed through the second bearing, is
turned down rather smaller to receive certain sockets,
which sockets have on their outside surface spiral
grooves, or grooves of wavy curves. Just below the
spindleis a small arbor or stud for carryinga piece of

steel peculiarlyshaped. Its edge is formed of the
concave halves of circles,and each of these curved
parts is fitted with a screw-thread of an inclination
correspondingto the spiralcut on the various sockets
fittingon the end of the lathe-spindle.The arbor
carryingthis set of nuts or half-circles of screw-threads
is made to have a certain amount of vertical motion,

to bring the correspondingthreads of the socket and
half nuts either into contact or out of reach of each
other.
These two screwed parts beingbrought into contact,

it will be readilyseen that they will act precisely
as an ordinaryscrew and nut. The nut being held
stationary,any rotation of the lathe-spindle

causing
the screw socket to rotate, will cause the spindleto
traverse forwards or backwards in

longitudinally its
bearings,according to the direction of rotation and
inclination of the thread. Thus, supposing the screw-
thread to be right-handed,
a forward rotary motion
will cause the spindleto traverse outwards towards
the other headstock.
It is of course necessary, when the lathe is working

in this manner, that the motion should be slow ; indeed,
it is generallypulled round by hand, and when the
spindlehas traversed,either as far as requiredor so far
as the length of the screw-threads will allow, it is

caused to move
'
backwards by reversingthe direction
of rotation,and moving it round by hand in the con-
trary direction.
It is also necessary, when the spindle has this
movement, that all obstructions to its motion should be
removed. The index-pointermust be turned wards,

down-
and the tangent screw must be lowered out of
with the worm-wheel. When this motion is not

gear
in use it is evidentlynecessary to have some means of
holding the spindlesteady,and of preventinglongi-

tudinal
motion of any sort. This is effected by ing
remov-
the screw guide from the and

lathe-spindle tuting
substi-
a plainsocket largerthan the hole of the spindle

bearing,which therefore acts as a collar,and prevents
the spindlemoving endways.
The slide-rest can be moved from the bed and the
hand-rest put in its place. The hand- tool rest and
holder are very much the same as the ones already

described. They do not, therefore, require further
illustration or description.
The slide-rest,in its essential particulars
and move-
216 LATHES AND TDENING.
At the other end the screw is prolonged through

the metal of the slide,and is turned to receive various
requiredin
spur-wheels, some of the ornamental tions.
opera-
There are also on the shde two movable stops,
A, each having screw adjustment,as will be seen. These
stops are requiredto determine the travel of the slide,

or to allow the tool to traverse only within certain
requiredlimits.
The top slide is a short one, and is not traversed by
a screw in the usual manner, but it has two screws, i e,
the left-hand one being shorter than the other. The
short screw determines the depth of the of

penetration
the tool ; the other side screw is used to govern the
movement of the sUde, which is usuallyforced into and
withdrawn from cut by means of the lever k/
The tools are held in the groove cut in the internal
slide,and are fastened down by two screws, /,as will

be seen by the illustration. This tool-slide can be
readilyremoved by slidingit out endways and any

other shde put in its place.
The two side screws are also made with a pitch of
ten threads to the inch, and the heads of the screws
are used as indices by being divided round their edges.

There are also means of adjustingthe tools to the
exact height of centre, round

by shifting the nut m at
the bottom of the slides.
The long shde may be placed either parallel

to the
line of centres for cylinderturning,or at rightangles

to it for surface turning,and there are stops placed
below, so that when the rest is shifted round to
touch one of these and

stops it is perfectlyparallel,
when in contact with the other stop it is exactlyat
rightangles. Any intermediate angle can be obtained
accordingto the divisions marked on the socket, and

the whole slide is fastened firmlyat its requiredangular
positionby tighteningthe screw n.
Hiie groove in the tool-slide is made largeenough

to receive the socket of the various ornamental ments
instru-
to be used with the slide-rest,

but as the turning
tools are most of them much smaller than these, there
are the
grooved receivers,fitting groove of the tool-rest
slide,and having grooves in them to take the various
smaller tools.
At the back of the lathe there is generallya shelf
or board about level with the bed, and this is very
convenient for the

resting various tools and instruments
upon, whilst temporarilylaid aside. There is also in
some lathes a set of drawers for keeping the various
tools and chucks, "c. Some of these lathes are also
made with a casingwhich turns on hinges,and which,

when the lathe is not in use, can be brought over, and
the lathe covered up, so as to represent a bureau or
other similar article of furniture. So far aa this serves
to keep the mechanism of the lathe from dirt it is
certainly
an advantage; but I do not think any amateiu*
turner need be at all ashamed of having a good lathe
seen in any room of his house.
The overhead apparatus shown is merely a lever
hung on an uprightstandard ; this lever has at one end
a hook, to which is fastened various weights,and there
are also several small guide-pulleysover which the
gut passes on its way from the drivingpidley to the
cuttinginstruments. Some of these guide-pulleys

are
fixed "
those just over the drivingpulley "
others may
be moved along the lever until just over the pulleysof

the cuttinginstruments.
The further these pulleysare from the fulcrum of
the lever the more weight must be put on to the short
end of tha lever to keep the gut strained. A small
deviation of positionof the caused

pulleys, by the tra-
verse
of the slide,does not necessitate any shiftingof
the guide-pulleys,
as the weightson the lever end keep
the gUt taut by allowingthe lever to move up or down,
to accommodate itself to the varyinglengthof gut ; but
a change of positionof the slide-rest on the bed will
usuallynecessitate a of
correspondingshifting the guide-
pulleyson the lever.
PLAIN USES OF THE ORNAMENTAL LATHE.
Although this lathe is constructed for ornamental
purposes, it is equallyadapted to the production of

plainwork ; and any of the ordinaryoperationsin hand-
turningwhich have been previouslydescribed can be
convenientlyand conducted
successfully in the mental
orna-
lathe. The same tools and the same rests are
used, and in the same manner as has been already

explained. When any of these simple hand-turning
operationsare to be conducted, it is only necessary
to remove the slide-rest,
and substitute the hand-tool
rest; the instruction given will then apply in every

essential particular.It will, of course, be seen that,
owing to the lightnessof the lathe,heavy metal work
must not be attempted.

The ornamental operations
are therefore additional,
and will not fail to be very interestingto the amateur.
PLAIN USES OF THE ORNAMENTAL LATHE. 219
and productiveof great pleasureand gratification

to all
who choose to try their skill at the work.
The slide-rest is of great service for plain-turning,

as well as for ornamental work ; its use is much the
same as in the lathe previouslydescribed.

self-acting
It will be necessary, however, to give some further
explanationof its uses, and mode of using for light

work, as the work itself difiers somewhat from that to
which I have before adverted.
The various chucks used with this lathe,to hold and

give motion to the work, are the same as those used
when the work has to be done with hand-tools ; the work
is also chucked in the same manner. In this division
of the subjectit will not be necessary to give detailed

instructions for chucking,or to describe the primary
steps to be taken in preparing and fixingwork, as the
reader is alreadyacquainted with the main particulars.

With regard also to the speedsfor turningin the lathe,
with slide-rest tools they are the same as have been
given elsewhere. The number of cuts to the inch is,

much
however, usually greater. For very fine work two
or three hundred to the inch is about the usual thing,

but it is not conducive to good work to have too fine a
traverse. About a hundred to the inch will usually

make good work, and when the tool has to travel
very
fer, this cannot be exceeded with advantage,as the
edge gets blunted before the whole surface is gone
over, and all fine work should, where possible,be

finished by one tool,and without alteration or shifting,
as it is rather a difficult matter, when great delicacy of
surface is required,
to shift the tool and replaceit with-
out
leavingpome sign of this having been done. For

short lengths,or where the tool has not to travel far
over the work, the speed of traverse first mentioned
may be advantageouslyused, and a good and uniform
surface be obtained by it. The tool should always be

made sharp,with a keen smooth edge before putting
into the rest, and the cuttingangle should be retained
as near as possible.
For roughing soft woods the tool shown at Fig. 154
is used ; it is merely a pieceof steel tube ground off as
shown. The tool for smoothing soft wood is shown at
Fig. 176 ; this being smaller than the other tools,fits
FiQ. 176.
into a holder, and the holder again into the groove of
the slide-rest.
The holder is common to all tools of the same size
and shape of shank.
The tools for turning hard woods are of the shapes

shown at Figs.177 to 186. The round tool is used for
roughing down the work nearly to size ; the angular

or pointtool,for turningvees or angular grooves and
other work ; and the flat tool for smoothing or ing.

finish-
The cranked tools are of the same shape in the
cuttingedge, but are cranked or bent sidewaysto adapt

them to inside ttu'ning.
For deep inside and other work of largediameter
the tools
straight are used, but are held in the holder
shown at Fig. 157 ; this allows the tools

straight to be
held at any requiredor convenient angle. The tools
are put between the sides of the groove at the quired

re-
and
inclination, are held firmlythere by tighten-
PLAIN USES OP THE ORNAMENTAL LATHE. 221
ing the screw, as will be readilyunderstood by a glance

at the illustration.
A great number of other tools are required for

various work, such as beading tools and tools of certain
curves ; but all these are made to fit the same tool-
holder, and are used in the same manner as those
illustrated. All these tools,of whatever shape,are to be
bought ready-made,and of standard or uniform sizes
of shank, so as to fit the holder indiscriminately.

Almost any good lathe or tool maker will have them in
both
great variety, as to size and shape ; the amateur
Fig. 177. Fig. 17a Fio. 179. Fig. 180. Fig. 181.
can therefore choose those he wants from a large

selection.
The roughing-toolsare not particularly

delicate,
and the operator may generallysafelytake as heavy
a cut as his work will bear, or as heavy a cut as he
cares to drive, and the traverse may be tolerably

rapid
Tlie last roughing cut, however, should be a lightone,
and made with a tolerablysharp tool,so as to leave
the surface quite true, and to leave little for the

very
tool.
finishing This tool should be very sharp and
smooth, and properlyadjustedto the right heightin

the lathe by means of the screw and nut adjustment
underneath the slides.
To leave a good surface on ivoryor hard wood the

finishing
cut must be the merest scrape that the tool
will take,and the traverse should be fine. It will then
be generallyfound that no "c., will

glass-clothing, be
but
required, that the surface may be polishedor mented
orna-
without further labour being bestowed upon it.
Work which it is intended to ornament much should
never be touched with glass-eloth

or other polishing
material of that nature, as the of glassor
particles
cutting substance get embedded in the fibre of the
wood, and very affect

injuriously the delicate cutting
edge of the ornamentinginstrument. When any ing
polish-
is requiredon work which is also to be ornamented
Fig. 182, Fio. isa Fio. 184. Fia. 186. Fio. 186.
it should always be done before the ornamenting,

and, by whatever method the surface is polished,as
little rubbing as possibleshould be given it. Much
rubbing is apt to render the surface untrue, and the
appearance of some sorts of ornament would be much
impaired.
Should the tool not leave the surface sufficiently
smooth, the best way to render it smoother is to hold
a little of the finest shavings againstthe surface in
motion. They should be applied equally over the
surface,and kept in motion sideways,so as not to rub
the work into grooves or to scratch any lines on it.
When polishingwith any material the work should

224 LATHES AND TUENIKG.
The the
operationsof bringiiig work to shape"are
the
precisely same as those described under self-acting
turning. If the slide-rest have a tangent-wheeland
screw motion, for long work it will be worth while to
make the traverse motion of the tool self-acting

; to do
this it is only necessary to bring up the worm or
tangent-screw into gear with its worm-wheel, and pass

the gut of the overhead motion round the pulley on
the end of the tangent-screw. A very fast motion of
the will then
tangent screw-pulley cause the slide to
slowlytraverse and carry the tool along the work. It

is seldom necessary to make the slide cut both ways,
but the direction of traverse can be easilyaltered
by merely crossingthe gut, which wUl reverse the
direction of rotation of the tangent-screw. The ra-r
pidityor speed of traverse can be regulatedby ing

shift-
the gut drivingthe rest on to a smaller speed of

the cone, if for slowei: traverse, or to a largerspeed,if
faster traverse be required. Or if a greater variation
be necessary, by also treadingfaster or slower, and
shiftingthe gut driving the lathe -
sjpindle
on to a
smaller or largerspeed,to keep the circumferential
speed of the work constant. It is,of course, evident
that the mere treadingfaster or slower will not affect
the relative speed of traverse ; this can onlybe done
by shiftingone of the drivingguts on to a different-
sized speed or groove.

Screw-cutting in the ornamental lathe can also be
managed with the tools alreadyshown

chasing- at Figs.
109 and 110, and in the same manner as there de-
scribed
; but the mandril

traversing offers a convenient
and reliable means of cuttinga good screw-thread.

SCREW CUTTING WITH THE TRAVEBSING MANDRIL. 225
This motion is especiallyuseful for cutting short

threads, such as the screws used occasionally
to hold
round fancy boxes together,and for fasteningto-

gether
in convenient pieces the various component

parts of complicatedwork in ornamental turning. The
work requiring the screw-thread being turned down
to the rightsize "

the size of the outside of the thread
"
the tool at Fig. 159 is put in the rest, if for a male
screw, and the tool at Fig.160, if a female screw be
required,and the slide-rest is adjusted to

conveniently
allow these tools to come into cut. It must be stood
under-
that in cuttingscrews in this manner the thread
is traced, not by the movement of the tool along the

work, but by the work moving past the point of a
stationarytool. The slide-rest is now only used as a
holder for the tool,and to regulatethe depth to which
the thread is cut.
If the screw be requiredto have ten threads to
the inch, a screw socket, ^, of. that pitchis placed on

the lathe-spindle
at the back end, and is there fastened
by the ijut for that purpose. The segment nut /of a
correspondingpitch of thread is then raised to gear

with the thread of the socket, and a little oil being
dropped on the surfaces working in contact, the seg-
ment
tangent-screw 6, if in the gear, is released,and

the division-index of the lathe is moved clear of the
lathe cone. The w^hole is then ready for action.
If the screw be long,the spindlemay

tolerably be
moved round by the foot motion, the gut being on the
slowest speed of the driving cone. For very short
screws it is more convenient to rotate the lathe-spindle

by hand. The tool is put into cut as in ordinary
226 LATHES AND TURNINCT.
turning,and when it has cut as far as required it must
be withdrawn, and the lathe turned round in the
oppositedirection. This will cause the work to recede
from the tool. The tool is now put deeper into cut,
the lathe moved round as before, and the operation
is continued thus until the thread of the screw is cut
of the depth and size necessary for its purpose.
For every separate pitch of screw there must be a
socket-screw or guide-screw, and its corresponding

half-nut; also, there must be a separate guide-screw
and nut for left-handed threads, but with one "guide-
screw we may cut a thread on any size cylinder,
or a
thread of any shape,either round, angular,or square.

The threads may be shallow or deep, or the screw may
have one, two, or three separate threads,but the pitch
must be constant ; that is,with a screw guide of say
ten pitch,or ten complete turns of the thread in one
inch, we may cut screws having one, two, three,four,

or more separate threads, but each of these threads
will be a screw of ten pitch.

The method of dividingthese threads is somewhat
difficult with these apparatus alone, and when a
singlepoint tool is used ; but I shall have to describe
an instrument for the purpose, when treatingof spiral

that
fluting, will apply equallywell to the present
operation. The reader will have no difficulty
in derstanding
un-
its in
application this case after readingits
use in the other.
By discardingthe simple point tool,however, -and

of
using a chasing-tool the proper number of teeth to
the inch, the screw may be cut with ease and truth.
For a four- thread screw .the chaser would need 40

SCREW CUTTING WITH THE TRAVERSING MANDRIL. 227
teeth per inch. The tool should be fastened in the

slide-restjustas the other top},and
single-point at the
same heightof centre ; it will then strike four threads

at a time, but each thread will be a of
spiral one-tenth
of an inch pitch. This, however, has already been
fiilly
explained,
and the reader who does not thoroughly
imderstand the meaning of pitch,and the number of
separate threads,is referred back to the chapterson

screw-cutting.
Internal screws are cut in a preciselysimilar
manner, but with the inside singlepointor screw-tools.
As the operation is one not requiringmuch power,

screws of fine pitch may be cut on metal work of
considerable diameter without fear of damaging the
lathe. The tool should be kept sharp,and very light

cuts taken, the work meanwhile "
if of iron or steel "
being kept well lubricated with oil,or oil and soda-
water.
If the cylinderupon which the screw has to be cut,
whether of wood or iron,be more than three or four
inches long,it will requirefurther support than at one
end. It is evident that in this case, os the lathe-
spindle traverses, the end of the work cannot be
supported in the usual manner by the centre of the
moving headstdck ; it must therefore be supportedby

a stay or bearing,through which the work may slide
in the same manner and to the same extent as the
itselfshdes endways in
lathe-spindle its bearings. The
bearing should fit well,but must not be too tightly

screwed down. A stay bearinghas been illustrated at
Fig.128 ; the dies may be either metal or hard wood,

and they must be arranged exactlycentral,or other*
a2
wise the screw-thread will be deeper on one side than
on the other. The method of adjustingthis bearing

with the centre of the hole in the line of centres has
been alreadyexplained.
Owing to the slidingmotion of the spindleand the
work, the latter must be driven by a chuck, which will
not only drive it but hold it fast to the lathe-spindle.

The ordinary method of drivingby carrier,or by the
prong or is for obvious

cross-driver, reasons not cable
appli-
to drive work wlien the spindlehas this traversing
motion.
It may be that the work upon which the screw has
to be cut is not parallel,

or is not of uniform shape for
sufiicient distance,or in such part of the length as to
allow the support to be apphed with convenience. In
such cases either the work must be turned to its right

size only where the thread is to be cut, and the required
lengthof the remaining part turned and
parallel, of such
a size as the part of

largest the required shape,and this
part used as the bearing,to be, after the screw is cut,
turne'd to any irregular

shape ; or, if the work be already
turned to shape,a socket of right size can be put on
and adjustedtrue whilst the work is supported by both
centres. This socket will then answer for a sliding

bearingto support and steady the work whilst the screw
is being cut.
Should the workman have no socket of convenient
size,a pieceof hard wood may be cut out to fiton to
the work, and held there by glue,screws, or even with
a pieceof small twine. The pieceof wood so fastened
on should then be turned whilst

parallel, the work is
supportedby both centres, which will ensure its being

ORNAMENTAL ENGRAVING. 229
true with the work, and then this is used as the bearing
part of the work. After the thread is cut the piece of
wood can be taken off and the work itself is left un-
injured.
PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON ORNAMENTAL ENGRAVING.
One of the most beautiful as well as scientific uses to
which this lathe is applied is to the by

production,
means of the suitable instruments, of various highly
ornamental and interesting
figuresor curves, generated
by one or more circular movements, by rightline and
other movements, alone or combined.
These figuresmay be made of every conceivable
shape, and in unlimited number and variety. Skilful

operators having good taste can produce patterns
which are reallymarvellous in their gracefuland well-
ai ranged curves ; others,again,are produced of shapes

so curious and that
irregular one can scarcelyimagine
them to be the result of circular movement. spective
Irre-
of the use of these figuresas ornaments, they

are interesting
to the scientific mechanic as demonstrar
ting the various laws of kinematics, or the results ot
various motions. The instruments used for conveniently

producingthe various motions are some of them rather
complicated, and they are also somewhat expensive.

They all require the most accurate workmanship, and
should be as lightas possible,consistent with the
necessary strengthto resist bending or yieldingunder

the strain to which they are subjected. Nevertheless^
as a mechanic
practical I must remark, that accuracy
of combined
workmanship and lightness with strength
230 LATHfiS AND TUR9I50.
is to be obtained rwifihout very great expense, and
that these instruments should be sold mnch cheaper

than they now are. Probably the demand is too small
to allow of the profitableintroduction into the
manufacture of specialmachinery ; but then the high

priceto some extent is the cause of the smallness of
the demand. One would fancy that but few would be
without the instruments for producing such beautifid
work, if their pricewere at all reasonable,and there-

fore
that a reduction of pricewould lead to such an
increased demand, that the manufacturer would have
good*reason to congratulatehimself on his liberal but
true business policy.

The effect of so high a priceis to keep some of the
most beautiful instruments entirelyin the hands of
those who neither know the value of money nor the
value of the instruments they buy, althoughwe sionally

occa-
see serviceable and well-made, but not highly

finished instruments, in the hands of those who are
fortunate in workmen
practical
being sufficiently to be
able to construct the apparatus for themselves. Many

of the instruments can be appliedto other work than
ornamental line engraving ; but, beginningat the most
simpleinstrument, I shall explainthe uses of each in
this respect and

first, devote a separate description
to
their other uses.
The woods best suited to this work are boxwood
and African blackwood ; they must be dry, and fectly

per-
free fi'om cracks and other imperfections.Ivory
is also a very good material, and is, perhaps, more
used than any other substance. Other woods than the
two named may be used, althoughnot with such good

In three
cuttingthese figures, methods are employed:
1. The figuresare cut on a moving surface by a
fixed tool.
2. They are cut on a fixed surface by a moving

tool.
3. They are cut on a moving surface by a moving
tool.
In the first method, the work is fastened to the
ornamental chuck, and the chuck driven by the lathe-
the
spindle, tool being held stationaryin the slide-rest
whilst the figureis cut.
In the second case, the -work is held on the lathe-
spindle,but the spindleis not moved round, except

between the cuts ; the figurebeing produced by a tool
moving over the surface, and caused to thus move by

the instrument to which it is attached, and which is
held in the the

slide-rest, rest itself being stationary.
In the third method, the work is attached to the
lathe-spindle
by an ornamental chuck, moved round by
the the
spindle, tool beingalso moved over the moving
surface by an instrument held in the shde-rest,the slide-
rest being either in motion or stationary.
By whichever method we wish to cut our figures,
the surface of the article to be ornamented must be
brought perfectly
true by turning in the ordinaryway.
The surface should be either left as smooth as possible
or it should be grained or lined with a series of light
concentric circles,as will be presentlydescribed.
A very small prominence or pin of the wood should
be left exactlyat the centre of the turned surface,and

this projectionwill be very convenient as a guide by
which to adjustthe cuttingtools.
ORNAMENTAL ENGBAVING. 23"3
For ornamental turningit is usual to employ the
tools of most pointsfor

obtuse-angled the dark woods,
and the acjute tools for ivoryand the lighterwoods.
This is mostlya matter of taste ; but it is surprising
what a difference in effect is the

produced by altering
angle or shape of the cuttingtool,and stillusing it to
cut the same pattern.

In the greatest care
cutting figures, must be taken
to have all the mechanism clean and free from oil,and

should the operator ever so slightly
cut or bruise his
hands, he should tie a piece of clean rag over tlie
place,to prevent the annoyance of having his work
covered with drops or smears of blood.
The tools used in the slide-rest are those shown at
Figs.177 to 186. The angular tools are mostly used
for ornamental engraving,the others for deeper cutting

and ornamental moulding. These tools must be kept
thoroughlysharp,and with smooth cutting edges ; the
whole success, so far as appearance goes, will be spoiled

if the tools are kept dull or with rough cutting edges.
The improved appearance of the work will generally
one for the trouble of takinga tool out after it
repay
has had some Uttle working,and the figuregone over
nearlyto the requireddepth,and to finish it with a tool
freshlysharpened. It will be convenient to have two
other tool-holders to receive these tools,but to hold
them with their cuttingedge at right angles,and also
completelyreversed.
SLIDE-REST APPLIED TO ORNAMENTAL ENGRA\^NG.
The slide-rest bears a most important part in all
ornamental turning; this it does, however, mostlywhen

used with other apparatus, as by itself its uses in this
way are not great. I will now describe its uses alone ;
its uses combined will be explainedhereafter.

A pointappliedand held againsta surface in motion,
during oue rotation or more, will describe a circle
having for its centre the axis of rotation.
If,therefore,we have a true surface of wood on the
and
lathe-spindle, we put a simple point tool in the
filide-rest,
and apply it to the centre of the work in
motion, a simple dot only will be produced ; if,how-

ever,
we move the point of the tool -five-tenths of an
inch from the centre, by giving the slide-rest screw
five entire tums" and then again apply it to the surface
in motion, a circle will be produced of five-tenths inch
radius, or ten-tenths,equal one inch diameter. By

moving the tool-pointfarther from the centre a larger
circle will be -produced,but no other figurewill be
described in this way. There is not much ornament,
however, in a few lines arranged in concentric circles,

but it is usual, when a large pattern has to be made
with other instruments, to first 'grail'

the surface by
cutting a series of concentric circles at very short
intervals,and with a sharp angular tool of from 20^
to 30^
These cuts should not be very deep,and should only
be just far enough apart to bring the edges,joining
the cuts to a sharp edge. If the cuts be far enough
apart to leave flat tops to the grooves, either they must
be cut deeper or another cut placed between every
cut before made.
The darker the wood the better effect this grailing

or lininghas; for lightwoods most amateurs prefer
QRAILING AND LINING. ^35
polishingthe surfkce to be ornamented, and not grailing

it at all ; and whether the wood be lightor dark, if the
pattern to be cut on it be very deUcate, this liningis
not appUcable. JFig.188 is another rather pretty
pattern, made with the slide-rest,
and it serves also
to illustrate the effect of grailing. The pattern is
usuallyproduced either by the straightline chuck, or
the straightline movement of the ellipsecutter or
geometricchuck.
1. The article to be ornamented with the pattern
being held in a convenient chuck, set the lathe in
motion, and bring the surface to be ornamented to a
true plane.
2. Place a sharpangulartool in the sUde-rest,and
grailor line the surface as before described.
3. Remove the gut or band of the lathe "
that is,
throw it off its speeds " so that, were the treadle
moved, the belt or gut would not communicate the
motion to the Fix

lathe-spindle. the dividingindex
or pointerin its place at one of its divided circles "
say the 960 circle,and at 960.
4. Set an angulartool in the rest on its side^ with

its cuttingside towards the workman.
Fix the stop of the slide-rest so as to allow the tool
to traverse only so far out as will enable it to cut the
longestlines of the star, and set the other stop to pre-

vent
the slide going too near the centre.
5. Screw the slide up to the last stop, and then,

with the adjustingscrew on the tool-slide,
set the tool
up to its depth of cut, and draw it outwards until
againstthe outside stop. One cut will then be made.
6. Withdraw the tool from cut by the other screw

or the lever ; return the slide to its place againstthe

inside stop, move round the division plate of lathe ^th
of a turn or 120 divisions,and make another cut in
the same manner as before. Bepeat this until the
.whole eightlines are thus cut.
7. Set the outer stop to allow the tool to cut only

so far as the length of the next line of the star ; the
inner stop will not requirealtering

at all.
Bring the division plate again at 960, and then
shift it twenty divisions forwards \ make one cut,

and move 120 divisions; cut again; repeat this cutting
for every 120 divisions,until the eightcuts are leted.

comp-
8. Bring the plateagain at 960, and move 20 visions

di-
backwards, and without alteringthe stop of
rest; make a cut, and move forwards 120; cut again,

and repeat until the eightcuts are made.
9. Set the rest stop to the next line of the star;
bring the plateto 960, and move forward 40 divisions ;
make a cut, and move 120 ; cut again,and repeat for

the eight cuts. Bring the plate to 960; move 40
backwards; cut, and move 120 forwards; cut, and

1 20 and cuttingfor the eightcuts.
repeat moving
10. Set the rest stop for the next line of the star ;
bring the plateto 960; move forward 60 divisions,

and
cut; move 120 and cut; continue moving 120 and
cutting for the eight cuts. The pattern will then be
complete,unless it is wished to cut another smaller
star in the central space ; if so, that can be done in a
similar manner.
If it be requiredto make the lines of the stars get

deeper as they recede from the centre, this is managed
THE ECCENTRIC CHUCK. 237
by settingthe slide-rest rather out of parallelwith the
surface to be ornamented, so that, were the surface then
turned, it would be made with a very obtuse angle.
TIIE ECCENTRIC CHUCK.
The instrument shown at Fig. 187 is known as the
eccentric chuck. The boss a screws on to the spindle of

the lathe, just as an ordinary chuck; the
parts b and c are slides similar to those *
of the slide-rest; the internal part c is
moved along by the eccentric screw d.
This screw has ten turns to the inch, and
has a small index at the end, divided into
ten divisions, and marked at every other.
The screw is moved by a small handle,

which is only applied when required,and
is removed before the lathe is set in
motion. As in the slide-rest,one whole turn of the
screw advances the shde c jV of an inch. In addition
to this index there are other divisions marked along

the side of the slide, so that by comparing thMi with
a line on the other slide the extent of eccentricitymay

be seen at a glance.
On the slide e there is a worm-wheel e with 96,
teeth ; this is fitted on a stud, to allow of its moving
round, and is thus moved by means of the tangent
screw/. Some chucks are made with ordinary teeth
and a springcUck or catch, instead of this tangent screw
motion.
The end of the tangent Bcrew is made to

square
receive a suitable handle or wrench, and the collar of
the screw is divided into twenty divisions,

every other
of which is marked. The tangent screw is so fixed
that it can be raised out of gear with the wheel. The
face of the wheel is divided also into two lines of
divisions,one being 96, the other 100. The slide c
carries a small index-pointerfor reading off these
divisions. Both lines of divisions commence .or start
from the same place, and in using the chuck the
index should always be started at that place.

The division-wheel has a projectingscrew of the
same size and pitch as the nose of the lathe-spindle

;
any ordinary chuck fitted to the lathe-spindle

can
therefore be placed equallywdl on this screw of the
eccentric chuck* By turningthe slide-screw the sUde c
is moved along,either from or towards the lathe axis,

according to the direction in which the screw is turned.
The distance the centre of the chuck-screw is from
the centre of the lathe- spindlescrew, as indicated by

the division-hnes on the edge of the slides,is termed
the eccentricity.
When the two centres are coincident the slide has
no and
eccentricity, in that there
position are two holes,
one through b and another through c, which come
oppositeone another, so that a small steel pin may be
pushed through both, and the two slides held firmly

together. When this pin is in place,the work in any
holdingchuck on the chuck-nose screw will run justthe

same as if on the lathe-spindle and, if to
itself, be mented,
orna-
be turned in such with advantage,

position
may
as the surface is then quite true with the chuck itself.
There is no absolute of
certainty the work being true
240 LATHES ASD TDRinNa.
of the tool to the centre as before, aod settingthe lathe
in motion, we shall produce only a dot, but that dot
"will be Y^ of an inch from the last centre. -By shifting

round the index-platetwo divisions between each cut,
we sliall arrange forty-eightdots around this centre in
a circle of 1-inch diameter.
If,however, we move the point of the elide-rest
tool out of centre, by giving its screw 6ve turns, and

which will move it -^ of an inch from the centre, on
again putting the lathe in motion, a circle of 1-inch
diameter will be described by the tool, and the centre
Fi6. 188. Fib. 189.
of this circle will be -j"ôf an inch from the centre of
the circle described, when the eccentric chuck had no
eccentricity. The circumference of the last circle will
therefore pass through the centre of the former.
If we now turn round the index of the chuck one
division at a time, and set the tool into cut between
each, we shall make a figure of ninety-six circles,

arranged equidistantlyaround the centre of the circle
stnick when the chuck had no eccentricity.

1. It will be understood that the radius of the
circle is determined by the movement of the slide-rest,
preciselyas when turning without the chuck.

THE BOCEKTBIC CDTIINa INSTEUMENT. 241
2. The eccentricity
or the distance the circles are
from their common centre, or the centre of the figure,

is determined by the movement of the eccentric slide.
3. The number of circles is determined by the

movement of the division-index of the chuck.
These movements give the whole of the powers of
the eccentric chuck when used alone ; its powers when
combined with other motions will be described after.

here-
Fig. 189 was done with the eccentric chuck. The
forgoing description
of llie chuck and its powers will
enable the reader to understand bow to cut this figure

and almost any others.
THE ECCENTRIC CUTTING INSTRUMENT.
The instrument illustrated at Fig. 190 is the tric

eccen-
cutter. It is for the same work as the eccentric
chuck, but whereas in the chuck the figuresare duced

pro-
on a revolvingsurface by a fixed tool, in the

242 LATHiSS AND TURNING.
cutter they are produced by a fixed surface and
revolvingtool.
The shank or stem a is nicelyfitted to the tool-
holder of the rest, a spindlepasses through the stem, and

at one end has a small brass grooved pulleyi, and at
the other the eccentric slide c, carryingthe tool-holder
d, in which the various tools are held and carried.
The slide has a screw for moving the tool,with a
10-pitch thread and a small divided index on the
screw-head, divided into 10, and marked at every other
division. The screw end has a double milled head,

which is generallysufficient for moving the slide The
screw at the back is for tighteningthe holder against

the slide,to hold it without its shaking or throwing
strain upon the threads of the eccentric screw.
The tools used with this instrument for ornamental
turningare of
chiefly the same shape as those shown
at Figs.177 to 186 ; they are all made with bodies or
stems of the same size,and should fit the tool-holder
easily,but without shake. The angular tools are
mostly used for line engraving,as in the case of the
tools last mentioned.
The shank of the eccentric instrument is put into

the tool-holder of the and
slide-rest, held as an ordinary
tool. Supposing the instrument to be in place,and a
pieceof wood having a plane surface previously

put on
to the and
lathe-spindle, a suitable tool in thfe tool-
holder of the instrument, we proceed as follows.
The gut is removed from the lathe-cone, and a
long gut from the overhead motion placed round the

small pulleyat the end of the instrument, the index-
pointerfor the lathe division plateis put on in place.

THE ECCENTRIC CUTTING INSTRUMENT. 243
The eccentric instrument being in placein the rest,
it is appliedto its work in the manner of an ordinary

tool,viz.,by the slide-rest screws and lever movement.
All being in place and the eccentric slide at zero, on
the tool being appliedto any point of a surface only a

dot is produced, and on the
shifting slide of the rest,
and againapplyingthe tool,a dot is againproduced,

but eccentric to the former dot at a distance corre-
spending with the extent to which the slide-rest was
shifted. If the slide-rest were shifted -nythsof an inch
from the centre, the dot would be made with that
degree of eccentricity.
If,however, the tool of the eccentric cutter were
shifted also -fVhs,corresponding

to five whole turns of
the eccentric slide screw, and the cutter in motion
againappliedto the surface,a circle of 1-inch diameter

would be described by the tool of the instrument.
And the division-plate

by shifting of the lathe round by
any number of divisions at a time, a series of such
circles will be arrangedround the centre of the work,

and the centres will be in a circle of 1-inch diameter.
It will,therefore,be seen that the same figuresare

traced with this instrument as with the eccentric chuck,
but the method of gettingthe radius and eccentricity
and arrangement of circles is altered.
1. In this instrument it will be seen the radius of
the circle is determined by the distance the tool is
shifted alongthe eccentric slide.
2. The of
eccentricity the circle is determined by
the distance the slide-rest is moved ftx)m the centre.
3. The arrangement of the circle is determined by

the movement of the division plateof th" lathc-spindle
B 2
In using this instrument care must always be taken
to adjust it quite central before moving the slides. To
do this it is necessary that the tool of the instrument
should first be placed at its zero on the scale,any thin

smooth piece of wood being then held by the hand
againstthe surface to be ornamented, and the ment

instru-
set in motion, the tool can be brought up to
touch this piece of wood so held. If the tool in volving

re-
describe a circle on the wood, the screw must
be shifted a little until the tool in revolvingdescribes

only a dot. It is then central so far as relates to its own
axis of rotation,and can now be adjustedcentral with
the axis of the lathe,by settingitin motion, and bringing

it up to just touch the little knob left in the surface to
be ornamented. If the dot the tool then makes be above,

below, or one side of the central the
projection, slide-
rest must be lowered, raised,or shifted sideways until

the tool makes a small dot exactlyon the centre of this
point. The and

requiredeccentricity radius can now
be given by moving the slides as before explained.

This instrument will describe all the figuresthat
can be made by the eccentric chuck, but its chief use
is in combination with other apparatus.
THE ELLIPSE OHUOK.
The instrument illustrated at Fig. 191 is the ellipse

chuck. It screws on the the
lathe-mandril, boss being
fitted with a female screw fittingthe mandril nose.
It has slides b and c, very like the shde of the eccentric
chuck, except that it is not moved by a screw, but is
free to move out and in across the centre.

THE ELLIPSE CHUCK. 245
The internal slide c has two jaws a, fastened to it
and going through two properly arranged grooves or
slots made in the slide b.
Fastened to the slide c is a tangent screw and
wheel, in all respects similar to that Pia. 191.
on the eccentric chuck.
There is also another part which

is fastened on to the lathe-headstock
in sxich a manner as not to interfere
with the rotation of the spindle.This

pEot is a sort of frame, having an
elongated hole through it for passing

over the spindle and allowing the
frame to move sideways. Attached
firmly to the frame, or in one piece

with it, 13 a circular ring, and the two jaws of the
other part of the chuck are placed wide enough apart

to span the ring, and fit it nicely without play.
The top part of this frame is graduated, and when on
in place comes level with the top of the headstock,

where there is a line by which the graduations are
read ofi*. This scale is divided into twentieths of an
inch, and generally for a distance of from J inch
to 1 inch from the zero point, on the left of that point

only, the numbers also commencing at the zero line
and going towards the left hand, supposing the operator

to be facingthe chuck. The frame carries two screws,
which fasten it to the headstock by their conical points

fitting
into deep centre marks cut in the opposite sides
of the headstock.
To put the chuck in positionready for use, the
frame must first be put on over the spindle-nose,

care
being taken that the graduated side is uppermost, and

that the holes or indents in the headstock which take
the screw points are free from dirt. The zero
point of the scale should also be oppositethe line
on the lathe-headstock. The other part of the chuck

can now be screwed on to the spindle,the jaws
beingguided by hand to come oppositethe ring and
encircle it. On the lathe being put in motion there
will be no movement of the slide e, whilst the zero
point of the scale is oppositethe index line on the
headstock. The chuCk may therefore be used as a
receiver of any of the plainchucks, and work surfaced
or turned up to a circular shape,precisely

as if it were
directlyon the When

lathe-spindle. used in this way
a small pin is put through a hole in both b and c to
prevent any slightlateral movement of the slide.
Having a true surface on the work, remove the
in
place a point-tool
steadying-pin, the slide-rest and
adjust it level and central with the small projecting

knob left for that purpose on the smface of the work.
Now if the left-hand screw of the frame be loosened
and the right-handscrew correspondinglytightened,

sufficient to bring the tenth divided line of the frame
oppositethe line on the lathe-headstock,this wiU move
the ring^ths of an inch from its former where

position,
it was concentric with the and
lathe-spindle, place it
half an inch eccentric to it.
The lathe in revolvingwill carry the whole of the
chuck around with it,but the jaws of the slide having

to go round the eccentric ring will move the slide to
which they are attached to and fro in the slide screwed
on to the the
On setting
lathe-spindle. lathe in motion.
248 LATHBS A5D TCBSISG.
If now the slide-rest screw be moved, say, five plete

com-
turns, so as to bring the tool's point outwards,

-^hs equal ^ an inch, the ring of the diuck h"ag left
as it is,but the point tool previouslyplaced in its ordi-

nary
wording tool-holder "

On the lathe being pulled
round, startingfrom the vertical positionas before, the
various movemente of the chuck will also be the same
as before, but an ellipse

will be described on the sur-
"ce of the wood, with a conjugate or short diameter
equal to double the extent to which the slide-rest was
shifted,or 1 inch, and with its transverse or long meter

dia-
equal double the extent of the ring eccenhidty,

1 inch, pltt8the length of the conjugate diameter, or 2
inches.
By now turning the tangent screw, and thus shifting

^^ division wheel of the chuck,
Fra. 192.
on settingthe lathe in motion,

and applying the tool between
each movement, a series of
ellipses
will be arranged equally
around the central pcmt of the
wood, and the figuresproduced

will be like those at Fig. 192.
It must be understood that
each series of ellipseswas cut without moving or
alteringthe eccentricity
of the ring,or the distance of
the tool's point from the centre.
An ellipsehaving been struck on any surface attached
to the chuck, if the tool's point be shifted,by means
of the slide-rest screwl the same distance the other side
of the centre, the tool being held in the reverse tool-
holder or the holder by which the tool may be used

THE ELLIPSE CHUCK. 249
with its cuttingedge downwards, an will

ellipse also be
cut, but it will be exactlyat right angles to the one
previouslydescribed.
In using the ellipse-chuck,
it should be borne in
mind that :
"
1. The distance the slide travels fix)m the centre is
termed the throw of the slide/
2. The graduatedscale of the ring frame being at

zero, and the tool appliedto the centre of the surface,a
dot onlyis produced ; but the tool appliedany distance
from the centre, a circle is produced,correspondingin

diameter to that distance.
3. The ring being placed eccentric to the lathe
and
spindle, the tool appliedto the centre of the face,
sur-
a Une is produced equal in length to double the
extent of the ring's ; but

eccentricity the tool being ap-
pUed a distance from the centre, an is produced.
ellipse
4. The conjugate diameter of the ellipseis equal
to double the distance of the tool's point from the
centre ; the transverse diameter is equal to double the
the conjugatediameter.
pliis
ring'seccentricity
5. the
By shifting division wheel of the chuck, the
of
angularpositions the eUipsesare determined.
6. By alteringeither the ring'seccentricity

or the
positionof the tool,the relative lengthof the diameter

can be altered to of
produce ellipses all shapesbetween
the rightline and the circle.
7. both
By altering the of
eccentricity the ring and
the tool's to proportional
position extent, so as to keep
the relative length of the conjugate and transverse
diameters the same, concentric

parallel ellipsesare
produced.
250 LATHES AKD TURNING.
8. The tool's point must be kept at the same height

of centre, or the angular positionaof the elUpses pro-
duced
wilt not be the same.
9. This chuck cannot be worked feat,as, in revolv-

ing,
the eccentricity
and change of position of the slide
causes a great deal of shaking of the lathe,which is
prejudicial
to good work.
THE ELLIPSE-OUTTING INSTRUMENT.
This instrument, illustrated at Fig. 193, ia for cutting

ellipsesand other figures upon surfaces, and is of far
more service for ornamental turning than the ellipse-

chuck ; indeed, this instrument is one of the neatest and
most convenient of any yet invented.

The stem a fits into the tool-holder of the slide-
rest in the same manner as the eccentric cuttingin-

strument.
One end of this square stem is made round, and

carries the pulley b, which has several angular grooves,
to allow of the instrument being driven by the gut
THE ELLIPSE CUTTING INSTRUMENT. 251
from the overhead motion. The carrying plate c

of the mstruraent is attached to this pulley,and is of
course driven by it.
The stem is bored through,and a small shaft put
inside it,having at one end the central wheel d, and at
the other a worm-wheel of 150 teeth, geared into by

a tangent screw carried by a frame fixed to the end of
the square stem of the instrument The wheel is also
graduated on its edge into 72 divisions read off from a
pointeron the frame carryingthe tangent screw.
Attached to the carrier platec is a radial arm e
having on it a boss bored through,and fitted with the
fltemorspindleoftheeccentiicann/. This arm is pre-
ciselysimilar in construction to the arm of the eccentric
cuttinginstrument. At the other end of the stem or
spindleof the eccentric arm, and inside the radial arm
e^ there is a brass pinion^, geared into by the wheel A,

which, in turn, is driven by the central wheel d. The
radial arm is fastened to the carrier-plate

at two points,
by the screw i and the screw k. The former is the
centre round which the arm radiates,and is also the
8{Andle or axis upon which the intermediate wheels
revolve ; the other screw goes through a curved slot in

the arm, as will be seen. The arm can therefore be
moved around on the centre screw t, to the extent of
the slot,and is fastened at any pointof this movement
by tighteningthe milled head screw k. This ment

move-
of the arm is efiected by means of the small screw
on c, the square end and collar of which is seen, the
extent of movement being indicated by the graduated

divisions marked on the edge of the instrument These
divisions are such that a movement of one will throw

2"2 LATHES AND TTRMNG.
the centre of the eccentric spindle-pj^thof an inch out
of place.
Now when this instrument is in the slide-rest and is
set in motion by a gut from overhead passinground

the pulley6, the radial arm being fixed at the zero
pointof the graduatedscale and the point of the tool
adjustedcentral,a dot only will be produced. If,how-

ever,
we stop the instrument, and turn round the
eccentric screw to move the tool away from the centre,
and again set the instrument in motion, a circle will
be cut, the radius of which will depend upon the
nimiber of turns the eccentric screw was moved.
By moving the screw of the slide-rest we can place

a series of circles in a row of any lengthand at any
distance apart, and by using the index-plateof the
lathe-spindle
we can arrange these circles anywhere
round a centre, and at any distance from that centre.
It will thus be seen that the instrument, when thus
only used, has exactlythe same power as the eccentric
cuttinginstrument.
This instrument is also adjusted central with the
littleknot left on the surface to be in

figured, the same
manner as was explainedfor the eccentric instrument.
Before going further we will suppose the tool-point

to have been thus adjustedcentral. If the screw k
be loosed, and the radial arm shifted say 20 divisions

of the graduatedscale,which will throw the centre of
the -j^thsof
cutter-spindle an inch out of place,and
the tool also shifted 20 divisions or -]^thsof an inch
along the eccentric slide,on the instrument being set

in motion and applied to the surface,the tool will
travel across the centre of the work and produce a

THE ELLIPSE-CUTTING INSTRUMENT. 255
of
line -^(îhs
straight an inch each
long,-j^^ths side of
the centre.
If the of the
eccentricity radial arm be now reduced
10 divisions,which will leave it -j^thof an inch out of
centre, on again putting it into motion and applying

the tool to the work, an ellipse
will be produced with
a conjugate or short diameter of y^^thsof an inch, and
a transverse diameter of ^Vhs of an inch in length.
By alteringthe ratio between the of
eccentricity
the radial arm and the cuttingtool,an elhpseof any
proportionscan be produced. So far as the shape of
the figureis concerned it makes no difference whether
the of
eccentricity the cutter is more than that of the
radial arm, or vice versd ; but in practicethe former is
to be preferred,as the cuttingedge of the tool is
presentedto its cut in a more favourable manner.
The of
eccentricity the cutter axis is caused by the
movement of the arm e, and this movement being

around the centre t, the cutter axis is evidentlymovecj
in the arc of a circle and around the wheel A.
If the radial arm be moved out 10 divisions and
the cutter be moved 10 also,on the tool being put in
motion and applied to cut, a line

straight will be duced,
pro-
and if we now shift both 10 divisions more, a
straightUne double the former length will be pro^

duced ; but this line will not come on the same place
as the last,nor parallelwith it, but at an acute
angle to it. We now find the use of the tangent

screw at the end of the stem a ; this is so graduated
that, by moving it the same number of divisions as the
flange,the radial movement of the cutter axis is
counteracted.
254 LATHES AND TCBITUfQ.
We arc indebted to Mr. Perigal for this neat provement

im-
OD Captun Ash's iastrument.

ellipse
When this instrument has cut an ellipse,any
number of these figurescan be arranged in a straight
line by shiftingthe slide-rest,and if the centre of the
instrument coiocide with the lathe-centre, the ellipses
may be placed to cut across each other in any angular

position by moving the of
divifflon-plate the lathe.
When, however, the two centres of the lathe and
instrument do not coincide, the movement of the lathe-
plate has the efiect of arranging the ellipseseccentric

to a common centre; and in this case the angular
positionof the ellipses
is determined by moving round
the tangent screw at the end of the instrument. The
worm-wheel having 150 teeth, if the tangent screw be
moved round 37^ times, the ellipse

will be struck at
rightangles to its former position. Any smaller angle

can be obtained by moving the tangent screw a less
number of turns ; the movement is generally better

indicated by the division index on the edge of the
wheel. Fig. 194 is formed by a series of vertical
ellipsesarranged round a centre by the movement of
the division-plateof the lathe. Fig. 195 is formed of

256 LATHES AND TORSIKO.
revolve four times iii the same period,and instead of
Fw 106
an ellipsea four-loopedorfoiir-
sided figurewill be produced.
When the radial arm is
shifted the same number of
divisions aa the eccentric cutter
the loops will cut across the
centre, as will be seen at
Fig. 196.
When the arm is moved
less than the cutter, the loops all pass the other side of
the centre. When the arm is moved more than the
cutter, the loops will all fall short of the centre. When
the radial arm is moved very much more than the
cutter, the figure has no loops,but becomes a four-
cornered figure,as can also be seen from Fig. 196.

These figurescan be changed again into spiralsby
reversing the various wheels, so as to make the carrier
platerotate faster than the cutter frame.
In Fig. 196 the central figureis made of two four-
looped figures, placed in position by moving the
tangent screw. The arrangement of the outside four-
looped figure is obtained by moving the division-plate

of the lathe. The interveningfigureconasts of three
round-cornered squares arranged by the tangent screw.
The ellipse-cutting
instrument has the advantage
of enabling one to omaroent sur"ces of work that
cannot be placed on the lathe-spindle

parallelto the
Burfece of the chuck. The flat edges of squares or
polygons can be thus ornamented by means of this
instrument, by merely turning the shde-rest to face the
.eiirfaceto be figured. The same precaution must now

THE KLLIPSE-CUTTING INSTRUMENT. 257
be taken to place it as central as before,and additional
care must be exercised to make sure of placingthe

surface exactlyat right angles every to the axis
way
of the cutter. Should this care not be taken, the
cutter in revolvingwill cut deeper at one part of its
revolution than at the other. The surface can be
readilyput into positionby settingit at rightangles

to the bed. This is done by placingthe stock of a
square on the lathe-bed,and the division-plate

shifting
by a division or by the micrometer screw until the
blade of the square touches all along the surface. The
stop of the slide-rest will prevent the slide being much
wrong, but it is better to make sure of the surface
being properlyarrangedby pullinground the eccentric
instrument with its pointjust touchingthe surface to
be figured. If the point of the tool touches alike all
round, it is properlyset, but if it only touches at one
part of its revolution,say at the top, then the division-

platemust be moved round by the micrometer screw
of the index, so as to cause the top to recede from the
tool just half of the difference. The instrument must
then be again pulled slowlyround, and if

re-adjusted
the movement of the division-plate
was not enough or
too much.
If instead of the tool in revolvingtouchingthe top

or bottom, it touches one of the sides,then the slide-
rest must be moved round in such direction as will
bring the point of the tool from the place where it
touches. This adjustment must be continued until the
touches
tool,in revolving, everywhere alike. It is not
at all necessary, in doing this,that the surface of the
article should be scratched or disfigured

in any way.
258 LATHES AKD TUKKlKfl.
but a little care will have to be exercised to prevent

this being the case. When the iDstnimeDt is properly
adjusted,the figuriag b cooducted preciselyas in the
cases before meotioDed.
THE ROSE-CCTTIXG INSTRUMENT.
The instrument, illustrated at Fig. 197, is the rose-
cutting instrument ; the stem a is made to fit the tool-
groove of the slide-rest,and has a hole bored through

Fi8. 19-.
it in which there is a small shaft,having at one end a
worm-wheel b, and at the other the eccentric frame c
and shde d. The frame carries a small tool-bos,

which is moved along it,by the eccentric screw e of
the same pitch as the screw used for similar purposes

in the eccentric cutting instrument and the ellipse
cutter. The frame c is made with a sUde to fit into
the slide d, and there is also a slot cut through d to
allow the pin / attached to c to come through and

THE ROSE-CUTTING INSTRUMENT. 259
have room to move along it. This pin also carries a
small steel roller.
Attached to the back end of the stem is a frame g
carryinga tangent screw with a pulleyon its axis"and
which screw with the wheel b. The stem in

gears
front carries the shaper-plate or rosette, but this
rosette can be exchanged for any other of different
shape at pleasure,and when on, is not immovably

attached to the stem df,but may be shifted round by
turning the tangent screw A. When in work the
instrument is held in the slide-rest the

precisely same
as the other cutting instruments, but the gut from
overhead is placed around the pulleyon the tangent
screw gearingwith the wheel b. On this pulleybeing

set in motion it drives the shaft or spindlepassing
through the stem of the instrument, and consequently
the slide d and frame c. These, in revolving,carry
the small roller with them, and this roller is pulled
againstthe stationaryrosette by a strong spring,which
cannot be seen, as it is at the back of the slide. It
will therefore be understood that as the roller is
attached by the pin to the cutter slfdec, this slide is

forced to move in and out along the sUde d accord-
ing
to the shape of the rosette. This instrument is
very simplein its use, and the patterns to be obtained
by its means are exceedinglybeautiful.

When a surface is to be ornamented by the rose-
instrument
(iutting the chief point to be observed is,
that the centre of the rosette should coincide with the
centre of the place on which the figureis to be cut.
In order to adjustit central it will be necessary to
raise tlie nibber or roller off the rosette, and then the
S 1"
260 LATHES AND TUSNIKO.
instrument may be adjustedin two ways. By making a
circle around the place where the figureis required,

and then moving the tool along the eccentric slide fsiX
enough for to make

it,in revolving, a circle of the same
size as the guide circle ; when the instrument can be
adjustedby moving the slide-rest until the circle cut by

the tool, in revolving,will coincide with the circle
struck as a guide. The instrument is then central,and

the work can be proceeded with. It is ever,
how-
frequently,
inconvenient to strike a circle as a guide for the
tool, and the instrument can be adjustedto a central
point instead. If the have

figures to be made tric
concen-
with the little central knob on the work, no other
guide will be necessary ; but if the figureshave to be
arrangedeccentric to this knob, a small dot must be
made with a pencilor a tool in the centre of the place

where we require the figure. The tool is then moved
along the eccentric frame to its zero point,so that,in

it wiU
revolving, make only a dot, and the instrament
can now be easilyadjustedby moving the slide-rest
until the point of the tool will cut this dot precisely
on
the dot made for the guide.

With the rubber or roller raised off the rosette the
instrument will only describe a simple circle,of a meter

dia-
correspondingwith the distance the tool has
been shifted along the eccentric frame ; it will,there-

fore,
be seen that the instrument can thus be used as
an eccentric cutter.
By turningback the lifting-off

screw, and allowing
the roller to bear againstthe rosette, on the instrument
being put into motion and appliedto the work, the tool
having been previouslymoved alongthe frame towards
THE ROSE-CUTTING IXSTBUMENT. 261
the rubber, a figurewill be cut the shape of the rosette,
and of a size correspondingto the distance of the tool's
pointfrom the zero of the scale. These figurescan be
cut one inside the other at any intervals,by merely

alteringthe distance of the tool's point from the
centre.
If the centre of the figurecoincide with the lathe-
centre, the angularpositionof the figuremay be altered
at pleasureby shifting
round the of
division-plate the
lathe and thus presentinga fresh placeto the action of

the cutter tool. If, however, the slide-rest be shifted
and the tool applied,a rose figurewill be cut at a
distance from the lathe-centre depending the

upon
distance the slide-rest was moved, and by moving the
of the
division-plate lathe around so many divisions at
a time, a series of these rose figureswill be cut,

eccentric to a common centre, preciselythe same as
the plain circles cut with the eccentric instrument.
If now it be desired to alter the angularposition

of the with
figures, regard to their own centre, it is
obvious this cannot be done by presentinga fresh
place to the tool,but it must be done by presenting

the tool to a fresh place. For this it is necessary to
move round the rosette on the stem of the instrument,

and to enable this to be done, the tangent screw at
the back of the rosette is applied. By turning this

screw the rosette is moved to a fresh position,
so that
upon putting the instrument in motion and applying it

to the work, the same figurewill be cut, but in a
different angularposition. By moving the tool along

the eccentric frame past the centre to the side opposite
the roller,and applying it in motion to the surface, a
262 LATHES AND TURKIKG.
different altogetherwill
figiire be produced. In the
previous poaitiona prominence in the rosette forced
the slide so as to bring the tool farther from the
centre of the 6gure ; but in this poaition a prominence

has the effect of bringing the tool nearer to the centre,
and a figure is now cut exactly the reverse of the
previous one. There is the same power of enlarging

these figuresor alteringtheir position as in the other.
The liftingor stop-screw also gives the means of
producing another sort of figure from any rosette. By

moving the screw so as to raise
partially the roller off
^^^ rosette, the fiilltravel of

Fia 198.
the slide will be prevented,

and a series of fiat lines will b e
made at those pointsat which
the roller is prevented touch-

ing
the rosette.
Fig. 198 illustrates the uses
of the rose-cuttinginstrument.
The outside of the pattern is
formed by shiftingthe poaition of the rosette between
every cut. The inside part is a series of concentric
rosettes, to produce which the cutter was moved
further from the zero point between every cut.
Besides the chucks and instruments described there
are several others, but they are little used and are
comparatively unimportant. Among these are the
chuck,
epicycloidal the chuck,
straight-line the rose-
engine, "c.
The first is rather a complicated instrument for
producing epicycloidalfigures,
most of which can be
obtained by the other apparatus. It goes on to the

264 LATHES AlfD TURKINO.
to enable the operator to be tolerablysuccessful in his
attempts at ornamental engraving.

The first great step to success is to understand
thoroughly the simple uses of the instruments, and not
attempt more complicated combinations of instruments
until acqu^ted with their separate uses and capa-
bihties. Without this knowledge their combined action
would be conducted and

blindly, appear to be dependent
upon
chance only for success.
I may mention that the figures given have been
chosen as the ones best adapted to show the combined
action of the instruments. These may be modified, and

other patterns be obtained with but slight alteration,
of which will almost equal in beauty those ob-
many
C0MB1XATI0N8 OF ORNAMENTAL AI'PABATUS. 266
tained by tbe geometric chuck. It will not be aecessary
for me to explain every step aud movement required

to produce the patteras, as, after the inatructiou already
given, the reader will have no difficulty
in seeing for
himself.
Fig. 199 was produced by a combination of the
s^ment-wheel and eccentric chuck, with a fixed tool
in the slide-rest.
Fig. 200 was produced by the eccentric cutter and
eccentric chuck, the cutter being shifted by the screw
of the slide-rest between every cut.
Fl". 203. Fio. 204.
Fig. 201 was produced by the same instruments and
in a similar manner.
The inside curved hues were made by the e^ment-

wheel.
Fig. 202 was made by the eccentric cutter and
eccentric chuck, the circles of the cross being spaced

by the slide-rest screw, the circles forming the border
by the of lathe.
division-plate
Fig. 203 was produced by the eccentric cutter,
which made the small circles. The ellipseshape can
be obtained either from the elUpse-chuck,or by using
the eccentric chuck, with the divldoD-plate
of the lathe.
2t"6 LiTHES ASD -KMSISB.
If the lattt-rm""ie be employed, anj- amount of ecoetH
tricilT b givea to the chuck, ami between erefT cut
the index-wheel of the chuck and divifioo-plateof latbe
are moved number of dlviîoos. in the proportkxi

aoj
of 1 to 2 in "?pp':--*it';
directioD*.
In the figurethere are "^ circle*. To obtain tfaeae
between every cut the chuck-wheel was moved ^th

and the lathe *'^ *
^^t*''* revolutioo ; this had the effect
of causing the lathe to move around twice in one tion,

direc-
whilst the chuck-wheel was moved once in the
other direction. This is usually termed 'double
counting.'
To produce Fig. 204, the counting was the same,
but the movements were both in the same direction.

COMBINATIONS OF OBNAMEKTAL APPAHATUS. 267
Fig. 205 was produced by the same instruments, but

the movementa were such as to cause the lathe to make
three revolutions, whilst the chuck-wheel made one in
the oppositedirection. To make that figurethe chuck
had an of 4J^turns
eccentricity of its screw, the rest was
moved 1^ turns towards the operator.
Fig. 206 was made with the same relative velocity,

namely 3 to 1. The and
eccentricity movement of rest
were also the same, but the lathe and chuck- wheel were
both moved around in the same direction.
Fig. 207 was made in the same manner, with a
velocityratio of 3 to 1. The movements were in

site
oppo-
directions, and the of
eccentricity the chuck and
movement of the slide-rest were equal.

Fig. 208. This figurehad a velocityratio of 4 to 1 .
For the inside the movements were in opposite direc-

tions,
the eccentricity
was equal to 5 turns of the screw,
and the movement of the rest ly,j turns of its screw.
For the inside the move- Fia. 209.
ments were in the same tion,

direc-
the chuck's eccentricity

was 3 and the rest's movement
^th of a turn.
Fig. 209 was produced by

a velocity ratio of 5 to 2 in
oppositedirections. The tricity

eccen-
was 4^, and the ment

move-
of the rest 2 turns of the screw.
Fig. 210 had a velocity ratio of 8 to 1. For the
outside the direction of motion was the reverse of what
it was for the inside pattern.

By altering the relative velocityof the lathe-wheel
268 LATHES AND TDEKINO.
and chuck-wheel, figuresof almost any number of sides
or loops can be obtained by these instruments ; and
the
by substituting ellipseinstrument for the eccertric
instrument, the same Bgurea are produced in ellipses

instead of circles. The ellipsepatterns are, aa a rule,
much more beautifiU than the others, but they are do
more diflScult to produce. Indeed, there is no great

diflficulty
in producing a pretty pattern with any itiptru-
Fio. 2ia
meat ;
but when the system of double countingis em-
ployed,
the movements of the required divisions become
exceedingly tedious, and require considerable patience.

I may here a word on the ornamental uses of
say
the vibrating saddle, or apparatus for irregularshape
turning, shown at Fig. 137.
If we have a true surface attached to the lathe-
spindle,and we cut a line on it with a tool held in the
shde-rest,while the sliding clutch is in gear with the

COMBINATIONS OF ORNAMENTAL APPARATUS. 269
worm-wheel on the surface-screw, an Archimedian
spiral will be described, the pitch of which will
depend on the relative velocityof the lathe and surface
screw. The circular spiralsin fio. 311.
the inside of Fig. 211 are
spiralsof that sort, and are so
described.
The outeide spiralof the

,
same figiu^was cut by the com-
bined action of the last motion,
and the vibration of the saddle
caused by an eccentric circle
for a shaper-plate. The made

shaper-plate four lutions
revo-
whilst the made

lathe-spindle one. So also in
Fig. 212, the outside is formed of two of the same
spirak,the internal figures were nil producetl by the

270 LATHES AND TCRNLVQ.
same shaper-plate and with the same velocityratio,

but with the tool's point at smaller disUmces from the
centre.
Fig. 213 was produced by the motion of the slide,
but the shaper-plate was a crank-pin, having a throw
equal to half the diameter of the figure.

Fig. 214 was produced also by a crank-pin,having
a throw equal to the width of the figure,the velocity
ratio being expressed by a mixed number or a whole
number and a fraction. The figureproduced is formed
of one continuous line.
By combining tlie movement of the saddle with the
eccentric instrument or ellipseinstrument, the figures

produced are very beautifid.
Figs. 215, 216, 217 were produced by the vibrating

saddle and eccentric instnuneut.
LATHES AND TURNING.
In Fig.216a crank-arm made ten revolutions to one
of the lathe-spindle.
COMPENSATING INDEX, OR ELLIPSE DIVIDER. 273
In Rg. 217 the shaper-plate

was an eccentric circle
moving sixteen turns to one of the lathe.
The interior rose-work had very littleecxjentricity,
and the movement of the slide-rest was consequently

but very slight.The roses of the border were duced
pro-
in the same manner, but were so placed by the
eccentric chuck. The main figureis very fine, the

circles formingit were cut by the eccentric instrument.
In using the various instruments with the moving

saddle,it will be understood that the movement of the
lathe is not continuous, but the circles or ellipses

formed by the instruments are spaced by the division-
plateof the lathe. In this case the movement of one
or more divisions not only moves the lathe a certain
distance round, but the shaper-plate

and slide carry-
ing
the instrument are also moved a corresponding
distance.
The figuresto be product by the various nations

combi-
of apparatus are practically endless,but I can-

not
afford more space to their further explanation.
COMPENSATING INDEX, OR ELLIPSE DIVIDER.
In in conjunctionwith
using the ellipse-chuck the
eccentric cuttinginstrument, and in using the eccentric
chuck and eccentric instrument for ellipses

or other
obtained by
figures double counting,it necessarily
occurs
that the ellipses

or other figures
are not equallydivided.
The angularvelocityof the figureis continually
ing
chang-
"
the
in the ellipse circles cut by the eccentric
instrument are crowded togetherat the ends of the
long diameter. It will be seen that this is precisely

T
274 LATHES AND TUKNING.
the same whether the ellipses

are cut by the ellipse-
chuck or by double counting, and that the same
unequal spacing of the circles occurs in the looped and

other figures. It will also be hereafter seen that the
same peculiarity
occurs with the elUpses and other
figurescut by the geometricchuck. In order to viate

ob-
this, a very neat and ingeniousinstrument was
devised, I believe, by Mr. Ibbotson, and which is usually
died the compenitog

inde^, ^ sometimes con-
sidered the third part of the geometric chuck. This,

however, is a as, although the
misapprehension, ment
instru-
may be used in conjunctionwith the geometric

chuck, it is equallyappUcableto the ellipse-chuck
and
to double counting.
In using the and
ordinaryindex-pointer division-
plate,althoughthe same space is passedat each ment

move-
of the stillthe
division-plate, spaces between the
circles cut on the figures

are not equal.
This instrument performs its purpose by keeping the
angular velocityof the figureconstant. When used
with the ellipse-chuck

or for double counting,it is
appliedand used in placeof the ordinaryindex-pointer

or spring.
It consists of a thin plateor arm carryinga crank-
platewith adjustable throw, and the wheels necessary

to drive the crank-platefrom the The
lathe-spindle.
thin platefits againstthe lathe-spindle
just inside the
headstock, and is also kept firm by a link which nects

con-
it to the lathe-bed so as to hold it with the
line joining the centres of the wheels, quite hori-

zontal.
The wheels are small brass wheels and are change-

COMPENSATING INDEX, OH ELLIPSE DIVIDER. 275
able,with the exceptionof the one on the lathe- spindle,
which is fixed. When used with the ellipse-chuck,

wheels are put on to cause the crank-plateto rotate
twice whilst the is generated,

ellipse or during one volution
re-
of the lathe-spindle.
The throw of the crank-arm is regulatedby a screw
with a divided head ; the throw must be the same as
that of the chuck. The crank-arm works in a small
block,which slides in a slot cut in another arm fastened
againstthe lathe-spindle,
but not afiected by
directly
the movement of the although it
spindle, is so through
the means of the wheels and crank-arm, because as
the crank-arm rotates it causes the slot-arm to late

oscil-
through an arc, struck from the centre of the
lathe-spindle.Attached to this oscillating

arm is a
short index-pointerfor taking into the holes on
the in
division-plate place of the one generally
used.
The ellipse-chuck
must be whilst
exactlyupright, the
spindlecentre, the centre, and

crank-plate centre of the
crank-pin,are all in one line and horizontal. The
crank-arm is then at the extreme outward end of its
stroke in the slot. The eccentric instrument would be
cuttingat the flat lines of the where

ellipse, the circles
would be farthest apart, if they were cut without the
compensating index.
The instrument is used in a similar manner for
double counting,but with the geometric chuck it is
placeddifferently.
T 2
276 LATHES AND TUENIKQ.
THE GEOMETRIO OHUOK.
The geometric chuck is an arrangement of mech-
anism for producingtwo or more circular movements in
parallel
planes. The combination of these movements
with different ratios

velocity and different radii results
in the formation of a great varietyof highlyinteresting

curves and geometric figures. Two of these ments
move-
are combined in double counting or counting

with the lathe and
division-plate eccentric chuck- wheel ;
but in this case the motions are intermittent,whereas

with the geometric chuck they are continuous. In
double counting the various parts of the figureare

separatelyworked out by tedious motions of the hand
and counting,which, even when care is taken, are very

likelyto be done whereas
incorrectly, the figurespro-
duced
by the geometric chuck are generatedautoma-
tically
by continuous motions, and require no attention
after the chuck is properlyarranged and the lathe set
in motion.
There has been a great deal of controversy as to
who was the inventor of these instruments. The chuck
usuallygoes under the name of Ibbotson's Geometric
Chuck, and Ibbotson himself says he derived the ideas
firom the geometric pen of Suardi, who publishedan

account of it in 1752.
The rectilinear movement of the slide was the first
plan for gettingthe eccentricity,

and this was evidently
derived from the ordinaryeccentric chuck. With this
arrangement every movement of the sUde required a

fresh adjustment of the wheels to gear with the wheel
THE GEOMETRIC CHUCK. 277 !
on the slide. It appears that after contrivinghis

'
chuck, he saw in the '
Manuel du Tourneur a tion
descrip-
of *
La Machine fipicycloide/
and this instrument
had a flange motion, of which the eccentricity

was
obtained without throwing the wheels out of gear.

Ibbotson altered his chuck to work on this plan,which
he states to be the best plan. It did not occur to him
that the wheels might be kept in gear by hnking them,

as was the plan afterwards adopted by Mr. Perigal. A
writer in the ^Mechanic's Magazine,' September 26,

1859, stated that he had *
possessedgeometricchucks
and compound geometric chucks, but that the idea of
them came so and

easily, must have occurred to many
others besides myself,that they did not appear to be
worth communicating.* This, and the assertion that the
geometricchuck would describe spirals,

seems to have
rather disturbed Mr. Ibbotson's equanimity, and to
have evoked a replyin the shape of a pamphlet entitled

* A Brief Account of Ibbotson's Geometric Chuck.' This
was publishedat five shillings,

but contains but few mens,
speci-
and littleinformation on the chuck or its action.
The jealousywith which he guarded his chuck be

may
seen from his assertion that he had *
never made any
communication
particular of the mechanism of the strument
in-
but to four gentlemen, who gave me their
word and honour, under their handwriting,that they

would not divulgeany part of it in any way whatever.'
It was certainly
an ingenious contrivance, but its im-
portance
appears to have been much overrated by the
inventor. With regard to the chuck being able to
generate spirab,it can most certainlydo so, but, as
Ibbotson says, they must sooner or later return into

themselves ; they are nevertheless spirals,

although not
the of
spirals Archimides.
Mr. F.R.A.S., who

Henry Perigal, has devoted a
great deal of time to the study of the curves generated

by the geometricchuck, has materially
improved it by
reverting to the rectilinear movement, and applying
means whereby the wheels are caused to follow up
the slide and keep in gear. This is accomphshed by
mounting the wheels on double radial arms, bs will be
seen hereafter. it
By simplifying he hoped to render
it less costly,
so as to facilitate its adoption and use by
most amateur turners; but the makers persisted in
charging a prohibitingprice for it, so that very few
were sold.
The geometricchuck is shown at Fig.218 ; the illus-

tration
is too plainto render much explanationneces-

sary.
It is there, however, shown on a frame devised
by Mr. and by
Perigal, which amateurs may arrange all
their figuresupon paper placed in the tracingchuck,

at the same time making a note of their adjustment
previous to executing a fac-simile with the same binations
com-
and conditions in the lathe. This apparatus

is convenient for use upon the table either in the library
or workshop.* A flangechuck for holding paper is
shown on the geometricchuck-nose, but this can be
removed, and any other substituted. On the boss of
the chuck is a socket, which carries two wheels, one
of which is narrow, with ninety-sixteeth, and is the
stop or index- wheel ; this wheel is fastened againsta
*
This apparatuB is manufactured by Mr. E. Baker, of 13 Mount Row,
Grosvenor Square, who fumiehed me with the photograph,and of whose
work I can speakvery favourably.

280 LATHES Am" TURNING.
a springcatch ; it is also divided on its flangededge.

Some chucks can be caused to revolve in contrary
directions by moving another wheel into gear ; but the
simplestplan is to interposeanother arbor with an
intermediate wheel, as a less costlyexpedient.

In using the geometricchuck, it is first screwed on
the nose of the mandril, the stop released, and the
chuck pulled round a few times by hand, to be certain
there is no binding of the axles or dirt between the
wheels. Should there be any unusual resistance to
this pullingaround, the operator must ascertain and
remove the cause before the

setting lathe in motion.
The mechanism of the chuck being rather delicate,

and the whole success of the instrument dependent
upon the absolute truth in all respects of the mechanism,
it is manifestlyof importance to keep the instrument
free from dirt when not at work, to protect it as much
as possiblefrom dust and gritwhen at work, and also

to keep the whole of the bearingsand slides well oiled
and quite free from abrasion.
The number of figuresto be obtained with the
chuck, and their variety,

is 30 great that it is necessary
to use the chuck and
systematically, to obtain the
various figuresby rule and not by repeated chance
trials. I don't mean to say that it is advisable "
although certainlypossible " to calculate beforehand
the exact nature of the curve or figurecertain wheels
and certain eccentricities will produce, or to lay down

the figureand calculate the exact conditions of the
instrument necessary for its generation. This much,

however, should certainlybe done. All the conditions
or the shapeof the figureshould

parts aflecting be each
THE GEOMETRIC CHUCK. 281
known by a name, which should also be as expressive

as possible.The share each part of the instrument has
in generatinga figureshould be understood, and also
the extent to which varying conditions of a certain
part afiect the figuregenerated. Thanks mainly to
Mr. Perigal,the laws governing the motion of the
geometricchuck and the productionof figuresby it are
well known,
tolerably and I here hope to to the
convey
reader sufficient information on these points to enable
'
him to judge with considerable accuracy both of the
figuresproduced by certain motions and of the motions
,
necessary to produce known figures.
I By thus the figures
working systematically, generated
I by its movements are found to follow certain and un-
I alterable laws, which can be calculated upon beforehand
with perfectsurety, and no great difficulty.

I am indebted to Mr. Perigalfor the followinglaws
and togetherwith
definitions, the figuresused to illus-
trate
them. Those who desire to be well acquainted

with this beautiful instrument are advised to read the
rules and try them

attentively, over by aid of the chuck
itself,as by these means the rules will not only be

I easier remembered, but their practical will
applications
I be better understood.
1. The axis of the first motion of revolution, or the axis
of the lathe mandril carrying the geometric chuck, is termed
the * deferent axis.'
2. The axis of the second motion of rotation,or the axis
carried by the first slide of the chuck, is termed the '

epicyclic
axis.'
3. The axis of the third motion of rotation,or the axis
carried by the second eccentric slide,is termed the '

pound
com-
epicyclicaxis.'
4. The distance from the defereot axis to the epioyclic

axis is termed the '
deferential radius.'
5. The distance from the axis of the lathe to the point of

the tool describingthe figure,when the first part or simple
'
geometric chuck is used, is termed the *
epioyclicradius ; but
when the second part, or compomid geometric chuck, is used,

the distance from the epioyclicaxis to the compound epi-
cyclicaxis is termed the '
epioyclicradius/
6. The distance from the axis of the lathe to the point
of tool in the slide-rest delineating the figure is iermed the
*
compound epicydic radius.'
7. The proportion or ratio the deferent radius bears to the
epicydic radius,or the epioyclicradius bears to the compound

epicydic radius, is termed the ^
radial ratio.'
8. When both the deferent axis and the epicydic axis are
rotatingin the same direction,whether left to right,like the
hands of a watch, or the reverse, the motion is said to be
direct, and the same term is applied to the same conditions
of the epioyclicand compound epicydic axes.

9. When the deferent axis and the epicydic ads, or the
epicydicand the compound epioyclicaxes, rotate in contrary

directions, their motion is said to be inverse.
10. The ratio or proportion the number of revolutiond of
the deferent axis bears to the number of rotations of the
epicydic axis is termed the ^

velodty ratio.' The same term
is applied to express the ratio between the number of tions

rota-
of the epioyclicand compound epicydic axes.

11. The terms 'rotation' and 'revolution' must be
understood according to their kinematic meaning, and not
their dictionaryor popular meaning. According to the latter,

they both mean the same state of motion, and are used discriminate
in-
one for the other ; but according to the former,

they each have a separate signification,
and must not be
confused the one with the other. [When a body turns round
its own centre it rotates, when turning round any other
centre it revolves.]
12. Curves or figuresgenerated by one circular motion or
simple rotation are true circles or circloids. These are the

TH" GEOMETRIC CHUCK. 283
figuresgenerated by a point applied to a surface in motion

on the lathe-^pindle.
13. Figures generated by two circular movements, or
double rotation or revolution, are termed bicircloids. These
are the figuresdelineated by a point applied to a surface
attached to the simple geometric chuck in motion.
14. Figures generated by three circular movements, of
rotation and revolution, are termed tricirdoids ; and so on,
according to the number of generating movements* Tri-"

circloids are generated by the compound geometrical chuck.
15. Figures generated by the same velocity ratio, but
reversed direction of motion, are termed ^twin curves/ Thus
the velocity ratio of 2 of the deferent axis to 1 of the
epicyclicaxis will,when the motion is inverse, produce an
ellipse,but when direct will produce a two-looped figure.

The ellipseand two-looped figureare termed * twin figures '
or twin ciurves.
16. Figures generated with a constant direction of motion,

but reversed velocity ratio, are termed '
reciprocalfigures.'
Thus a velocityratio of 2 to 1 inverse will produce an ellipse,
but a velocity ratio of 1 to 2 inverse will produce a one
inside-loopedfigure. The ellipseand the one-looped figure

thus produced are reciprocals.
17. With constant velocityratio and direction of motion,
but variable radial ratio, many varieties of the figure,due to
the constant conditions, are produced. The changes thus
produced are termed the ^

phases of the curve.'
18. The apocentres are the pointsfarthest from the centre
of the figure. They all are contained in the circumference

of a circle equal in radius to the sum of the radii of the
defereiit and epicycle.

19. The pericentresare the points nearest to the centre
of the figure; they are contained in a circle of a radius equal

to the difference between the two radii.
20. The number of both apocentres and pericentresis the
same as the number of loops or branches in the figure.
21. Figures with their loopsall meeting or cuttingthrough
the centre are termed ' centric' Those having each of their
284 LATHES A5D TUSBTIKO.
branches or loops wholly oii"me side of the centre are termed

'
^
ciscentric ; and those having loops which circumscribe the
centre are termed '

transcentric figures.'
Ciscentric phases of a figure may be looped, cusped,
orthoidaly or wa%'y.
With the ezccîon of two fignzes,
the annuloid and ellipse,
the transcentric and centric phases are aU looped.
22. Complemental curves are the two similar figures
generated by inverse motion, with compl^nental velocity
ratios.
Supplemental curves are the two similar figuresgenerated

by direct and inverse motion, with supplemental velocity
ratios.
23. When the angular velocityof the deferent is less than
that of the epicycle,

or the number of rotations of the epicyclic
axis is greater than the number of its revolutions,the curve
or figureproduced is a double spiralor volute going firom the
centre with a graduallyincreasingspeed, and then returning

to the centre with a speed as graduallydecreasing.
24. When the angular velocityof the deferent is greater
than that of the epicycle,the figureproduced is looped or
cusped.
25. The deferential velocitydetermines the number of
^
loops which will be produced.
26. The epicydoidal velocity determines the order of
their arrangement.
27. When the velocityratio is expressed by a firaction in
its lowest terms, the number of rotations of deferent axis
being the numerator, and the number of rotations of the
epicyclicaxis the denominator "

the numerator will show the
number of loops to be obtained from the combination, and
the denominator will show their arrangement, whether secutive

con-
or alternate,"c.
28. Other conditions being constant, the direction of
motion determines the placing the loops inward or wards.

out-
29. Direct motion will only generate curves or figureswith

inward loops.
THE OEOMETRIG CHUCK. 285
"
30. Inverse motion will generate all figureswith loops,

both inside and oatside, centric, ciscentric,or transcentric.
31* The radial ratio determines the positionof the loops

with regard to the centre of the figure,whether they will be
centric, ciscentric,or transcentric.
32. If the radial ratio is as 1 is to 1" or if the radius of
the deferent and epicycliccircles be of the same length,the

loops of the figiureproduced will be centric,and the peri-
centres will all be situated in one point "
the centre of the
figure.
33. When the epicyclicradius is less than the deferent
radius the loops of the figuregenerated will be ciscentric
34. When the epicyclicradius is greater than the deferent
radius the loops will be transcentric.
35. The motion being direct,the figureis cusped when the
radius of the epicycleis to the radius of the deferent in the
same ratio as the epicyclicvelocityis to the sum of the
epicyclicand deferent velocities.
The motion being inverse, the figureis cusped when the
radius of the epicycle is to the radius of the deferent in the
same ratio as the velocityof the deferent is to the difference
between the velocities of epicycleand deferent.
36. The motion the

being direct", curve is orthoidal when
the radius of the epicycle is to the radius of the deferent as
the square of the deferential velocKy is to the square of the
sum of the deferential and epicyclicvelocities.

The motion being inverse,the curve is orthoidal when the
radius of the epicycleis to the radius of the deferent as the
square of the velocityof the deferent is to the square of the
difference between the velocities of the deferent and epicycle.

37. With the exceptionof the annuloid and the all
ellipse,
figuresresultingfrom two circular movements may be gene-
rated
by two different velocityratios.

38. The motion being inverse, the same figuresare rated
gene-
by a velocityratio expressed by a fraction having the
deferent velocityfor a numerator and epicyclicvelocityfor

its denominator as by a velocityratio expressedby a fraction
(in its lowest terms) having the velocityof the deferent for a
286 LATHBS AND TUBNIXG.
numerator and the velocity of the deferait minus the ydocity
of the epicycle for a

denominator. These are complemental
figures.
39. With direct motion and a velocity ratio expressed by
a
fraction having the velocity of the deferent for a numerator
and the velocity of the epicycle for a denominator, the same
figure is produced with inverse motion and a velocity ratio

as
expressed by a
fraction having for its numerator the deferent
velocity and for its denominator the sum

of the two velocities.
These are supplemental curves.
Figs. 219 to 306 serve to illustrate the forgoing,
and also to show the capabilities of the simple geometric
chuck.
LATHRS AXB TCK5I5G.
3n]
M"al :l".
BaSn 1 : i. Baifiw S .
5.
FIS.S3L Fu.a3S.
BadiDBl :t.
FU.S33.
THE GKOMETBIC CHUCK.
4th BiciRCLOiD "

VeL 2 : I dir. or 2 I 3 inv,
Fis 336. Fie. 2-')U.
Badin* 2 : S.
Fia.2S".
Badina i : 3.
FlO. 243.
LATHES AND TURKIIfO.
5th BiaacLoiD" Vel. ; 2 dir. or 1 : 3 inr.
Fi".243. Fia.244
Badins 1 : 9.
Fra. 346.
Badiaa 8 : 3.
Fie.asa
TUB aeOHBTRIC CHUCK.
6th BicncLOiD "

Vel. 3 : I or 3 : 2 inv.
PI8.251. Fifl.252.
Fio. 254.
LATHES AND TUBKING.
7th BiciRCLoni "

Vel. 3 : 1 dir. or 3 : 4 inv.
FiQ. 269. FiQ. 280.

THB OEOMETBIC CHUCK.
8th BiciBCLOiD "

Vel. 1 : 3 dir. or 1 : 4 inv.
Fw. 207. Fr". 268.
Radiiu 1 : 4. Radius 9 : lA.
Fio. 260. Fia. 270.

UTHBS AX1" mUTISG.
9tb Bicncion* "

WL 3 : 2 dir. w 3 : 5 inr.
Fm. 275t Fit KU
Uwtina I : 13.
"m. 277.
BadiM 31 ; 32. iUdiiis 1 : 1.
Fib. 281. Fis.28?.

LATHS m nnsise.
lltli BiciBCLat"" TcL 4 : 1 or 4 : 3 tor.
B^liMl :9.
Fi"."8.
lUdiMl :l
Badiia 1 : 1 itodjiui : 1.
Fia.2e7. Fia.29e.
THE QBOMETRIC CHUCK. 297
Fre. 299. Fia. 300.

298 LATHES AND Tl'RKlNG.
Fig. 307 shows the compound geometnc chuck as
seeu when on in its place upon the nose cf the lathe-
spindle. The illustration was taken from a photograph
sent me by Mr. Plant, the maker and improver of the
instrument.
The of the compound

capabilities geometric chuck
THB GEOMETRIC CHUCK. *J9t)
are illustrated by Figs. 308 to 323. The blocks from
which these iiupressionswere printed are practical

examples of the uses and powers of the chuck, as they
wore cut iu the lathe by its aid, and are the result of
three circular movements in the same plaue. These
illustrations will, however, give but a small idea of tliu

300 LATHES AND TUBNINO.
immense variety of figurea the compound geometric

chuck will execute.
By comparing these with those which illustrate the
Fifl. 312.
effects of double counting,the difference will be at once
perceived.
The compensating index, soraetiiues called the third
302 LATHES AND TURKIKG.
realityis another eccentric motion, with wheels similar
to the second part. When all three parts are used
there are three sun and planet motions, and a much
greater varietyand number of figuresmay be produced,

although many of them are almost indistinguishable
from the number of lines.
OBNAUBirFAL CUTTINO AND CARVING. 303
ORNAMENTAL OUTTINO AND CARVING.
It is not always necessary that the various patterns

should be merely cut with angular tools. For
very
Fia. 318.
intricate patterns, very fine lines are required, but

other patterns produced by the same apparatus can
304 LATHES AM) TUKSIKO.
be rendered highly ornamental by bdng cut in relief,

cat deep, or with beaded and curved tools.
very
A
very etTective ornamental pattern is obtained by
Fi". 320.
using a veneer of a dark wood on lightwood or ivory,

and then cutting the pattern through the veneer to
expose the light surface underneath.

ORNAMENTAL CUTTLVG AND CARVING. 305
The various rose-engine

patterns are very fine when
cut deeply with a bead-tool or moulding-tool. In all
these cases, however, the pattern should be simple,and

composed of not too many overlayinglines.
When thus cut they have a totallydifferent ance

appear-
from that when cut by simple angular tools.
Nor are these the only uses of the apparatus, for the
eccentric-chuck and the both

ellipse-chuck have their
uses in turning ornamental solids. The forms to be
produced by them are apparent from their uses in figure

engraving. The tools used for such turning are the
same as those for plain turning,and are used.

similarly
The slide-rest tools are in most cases to be preferredto
hand tools.
,
An apparatus is also frequently
appUed to the sUde-
rest to enable it to turn and ornament with precision

various curved articles. This contrivance goes imder
the name of a curvilinear apparatus, and performs its

work by means of various which, being
profileplates,
afiixed to the lathe,cause the tool to take their ciu*ves.
But for turning ornamental solids,the ordinaryslide-

rest is frequently
replacedby another more convenient
and comprehensivecontrivance, of similar nature, and
called a slide-rest.
spherical
The instrument shown at Fig. 324 is the spherical
slide-rest as made by Mr. Evans, of Wardour Street,
Soho. This rest is used, as its name indicates,
for ing
turn-
sphericalwork, which it will do with greater ease
and exactitude than by the hand operation previously

described. The rest, it will be seen, has four slides,
which are necessary to obtain the various movements
and adjustments required for this style of turning.

Each of these slides of course requiresto have the
usual strength,and as there are four, it becomes
necessary to make them of steel,and to fit them gether

to-
with a great regard to stiffness as well as ness.

exact-
The tool-shde has a tool with holding-

receptacle
down screws, two setting-up
or adjustingscrews, and a
ORNAMENTAL CUTTING AND CARVINO. 307
lever handle ; all arranged the same as in the ordinary

slide-rest already described. The tool-slide altcêther
fits into a socket attached to the radius-slide nest low
be-
it,and it may be turned round to any position in

the socket and fastened there by tightening the screw
at the side, as will readilybe understood by referring

to the illustration. The two lowest slides are also
arrangedlike the slides of an ordinary rest, at right

angles to each other, and they are both moved by two
screws, the ends of which are squared to receive small
winch-handles. The other aUde is also moved by a
screw and a handle ; but this one, besides carryingthe

socket for the tool-slide,
is 6xed
upon a worm or tangent-
wheel, which in turn is placedupon the slide below, but in
such a manner that both the worm-wheel and its slide
may be moved around upon it. This is done by means
of a tangent-screw fastened to the lower slide, and

rotated by a handle, as shown in the illustration. The
handle is made long,to allow the top or radius-slide to
pass over it without with

interfering the operator's
fingers. The various handles are shown in place,but
of course they are removable.
The manner of usingthe slide-rest is very simple,

being entirely
a matter of adjustment. The centre of
the worm-wheel must come in a vertical Ime passing

down through the centre of the sphere to be turned,
and the two bottom slides afford means for so adjusting
the worm-wheel. The size of the sphere is determined
by the distance the point of the tool is placed from the
same vertical line by means of the third or radius-slide.
The tool-slide screws are more for the convenience of
puttingthe tool into cut than for any adjustmentfor

the size of the sphere. The various adjustmentshaving
been made, the point of the tool is caused to scribe
de-
the required curve by turning the handle on
the tangent-screw.
By the suitable relative arrangement of the centres
of the work and worm-wheel, and the tool's point,the

rest will cut both concave and convex curves ; it will
also cut a great varietyof other figures,

such as lemon,
and egg shapes ; and, besides this,the rest is
orange,
applicable
to any of the ordinaryslide-rest purposes.
The traversing spindle is also used for turning
'
skew or
'
pumped articles by substituting
a pumping
socket for the screw socket on the spindle-end.These

pumping sockets are merely sockets with skew-grooves
310 LATHES AND TUBNDTG.
; and
horizontally as it is often to them in
necessary use
other various
positions, modifications of the instrument
are made, one of which, called the vertical drilling

instrument, allows the driUs to be appliedvertically.
Another, called the universal instrument, allows them
to be used in any requiredposition.

There isanother instrument,called the eccentric drill.
Fie. d27. Fig. 328. Fie. 929. Fie. S90.
like the eccentric instrument, but stronger made,

very
and using similar drilling
instruments to those above.
Fig.331 is a cuttinginstrument; its shank is square,
and fits the receiver of the slide-rest ; it has a hole
through which the cutter head-spindlepasses, and is
"stened by a nut, which allows it to be placedat any
Fie. 331,
angle. The cutters used are similar to Figs.177 to
186, and they are driven at a great speed,generally

with the cuttingedge running downwards, so that the
shavings may go down, instead of being thrown up into

the operator'sface.
There are also various modifications of this instru-
ment
; of these the universal cuttinginstrument allows

ORKAMBNTAL CUTTIKO AND CARVING. 311
the cutter to be used in any and

position, the internal
cutting instrument is for reaching into long recesses or
holes where the other inatruments are not applicable.

the
Fig. 332 is the sphericalchuck ; it screws on
lathe-spindleend, and is generally Fis. 132.
used in conjunction witli the ment

seg-
which
screwed
round
divider for
are
on
held
to its
ornamenting ^heres,
in an
nose.
ordinary chuck
the
By moving
I*
the screw-head positionof
the work on the sphericalchuck is
determined.
The chuck-nose may also be swivelled and fixed at
any angle by means of the quadrant slot and screw.
The division of the figuresor ornament on the work
is obtained by means of the tangent-screw and wheel,

as will be easilyunderstood.
Fig. 338 is the spiralchuck ; it is a sort of false nose
screwing on the spindleend, and carrying

*'
a screwed nose to receive any of the or-
'
dinary chucks. This nose forms part of a
socket which may be shifted round out

with-
alteringits centrality; it also carries
an index-plate and catch, and is fitted to
receive one of a series of change-wheels.

The chuck itself forms part of a set of apparatus for
spiralturning. Through the medium of this contri-

vance
the is
lathe-spindle connected with the slide-rest
screw by change-wheels, which act in precisely the

same manner as in the self-actinglathe already
described.
The remaining part of the apparatus is a radial

arm, which fastens on againstthe headstock,justbehind

the spiralchuck. This arm has a long slot-hole for
receivingthe various spindlesused to carry the mediate

inter-
change-wheels.
For screw-threads of ordinary pitch the lathe is
driven as usual, and its motion sets the rest-screw in
motion and traverses the tool. When coarse-pitched

spirals
are required for cuttingElizabethan ornaments,
twisted and
pillars, such and
work, the lathe-spindle
slide-rest screw are, as before, connected by a set of
which
change-wheels, will produce the required pitch,
but the gut is thrown oflfthe drivingcone, and the cone
and work are driven by turningthe handle of the rest-
screw.
The ordinary slide-rest tools are not applicable

to
this styleof work, as the motion is too slow to enable
them to cut properly; but by using revolving drills

or driven
fly-cutters at a great speed,the work may be
driven as slowlyas may be necessary without venience.

incon-
These spiralsare generallycut upon cylindersof

wood or ivory,but the apparatus is so made as to allow
the spiralsto be cut cones and surfaces. This is

upon
done by using wheels of such a shape as will gear with
each other when their axes are at an angle to each
other ; some of the wheels are ordinary spur-wheels,

others are bevel-wheels, and others are rounded upon
the drivingedge. By sUghtlymodifying this apparatus
it will act so as to cut wavy lines longitudinally
on
articles. For this sort of work the wheel on the chuck
socket is removed, and a lever put on in its place; this
lever is preventedmoving by a key without the lathe-

OKNAMENTAL CDTTmO AND CASVIIiG. 313
spindie
moves abo ; throughoutits lengthit is furnkhed
with about a dozen holes. The slide-rest screw ia,as

before, connected by wheels to the intennediate socket,
and this socket has upon it an eccentric,the eccentri-
city
of which may be altered. The eccentric is by
done by the drillinginstrument or eccentric drill.
Y
314 LATHES AND TUENING,
This is meant for a small pictureframe ; it can be cut
circular as shown, or but

elliptical, in the latter case
the spacing of the holes must be effected by means of
the and
division-plate the compensating index or ellipse
divider.
Figs. 336 and 337 are specimens of hollow spiral

work ; sometimes these are cut out of the solid, but
generallythe interior is bored out first,and the tube
thus formed put upon a mandril of soft wood. The
Fig. 336. Fio. 836. Fig. 887.
spiralsand between the spiralsare then cut out

spaces
by fast of
running fly-cutters proper shape, used in the
cutting instrument. The internal spindle is inserted
when the spiralwork is mounted in place,in the ment

orna-
of which it forms a part.

The spindlemay be plain,or it may be itself spiral,
or ornamented in other manner. When this style
any
of work is properly done, it forms one of the prettiest
ornaments that can be made.
Fig. 338 is engraved from a photograph showing

eightspecimens of ornamental turning, in which most
of the cuttingwas effected by the drilling

mstrument.
SHARPENING TOOLS, ETC. 315
SHARPENING TOOLS, ETC.
The ornamental lathe,rest, and chucks, require

even more attention and care than the last described.
The runningparts go much faster,and should never be
allowed to get hot or to abrade, as the absolute trath
of every part must be retained if good work be desired.
The ordinaryturning tools are not ground every
L
time, they become dull,but are nibbed a few times
,
over aji oil-stone. After a time, however, the tools

become too blunt to be thus sharpened,and then they
must be reground; this should be done with care, and
the tools afterwards nicelyhoned to remove the stone
scratches from their cuttingedges.

The flat and angular tools used for and
polishing
line engraving,with the ornamental chucks and ments,
instru-
require to be very nicelysharpened. Some do
this by eye, but amateurs generallyuse an instrument

called a goniometerfor the purpose.
This is a contrivance having two graduated arcs,

one of which is adjustedto the angleof the tool,and
the other to the angleof the bevel or chamfer. The
tool to ground is fixed in the instrument,a tool-

be
holder being providedfor the purpose. When properly
fixed and adjusted,the edge of the tool to be ground,
and the two legs of the goniometer,form a tripod,
which is moved over a flat surface,formed of a slab,
to receive a The
grinding-plate. grinding-plates
are
usuallythree,all fixed into a slab. The first is an
oilstone which
plate, is used for grinding; the second,
a brass plate used with very fine emery-powder or
oilstone for smoothingthe

poM^der, tool ; and the third
t2
316 LATHES AND TCBKING.
is an iron plate used with crocus for the

polishing fine
cuttingedges.
The bead and circular tools and drills are generally
ground by conical or moulded grindersof brass and
iron, and used with the polishing-powders

just men-
tioned.
These grinders are sometimes rotated in a
small frame attached to the and

slide-rest, sometimes
are held in a chuck attached to the the

lathe-spindle,
tools being held in a tool-holder by the slide-rest.
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INDEX.
AUiy 6* Ov"rUm*s EnglishChurch History 14 Boom's Essays,hy Wkatefy 5
Abtuys Photography 10 life and Letters,
by Spedding ... 5
Actom*s Modem Cookery ao Promus, edited by Mrs, PoU 5
Alpine Qub Map of Switzerland 17 Works 5
Guide (The) 17 Bagehots Biographical Studies 4
W"m/i Tunsprudence 5 " " Economic Studies ai
^" Primer of the Constitution 5 " " " Literary Studies "*....
6
^-^"
50 Years of English Constitution 5 Bailees Festus, a Poem x8
Andtrsotis Strength of Materials xo iTtfxVjrJames Mill and J. S. Mill 4
Organic
XrwjiytMKe^j Cheniistnr 10 " ^" Mental and Moral Science 6
ArucUTs (Dr.) Lectures on Modem History a ^" on the Senses and Intellect 5
Miscellaneous Works 6 Emotions and Will 5
Sermons 15 Baker's Two Works on Ceylon 17
" (T.) English Literature 6 Baits Alpine Guides zy
Poetry and Prose ...
6 Baits Elements of
Astronomy 10
Amatfs Elements of Physics 9 Barry on Railway Appliances 10

Atelier (The) du Lys x8 " Bramwell on Railways,"c 13
AtherstonePriory 18 Bauermans Mineralogy 10
Autumn Holidays of a Country Pîrson ... 7 Beaam^ld's (Lord) Novels and Tales 17 " z8
4/r(V Treasury of Bible Knowledge ...... ap " " "
Speeches ?
22 WORKS ptiblhhcdby LONGMANS 6* CO.
(I^rd) Wit
BeaconsJielePs and Wisdom 6 De Morgans (Mrs.)Memoir of her Hîsband 4
Becker's Charicles and Gallns 7 De Tocquevill^s Democracy in America..* 4
Be"sfy*sGracchi, Marius, and Sulla 3 Dewes's Life and letters of Sl Paul 15
BtngkanCs Bonaparte Marriages 4 Dixon's Rural Bird Life ZI"19
Black's Treatise on Brewing 90 Doyle's English in America * i
Bhckleys German-English Dictionary 7 Dresser's Arts of Japan .."

Z2
Bloxam "* Huntington'sMetals 10 Dun's American Farming and Food ai
BÛand and Langs Aristotle's Politics 5
BouUbu on
39 Articles 14 Eastlake^s Hints on Household Taste 13
" 'j History of the EnglishChurch... 14 Edmonds's Elementary Botany iz
Boumds Works on the Steam Engine...i3"Z4 Ellicotfs Scripture Commentaries 15
Bawdier' sYBSxaiy Shakespeare 19 " Lectures on Life of Christ 15
Braboume's Fairy-Land z8 Elsa and her Vulture z8
'
Higgledy-piggledy z8
Epochs of Ancient History 3
Bramity-Moore'sSix Sisters of the Valleys .
x8
English History
Bramston 6* 3
Leroy's Historic Winchester ,
2
Modem History
Brandos
" "
3
Diet. of Science,Literature," Art ii
Evans's Bronze Implements zi
Brassey*s
British Navy 13 Ewalds Antiquitiesof Israel 25
" Sunshine and Storm in the East 17
.
Christ and His Times 15
'
Voyage in the '
Sunbeam '.,.. 17 Historyof Israel 15
^r^yi Elements of Morality "
x6
Browne's Exposition of the 39 Articles 14
^fvw""Wj Modem Fairhaim*s Information for Engineers 73
England 3
Buckle's Histoxy of CiviUsation " ^-^" Mills and Millwork 13
2
BuckUm's Food and Home Parrat^s Language and Languages 7
Cookery 21
" ^" " Health in the House 12"21 Fitzwygram on Horses Z9
BulFs Hints Francis's Fishing Book Z9
to Mothers 21 "
Freeman's Historical Geography a

"
Management Maternal
of Children ,
21
Froude's Csesar 4
Burgomaster'sFamily (Ilie) xB
English in Ireland z
History of England z
Cabinet "Short Studies 6

Lawyer 20
Wife's Thomas Carlyle 4

Calvert s Manual 16
s Age
Cafes* of the Antonines 3
^ Gairdner's York
"
Early Roman"
Empire 3 Houses of Lancaster and 3
Carlyles Reminiscences 4 Ganofs Elementary Physics 9
Cates's Biographical Dictionary 4 " Natural Philosophy 9
CtfjrZf/fIliad of Homer 19 Gardiner's Buckingham and Charles I. ...
a
Changed Aspects of Unchanged Truths ... 7 Person^ Government of Charles I. a
Ckesneys Waterloo Campaign a Fall of ditto a
Christ our Ideal 16 Outline of English Histoiy ...

a
Ckurch's Beginning of the Middle Ages ... 3 PuritanResolution 3

Colenso's Pentateuoi and Book of Joshua .
16 ^ThirtyYears' War 3
Commonplace Philosopher.. 7 (Mrs.) French Revolution 3
Comics Positive Polity 4 StruggleagainstAbsolute
"
Conder's Handbook to the Bible 15 Monarchy 3

Conington's Translation of Virgil's
iGneid X9 Glazebrook's Physical Optics 10
" Prose Translation of Virgil's Goetke's Faust, by Birds z8

Poems 18 bySelss 18
Conktnseau's Two French Dictionaries ... 7 by Webb z8
Conybeareand Howson's St. Paul X5 Goodrvis Mechanics " xo
Coita on Rocks, by Lawrence zi "" " " Mechanism " Z3
Counsel and Comfort from a City Pulpit... 7 Gor"s Electro-Metallurgy zo
CV;x'j (G. W.).Athenian Empire 3 Gospel (The) for the Nineteenth Century .
z6
" Crusades 3 Grant's Ethics of Aristotle 5
"" Greeks and Persians 3 Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson 7
Creigkton's
Age of Elizabeth 3 Graves's Life of Sir W. Hanulton 4
" England a Continental Power 3 Greville's'loyrmaX z
"' "
Papacy during the Reformation Z4 Algebra
Griffin's and Trigonometij zo
" " ShillingHistory of England ... 3 Grove on Correlation of Physical Forces... 9
and the ReformationTudors Gwilfs Encydopsedia of Architecture...... Z3
3
Cres/s Encyclopaedia of Civil Engineering Z4
Critical Essays of a Country Parson.." ffaUs Fall of the Stuarts 3
7
Culler'sHandbook of Telegraphy zs Halliwell-PkiUippss Outiines of speare's
Shake-
Curteis's Macedonian Empire Life 4
3
Hartwigs, Works on Popular Natural
History,"c. lo"zt
Davidsons New Testament X4 Hassalts Climate of San Remo 17
Dead Shot (The) 19 Physical Geography
/TaitrÂiîx'i zo
Dc Caisne and Le Afaouts Botany xi Haywards Selected Essays 6
"
tiÔRKS piii"Ushea
by LONGMANS d^ CO. ii
liter's
Primeval World of Switzerland 1 1 Macaulay's (Lord) Life and Lettere 4
" Miscellaneous Writings 6
HclmhoUjis Scientific Lectures 9
8 Speeches 6
Outlines of Astronomy
* ,
Henchets
16 " Works X
HopJUnis Christ the Consoler
" ^ ,
,
Writings,Selections from 6
Horses and Roads 19 7"
-""-""
HowitV 5V\SA\" to Remarkable Places 19 MacCullagh's Tracts g
Music zi McCarthy s Epoch of Reform "*/..*3

HuUaKs History of Modem .!.!!!8
Transition Period 11 McCullocKs Dictionaryof Commerce
"
Mac/arren on Musical Harmony ii

J Art-Instruction
in England 13
/Ttf/xw^'
6 MacUoSs Economical Philosophy
\
J Essays
îfiif^'
Human Nature 6 Economics for Beginners "
2?
""
Treatise " on
' Elements of Ranking ai
" Elements of Economics ar
IhtUs Rome to its Capture by the Gauls... 3 Theoiy and Practice of Baiiing21
" History of Rome a Macnamara's Himalayan Districts 17
18 Mademoiselle Mori jg
IngelovfiPoems ...!."a
Mahajfy'sClassical Greek Literature
A/tf""j"/jMission of the Holy Ghost ...
16
12
Inorganic Chemistry
'fagds Marshman's Life of Havdock 4
famesoiis Sacred and Legendary Art
za
Martincau's Christian Life !.'"16
and Magnetism zo
ênkin's Electricity of Thought " Hours 16
i
ftrrolSs Life of Napoleon Hymns " jg
"ôhnsoiCs Normans in Europe 3
si
Maunder's Popular Treasuries 20
Patentee's Manual "
8
Maxwells Theory of Heat 10
Geographical Dictionary Ma^s Historyof Democracy
?'ohniton*s ttkts^sNew Man 15
Historyof England
i
i
Second Death 15
Meivill/ s IWhyte) Novels and Tales z8
Types of Genesis zs Letters
" Mendelssohn's 4
Merivak's Fall of the Roman Republic ...
2
General Historyof Rome 2
A'tftorA'j Bible Studies 15 "
the Bible z5 " Roman Triumvirates 3

-^" Commentary on
under the Empire Romans 2
" "
and Goal
Path , $ " ^^"
Outlines of Primitive Belief. 6 MerrifieldsArithmetic and Mensuration... 10

Kearys ,^
Miles on Horse's Foot and Horse Shoeing Z9

Ktlkr^s Lake Dwellings of Switzerland.... zz
on Horse's Teeth and Stables zo
KerFs Metallurgy, by Craokessnd Rdhrig, Z4 "
\
Mill (J.)on the Mind
Mill's {],S.)Autobiography J
Dissertotions " Discussions 5
Landscapes, Churches, "c. 7 " " "
Latham* 5 Handbook of English Language 7 " Essays on Religion 15
LecJ^s Historyof England

z Hamilton's Phuosophy 5
" European Morals 2 Liberty g
Rationalism 2 ^ Political Economy 5

"
""
Leaders of Public Opinion
"
4 Representative Government 4
Leisure Hours in Town 7 Subjectionof Women 5

Philosophy 6 Svstem of l^gic 5
"^j/"Vi Political and Moral ... ^^"
Lessons of Middle Age 7 unsettled Questions 5

/"wm' J History of Philosophy 2 Utilitarianism e
6 Millard's Granmiar of Elocution 7

Lewis on Authority
8 Miller's of Chemistry
Elements li
Liddell and Scolfs Greek-English Lexicons
InorganicChemistry zo"ia
LindUy and Maoris Treasury of Botany ...
20
Lloyd's Magnetism 9 Wintering in the Riviera zy

Milner's Country Pleasures
" Wave-Theory of Light
^"
9 n
Mitchells Manual of Assaying
Longmatis (F. W.) Chess Openings 20 14
Frederic the Great 3 Modem Novelist's Library jg
'
German Dictionary ... 7 Monck's Logic ^

,
"
Edward the Third 2 Monsells SpiritualSongs ..!!*..!!

z6
-" (W.)
" " ^" Lectures on Historyof England 2 Moore's Irish Melodies, Illustrated Edition za
"
St. Paul's Cathedral Z2 Lalla Rookh, lUustrated Edition., za
Loudon's Encyclopaediaof Agricultiure ... Z4 Morris's Age of Anne 3

Gardening ...
z i " 14 Mozlcy's Reminiscences of Oriel College... 3
" ^" ^" " " "
Plants zz Mutter's Chips from a German Workshop. 7
Civilisation zz Lectures on Religion x6
Lmbbock*s Originof
Ludlow's American War of Independence 3 "^-" Lectures on India 7
16 Science of Language 7
Lyra Germanica
" Science of Religion 16
J/"K:tfiij//r'jVertebrate Animals zo Selected Essays 7
i
Macaulay's (Lord) Essays
" ^" " " Histoiy of England """ z
Neison the Moon g
" " " -^" Lays, lUus. Edits.. za " z8 ..
I
on
Cheap EditiouM.
" z8 NeviUs Horses aad Riding "",."." 19
WORKS publUhedby LONGMANS 6* CO.
24
New Testament (The) Illustrated. 12 Southey's Poetical Works X9

6* Bowles's Correspondence 4
Newmans Apologia pro VitA SuA. 3
Nicols's Puzde of Life xz Stanley s Familiar Historr "tf Birds ...
iz
Steel on Diseases of the Ox X9

NortAcotfsLAihe"".Txixmng .... "3
Stephen'sEcclesiastical Biography 4
Stonehenge,Dog and Greyhound X9
OUphaHfs In Trust '7 Stubbs's Early Plantagenets " """"""""""""" *""* 3
Orsis Fifty Years' Recollections 4 Sunday Afternoons, by A. K. H.B, w """"""""" 7
B
Our Uttle Life, by A. K. H. 7 SupernaturalReligion X5
Overtones Life, "c. of Law 4 Swinburne's Picture Logic 5
and
Owen's (R.) Comparative Anatomy
Animals xo
Phyaoiogy of Vertebrate
ExperimentalPhysiology ...
lo
TaucocKs England during the Wars,
(J.)Evenings with the Skeptics 1765-1820 3
History of India
r^zy/fi^j s
Ancient and Modem History 3

Percys Greek and Roman Sculpture """ ..
12 " ^" ...
Work?,
{Jeremy) edited hjEden x6
Payen'sIndustrial Chemistry 13
Text-Books of Science zo
Pevotnet^s Comprehensive Specifier .
20
14 Thomas Botany xo
Piesses Art of Perfumery
so Thomson's Laws of Thought 6
PoUs Game of Whist
Pfftvdts Early England 3 QuantitativeAnalysis
7*ift"7/}^j zo
" 5/v"wT^/i/'jTel^:raphy.... lO Thorpe and Muir's QualitativeAnalyds ...

zo
Preece
Three in Norway x6
Present-Day Thoughts. 7
8"9 Thudichum's Annals of Chemical Medicine za
Proctor's Astronomical Works
" Tildetis Chemical Philosophy xo
"
ScientificEssays
8 Practical Chemistir xa
Public Schools Atlases
^"
Trench'sRealities of Irish Life 6
Trevelyan'sLife of Fox z
Medicine aX
^wa/"'J Dictionary of Tyollm^sWardeti and Barchester Towers z8
Twisss Law of Nations in Time of War... 5
Tyndalts (Professor) Scientific Works... 9" xo
Ancient Egypt 3
Rawlinson's
Sassanians 3
..
Recreations of a Country Parson ... 7

Unawares i^
Cookery and Housekeeping
Reeue's 90
Machine i^
Chemistry
Unwin's Design
Reynolds'sExperimental 12
Mines x4
of Antiquities 7
Ur^s Arts, Manufactures, and ....^
RUKs Dictionary ...
House II
Rivers s Orchard
Rose Amateui^s Guide XI
Defence VilU on ArtificialManures 14

Rogers'sEclipse of Faith and its xs
Rogefs English Thesaurus 7
Ronald^ Fly-Fisher's Entomology 19
Walker on Whist ao
RtnoUys Rise of the People 3
WalpoUs History of England i
Settlement of the Constitution ... 3
.
^"zr^"r/bff'j Edward the Third 3
Ruileys Study of Rocks xo
Watson s QfXivasX"erj to
Watts' s Dictionary of Chemistry xa
x6 Webb's Celestial Objects 8
Saviuelson'sRoumania
Institutes
.Stf^rftfrj'ijustinian's S J Sacred
Ii^";/"^' Palmlands 17
Sankey's^rta and Thebes 3 Wellington's Life, by Gleig 4
Seaside Musings 7 WhateJy's
English Synonymes 7
Scott s Valuer
Farm ax Logic and Rhetoric 5
Rent? and Purchases ax White's Four Gospels in Greek xs
of 1498 and Riddles Latin Dictionaries 8
Seebohm's Oxford Reformers a - ...
Protestant Revolution 3 Wilcochs's Sea-Fisherman 19

Sennetts Marine Steam Engine 13 Williams's AiistotXe's Etiiics 5
x6 Willich's Popular Tables
Sewelts Passing Thoughts on Religion ... ai
Communion 16 Wilsons Studies of Modem Mind 6

-
Preparationfor
Private Devotions 16 Witts Myths of Hellas, translated by
^"
18
Stories and Tales Younghusband 3
Hebrew Psalter x6 WoodsyfotV" on Natural History 10
Seymour's
Shelley'sWorkshop Appliances 10 Woodwards Geology ""...."
xz
Shorts Church History X4

Stmeox's Classical Latin Literature a
Wit and Wisdom 6 8

Smith's (Sydney) Yongis English-GreekLexicons
Rain 8
(Dr. R. A.) Air and Yonatt on the Dog and Horse .. 19
(r,B. )Cartiiage
" the Carthaginians a
Rome and Carthage 3

.
(J.)Shipwreck of St. Paul 15 Zeikt's Greek Philosophy
Spottisvoocde
6* CV. Printers, New-street Square, LoHdon,

A Treatise On Lathes and Turning Simple Mechanical and Ornamental 1000177405

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r

LATHES AND TURNING

SIMPLE, MECHANICAL, AND ORNAMENTAL

AiriBOB or A TBBATlaX OK 'THB THaOBY AMD ACTIOH OF THB SIUII XXOINS'

WITB THRBS BUHDRED ASD TBIBTT-KIOBT ILLVaTRATIOSS

LONGMANS, GEEEN, AND CO.

Alt right* teierved

EDWABD CAFFIN, ESQ.

MASTER OF THE WORSHIPFUL COMPANY OF TURNERS.

As a member of Ancient and Honourable G-uild,

The useful measures of technical advancement gurated

by the Turners Company, and so warmly promoted

by yourself, tend greatly to artistic skill and

honourable emulation amongst craftsmen ; and I trust that

attempt to the mysteries and secrets of the craft

will not be considered treasonable.

I am, dear Sir,

Your obedient servant,

use of students in mechanics, amateur turners, and others

who are interested in the art of turning. Proficiency

alone, but I beUeve the information given in the ing

be taken as sound and practical, whilst

the lathes, tools, and appliances described are those of

the present day.

part treats of turning with hand tools in hard and

soft woods, ivory, "c., also, in iron and the metals

generally; this part includes screw chasing, drilhng,

third part describes the self-acting lathe and its uses,

including screw cutting, boring, turning irregular shapes,

fourth part is on ornamental turning, with a tion

geometric, the compound geometric and other chucks

the eccentric, ellipse, rose and other ornamenting

whole being illustrated by three hundred and thirty-

eight engravings of lathe apparatus and eiuimples of

turned work, of which ninety-nine new to this

Messrs. Sir Joseph Whitworth and Co., Messrs.

Fairbairn, Kennedy, and Naylor and other eminent

makers were good enough to furnish me

photographs from which the illustrations of lathes

were engraved. To Mr. Henry Perigal, F.E.A.S.,

and aid in connection with the special subject of

geometric turning. And last, but not least, Mr. James

Kasmytb has kindly contributed chapter ' ening

and tempering steel tools.'

I add that I hope shortly to publish sequel

to this work in the form of volume devoted

SomfZEnc Clvb, Lokimk^ 1876.

Wbat 18 the lathe 1

Invention of the lathe 2

Course of improvement in the lathe ^8

Modesof making slide* rest automatic 8

"8t and looee pulleys 18

On the choice of a lathe 22

'Points' of a good lathe 23

Mode of using the chucks 38

Tools for soft wood turning 40

Tools for hard woods 42

Cutting position of tools 45