Lesson 7 Unit Operations in Mining *The Stripping ratio or the Overburden is the deciding

factor whether you’ll proceed to open pit or underground

Unit Operations is divided into Production and Auxiliary mining operation.
Operations.

Production is directly involved with the operation, steps

contributing directly to mineral extraction. Divided into The basic production cycle consists of these unit
Excavation(breakage) and Handling (materials operations:
handling).
Production cycle = drill + blast + load + haul
The ancillary steps that support the production cycle are
termed Auxiliary Operations. They are activities that The production cycle employs unit operations that are
guide the Production Operation. normally grouped into rock breakage and materials
handling.
In surface mining, the primary auxiliary operations
include: • Breakage generally consists of drilling and
blasting.
- those providing slope stability, • Materials handling encompasses loading or
-pumping, excavation and haulage (horizontal transport) and
-power supply, sometimes hoisting (vertical or inclined transport).
-maintenance,
-waste disposal or Dewatering, Drilling-
-and supply of material to the production
centers. Rock
-surveying Penetration
-Dust management Rock Breakage
-road maintenance Rock
Fragmentation
*Selection of Equipment for Operations is a major
consideration for selecting operation activity. Rock Penetration- drilling of holes for the placement of
explosives when consolidated rock must be removed. The
* Purchase/select equipment necessary for specific pre-operation for the fragmentation of Rocks (Rock
Operation. Avoid selecting equipment with only temporary fragmentation).
usage for operation.
Rock Fragmentation- blasting or breakage of rocks to
Overburden Removal- major activity to remove the manageable sizes which is now part of blasting activity.
overburden to have an access to the ore body deposit.
Two types of Drilling:
Overburden- the waste material and not a mineral, it lies
above or around the ore body that is needed to remove to 1. Rotary drilling- is used to form a deep observation
have an access to ore deposit. borehole or for obtaining representative samples of rock.

Maximum Slope- needed/basis for designing the open -The drilling method involves a
pit. powered rotary cutting head on the end of a shaft, driven
into the ground as it rotates. The system requires
Pit Slope- Measured from the bottom bench toe to the top lubrication (air, water or drilling mud) to keep the cutting
bench crest. It is the angle at which the wall of an open pit head cool.
stands and it is determined by rock strength, geologic
structures and water conditions. 2. Percussion drilling- is a manual drilling technique in
which a heavy cutting or hammering bit attached to a rope
Stripping Ratio- can be calculated by dividing or cable is lowered in the open hole or inside a temporary
overburden thickness by ore thickness. For example, casing.
an overburden thickness of 100 meters and an ore
thickness of 50 meters would yield a strip ratio of 2:1. - is employed when auger or wash
boring is not possible in very stiff soil or rock. It also can
𝑶𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒃𝒖𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔
SR= be used in most soil types.
𝑶𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔

or
𝒘𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆
SR=
𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅
 -used to reduce the overburden or ore to a size
range suitable for excavation depending on the
requirement of ROM(Run-of-mine)

Run of Mine- means the raw unprocessed or uncrushed

Mechanical Drilling- material in its natural state obtained after blasting or
digging, from the mineralized zone of a lease area.
Method Machine
Percussion Blasting equipment:
DTH Churn or cable-tool drill
Hammer Rock Drill Boosters

Rotary, Drag Bit Detonating Chord- chemical, electrical, mechanical

Blade Auger or rotary drill, boring
Stone-set Diamond Drill Dynamite-
Sawing Wine-rope, chain or rotary saw
Rotary, roller-bit Rolling-cutting drill, boring LE HE BA
Black Dynamite Gelatin Water
Rotary percussion Powder s Dynamit Gels,
Hammer Rock Drill e slurries ANFO
Rotary Rolling- Cutting Straight Straight Semi- Binary blends
Dynamite Gelatin gelatins Emulsions
Ammonia Ammoni
Dynamite a Gelatin
Rock Type
Drilling SOFT Medium- Hard Very Hard A Shotfirer in the minerals industry assembles, positions
Method (Shale, hard (Granite (Taconite, and detonates explosives at mining sites to dislodge rock
weath (limestone, , Chert) Quartzite)
or soil.
ered, weathered,
Limest sandstone)
one,
Coal)
Materials Handling
Hydraulic / /
Jet • Loading/ Excavation
• The removal of rock Material whether
Rotary, / /
drag-bit overburden or ore.
Rotary, / / / • Hauling
roller-bit • The transport of rock material
Rotary / / • Dumping
Percussion
Percussion / / /
• the placement of rock material into storage
areas
Thermal Jet / /
piercing Loaders/Excavators

• Hydraulic backhoe excavator

Percussion Drilling- considered with highest penetration • Shovel
rate. • Rope Shovel
Hydraulic Jet- high environmental degradation. • Hydraulic Shovel
• Dragline
• Front-end Loader
• Bucket wheel excavator
Blasting
• Surface Miner
Rock • Scraper
Penetration
Rock Breakage
Rock Loading Equipment Selection
Fragmentation
• Cost
Blasting is the activity in which in-situ rock is broken in • Operating cost
both development and stopping and in surface mining by • Capital Cost
drilling holes in the rock, charging them with explosives • Rock Hardness and Abrasiveness
and detonating the holes in a planned sequence. • Surface competence
• Mining Method
• Deposit Size • can be used as hauling equipment
• Productivity Requirements • Disadvantages
• Ore/ overburden interface • high maintenance cost
• Mobility requirements • requires smooth terrain
• Availability • material requires loose and spread out muck
• Due to differing requirements, some mines have profile
multiple loading equipment in order to handle all types Two common types:
of loading tasks • Track Front-end
Loader
• Wheel Front-end
Hydraulic backhoe excavator Loader

-used for digging material below the equipment level Draglines

-clockwise movement -used commonly in open-cast mines, in high productivity

mines with the dumpsite located in-pit
• Advantages
• separation between loading and hauling • Advantages
equipment • high productivity
• good for digging ramps and drop cuts • low operating cost
• high flexibility • doesn’t require hauling equipment (direct casting)
• Disadvantages • Disadvantages
• Lower productivity when digging material on the • High capital cost
same level • Very low mobility
• Low mobility • Can only be used in limited applications
• Requires bench preparation
Types of Loading

• Top Loading-truck and excavator are on

the same level Bucket Wheel Excavator
• Bench Loading- the excavator is on top
-used in mines with soft rock; doesn’t require drill and
while the truck is on lower level
blast; considered to be one of the biggest equipment in
• Double benching-capable of lower and mining, attached to it is a conveyor that transports
upper benches excavated material directly into the stockpile; commonly
Shovel used in coal mines

-for digging material on the same level as the equipment • Advantages

• high productivity
-counterclockwise movement • low operating cost
• continuous cycle
• Advantages
• Disadvantages
• High productivity due to lower swing time
• High capital cost
• Disadvantages
• Very low mobility
• Can’t dig deep drop cuts
• Can’t be used in hard rock applications
• Low mobility

Two common types:

• Hydraulic Shovel
• Rope shovel

Front-end Loaders

-used in ROM stockpiles, road maintenance, moving

small amounts of material (i.e. stemming), loading
equipment

• Advantages
• high mobility
• flexible
CYCLIC OPERATION for loading and hauling • Cyclic in nature and has better compatibility with
operation backhoes and shovels
travel to • Disadvantages
dumpsite
• High maintenance costs
• Require properly maintained roads
Loading dumpsite

Types:

• On-Highway truck
• Articulated
spotting
travel empty
to loader
• Rigid Dump Trucks

queuering
Articulated Trucks

• Smaller and has a smaller turning radius

• Can be used in rugged, cramped terrain and
Hauling Equipment Selection higher road gradient
• Distance
• Loading equipment compatibility
• Haul road quality Rigid Dump Trucks
• Terrain
• Bigger and higher capacity
• Road gradient
• Rigid dump trucks are the backbone of
• Water drainage
haulage equipment for the worldwide mining
• Slope stability industry
• Dust concerns

Percentage of expenses in surface mining

Haulage- 48%

Overhead-15%

Drill and blast- 13%

Roads and Dumps- 12%

Loading- 12%

*Loading drives production while hauling drives the

cost in surface mine
Types of Loading

• Frontal Cut- Advance direction- right

Dozers- 0-150m(0-500ft) - Excavator is placed 90 degrees from
the surface
Load and Carry- 50 to 120m (150 to 400ft) - Double spotting for loading trucks
- 110 degrees maximum swing
Scrapers- 120 to 1200m (400 to 4000ft)
• Drive-by Operation
Articulated Trucks- 120 to 1200m (400 to 4000ft) - Advance direction- Left
- Similar to parallel loading
Rear-Dump Truck- 120 to 9000m (400 to 29 500ft) - Loading equipment is already
Wagon/Hauler- 7000 to 20000m (22900 to 65,600ft) parallel to bench face
- Bigger space for penetration
- Faster spotting mobility, Single
Spotting
Trucks
• Stop-and-Reverse
• Advantages - Combination of both Frontal Cut and
• High productivity Parallel but is more complicated
• Flexible - Favorable in constrained area
 - 45.5 degrees maximum swing angle 2. Road Maintenance – Maintenance trimming and
spillage removal
Conveyor Belts - Scarifying soft spots
• Continuous hauler - Road graders- is a form of heavy
• Advantages equipment with a long blade used to
create a flat surface during grading
• Good compatibility to continuous
- Road roller- is a compactor-type
mining
engineering vehicle used to compact
• Low operating costs
soil, gravel, concrete, or asphalt in
• Doesn’t require too much personnel
the construction of roads and
• Disadvantages foundations.
• Low flexibility 3. Slope Stability
• Requires permanent structures 4. Dust Management – usually done to reduce drill
• Huge downtime during maintenance dust and dust generated in overburden removal
by mobile excavation equipment.

Loading/Hauling Combinations

• Loading and Hauling Equipment need to match in

order to have better efficiency
• When using trucks, 3-6 passes are the best
• Overloaded trucks can cause higher maintenance
costs due to higher tire wear
• When using continuous mining methods, conveyors
are the most suitable hauling equipment

Surface Miner

• Multipurpose equipment designed to crush, cut and

load soft material
• Advantages:
• Can be used in highly selective applications
(dilution control)
• Reduced amount of equipment and processes
• Disadvantages:
• can’t be used in hard rock applications
• relatively low productivity

Scraper

• used to crush, cut, load and transport soft material

• also considered as part of auxiliary operation
• Advantages:
• Can be used in highly selective applications
(Dilution control)
• Reduced amount of equipment and processes
• Disadvantages:
• Can’t be used in hard rock applications
• Relatively low productivity
• Rugged terrain

Auxiliary Operation

1. Surveying