Automotive Technology: A Systems Approach

AUTOMOTIVE
TECHNOLOGY
A Systems Approach
6th Edition
JACK ERJAVEC
ROB THOMPSON
CHAPTER
GENERAL ELECTRICAL
© Cengage Learning 2015
16 SYSTEM DIAGNOSTICS
AND SERVICE
OBJECTIVES
■ Describe the different possible ■ Explain how to use a DMM for ■ Use wiring diagrams to identify
types of electrical problems. diagnosing electrical and electronic circuits and circuit problems.
■ Read electrical diagrams. systems. ■ Diagnose common electrical
■ Perform troubleshooting procedures ■ Explain how to use an oscilloscope problems.
using meters, testlights, and jumper for diagnosing electrical and ■ Properly repair wiring and
wires. electronic systems. connectors.
■ Describe how each of the major ■ Test common electrical
types of electrical test equipment components.
are connected and interpreted.
Three Cs: Concern, Cause, Correction

REPAIR ORDER
Year: 2007 Make: Honda Model: Civic Mileage: 118,551 RO: 15875
Concern: Customer states windshield wipers do not work on any speed. When he replaced
the fuse, it blew as soon as the wipers were turned on.
Given this customer concern, use what you learn in this chapter to determine possible causes for this concern,
methods of diagnosing the concern, and what steps will be necessary to correct the concern.
D iagnosing nearly every system of a vehicle involves

electrical and electronic systems. An understanding of
how electrical/electronic systems work (Figure 16–1) and
is on, it is closed. Switches open and close circuits, but at
times a fault, such as worn or burned contacts in the switch
will cause an open. Opening a circuit stops current flow
the knowledge of how to use the various types of test through the circuit. Voltage is still applied up to the open
equipment are the keys to efficient diagnosis. point, but because there is no current flow no voltage is
dropped by the load. Without current flow, there are no
ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS voltage drops across the various loads.
All electrical problems can be classified into one of three
categories: opens, shorts, or unwanted or high-resistance Shorted Circuits
problems. Identifying the type of problem allows techni- When a circuit has an unwanted path for current to follow,
cians to identify the correct tests to perform when diag- it has a short. Shorts can be either to power or to ground. A
nosing an electrical problem. An explanation of the short circuit is sometimes referred to as a low-resistance
different types of electrical problems follows. circuit. When an energized wire accidentally contacts the
frame or body of the car or another wire, circuit current
Open Circuits can travel in unintended directions through the wires. This
An open occurs when a circuit is incomplete. Without a can cause uncontrollable circuits and high current through
completed path, current cannot flow (Figure 16–2), volt- the circuits. Shorts are caused by damaged wire insulation,
age is not dropped, and the load or component will not loose wires or connections, damaged connections,
work. An open circuit can be caused by a disconnected improper wiring, or careless installation of accessories.
wire or connector, a broken wire, or a switch in the off A short creates an unwanted parallel leg or path in a
position. When a circuit is off, it is open. When the circuit circuit. If the short is to ground, circuit resistance decreases
426
CHAPTER 16 • General Electrical System Diagnostics and Service 427
Indicates power circuit
St-run-off A81
Indicates an Fuse
Junction
internal splice 5A
block
10 C6
Indicates splice
S213
6 C2
Brake Instrument
Oil pressure warning
warning lamp cluster
lamp
5 C1 6 C1
Indicates connector number
Indicates 7
connector C110 S202
pin number 6 C4 9
Junction
block 1
4 C10 11 C2 2 4
Indicates vehicle 0 3
optional circuits
Others ABS/DRL 2
Indicates
1 operating
S108 condition of
Indicates in-line Park component
connector number brake 1 Start
and connector pin switch 2 Run
1
designation Brake 0 Off
fluid Daytime
S236 3 Lock
4 level running
C101 4 Acc
switch lamp
module
2
Solid box
indicates 1 G200
complete
C110
component
G102 Controller
antilock
brake
Indicates a
Indicates component body ground
is case grounded
Dashed box indicates
component is not complete.
Figure 16–1 A wiring diagram for part of an instrument panel.
and current increases. The amount that the current will normal current, a short is the likely cause. Also, if a con-
increase depends on the resistance of the short. The nector or group of wires shows signs of burning or insula-
increased current flow can burn wires or components. tion melting, high current is the cause.
Preventing this is the purpose of circuit protection devices. A short can be caused by a number of things and can be
When a circuit protection device opens due to higher than evident in a number of ways. The short is often in parallel to
428 SECTION 3 • Electricity
8A ~12,000A
–
12V 3Ω 3Ω
+
4A 4A
Fuse 10A
8A will fuse
blow
0A 0.001Ω 3Ω 6Ω

Open
–
12V 3Ω 3Ω
+ RT = approx. 0.001Ω
+ –
0A 0A 12V
0A
Figure 16–2 In an open circuit, there is no Figure 16–4 Ohm’s law applied to Figure 16–3.
current flow in the circuit due to the open. Notice the rise in circuit amperage.
Horn
relay
Fuse
opens Horn
Short Horn
button
Short Brake
light
switch
Brake
+ –

lights
12V
Figure 16–3 A short to ground. + –

12V
a load and provides a low-resistance path to ground. Look
at Figure 16–3; this short is caused by bad insulation that Figure 16–5 A wire-to-wire short.
allows the power feed for the lamp to touch the ground for
the same lamp. This creates a parallel circuit. Figure 16–4 Sometimes two separate circuits become shorted
represents Figure 16–3 but is drawn to show the short as a together. When this happens, each circuit is controlled by
parallel leg with very low resistance. The resistance the other. This may result in strange happenings, such as
assigned to the short may be more or less than an actual the horn sounding every time the brake pedal is depressed
short, but the value 0.001 ohm is given to illustrate what (Figure 16–5), or vice versa. In this case, the brake light
happens. With the short, the circuit has three loads in circuit is shorted to the horn circuit. This is often called a
parallel: 0.001, 3, and 6 ohms. The total resistance of this “copper-to-copper” or a “wire-to-wire” short.
parallel circuit is less than the lowest resistance or
0.001 ohm. Therefore the circuit’s current is more than Unwanted or High-Resistance Circuits
12,000 amps, which is much more than the fuse can handle. Resistance problems occur when there is unwanted resis-
The high current will burn the fuse and the circuit will tance in the circuit. The higher than normal resistance
not work. Some call this problem a “grounded circuit” or a causes the current flow to be lower and the components in
“copper-to-iron” short. the circuit cannot operate properly. A common cause of this
(A) (B)
3A 3A
1Ω 1Ω 9 watts used by
resistance
6V 18 watts used by
Corrosion 2Ω Corrosion 2Ω bulb

1Ω 1Ω 9 watts used by
+ – + – resistance
12V 12V
Total power used by the

circuit = 36 watts
12V • 3A = 36 watts
Figure 16–6 (A) A simple light circuit with unwanted resistance. (B) The amount of power (watts)
consumed by each resistance.
problem is corrosion at a connector. The corrosion becomes to other high-resistance problems. However, if you look at
an additional load in the circuit (Figure 16–6). This load a typical voltage divider circuit used to supply the refer-
uses some of the circuit’s voltage, which prevents full voltage ence voltage, you will understand what is happening. In
to the circuit’s normal loads. Because the resistance becomes Figure 16–7, there are two resistors in series with a voltage
a voltage drop, electrical energy is used and converted into reference tap between them. Because the total resistance in
another form of energy, typically heat. This can cause wiring the circuit is 12 ohms, the circuit current is 1 amp.
and connectors to overheat and melt. So in addition to the Therefore, the voltage drop across the 7-ohm resistor is
intended load not operating correctly, the unwanted resis- 7 volts, leaving 5 volts at the tap.
tance can also cause damage to wiring and connectors. Figure 16–8 is the same circuit, but a bad ground of
Many sensors are fed a 5-volt reference signal. The sig- 1 ohm was added. This resistance could be caused by cor-
nal or voltage from the sensor is less than 5 volts depending rosion at the connection. With the bad ground, the total
on the condition it is measuring. A poor ground in the ref- resistance is now 13 ohms. This decreases our circuit
erence voltage circuit can cause higher than normal read- current to approximately 0.92 amp. With this lower amper-
ings back to the computer. This seems to be contradictory age, the voltage drop across the 7-ohm resistor is now about
6.46 volts, leaving 5.54 volts at the voltage tap. This means
the reference voltage would be more than one-half volt
5 volts
higher than it should be. Depending on the sensor and the
Voltage operating conditions of the vehicle, this could be critical.
tap
ELECTRICAL WIRING DIAGRAMS
12 volts 7 ohms 5 ohms Wiring diagrams, sometimes called schematics, show how
circuits are constructed. These diagrams are used to diag-
Figure 16–7 A voltage divider circuit.
nose and repair a vehicle’s electrical system. They identify
the wires and connectors in every circuit of a vehicle.
While doing this, they show where and how the compo-
5.54 volts
nents of a circuit are connected.

Voltage Bad A wiring diagram does not show the actual location of
tap ground the parts or their appearance, nor does it indicate the
length of the wire that runs between components. It does
show the color of the wire’s insulation (Figure 16–9) and
12 volts 7 ohms 5 ohms 1 ohm sometimes the wire gauge size. Typically the wire insula-
Figure 16–8 A voltage divider circuit with a tion is color coded as shown in Table 16–1. The first letter
bad ground. or set of letters usually indicates the base color of the
Solid color been shown in earlier discussions. Other common sym-

bols are shown in Figure 16–10.
Striped
Wiring diagrams can become quite complex. To avoid
Hash marked this, most diagrams usually illustrate one distinct system,
Dotted such as the back-up light circuit, oil pressure indicator cir-
cuit, or wiper motor circuit. In more complex ignition,
Examples electronic fuel injection, and computer-controlled systems,
a diagram may only illustrate a part of the entire circuit.
LG Solid light green
Connectors, splices, grounds, and other details are also
LG-Y Light green w/yellow
given in a wiring diagram; a sample of these is shown in

stripes Figure 16–11.
LG-YH Light green w/yellow
hash marks
LG-YD Light green w/yellow USING SERVICE INFORMATION
dots
Electrical symbols are not standardized through-
Figure 16–9 The different multicolor out the automotive industry. Different manufactur-
schemes of wires. ers may have different methods of representing
certain components, particularly the less common
insulation. The second set refers to the color of the stripe, ones. Always refer to the symbol reference charts,
hash marks, or dots on the wire, if there are any. Circuits wire color code charts, and abbreviation tables
are traced through a vehicle by identifying the beginning listed in the service information to avoid
and end of a particular colored wire. confusion.
Many different symbols are used to represent compo-
nents such as resistors, batteries, switches, transistors, and
many other items. Some of these symbols have already
Connector and Terminals
An electrical terminal is a copper, brass, or steel end crimped
TABLE 16–1 STANDARD WIRE COLOR CODES
or soldered to a wire. When mated to another terminal, an
Color Abbreviations electrical connection is made. These terminals are housed
in plastic connectors. A connector slips into or over another
Black BLK BK B connector, depending on the connection; a connector is
Blue BL BLU L either a male or female. As the connectors are snapped
together, the internal terminals connect (Figure 16–12).
Dark Blue BLU DK DB DK BLU
How the terminals are retained in a connector, depends on
Light Blue BLU LT LB LT BLU the type of connector. Here is a list of the common types of
Brown BRN BR BN connectors.
Glazed GLZ GL ■ Molded connector—This type normally has one to four
Gray GRA GR G
wires and terminals molded into a single unit.
Green GN GRN G
■ Multiple-wire hard-shell connector—This connector
has a hard plastic shell that holds the terminals.
Dark Green GRN DK DG DK GRN
■ Bulkhead connector—This connector is used when sev-
Light Green GRN LT LG LT GRN eral wires must pass through the fire wall. Bulkhead
Maroon MAR M connections often use a retaining bolt to prevent the
Orange ORN O ORG connector from coming loose.
Pink PNK PK P ■ Weather-pack connector—This connector is used when
the terminals may be exposed to the environment. It
Purple PPL PR
has rubber seals to protect the terminals.
Red RED R RD
■ Metri-pack connector—Similar to a weather-pack con-
© Cengage Learning
Tan TAN T TN nector without the seal.

Violet VLT V ■ Heat shrink covered butt connector—A connector that
White WHT W WH serves as a single wire connection and is protected by
shrink wrap. This type connection is normally found
Yellow YEL Y YL
in air bag circuits.
SYMBOLS USED IN WIRING DIAGRAMS
Positive T Temperature switch

Negative Diode
Ground Zener diode
Fuse Motor
Circuit breaker C101 Connector 101
Condenser Male connector
Ohms Female connector
Fixed value resistor Splice
Variable resistor S101 Splice number
Rheostat Thermal element
Coil Multiple connectors
Open contacts Digital readout
Closed contacts Single filament bulb
Closed switch Dual filament bulb
Open switch Light-emitting diode

T
Ganged switch (N.O.) Thermistor
Single pole double throw switch PNP bipolar transistor
Momentary contact switch NPN bipolar transistor
P Pressure switch Gauge
Figure 16–10 Common electrical symbols used on wiring diagrams.
ELECTRICAL TESTING TOOLS where it can be easily seen, up to 10 meters away. This also
Several meters are used to test and diagnose electrical sys- allows for placing the meter at the best spot for taking mea-
tems. These are the voltmeter, ohmmeter, ammeter, and surements. The removable display has a magnetic back and
volt/amp meter. These should be used along with jumper flat bottom, which allows it to be placed or mounted on any
wires, testlights, and variable resistors (piles). flat surface. When the display assembly is in the meter’s
body, the meter will operate as a normal DMM.
Multimeter
A multimeter is one of the most important tools for Lab Scopes
troubleshooting electrical and electronic systems. A basic Lab scopes are fast reacting meters that measure and dis-
multimeter measures DC and AC voltage, current, and play voltages within a specific period of time. The voltage
resistance. Because most of today’s multimeters have a readings appear as a waveform or trace on the scope’s
digital display, they are commonly referred to as a digital screen (Figure 16–14). An upward movement of the trace
multimeter or DMM (Figure 16–13). Most DMMs also indicates an increase in voltage, and a decrease in voltage
check engine speed, signal frequency, duty cycle, pulse results in a downward movement. These are especially
width, diodes, and temperature. The desired test is selected valuable when watching the action of a circuit. The wave-
by turning a control knob or depressing keys on the meter. form displays what is happening and any problems can be
These meters can be used to test simple electrical circuits, observed when they happen. This gives the technician a
ignition systems, input sensors, fuel injectors, batteries, chance to observe what caused the change.
and starting and charging systems. Lab scopes are often used with pressure transducers
and current clamps, sometimes called current probes.
New DMMs A DMM with a wireless remote display is cur- These devices convert a measurement, such as pressure,
rently available. This meter has a detachable display that vacuum, or amperage into a voltage reading that is then
slides out of the body of the meter. The display can be placed displayed on the scope.
GRY GRY
A B
3 C100
Female terminal Component connectors
Male terminal
"A" is in a wire. "B" is at
Cavity terminal #3 the part.
BLK BLK
BLK Splices are
shown as a dot.
BLK BLK BLK BLK BLK BLK
Ground
connection
G107
Component is
G500
directly grounded.
Ground reference
The broken line means

Switches are shown in the switch wipers are
0 1 mechanically
their normal position.
0 1 0 1 connected together.
Hot in run
Tells when there is

Fuse 9
source voltage. 15A
Identification
Wire is
color coded. GRN/BLK Rating
Figure 16–11 Examples of the information contained in a typical wiring diagram.
Scan Tools perform other diagnostic functions depending on the year

A scan tool may be used as part of diagnosing an electrical and make of the vehicle.
issue because many of the systems on modern vehicles are Trouble codes are typically set when a voltage signal is
computer controlled or monitored. A scan tool can retrieve entirely out of its normal range. The codes help techni-
fault codes from a computer’s memory and digitally dis- cians identify the cause of the problem. If a signal is within
play these codes (Figure 16–15). A scan tool may also its normal range but is still not correct, the computer may
Amp connector Locking wedge connector

Shoulder
Locking
tab
Groove
Locking Pin
tab contact Retaining
finger
Wedge
Socket
contact
Latching
leg Bridge
Tang connector
Plastic Groove
spring
Shoulder
Wedge
Locking Latching
tang tongue
Latching
tongue
Blade connector Internal locking finger connector

Latching
tongue
Socket
Locking contact
finger
Socket T-shaped Cut-out
contact slots Blade notch
contact
Locking Locking
fingers finger
Printed circuit connector
Locking Pin
finger contact
Cut-out
notch
Finger
notch Locking
Contact finger
finger
Figure 16–12 Various multiple wire hard shell connectors.

434 © Cengage Learning 2015
SECTION 3 • Electricity

Figure 16–13 A DMM.
Figure 16–15 A typical scan tool.
Reproduced under license from Snap-on Incorporated.
or may not display a trouble code. However, a problem will

still exist. As an aid to identify this type of problem, most
manufacturers recommend that the signals to and from
All of the marks are marks of their owners.
the computer be carefully looked at. This is done by

observing the serial data stream or through the use of a
breakout box (Figure 16–16).
Other Test Equipment

Other electrical test equipment may be needed to diagnose
an electrical circuit.
Circuit Testers
Circuit testers (testlights) are used to identify shorted and
open circuits in electrical circuits. Low-voltage testers are
Figure 16–14 The waveform of a AC generator. used to troubleshoot 6- to 12-volt circuits. High-voltage
Figure 16–16 An example of the data shown on a scan tool.

Circuit
breaker
Jumper wire Switch


Battery
Lamp
Figure 16–17 A testlight will illuminate when

the probe is touched to a part of the circuit that is
powered.
Figure 16–18 A jumper wire can be used to
bypass a switch.
circuit testers diagnose higher voltage systems, such as the
secondary ignition circuit. High-impedance testlights are
available for diagnosing electronic systems. However, most codes, radio presets, cellular phone settings, comfort set-
manufacturers do not recommend their use. tings, and other memory-related functions.
Nonpowered testlights are used to check for available Memory savers plug into the cigar lighter receptacle or
voltage. With the wire lead connected to a good ground the OBD II diagnostic connector. Those that connect to
and the tester’s probe at a point of voltage, the light turns the cigarette lighter receptacle are normally powered by a
on with the presence of voltage (Figure 16–17). The 9-volt battery that will provide ample power to maintain
amount of voltage determines the brightness of the light. the memories.
By connecting the wire lead to power, the testlight can be A simple memory saver can be made using a 9-volt
used to check for ground. By inserting the testlight in place alkaline battery, a 12-volt automotive battery, or a 12-volt
of a component, such as a light or motor that is not work- dry-cell lantern battery. Number 14 or 16 wire is connected
ing, the light can indicate if current is flowing through the to a cigarette lighter adapter plug. The wire that will serve
circuit when the circuit is turned on. as the positive lead should have a 5-ampere inline fuse and
A self-powered testlight is used to check for continuity. a diode (Figure 16–19). The fuse will protect the memory
Hooked across a circuit or component, the light turns on if saver and the electrical system from an accidental short.
the circuit is complete. A powered testlight should only be The diode will prevent current feedback from the vehicle’s
used if the power for the circuit or component has been electrical system to the auxiliary battery. The ends of the
disconnected. wires should have alligator clips so the assembly can be
connected to the auxiliary battery.
Jumper Wires Jumper wires are used to bypass individual
wires, connectors, or components. Basically a jumper wire
is a wire about 18 inches long with an alligator clip on each Cigar
end of the wire. Bypassing a component or wire helps to lighter
determine if that part is faulty (Figure 16–18). If the adapter
symptom is no longer evident after the jumper wire is
installed, the part bypassed is faulty. It is always recom-
mended to only use a fused jumper wire. These jumper Diode
wires have a circuit breaker or fuse between the two ends. 5-amp fuse
The purpose of these is to protect the tested circuit from
excessive current.
Computer Memory Saver Whenever a vehicle’s battery

needs to be disconnected, connect a memory saver to the
vehicle. This tool is designed to maintain the memory of + –
12V
the electronic systems when the power source is discon- battery
nected. Use of this tool prevents loss of drivability codes,
diagnostic codes, anti-theft radio codes, keyless entry Figure 16–19 A basic memory saver.
Memory savers that plug into the OBD II DLC connect

only to the positive and ground pins at the connector.
Therefore, they will not affect any stored fault codes or
other diagnostic information. The OBD II connector is
attached to a long cord, which allows for connection to a
remote power source. Some also include an adapter for
the cigarette lighter receptacle. All power leads have a
built-in fuse or resettable circuit breaker to protect the
circuits. Others are contained in a protective carrier and

contain a sealed automotive battery with a state-of-charge
indicator.
Some memory savers are part of a multi-functional
assembly. These may also be used as a 12-volt source for
jump starting an engine, a long-term source of 12-volt
power, and the source of power for emergency lights and
cordless tools. They are equipped with a maintenance-free, Figure 16–21 A backprobing tool properly
sealed battery and may have an LED display that shows the inserted into the back of a connector.
internal battery’s state-of charge.
If you connect the memory saver under the hood, do
not connect it to the battery cable clamps. Removing and opening. This can create an open or intermittent connec-
reinstalling the battery will likely dislodge the memory tion once the connector is reattached.
saver’s alligator clips and make it useless. Instead, con-
nect the saver’s negative (–) lead to a good engine ground USING MULTIMETERS
and the positive (+) lead to a point that is hot at all Multimeters are available with either analog or digital dis-
times, such as the battery connection at the generator or plays. Analog meters (Figure 16–22) use a needle to point
starter relay. to a value on a scale and are seldom used on today’s vehi-
cles. Analog meters should not be used to test electronic
Backprobing Tools Often testing electrical circuits parts. They have low internal resistance (input imped-
requires a technician to backprobe a connector to allow a ance). The low input impedance allows too much current
test lead to contact a terminal inside the connector. To do to flow through circuits and can damage delicate electronic
this, a backprobing tool (Figure 16–20) is slid into the devices.
backside of the connector. Once the tool contacts the ter- A digital meter shows the value in numbers or digits.
minal of the desired wire, the lead of a meter can be con- The most commonly used meter is DMM, sometimes
nected to the metal portion of the probe that extends out of called a digital volt/ohm meter (DVOM). DMMs have
the connector (Figure 16–21). The proper use of these high input impedance, 1 megohm (million ohms) to
tools will prevent damage to the connector and its seals. 10 megohms. And, the metered voltage for resistance tests
Attempting to force a backprobe tool or meter lead into a is below 5 volts, reducing the risk of damage to delicate
female terminal can damage the terminal and expand its electronic components and circuits.
Figure 16–20 Backprobing tools. Figure 16–22 An analog multimeter.

SHOP TALK DIGITAL MULTIMETER Display

RECORD MAX MIN
The DMM used on high-voltage systems in %

HZ
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
hybrids should be classified as a category III or
Range selector
category IV meter. There are basically four catego- MIN MAX
ries for electrical meters, each built for specific HZ
purposes and to meet certain standards. The cat- mV
egories define how safe a meter is when measur- V

mA
A Mode selector
ing certain circuits. The standards for the various V A
categories are defined by the American National

Standards Institute (ANSI), the International Elec-
trotechnical Commission (IEC), and the Canadian
Standards Association (CSA). A CAT III or CAT IV
A mA A COM V
Input jacks
meter is required for testing hybrid vehicles
because of the high voltages, three-phase current,
and the potential for high transient voltages. Tran-
sient voltages are voltage surges or spikes that
Figure 16–24 The front of a DMM normally
occur in AC circuits. To be safe, you should have has four distinct sections: the display area, range
either a CAT III or IV 1,000 V meter and CAT III or selectors, mode selector, and jacks for the test leads.
IV rated meter leads. Within a particular category,
meters have different voltage ratings that reflect
the ability to withstand transient voltages. There-
fore, a CAT III 1,000 V meter offers much more
protection than a CAT III meter rated at 600 volts Symbol Name Value
(Figure 16–23). mV millivolts volts × 0.001
kV kilovolts volts × 1,000
mA milliamps amps × 0.001
μA* microamps amps × 0.000001

The front of a DMM is normally comprised of four sec-
tions: the display area, range selectors, mode selector, and KΩ kilo-ohms ohms × 1,000
jacks for the test leads (Figure 16–24). In the center of the
MΩ megohms ohms × 1,000,000
display are large digits that represent the measured value.
Normally there are four to five digits with a decimal point. *Automotive technicians seldom use readings at
To the right of the number, the units of measurement are the microamp level.
displayed (V, A, or Ω). These units may be further defined
by a symbol to denote a value of more or less than one Figure 16–25 Symbols used to define the
(Figure 16–25) and the type of voltage (Figure 16–26). value of a measurement on a DMM.
Setting the range on a DMM is important. The range
on some DMMs is manually set (Figure 16–27). If the
measured value is beyond the set range, the meter will dis-
play an infinite reading of “OL” or over limit. In the meter
shown in Figure 16–27A, to measure battery voltage, the Indicates value
DIGITAL MULTIMETER is direct current
RECORD MAX MIN
DC (DC).
V
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 40 Units are
EN61010 -1
EN6101 volts.
600V
CAT III Indicates the
range is 0–40.
Figure 16–23 Only meters with this symbol Figure 16–26 The measurement display also
should be used on the high-voltage systems in a shows other important information. Some of this
hybrid vehicle; it is preferable that the equipment defines the measured value, the type of voltage—
is rated at 1,000 V. AC or DC—and the range selected on the meter.

(A) (B)
Figure 16–27 (A) A DMM that requires setting measurement ranges.
(B) An auto-ranging DMM.

meter must be set to the 40 V scale. Even though the 4 V
setting is closer to battery voltage, this setting only reads
up to 4 volts, making it useless for trying to measure most
automotive circuits. Other meters have an “auto range”
feature, in which the appropriate scale is automatically
selected by the meter (Figure 16–27B). Auto ranging is
helpful when you do not know what value to expect. When Figure 16–28 Placement of decimal point
using a meter with auto range, make sure you note the and the scale should be noticed when measuring
range being used by the meter. There is a big difference with a meter with auto range.
between 10 ohms and 10,000,000 (10 M) ohms.
Ohms Diode
Millivolts
! check
WARNING! Volts Amps/

(DC) mV
Ω milliamps
Many DMMs with auto range display the V
mA ∼
Volts A
measurement with a decimal point. Make sure ∼

V µA ∼ Microamps
(AC)
you observe the decimal and the range being OFF
used by the meter (Figure 16–28). A reading

of 0.972 kilo ohm equals 972 ohms. If you Figure 16–29 The mode selector defines
ignore the decimal point, you will interpret the what the meter will be measuring.
reading as 972,000 ohms or as 0.972 ohms.
Most DMMs have two test leads and four input jacks.
The mode selector defines what the meter will be The black test lead always plugs into the COM input jack
measuring. The number of available modes varies with and the red lead plugs into one of the other input jacks,
meter design, but nearly all have the settings shown in depending on what is being measured. Often technicians
Figure 16–29. have multiple sets of test leads, each for specific purposes.
A
+–
Ammeter
– + connected in series
Battery (live circuit)
V V
–– ––
Voltmeter
– + connected in parallel
Battery (live circuit)

Ω
––
Ohmmeter
connected in series
(dead circuit)
Figure 16–30 Correctly connected to a circuit, a DMM

can be used as an ammeter, voltmeter, or ohmmeter.
For example, a lead set with small tips is ideal for probing in Measuring Voltage
hard-to-reach or tight spaces. Other test leads may be fitted A DMM can measure source voltage, available voltage
with alligator clips to hold the lead at a point during testing. (Figure 16–31), and voltage drops. Voltage is measured by
Typically, the three input jacks are: placing the meter in parallel to the component or circuit
■ “A” for measuring up to 10 amps of current being tested.
■ “A/mA” for measuring up to 400 mA of current
■ “V/Ω/diode” for measuring voltage, resistance, con-
ductance, capacitance, and checking diodes
Once the controls of the DMM are set correctly, the
PROCEDURE
meter can be used as an ammeter, voltmeter, or ohmmeter To measure DC voltage:
(Figure 16–30). It is important that the meter be properly 1. Set the mode selector switch to Volts DC.
connected to the circuit. 2. Select the auto range function, or manually set the
range to match the anticipated value. Normally
the range is set to the closest to and higher than
!
12 volts.
WARNING! 3. Connect the test leads in parallel to the circuit or
component being tested. The red lead should be
Improper setup and use of the meter, meaning connected first to the most positive side (side
selecting the wrong mode, placing the leads closest to the battery). The black lead is con-
nected to a good ground.
into the wrong jacks, or connecting the meter
4. Read the measurement on the display. If the reading
incorrectly to a circuit can cause personal
is negative, it is likely that the leads are reversed.
injury and damage to the meter.
V V V V V
12V 12V 12V 12V 12V

+
– 12V
Figure 16–31 Checking available voltage at

points within a circuit with a voltmeter.

In step three in the procedure to measure voltage, it
states to connect the black meter lead to a good ground.
You will often see references to connect something to a
“good ground” but what does that mean? With the key on
engine off (KOEO) the most negative point on the vehicle is
the battery negative terminal, which is a “good ground.” Figure 16–32 Measuring the voltage drop
across the battery post and cable. It is easy to see
However, once the engine is running, the generator case why the voltage drop is high!
becomes the most negative point. The remainder of the
vehicle’s electrical system connects back to the battery neg-
ative through common grounds: the frame, body, and nega- and other circuit (Figure 16–32). Voltage drops should
tive battery cable connections. If there is a problem, such as not exceed:
a loose or resistive connection between the engine or body ■ 200 mV across a wire or connector
and the negative cable, this will affect the ground circuit to ■ 300 mV across a switch or relay contacts
which you attach your meter lead for a “good ground.” To
eliminate this issue, many technicians use the battery nega- ■ 100 mV at a ground connection
tive terminal as their grounding point when performing ■ 0 mV to < 50 mV across all sensor connections
voltage tests. If testing a component that grounds to the To understand the true purpose of a voltage drop test,
engine and you are testing with the engine running, you consider a simple circuit. If 12 volts are available at the bat-
should ground to the generator case or the engine block. tery and the switch is closed, there should be 12 volts
available at each light. If, for example, less than 12 volts are
measured, that means some additional resistance is some-
! WARNING!
Hybrid vehicles have much higher voltage;
where else in the circuit. The lights may light but not as
brightly as they should.
Figure 16–33 illustrates two headlights (2 ohms each)
always follow all safety precautions and connected to a 12-volt battery using two wires. Each wire
service procedures when working with high- has an unwanted resistance of 0.05 ohm. The two headlights
voltage circuits. are wired parallel, and total resistance of the headlights is:
2 ohms + 2 ohms
= 1 ohm
Voltage Drop Test Measuring voltage drop is a very impor- 2 ohms + 2 ohms
tant test. The test can be performed between any two
points in a circuit and across any component, such as 0.54 voltage drop
wires, switches, relay contacts and coils, and connectors.
Photo Sequence 13 shows the basic steps for conducting a 0.05Ω 10.92V
voltage drop test. –
12V V
The test can find excessive resistance in a circuit that
+ 2Ω 2Ω
may not be detected by using an ohmmeter. An ohmmeter
passes a small amount of current through the component 0.05Ω
while it is isolated from the circuit. A voltage drop test is
conducted with the circuit operating with normal amounts 10.9A
of current. 0.54 voltage drop
One of the common symptoms that require a voltage Figure 16–33 Wire resistance results in a
drop test is low battery voltage to the starter, generator, slight voltage drop in the circuit.
PHOTO
Performing a Voltage Drop Test SEQUENCE
13
P 13–1 The tools required to P 13–2 Set the voltmeter on its lowest DC volt scale.
perform this task: a DMM,
backprobing tool, and fender covers.
P 13–3 To measure the voltage drop of the entire

insulated part of the headlamp circuit, connect the positive
test lead to the positive terminal at the battery, which is the
most positive side of the circuit.
© Cengage Learning
P 13–5 Turn on the headlights (low beams) and observe

the voltmeter’s reading. This is the amount of voltage
P 13–4 Use the backprobing tool to connect the dropped across the circuit from the battery to the headlamp.
negative test lead into the low beam power terminal in the Excessive voltage drops indicate excessive resistance (an
headlamp socket. unwanted load) in that portion of the circuit.
441
The total circuit resistance (including the unwanted

resistance) is: 12V
1 ohm + 0.05 ohm + 0.05 ohm = 1.1 ohms
Therefore, the current in the circuit is

E 12
I= = = 10.9 amperes Open
R 1.1
The voltage drop across each wire is: V V
E = I ÷R
E = 10.9 ÷ 0.05 = 0.54 V 0V 12V
Figure 16–34 Using a voltmeter to check for
This means there is a total of 1.08 volts dropped across the open grounds.
wires. When the voltage drop of the wires is subtracted
from the 12-volt source voltage, 10.92 volts remain for the
headlights. ground circuit. If the socket is not defective and some voltage
Without the resistance in the wires, the headlights receive is measured at the ground, the ground circuit is faulty. The
12 amperes. With the resistance, current flow was reduced to higher the voltage reading on the ground, the greater the
10.9 amperes. The decreased current and voltage drop means voltage drop is in the ground circuit. This problem will cause
the lights will not be as bright as normal. It is important to the bulb to be dim or not light at all. Check the voltage drop
remember that voltage drops will be present in the electrical of the circuit ground to the battery negative terminal. This
system and that less than battery voltage is commonly mea- reading will tell you how much voltage is being lost between
sured at components because of this. Each section of wire the ground for the circuit and the battery. If the voltage drop
and connection drops a slight amount of voltage. It is when is excessive, you will need to diagnose the ground circuit
the voltage drops become excessive that problems occur. back to the battery to find the cause of the resistance.
Checking Circuit Grounds A DMM can be used to check Measuring AC Voltage A DMM may display AC voltage
for proper circuit grounding. For example, if the voltmeter as peak-to-peak (Emax), root mean square (Erms) and
shows battery voltage at a lamp but no lighting is seen, the average responding (Eavg). When an AC voltage signal is
bulb or socket could be bad or the ground connection is a true sine wave, these methods will display the same read-
faulty. An easy way to check for a defective bulb is to ing. Because most automotive sensors do not produce
replace it with one known to be good. You can also use an pure sine wave signals, it is important to know how the
ohmmeter to check for continuity through the bulb. A dim meter will display the AC voltage reading when compar-
bulb can be caused by excessive resistance in the ground ing measured voltage to specifications. Peak-to-peak rep-
circuit. Voltage drop testing can identify that problem. resents the span between the highest voltage and the
If the bulb is not defective, the light socket or ground lowest voltage peaks. For example, if the highest positive
wires are bad. With the bulb installed in the connector, con- peak is 60 volts and the lowest negative peak is also
nect the voltmeter to the bulb’s ground wire and a good 60 volts, there would be a peak-to-peak of 120 volts.
ground as shown in Figure 16–34. If 0 volts is measured, RMS meters convert the AC signal to a comparable DC
move the positive meter lead to the power terminal for the voltage signal. Average responding meters display the
bulb. If 0 volts is measured there, the light socket or terminal average voltage peak. Both of these are based on peak volt-
is defective. In a normal light circuit, there should be close to ages. Always check the voltage specification to see if the
0 volts at the negative side of the bulb. If battery voltage is specification is for RMS voltage; if it is, use an RMS meter
read on the bulb’s ground terminal, there is an open in the (Figure 16–35).
156 volts Emax

110 volts (Peak X 0.707) Erms
100 volts (Peak X 0.63) Eavg
Time
seconds
Figure 16–35 AC voltage: RMS.

Measuring Current An ammeter, without an amp probe, must be con-
Measuring the current through a circuit gives a true pic- nected in series with the circuit; this allows circuit current
ture of what is happening in the circuit. This is because the to flow through the meter.
circuit is being tested under load. Low current indicates
that the circuit has high resistance, and high current means
the circuit has low resistance. Many technicians do not
check current because few specifications list what should PROCEDURE
be normal. This should not be a problem because current
To measure current:
can be calculated if you know the resistance and voltage in
the circuit. Remember, to have current the circuit must be 1. Turn off the circuit.
complete and there must be voltage applied to it. 2. Connect the test leads to the correct input jacks
The circuit in Figure 16–36 normally draws 6 amps on the DMM.
and is protected by a 10 amp fuse. If the circuit constantly 3. Set the mode selector to the correct current set-
ting (normally amps or milliamps).
blows the fuse, something has reduced circuit resistance
4. Select the auto range function, or manually select
and perhaps there is a short somewhere in the circuit.
the range for the expected current.
Mathematically, each light should draw 1.5 amperes
5. Open the circuit at a point where the meter can be
(6 ÷ 4 = 1.5). To find the short, disconnect all lights by
inserted.
removing them from their sockets. Then, close the switch
6. Connect a fused jumper wire to one of the test leads.
and read the ammeter. With the loads disconnected, the
7. Connect the red lead to the most positive side of
meter should read 0 ampere. If there is any reading, the the circuit and the black lead to the other side.
wire between the fuse and the sockets is shorted to ground.
8. Turn on the circuit.
If 0 amp was measured, reconnect each light in
9. Read the display on the DMM.
sequence; the reading should increase 1.5 amperes with
10. Compare the reading to specifications or your
each bulb. If, when making any connection, the reading is calculations.
higher than expected, the problem is in that part of the
light circuit.
! WARNING!
! WARNING!
Never place the leads of an ammeter across
When testing for a short, never bypass the fuse the battery or a load. This puts the meter in
with a wire and make sure a fuse is installed parallel with the circuit and will blow the fuse
in the circuit. The fuse should be rated at no in the ammeter or possibly destroy the meter.
more than 50 percent higher capacity than
specifications. This offers circuit protection Inductive Current Probes Current probes eliminate the
and provides enough amperage for testing. need to insert the ammeter into the circuit. These probes
After the problem is found and corrected, be sense the magnetic field formed in a wire by current
sure to install a fuse with the specified rating. flow (Figure 16–37). Normally, to use a current probe,
Before checking current, make sure the meter is capa-

ble of measuring the suspected amount. If you suspect that
a measurement will have a current higher than the meter’s
maximum rating, use an inductive current probe.
A
Circuit
breaker 6 amps
8Ω 8Ω 8Ω 8Ω
12V
Fuse
removed
Figure 16–37 An ammeter with an inductive
Figure 16–36 Checking a circuit using an pickup. The pickup eliminates the need to connect
ammeter. the meter in series.
the DMM’s mode selector is set to read millivolts (mV). DIGITAL MULTIMETER
250 Ohms
RECORD MAX MIN
The probe is then connected to the meter and turned on. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

%
HZ
Some probes must be zeroed prior to taking a measure- MIN MAX
HZ
ment. This is done before the probe is clamped around a V

mV
mA
A
wire. The DMM may have a zero adjust control, which is V A
turned until zero reads on the meter’s display. The clamp A mA A COM V
is placed around a wire in the circuit being tested. Make

sure the arrow on the clamp is pointing in the direction
of current flow. After the clamp is in place, the circuit is
turned on and the voltage read on the display. The
voltage reading is then converted to an amperage
reading—1 mV = 1 ampere.

Current Ramping A current probe is especially important
when it is used with a lab scope. It is the fastest and least
intrusive way to assess the operating condition of an elec-
tronic circuit. The probe converts an electromagnetic sig-
nal into a voltage signal that the scope can show on its
screen. Looking at the current as it flows to energize some- Figure 16–39 An ohmmeter can test the
thing and after it has stopped is called observing the ramp- resistance of a component after it has been
removed from the circuit.
ing of current and can be a very effective way to diagnose
an electronic circuit.
Measuring Resistance CAUTION!

To test circuit continuity and resistance, the circuit or To avoid possible damage to the meter or to
component must first be disconnected from its power the equipment under test, disconnect the
source (Figure 16–38). Connecting an ohmmeter to a live circuit power and discharge all high-voltage
circuit will result in damage to the meter. capacitors before measuring resistance.
Checking the resistance can check the condition of a Always follow the manufacturer’s test
component (Figure 16–39) or circuit. Often specifications procedures when testing air bags.
list a normal range of resistance values for specific parts. If
the resistance is too high, check for an open circuit or a
faulty component. Loose, damaged, or dirty connections Ohmmeters also are used to check wires. Connect one
are common causes of excessive resistance. If the resistance probe of the ohmmeter to one end of the wire and touch
is too low, check for a shorted circuit or faulty component. the other probe to the other end of the wire. If low resis-
DIGITAL MULTIMETER
tance is shown on the meter, the wire is intact. If no resis-
tance is measured, the wire is open. This test does not
RECORD MAX MIN
%
HZ
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
MIN MAX
V
mV
mA
A
HZ
confirm that the wire is actually good. This is because

automotive wire is made of strands. For a given piece of
V A
A mA A COM V
wire, only one strand is necessary for the meter to provide

a resistance reading. However, if only one strand is actually
flowing current, the voltage drop will be significant.
Because of this, it is important to remember that a resis-
tance test can be used to confirm if something is faulty but
should not be relied on to decide if something is good.
+ Continuity Tests Many DMMs have a continuity test

Fuse removed mode (Figure 16–40) that makes a beeping noise when
− to de-energize there is continuity through the item being tested. This
circuit audible sound will continue as long as there is continuity.
This feature is handy for finding the cause of an intermit-
Figure 16–38 Measuring resistance with an tent problem. This test is performed by connecting the
ohmmeter. The meter should be connected in par- DMM across a circuit and wiggling sections of the wiring
allel to the component after the power is removed harness. When the beeping stops after a particular wire
from the circuit. was moved, there is a problem with that wire.
PROCEDURE
To measure resistance:
1. Make sure the circuit or component is not con-
nected to a power source.
2. Set the DMM mode selector to measure
resistance.
3. Select auto range or manually select the appropri-
ate range.
4. You may need to calibrate the meter by holding
the two test leads together and adjusting the
meter to zero. On some DMMs, this calibration
should be checked when the range is changed.
5. Connect the meter leads in parallel with the com-

ponent or part that will be checked.
6. Read the value on the display. The DMM will show
a zero or close to zero when there is good conti-
nuity. If the meter displays an infinite or OL read-
ing, there is no continuity.
Figure 16–40 Selecting the continuity mode

MIN/MAX Readings on a DMM.
Some DMMs feature a MIN/MAX function. This displays
the maximum, minimum, and average voltage recorded
during a period of time. This is valuable when checking that a device is on 60 percent of the time and off 40 percent
sensors or when looking for electrical noise. Electrical of one cycle. When measuring duty cycle, you are looking
noise is primarily caused by radio frequency interference at the amount of time something is ON during one cycle.
(RFI), which may come from the ignition system. RFI is an Pulse width (Figure 16–42) is normally measured in mil-
unwanted voltage signal that rides on another signal. This liseconds. When measuring pulse width, you are looking
noise can cause intermittent problems with unpredictable at the amount of time something is on. The frequency of
results. This noise causes slight increases and decreases in something states how often something is activated or is
the voltage. When a computer receives a voltage signal operating (Figure 16–43).
with noise, it will try to react to those small changes. As a To accurately measure duty cycle, pulse width, and fre-
result, the computer responds to the noise rather than the quency, the meter’s trigger level must be set. The trigger
true voltage signal. level tells the meter when to start counting. Trigger levels
can be set at certain voltage levels or at a rise or fall in the
Other Measurements voltage. Normally, meters have a built-in trigger level that
Multimeters may have the ability to measure duty cycle, corresponds with the voltage range setting. If the voltage
pulse width, and frequency. Duty cycle (Figure 16–41) is does not reach the trigger level, the meter will not recog-
measured as a percentage. A 60 percent duty cycle means nize a cycle. The rise or fall in voltage used to trigger the
Duty cycle
On
Off
33 Hz 33 Hz 33 Hz
50% duty cycle 25% duty cycle 75% duty cycle

(1/2 speed) (1/4 speed) (3/4 speed)
Figure 16–41 Duty cycle is expressed in a percentage.
Pulse width
Off

On
Figure 16–42 Pulse width.
One second

Ten cycles
Figure 16–43 Frequency states how often something is activated during a

one second.
cycle count is often referred to as a positive or negative

slope trigger.
Some DMMs can measure temperature. These meters
have a thermocouple. Temperature readings can be made in
Fahrenheit or Celsius. The thermocouple is connected to the
Vertical Y-axis
DMM and placed on or near the object to be checked. Many

DMMs have the ability to store and download data to a PC.
USING LAB SCOPES V

o
The lab scope has become the diagnostic tool of choice. l
DMMs sample the voltage several times each second and t
update the meter’s reading at a particular rate. If the volt- a
g
age is constant, good measurements are made. A scope, e
however, will display any change in voltage as it occurs. Time
This is important for diagnosing intermittent problems.
Horizontal X-axis
The screen is divided into small divisions of time
and voltage (Figure 16–44). These set up a grid pattern on Figure 16–44 Grids on a scope screen that
serve as a time and voltage reference.
the screen. Time is represented by the horizontal move-
ment of the trace. Voltage is presented by the vertical posi-
tion of the trace. The scope displays voltage over time, power, or opens in the circuit. These problems can occur
therefore the trace moves from the left (the beginning of for only a moment or may last for some time. A lab scope
measured time) to the right (the end of measured time). is handy for finding these and other causes of intermittent
The value of the divisions can be adjusted to improve the problems. By observing a voltage signal and wiggling or
view of the voltage trace. pulling a wiring harness, any looseness can be detected by
Because a scope displays actual voltage, it will display a change in the voltage signal.
any electrical noise or disturbances that accompany the
voltage signal (Figure 16–45). Electrical disturbances or Analog versus Digital Scopes
glitches are momentary changes in the signal. These can Analog scopes show the actual activity of a circuit and are
be caused by intermittent shorts to ground, shorts to called real-time or live scopes. This means that what is
Channel 1

Noise Glitches
Channel 2
Figure 16–46 Two or more different signals

can be observed on a multiple-channel scope. This
is invaluable for diagnosis.
Figure 16–45 RFI noise and glitches may

appear on a voltage signal.
Reproduced under license from Snap-on Incorporated.

taking place at that time is what you see on the screen.
All of the marks are marks of their owners.

Analog scopes have a fast update rate that allows for the
display of activity without delay.
A digital scope, commonly called a digital storage
oscilloscope or DSO, converts the voltage signal into digi-
tal information and stores it into its memory. Some DSOs
send the signal directly to a computer or a printer or save it
to a disk. A technician can “freeze” the captured signal for
close analysis. DSOs also have the ability to capture low-
frequency signals. Low-frequency signals tend to flicker
when they are displayed on an analog screen. A DSO dis-
plays the signal as it occurred a short time before. This
delay is very slight. Most DSOs have a sampling rate of one Figure 16–47 Some scopes and graphing
million samples per second. This is quick enough to serve scan tools can display many channels.
as an excellent diagnostic tool. This fast sampling rate
shows slight changes in the voltage. Slight and quick volt- A normal AC signal changes its polarity and amplitude
age changes cannot be observed on an analog scope. over time. The waveform created by AC voltage is typically
Digital signals may appear to be slightly choppy when called a sine wave (Figure 16–48). One complete sine wave
compared to an analog trace. However, the voltage signal shows the voltage moving from zero to its positive peak
is sampled more often, which results in a more accurate then moving down through zero to its negative peak and
waveform. The waveform is constantly being refreshed as returning to zero.
the signal is pulled from the scope’s memory. One complete sine wave is a cycle. The number of
Both an analog and a digital scope can be dual trace cycles that occur per second is the frequency of the signal.
(Figure 16–46) or multiple trace (Figure 16–47) scopes. Frequency is measured in cycles per second (hertz or Hz).
This means they are able to display more than one trace at Checking frequency is one way of checking the operation
one time. By watching the traces simultaneously, the cause of some electrical components. Input sensors are the most
and effect of a sensor is observed and a good or normal common components that produce AC voltage. Perma-
waveform can be compared to the one being displayed. nent magnet voltage generators produce an AC voltage
that can be checked on a scope (Figure 16–49). AC voltage
Waveforms waveforms should also be checked for noise and glitches.
Since the height of a waveform represents voltage, any These may send false information to the computer.
change in the height of the trace indicates a change in the DC waveforms may appear as a straight line or a line
voltage. When the trace is a straight horizontal line, the showing a change in voltage. Sometimes a DC voltage
voltage is constant. A diagonal line up or down represents waveform will appear as a square wave that shows voltage
a gradual increase or decrease in voltage. A sudden rise or making an immediate change (Figure 16–50). Square
fall in the trace indicates a sudden change in voltage. waves have straight vertical sides and a flat top. This wave
represents voltage being applied (circuit being turned on),

voltage being maintained (circuit remaining on), and no
voltage applied (circuit is turned off).
Scope Controls
Depending on the manufacturer and model of the scope,
the variety of its controls will vary. However, nearly all
scopes have intensity, vertical (Y-axis) adjustments, hori-
zontal (X-axis) adjustments, and trigger adjustments. The
intensity control is used to adjust the brightness of the trace.
The vertical adjustment controls the voltage that will

be shown per division (Figure 16–51). If the scope is set at
0.5 (500 milli) volt, a 5-volt signal will need 10 divisions.
Likewise, if the scope is set to 1 volt, 5 volts will need only
5 divisions. It is important to set the vertical so that voltage
can be accurately read. Setting the voltage too low may
Figure 16–48 An AC voltage sine wave. cause the waveform to move off the screen, whereas setting
it too high may cause the trace to be flat and unreadable.
The horizontal position control is the time control of the
trace (Figure 16–52). If the time per division is set too low,
Vertical
divisions

Figure 16–49 An AC voltage trace from a
typical permanent magnet generator-type pickup Figure 16–51 Vertical divisions represent
or sensor. voltage.
Horizontal
divisions
Figure 16–50 A typical square (on-off or Figure 16–52 Horizontal divisions represent
high-low) wave. time.
Falling
slope
Raising
slope

Figure 16–54 A sample of the information

available from a GMM.
Figure 16–53 The trigger can be set to start

the trace with a rise or fall of voltage. GMMs are also capable of displaying data from more than
one source (Figure 16–54). These meters are perhaps the
the complete trace may not show across the screen. Also, if best tool to use for finding the cause of intermittent prob-
the time per division is set too high, the trace may be too lems in low-voltage DC circuits.
crowded for detailed observation. The time per division Some GMMs feature a signal and data recorder, indi-
(TIME/DIV) can be set from very short periods (millionths vidual component tests, the ability to display measure-
of a second) to full seconds. ments along with a graph, glitch capture, and an audible
Trigger controls tell the scope when to begin a trace alarm. Some also have an electronic library of known good
across the screen. This is important when trying to observe signals. These allow for a comparison of live patterns with
the timing of something. Proper triggering will allow the expected values or known good waveforms. Some even
trace to repeatedly begin and end at the same points on the have wiring diagrams and a vehicle-specific database of
screen. There are typically numerous trigger controls on a diagnostic and test information.
scope. The trigger mode selector has a NORM and an
AUTO position. In the NORM setting, no trace will appear Transferring Data to a PC Many DSOs and GMMs can
on the screen until a voltage signal occurs within the set transfer captured information to a PC through a cable
time base. The AUTO setting will display a trace regardless (Figure 16–55) or wireless interface. This feature allows
of the time base. for better viewing of the waveforms and other data and
Slope and level controls are used to define the actual also allows for the creation of a personal library. The latter
trigger voltage. The slope switch determines whether can be helpful in the future.
the trace will begin on a rising or falling of the signal
(Figure 16–53). The level control sets when the time
base will be triggered according to a certain point on the
slope.
A trigger source switch tells the scope which input sig-
nal to trigger on. This can be Channel 1, Channel 2, line
voltage, or an external signal. External signal triggering is
very useful when observing the trace of a component that
may be affected by the operation of another component.
An example of this would be observing fuel injector activ-
ity when changes in throttle position are made. The exter-

nal trigger would be voltage changes at the Throttle
Position Sensor. The displayed trace would be the cycling
of a fuel injector.
Graphing Multimeters
A graphing multimeter (GMM) is a DMM and a lab scope Figure 16–55 Many scan tools, DSOs, and
built into a single assembly. They can display numerical GMMs allow for the transfer of captured informa-
graphs of voltage, resistance, current, and frequency. tion to a PC through a cable or wireless interface.
TESTING BASIC ELECTRICAL Open

COMPONENTS

All electrical components can fail. For the most part, the
best way to check electrical components is determined by
what the component is supposed to do. If we think about
what something is supposed to do, we can figure out how
to test it. Often, removing the component and testing it on
Open
a bench is the best way to check it.
Figure 16–57 The condition of a fuse can
Protection Devices often be checked visually.
When overloads or shorts cause too much current, the
wiring heats up, the insulation melts, and a fire can result Fuses A fuse can be visually checked by looking at the
unless the circuit has some kind of protective device. Fuses, internal metal strip. Remove the fuse from its holder and
fuse links, maxi-fuses, and circuit breakers are designed to look at the element through the transparent plastic
provide protection from high current. They may be used housing. Look for internal breaks and discoloration
singularly or in combination. (Figure 16–57). The top of blade fuses have small open-
ings that allow meter test leads to contact the terminals of
the fuse. Sometimes breaks in the fuse can be hard to see.
! WARNING!
Fuses and other protection devices normally
Because of this, many technicians check voltage on both
sides of the fuse with a testlight or DMM. If voltage is pres-
ent only on one side of the fuse, it is open.
do not wear out. They go bad because
something went wrong. Never replace a
fuse or fusible link, or reset a circuit breaker, SHOP TALK
without finding out why they went bad. To calculate the required fuse when installing new
accessories, use Watt’s law: watts divided by
Circuit protection devices can be checked with an volts equals amperes. For example, if you are
ohmmeter or testlight. If they are good, there will be conti- installing a 55-watt pair of fog lights, divide 55 by
nuity through them. To test a circuit protection device the battery voltage to find how much current the
with a voltmeter, check for available voltage at both termi- circuit will draw. In this case, the current is
nals of the unit (Figure 16–56). There should be voltage approximately 5 amperes. To allow for current
on both sides. surges, the correct inline fuse should be rated
Measuring voltage drop can tell more about a device’s slightly higher than the normal current flow. In this
condition than just its continuity. If a fuse, a fuse link, or a case, an 8- or 10-ampere fuse would do the job.
circuit breaker is good, a voltage drop of zero will be mea-
sured. If 0 volts is read, the fuse is open. Any reading
between 0 and 12 volts indicates that there is unwanted Fuse Links Fuse link wire is covered with a special insula-
resistance and the fuse should be replaced. Make sure you tion that bubbles when it overheats, indicating that the link
check the fuse holder for resistance as well. has melted. If the insulation appears good, pull lightly on
Voltmeter
12.6V
10
+ –
Fuse provides
access for testing.
Figure 16–56 Circuit protection devices can be tested with

a voltmeter. Make sure there is voltage present on both sides of
the device.
the wire. If the link stretches, the wire has melted. Of an infinite reading is displayed, the thermistor is open.
course, when it is hard to determine if the fuse link is Another way of checking a thermistor is to change its tem-
burned out, check for continuity with an ohmmeter. perature and see if its resistance changes.
! WARNING!
Do not mistake a resistor wire for a fuse link.
Switches
To check a switch, disconnect the connector at the switch.
Check for continuity between the terminals of the switch
(Figure 16–59) with the switch in the on and off positions.
A resistor wire is generally longer and is clearly While in the off position, there should be no continuity
marked “Resistor do not cut or splice.” between the terminals. With the switch on, there should be
good continuity between the terminals. If the switch is
To replace a fuse link, cut the protected wire where it is activated by something mechanical and does not complete
connected to the fuse link. Then tightly crimp or solder a the circuit when it should, check the adjustment of the
new fusible link of the same rating as the original link. switch (some switches are not adjustable). If the adjust-
ment is correct, replace the switch. Another way to check a
switch is to bypass it with a jumper wire. If the component
! WARNING!
Always disconnect the battery ground cable
works when the switch is jumped, the switch is bad.
MPMT switches should be checked in each of its pos-
sible positions. Use a wiring diagram to identify which ter-
prior to servicing any fuse link. minals of the switch should have continuity during each
switch position.
Variable resistors can also be checked with an ohmme-
Maxi-Fuses Maxi-fuses are easier to inspect and replace ter or voltmeter. To test a rheostat or potentiometer, iden-
than fuse links. To check a maxi-fuse, look at the fuse ele- tify the input and output terminals and connect an
ment through the transparent plastic housing. If there is a ohmmeter across them. These should be checked by mov-
break in the element, it has blown. To replace it, pull it ing through the entire range of positions, while observing
from its fuse box or panel. Always replace a blown maxi- the meter (Figure 16–60). The readings should be within
fuse with one that has the same ampere rating. specifications and should gradually change. Any abrupt
change indicates a problem with the switch. Using a scope
Circuit Breakers Two types of circuit breakers are used. to test variable resistors will show glitches easily as the
One is reset by removing the power from the circuit. The resistance spikes up or down during the test.
other type is reset by depressing a reset button. If a circuit Voltage drop across switches should also be checked.
breaker cannot be reset and remains open, replace it after Ideally a closed switch should have no voltage drop. A volt-
making sure that there is not excessive current in the circuit. age drop indicates resistance, and the switch should be
replaced.
Thermistors Some systems use a PTC thermistor as a protec-
tion device. When there is high current, the resistance of the Relays
thermistor increases and causes a decrease in current flow. A relay can be checked with a jumper wire, a voltmeter, an
These can be checked with an ohmmeter (Figure 16–58). If ohmmeter, or a testlight. If the terminals are accessible and
the relay is not controlled by a computer, a jumper wire and
testlight will be the quickest method to use. The schematic
∞ Ohmmeter
+0.00
Ohmmeter
+ – + –
Open switch Closed switch

Figure 16–58 A temperature sensor (therm- Figure 16–59 Checking a switch with an
istor) can be checked with an ohmmeter. ohmmeter.
PROCEDURE
To test a relay that is controlled by a
computer, use a high-impedance voltmeter
set to the appropriate DC voltage scale,
and follow these steps (Figure 16–61):
1. Connect the negative lead of the voltmeter to a

good ground.
2. Connect the positive lead to the output wire. If no volt-
age is present, continue testing. If there is voltage,
disconnect the relay’s ground circuit. The voltmeter
should now read 0 volts. If it does, the relay is good. If
voltage is still present, the relay is faulty.
Figure 16–60 Testing continuity across a 3. Connect the positive voltmeter lead to the power
potentiometer while its wiper is being moved. input terminal. If near battery voltage is not measured
there, the relay is faulty. If it is, continue testing.
4. Connect the positive lead to the control terminal.
for a relay is typically shown on the outside of the relay. If If near battery voltage is not measured there,
not, check a wiring diagram to identify the terminals of the check the circuit from the battery to the relay. If it
relay. Also check the wiring diagram to determine if the is, continue testing.
relay is controlled by a power or ground switch. 5. Connect the positive lead to the relay ground ter-
If the relay terminals are not accessible, remove the minal. If more than 1 volt is present, the circuit has
relay. Use an ohmmeter to check the continuity between a poor ground.
the relay coil terminals. If the meter indicates an infinite
reading, replace the relay. If there is continuity, use a pair
of jumper wires to energize the coil. Check for continuity is shorted, the transistors and/or driver circuits in the
through the relay contacts. If there is an infinite reading, computer can be damaged by the high current flow.
the relay is faulty. If there is continuity, the relay is good.
Refer to the resistance specifications in the service Stepped Resistors
information and compare the resistance of the relay’s coil To test a stepped resistor, remove it and connect an ohmmeter
to them. Low resistance indicates a shorted coil. If the coil across the resistor. Compare the readings to specifications.
12.6V Fusible
DIGITAL MULTIMETER
RECORD MAX MIN
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
%
HZ
link
MINMAX
HZ
mV
mA
V A
V A
A mA A COM V
Fuse
Ignition
switch
C A + –
Battery
0V D B
DIGITAL MULTIMETER
RECORD MAX MIN
%
HZ
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
V
mV
MINMAX
HZ
mA
A
To fuel pump circuit
V A
A mA A COM V
Figure 16–61 Testing a relay with a voltmeter.

A stepped resistor can also be checked with a voltmeter. conduit indicates the operating voltage of the wires inside
Measure the voltage after each part of the resistor block and the conduit:
compare the readings to specifications. ■ Black without a painted stripe = low temperature and
12-volts
Wiring
■ Black with a green or blue stripe = high temperature
A wire’s insulation should be in good condition. Broken,
and 12-volts
frayed, or damaged insulation can cause shorts (Figure
16–62). These conditions can also create a safety hazard. ■ Blue or Yellow = voltages ranging from 12 to 42V
Replace all wires that have damaged insulation. ■ Yellow is typically reserved for airbag and other SRS
When checking a circuit, make sure to check the components and wiring
ground connections, including the ground strap from the ■ Orange = voltages ranging from 42 to 650V
engine or other component to the chassis. An engine
ground is typically a braided, flat cable, which provides
Printed Circuits
some flexibility (Figure 16–63). A bad ground cable can
cause problems in many different circuits. Late-model vehicles use flexible printed circuit boards.
Wires are commonly grouped into a harness. A single- Printed circuit boards are not serviceable and, in some cases,
plug harness connector may form the connecting point for not visible. When these boards fail, the entire unit is replaced.
many circuits. Harnesses and harness connectors help The following precautions should be observed when
organize the electrical system and provide a convenient working with a printed circuit:
starting point for testing many circuits. Wiring harnesses ■ Never touch the surface of the board. Dirt, salts, and
are typically shielded by plastic conduit. The color of the acids on your fingers can etch the surface and set up a
resistive condition.
■ The copper conductors can be cleaned with a commer-
cial cleaner or by lightly rubbing a pencil eraser across
the surface.
■ A printed circuit board is easily damaged because it is
very thin. Be careful not to tear the surface, especially
when plugging in connectors or bulbs.
TROUBLESHOOTING CIRCUITS
When troubleshooting an electrical problem, it is impor-

tant to take a logical approach. Making assumptions or
jumping to conclusions can be very expensive and a total
waste of time. The basic steps for diagnosis given earlier in
this book should be followed. Here they are again, only
modified to fit electrical problems:
Figure 16–62 Broken, frayed, or damaged

insulation that exposes live wires can cause shorts.
PROCEDURE
To troubleshoot an electrical problem,
follow these steps:
1. Gather information about the problem. From the
customer find out when and where the problem
happens and what exactly happens.
2. Verify that the problem exists. Take the vehicle for

a road test or try the components of the custom-
er’s concerns and try to duplicate the problem, if
possible.
3. Thoroughly define what the problem is and when
it occurs. Pay attention to the conditions present
when the problem happens. Also pay attention to
Figure 16–63 A flat, braided ground strap. (continued)

this is called front probing. When measurements are taken

the entire vehicle; another problem may be evident
at the back or wire side of a connected connector, this is
to you that was not evident to the customer. The
most important thing is to fully understand the called backprobing. At times it may be necessary to make
problem. direct contact with a wire by piercing through the insula-
4. Research all available information to determine the tion. Make sure not to damage the wire and cover the
possible causes of the problem. Look at all service pierced area with electrical tape. This will prevent the cop-
bulletins and other service information related to per wire from corroding.
the problem to see if this is a common concern.
Study the wiring diagram of the system and match
a system or some components to the problem.
Using Wiring Diagrams
During diagnosis, one of the most important sources of
5. Isolate the problem. Based on an understanding
of the problem and circuit, make a list of probable information is a wiring diagram. A wiring diagram shows
causes. Narrow down this list of possible causes the relationships of one circuit to the others. Based on an
by checking the obvious or easy to check items. understanding of the diagram, electricity, and how a par-
This includes a thorough visual inspection. ticular system is designed to work, testing points can be
6. Continue testing to pinpoint the cause of the identified. Wiring diagrams are included in the electrical
problem. Once you know where the problem section of most service information.
should be, test until you find it! Begin testing to Wiring diagrams contain a comprehensive look at each
determine whether or not the most probable
circuit with all the connectors, wiring, signal connections
cause is the problem. If this is not the cause, move
to the next most probable cause. Continue this
(buses) between the devices, and electrical or electronic
until the problem is solved. components of the circuit. The diagrams are drawn with
7. Locate and repair the problem, then verify the lines that represent wires between the appropriate connec-
repair. Once you have determined the cause, tors. Most diagrams are drawn so the front of the car is on
make the necessary repairs. Never assume that the left of the diagram and show the power source on the top
your work solved the original problem. Operate all of the wiring diagram and the ground source at the bottom.
components of the circuit to be sure that the origi- Wiring diagrams typically show the following:
nal problem has been corrected and that there are
no other faults in the circuit. ■ Wires by wire numbers or color coding. Wires are identi-
fied by circuit number, color, and/or, in some cases,
size.
■ Wire cross-section size. Some manufacturers indicate
Troubleshooting Logic the wire size along with the color code.
Remember there are three basic types of electrical prob-
■ Ground connections. Most diagrams show the point at
lems. Knowing the type of problem that is causing the cus-
which circuits are grounded.
tomer’s concerns will dictate what tests should be
conducted. ■ Wire connection points. Individual connectors “C” are
shown and listed by number. Note: The symbol for a
■ If something does not work, the problem is most likely connector varies with the manufacturer.
caused by a short or an open.
■ Reference of wire continuation. At times, the part of a
■ If the fuse for that circuit is blown, the problem is a wiring diagram where a particular wire continues is
short. If the fuse is good, the problem is an open. referenced to another diagram or a section area.
■ If a part does not work correctly, such as a dim light ■ Location of splices. Where a group of wires are electri-
bulb, the problem is high resistance. cally joined together is typically designated as “S.”
Quick voltage checks will help define the problem. ■ Terminal designation. A number or other label that
Check for voltage to the part that is not working correctly. shows where a particular wire is located is a multipin
If source voltage is present, the part is bad or the ground connector.
circuit is faulty. If less than source voltage is measured at
■ Component symbols. A wiring diagram uses a set of
the part, there is a fault in the power feed to the part. Check
symbols to represent electrical components or devices.
the voltage on the ground for the component. A voltage
These are quite standard but may vary with the manu-
reading above 200 mV indicates resistance in the ground
facturer. Switches. The placement of switches in the cir-
circuit. Also, measure the voltage drop across the part; this
cuit are shown in their normal (NO or NC) position.
can indicate a problem with the part. If a faulty part is sus-
pected, it should be replaced. ■ Fuse designation. Fuses and other circuit protection
When making any checks with a meter, try to take all devices are shown with their location and rating.
measurements at a connector. When measurements are ■ Relay information. The location of all relays is shown as
taken at the mating side (front) of a disconnected connector, well as the connections to its terminals.
normally, it is very unlikely that the cause of the problem is
SHOP TALK located there. The same is true with the ground side of the
circuit. Likewise, if an entire system is not working cor-
To make it easier to identify where grounds,
rectly, the cause is most likely to be in the circuit that is
splices, and connectors are located on the vehi-
common to the system.
cle, manufacturers use a numbering system that
It is wise to make a list of all probable causes of the
identifies the basic location of these. For example, problem and then number them according to probability.
many manufacturers, such as GM, have a three- For example, if all of the lights in the instrument panel do
digit number after the G, S, and C that represents not work, it is most probable that the cause is not all bad
their location. Typically, 100–199 means that the bulbs. Rather, it is more likely that the fuse or power feed is
ground, splice, or connector is under the hood, bad. After you have listed the probable causes, in order of
200–299 means they are under the dash, 300–399 probability, then look at the wiring diagram to identify
means they are in the passenger compartment, how you can quickly test to find out if each is the cause.
and 400–499 means they are in the trunk. The simplest way to trace through a circuit is to draw
the circuit on a piece of paper. It does not need to be pretty;
it just needs to be accurate. Draw the component (can be a
simple box) and draw all wires and controls that supply the
Getting the Right Diagram Wiring diagrams should be power and ground; include all controls. Mark each wire
for the exact year, make, and model of the vehicle. Most with its color and make sure to note any change in color.
electronic service information systems will match the Also label all controls and components that are included in
wiring diagram to the VIN. To retrieve a wiring diagram the circuit.
that will help diagnose a problem, match the component Tracing can also be done by using highlighters or
to the wiring diagram index. The index will list a letter markers to color a copy of the wiring diagram. There are
and number for each major component and many differ- many different ways to do this; the one given here is just a
ent connection points. Refer to those references. Most suggestion. Developing your own method will work as
electronic information systems will automatically display long as you remain consistent. Find the component of con-
the appropriate diagram once the component is selected. cern in the wiring diagram and outline it in yellow. Follow
the power wires toward the power source. The source can
Tracing a Circuit After you have the correct wiring dia- also supply power to other components, but ignore them
gram, identify all of the components, connectors, and for the time being. Trace the power wire leading to the
wires that are directly related to that component. This is component to the point where it connects to a control or
done by tracing through the circuit, starting at the compo- load. Color that wire red. That wire should have source
nent. This will identify the source of power for the compo- voltage. If the control is an on-off switch, source voltage
nent, its controls and its ground circuit. Tracing the circuit will be present when the switch is closed; color the wire
will also allow you to understand the operation of the cir- leading from the control to the component orange. If
cuit and determine where to test and what to expect at the control will pass a variable amount of voltage to the
those test points. Remember, all electrical circuits have a component, color the output wire green. Now look at the
power source, a load, and a path to ground. Make sure ground side of the component. If the path to ground is
these are identified. direct with no control, color that wire black. If the ground
Tracing the circuit will also simplify complex wiring path has a control, color the wire to the control blue and
diagrams. Complex wiring diagrams are made up of many the wire from the output of the control to ground black.
individual circuits. Some are directly interrelated and oth- For an earlier and different approach to color-coding, see
ers are not. When the circuit of concern is pulled out of the “Mastering Complex Diagrams” (Motor Magazine, July,
wiring diagram, it is much easier to identify its wires and 1997) and “Wiring Diagram Color-Coding: More Than
components. It also reduces the chances of being distracted Meets the Eye” (Motor Magazine, December, 2008), both
by wires that probably are not the cause of the problem. by Jorge Menchu.
After you have traced through the circuit, study it and Coloring the circuit provides a simple reference of
make sure you know how the circuit is supposed to work. what to expect at each wire in the circuit. The red wire(s)
Then describe the problem and ask yourself what could should always have source voltage. The orange wire will
cause this. Limit your answers to what is included in your only have source voltage when the control is closed. The
traced wiring diagram. Also limit your answers to the voltage on the green wire will vary with changes at the con-
description of the problem. Now look at the components trol. The black wire should have 0 volts at all times. How-
and wires in the circuit to identify the items that could ever, the blue wire should have source voltage when the
cause only that problem. In other words, if part of the control is open and 0 volts when it is closed. Your testing
circuit supplies power to other circuits and they work should be based on this logic. Use the wiring diagram to
identify the test points. Figure 16–64 shows the circuit of than that headlamp are not traced. Doing this simplifies
the right low beam headlight. Only the parts of the circuit diagnosing the circuit.
that could cause a problem with one headlamp are noted. If the power source for the component feeds more than
Note that all wires and components that would affect more one component or the ground is shared by others, check
B+
Underhood fuse block
Low High
DRL beam beam
PCB PCB PCB HDLP
relay relay relay MDL
fuse
10A
DRL 1 DRL 2 Lt low Rt low Lt hi Rt hi

fuse fuse beam beam beam beam
15A 15A fuse fuse fuse 10A fuse 10A
10A 10A
C2 C3
C4 H2 J1 A5 B2 A2 A3 C3 C6 A5 A6 B1
C2 589
C3 GY
0.5
544 712 312 711 311 2940
PU YE Tn/WH D-G L-GN RD/WH
1970 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.8
0.35 PK/WH
0.35
C4 23 C5 23 C4 16 1969
Tn/Wh
DRL Low Hi 0.35
PCB beam beam C1 B D C F
relay relay relay
control control control Left hi Right hi B+ Rear
beam beam lamp
supply supply flasher
voltage voltage signal 6841
Ext Bl/YE
lamp 0.8
B A flasher
signal Grnd
Low beam left 711
BU C2 B E A C1
B A 0.5 D
Headlamp
Hi beam left flasher module
B A Body
G101 control
Low beam right 311 module
L-GN/BK (Not
B A 0.5 used) (BCM)

S129
Hi beam right
S128
1250
Bk
0.8
G100
Figure 16–64 A wiring diagram of a headlight system with the right low beam circuit traced.
the operation of those components. If they operate nor-
mally, you know the common power and ground circuits
are good. Therefore, the problem must be between the
common points. Likewise if the other components do not
work correctly, you know that the problem is within the
common part of the circuit.
TESTING FOR COMMON PROBLEMS

It would take thousands of pages to describe all of the pos-
sible combinations of electrical problems. However, all

problems can be boiled down to one of three types. Identi-
fying which one you are looking for defines what tests you
need to conduct.
Testing for Opens

An open (Figure 16–65) is evident by an inoperative com-
ponent or circuit. Begin your testing at the most accessible
place in the circuit and work from there. Check for voltage Figure 16–65 A damaged wiring harness
at the positive side of the load. If there are 0 volts, move to caused this open.
the output of the control (Figure 16–66). If there are at
least 10.5 volts, the open is between the control and the move the positive lead of the voltmeter toward the battery,
load. If the reading is 10.5 volts or higher, check the ground testing all connections along the way. If 10.5 volts or more
side of the load. If the voltage there is 1 volt or lower and are present at any connector, there is an open or high resis-
the load does not work, the load is bad. If the voltage at tance between that point and the point previously checked.
ground is greater than 1 volt, there is excessive resistance If battery voltage is present at the ground of the load, there
or an open in the ground circuit. If the voltage at the posi- is an open in the ground circuit. Use a jumper wire to ver-
tive side of the load is less than 10.5 volts but above 0 volts, ify the location of the open.
DIGITAL MULTIMETER
12.6v
RECORD MAX MIN
%
HZ
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
MIN MAX
HZ
mV
mA
V A
V A
A mA A COM V
Ignition Light
switch switch
Fuse Open
DIGITAL MULTIMETER
0.00v
RECORD MAX MIN
%
HZ
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Battery
MIN MAX
HZ
mV
mA
V A
V A
Lamp
A mA A COM V
Figure 16–66 If you have 0 volts at the load, test the output of the switch. If
there is power there, the open is between the switch and the load.
B+ B+ Turn signal switch B+ B+ Turn signal switch

Brake Headlight B+ Brake Headlight B+
switch switch switch switch
Run Run
Turn Run Turn Turn Run Turn
Brake Brake Brake Brake

Break
(A) G401 (B) G401

Figure 16–67 (A) The brake light and turn signal circuit when it is off. (B) The same
circuit with an open, showing the current flow with that open.
Open Grounds continuity across all combinations of these. Refer to the

Depending on the circuit, an open ground can present prob- wiring diagram to see where there should be continuity.
lems that you may not think of as an open circuit. For exam- Any abnormal readings indicate an internal short.
ple, in a rear lighting circuit, such as that in Figure 16–67A, When a fuse is blown, this probably is due to a wire-to-
several bulbs are all connected together with a common wire short or a short to ground (Figure 16–68). To test these
ground. If an open occurs in the ground for the turn signal/ circuits, a special jumper wire with a circuit breaker should
running light, as in Figure 16–67B, when the left turn signal be used as a substitute for the blown fuse. The jumper wire
is turned on, the current can pass from turn signal filament is fit with a 10- or 20-amp self-resetting circuit breaker. This
to the running light filament. The current then continues on will allow for testing the circuit without causing damage to
to the other turn signal/running light bulb to get to ground. the wires and components in the circuit. Some tool compa-
This places three filaments in series together and creates an nies include a buzzer inline with the breaker.
unwanted path affecting two circuits. Depending on the When a wire-to-wire short is suspected (Figure 16–69),
vehicle and the resistances of the bulbs, the circuit may cause check the wiring diagram for all of the affected compo-
both running lights to blink with the turn signal or may nents. Identify all points where the affected circuits share a
cause all three lights to glow dimly. Either way, it will be connector. Check the circuit protection devices for the cir-
obvious that a problem exists in the lighting. cuits. Check the wiring for signs of burned insulation and
To diagnose this type of ground problem, first examine melted conductors. High current due to the short will
the wiring diagram. Because all of the rear lights in this cause this. If a visual inspection does not identify the cause
example share a common ground, that should be the first of the short, remove one of the fuses for the affected cir-
place you check. If the ground appears intact, voltage drop cuits. Install the special jumper wire across the fuse holder
the ground back to the battery. A normal voltage drop terminals. Activate that circuit and disconnect the loads
reading indicates the problem is in the ground circuits of
the lights. Next, voltage drop each bulb. This type of prob-
lem will result in excessive voltage drop on the ground for
the affected bulbs. The excess voltage on the ground is due The source
to the resistance of the other bulb’s filaments that are in of this
wire-to-ground
series with the ground. Another method of diagnosing short
this type of fault is by using a jumper wire to ground each
bulb. When the circuit starts operating correctly, you have
identified the circuit that is causing the problem.
Testing for Shorts

Use an ohmmeter to check for an internal short in a compo-
nent. If the component is good, the meter will read the spec-
ified resistance or at least some resistance. If it is shorted, it
will read lower than normal or zero resistance. Also, if the Figure 16–68 Use a circuit breaker to protect
component has more than two terminals or pins, check for the circuit when checking for a short to ground.
To turn signals
Lamp 2
To cornering
lamps
Connectors
Fuse panel Switch 2
Lamp 1
A
B
Switch 1 Short

To heater fan
To taillights
– +
To cigarette lighter
Battery
Figure 16–69 A damaged wiring harness caused this wire-to-wire short.
that should be activated by the switch. This will create open disconnect one connector at a time. Check the testlight
circuits and, normally, current will not flow. If sound is after each connector. The short is in the circuit that was
coming from the buzzer in the jumper wire, current is still disconnected when the light went out.
flowing somewhere in the circuit. Disconnect all connec-
tors in the circuit one at a time. If the buzzer stops when a Short Detector Some technicians use a compass or Gauss
connector is disconnected, the short is in that circuit. gauge to find the location of a short (Figure 16–71). A mag-
If the problem is a short to ground, the circuit’s fuse or netic field is formed around a current-carrying conductor
other protection device will be open. If the circuit is not and a compass reacts to magnetic fields. The shorted circuit
protected, the wire, connector, or component will be will have high current; therefore, a large magnetic field will be
burned or melted. To keep current flowing in the circuit so formed around the shorted circuit. With the wiring diagram
you can test it, connect the special jumper wire across the and other service information, locate the routing of the wires
fuse holder. The circuit breaker will cycle open and closed, in the affected circuit. Connect the jumper wire with a circuit
allowing you to test for voltage in the circuit. Connect a breaker across the fuse holder for the blown fuse. Position the
testlight in series with the cycling circuit breaker. Using the compass over or close to the wiring harness. The magnetic
wiring diagram, identify the location of the connectors field in the wire will cause the compass’ needle to move away
in the circuit. Starting at the ground end of the circuit, from its north position. As the circuit breaker cycles, the nee-
dle will fluctuate. As the compass is slowly moved across the
wire, it will continue to fluctuate until it passes the point
SHOP TALK where the short is. To find the exact location of the short,
Many manufacturers do not recommend using inspect the wire in that area. Look for signs of overheating
a circuit breaker as a substitute for the fuse and broken, cracked, exposed, or punctured wires.
during testing; rather a sealed beam headlight
(Figure 16–70) is connected with jumper wires
Testing for Unwanted Resistance
High-resistance problems are typically caused by corrosion
across the fuse holder. The headlight serves as
on terminal ends (Figure 16–72), loose or poor connec-
load and limits the current in the circuit. The head-
tions, or frayed and damaged wires. Whenever excessive
light will light as long as current is flowing through
resistance is suspected, both sides of the circuit should be
the circuit. Some technicians use a headlight and
checked. Begin by checking the voltage drop across the
horn or buzzer wires in parallel as a substitute.
load. This should be close to battery voltage unless the cir-
The horn provides an audible indicator and is cuit contains a resistor located before the load. If the volt-
useful when working away from the fuse box and age is less than desired, check the voltage drop across the
the headlight is not visible. circuit from the switch to the load. If the voltage drop is
excessive, that part of the circuit contains the unwanted
Battery Battery Battery

(OFF) (OFF) (ON)
Sealed beam Fuse Fuse Fuse

headlight holder holder holder
Switch
Disconnected
Disconnected
Dimmer Disconnected

Short
circuit
Lamp Short Short
circuit circuit
Figure 16–70 Many manufacturers do not recommend using a circuit breaker as a substi-
tute for the fuse during testing; rather a sealed beam headlight is connected with jumper wires
across the fuse holder.
Compass
Fuse removed movement
Switch Lamp

Circuit Short to
breaker ground
– +
Battery
Figure 16–71 Use a compass to locate the cause of a short.
resistance. If the voltage drop was normal, the high resis-

tance is in the switch or in the circuit feeding the switch.
Check the voltage drop across the switch. If the voltage
drop is excessive, the problem is the switch. If the voltage
drop is normal, the high resistance is in the circuit feeding
the switch. If battery voltage is present at the load, the ground
circuit for the load should be checked. Connect the red volt-
meter lead to the ground side of the load and the black lead
to the grounding point for the circuit. If the voltage drop is
normal, the problem is the grounding point. If the voltage
drop is excessive, move the black meter lead toward the red.
Check the voltage drop at each step. Eventually you will read
a high-voltage drop at one connector and then a low-voltage

drop at the next. The point of high resistance is between
those two test points.
CONNECTOR AND WIRE REPAIRS

Many electrical problems are caused by faulty wiring or con-
Figure 16–72 Corroded terminals. nections. Loose or corroded terminals; frayed, broken, or
oil-soaked wires; and faulty insulation are the most common
causes. Keep in mind that a wire’s insulation does not always
appear to be damaged when the wire inside is broken. Also,
a terminal may be tight but still may be corroded.

Wire Terminals and Connectors
Many different types of connectors, terminals, and junc-
tion blocks are used on today’s vehicles. In most cases, the
type used in a particular application is shown in a wiring
diagram. Wire end terminals are used as connecting points
for wires. They are generally made of tin-plated copper
and come in many shapes and sizes. They may be either
Figure 16–74 A melted wire and corroded
soldered or crimped in place. When installing a terminal,
connector.
select the appropriate size and type of terminal. Be sure it
fits the unit’s connecting post or prongs and it has enough
When a connector needs to be replaced because the
current-carrying capacity for the circuit.
original has melted (Figure 16–74) or is otherwise dam-
Check all connectors for corrosion, dirt, and looseness.
aged, attempt to replace it with the same type and size.
Nearly all connectors have pushdown release-type locks.
This may be difficult because many different types are
Make sure these are not damaged. Many connectors have
used and all the various designs may not be available. Nor-
covers over them to protect them from dirt and moisture.
mally available connectors are based on common shapes
Make sure these are properly installed to provide for that
with a common number of terminal cavities. Therefore, it
protection.
is best to use a connector that meets the need; this may
mean that some of the terminal cavities are left empty. For
example, if the original connector has six terminals but the
! WARNING!
Always follow the manufacturer’s wiring
available replacement has eight, arrange the wire connec-
tions to the connector as if the connector had six. This will
keep the wires in order for future diagnostics and leave the
and terminal repair procedures. On some end pair blank. Of course, to do this, the male and female
components and circuits, manufacturers ends of the connector must be replaced. Sometimes, the
recommend complete wiring harness replacement connector will require different terminal ends
replacement rather than making repairs to the than the original. This requires the replacement of termi-
wiring. For most vehicles, SRS air bag harness nal ends on the wires for the male and female connectors.
components, including wiring, insulation, If there is damage to a terminal or connector, the wires
and connectors, should not be repaired and terminals need to be removed from the connector. If
(Figure 16–73). Any SRS harness damage the connector is a one-piece molded type, it cannot be dis-
requires replacement of the related harness. assembled for repairs. If it is damaged, it must be replaced.
! WARNING!
When working with connectors, never pull on
the wires to separate the connectors. This
can create an intermittent contact and an
intermittent problem that can be very difficult
to find later. Always use the special tools
designed for separating connectors to prevent

this problem.
Hard shell connectors normally have a locking tab to

retain the terminal. To remove the terminal, a connector
Figure 16–73 The wiring for SRS systems pick is used to depress the locking tab (Figure 16–75).
has yellow connectors, and all precautions and After repairs are made, use the connector pick to bend the
service procedures for dealing with these should tang back to its original shape before inserting it into the
be followed. connector (Figure 16–76).
Connector Primary
lock
Locking tab

Female Male
connector connector
body body
Figure 16–78 A weather-pack connector has

two locks. The primary lock is lifted up to separate
the two halves.
Terminal Female Male

Special connector
connector
tool body
body

Push narrow pick between
terminal and connector body.
Figure 16–75 Depress the locking tang to

remove the terminal from the connector. Secondary
lock
Figure 16–79 Unlock the secondary lock to
remove the terminals.
Locking tab
Lock tangs
Figure 16–76 Before inserting the terminal

back into the connector, return the tang to its
original shape.
Connector
Wire

Weather
seal Figure 16–80 Use the recommended tool to
unlock the tangs on the terminal.
Terminal
Locking tang If the terminals in a weather-pack connector need to be
Figure 16–77 The locking tang in a metri- removed, the male and female connectors are separated by
pack connector. moving the primary lock up and pulling the connector
apart (Figure 16–78). Then unlock the secondary lock and
open them (Figure 16–79).
A terminal in a metri-pack connector can be removed With a specified tool, depress the terminal locking
by inserting a pick into the connector and under the lock- tangs by pushing the tool over the terminal (Figure 16–80).
ing tang to unlock it (Figure 16–77). Push the terminal With the locking tangs depressed, remove the wire and ter-
and wire out of the front of the connector. minal from the back of the connector.
Use a weather-pack repair kit, which includes new
9. Install the terminal into the connector. Make sure
seals. After the repair has been made, push the wire the locking clip is in the proper position. If it is not,
through the connector’s seal. Re-form the locking tang and use the terminal pick to gently bend it back to its
assemble the two halves of the connector. original shape.
10. Push the terminal into the connector until a click is
Replacing a Terminal heard.
Terminal ends are replaced when they are damaged or to 11. Gently pull on the wire. If the terminal is locked in
accommodate the use of a connector. The replacement the connector, it will not move.
process must be done to provide for good continuity and 12. Tape the new wire to the wiring harness (Figure
to prevent electrical problems in the future. 16–83). If the harness is contained in conduit,
make sure it is fully enclosed and tape the outside
of the conduit.
PROCEDURE
Guidelines for Terminal Replacement
1. Measure the diameter of the wire’s insulation with
a micrometer or vernier caliper.
2. Identify the type of terminal and use the measure- Strip
ment to select the correct size for the replacement
terminal.
3. Select the correct size for the replacement wire. 1
4. Cut the old terminal from the wire in the harness.
5. Use the old wire as a guide and cut the replace-
ment wire slightly longer.
6. Strip the insulation from the wire (Figure 16–81) in 2 Insert
the harness and both ends of the replacement wire
wire. Normally, 3⁄8-inch of insulation should be
removed. Make sure the strands of wire are not
damaged while removing the insulation.

7. If heat shrink will be used to seal the connections, 3
slip the appropriate length of tubing over the end
of the wire that will be spliced.
8. Place the ends of the wires into the terminal and
connectors and crimp the terminal (Figure 16–82).
To get a proper crimp, place the open area of the
Crimp Terminal
connector facing toward the anvil of the tool. Make
sure the wire is compressed under the crimp. Figure 16–82 Placing a wire into and crimping
it in a connector.
Stripping area
Crimping
area
Cutting
area
Figure 16–81 A typical crimping tool used for making electrical repairs.
Replacement Wire Selection

Often electrical problems require the replacement of a wire
or two. It is important that this is done in a way that corrects
the original problem but does not create a new problem. All
replacement wires should be of the same size or larger than
the original. If adding an accessory, the new wire should be
large enough to ensure safe and reliable performance. How-
ever, overly large wires add weight and expense, and add to
the difficulty of splicing wires together. If the wire is too

small, an unwanted voltage drop can occur. The two factors
that should always be considered when determining the
correct size of a wire are the total circuit amperage and the
total length of wire (resistance increases with length) used
in each circuit, including the ground. Allowance for the cir-
cuits, including grounds, has been computed in Table 16–2.
Figure 16–83 Tape all wire repairs to prevent
corrosion and damage.
Never reroute wires when making repairs. Rerouting

wires can result in induced voltages in nearby components.
! WARNING!
Supplemental restraint system (SRS) air bag
Induced voltages produce unwanted signals through harness insulation and the related connectors
magnetism rather than from the components within the are usually color coded yellow or orange.
circuit. These stray voltages can interfere with the function Do not connect any accessories or test
of electronic circuits. equipment to SRS-related wiring.
SHOP TALK Connecting Wires

When a section of a wire needs to be replaced, cut the dam-
Apply dielectric grease to all connections before aged end of the wire from the main wire. Match the dimen-
you assemble them. This will prevent future corro- sions of the new wire to the old one. Measure the required
sion problems. Some manufacturers suggest length of the replacement wire; make sure it is slightly lon-
using petroleum jelly at the connectors. ger than the section that was removed. Then connect the
two wires together.
TABLE 16–2 AMPERAGE CAPACITY ACCORDING TO WIRE SIZE AND LENGTH

Approx. Circuit Current in Required Wire Gauge per Length in Feet
Amps at 12V:
3 5 7 10 15 20 25 30 40
1 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
2 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
4 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 16 16
6 18 18 18 18 18 18 16 16 16
8 18 18 18 18 16 16 16 16 16
10 18 18 18 18 16 16 16 14 12
15 18 18 18 18 14 14 12 12 12
20 18 18 16 16 14 12 10 10 10
30 18 16 16 14 10 10 10 10 10
© Cengage Learning
40 18 16 14 12 10 10 8 8 6
50 12 12 10 10 6 6 4 4 4
100 10 10 8 8 4 4 2 2 2
200 10 8 8 6 4 4 2 2 1
PHOTO
Soldering Two Copper Wires Together SEQUENCE
14
P 14–1 Tools required to solder copper wire: 100-watt P 14–2 Disconnect the fuse that powers the circuit
soldering iron, 60/40 rosin core solder, crimping tool, splice being repaired. Note: If the circuit is not protected by a fuse,
clip, heat shrink tube, heating gun, and safety glasses. disconnect the ground lead of the battery.
P 14–3 Cut out the damaged wire. P 14–4 Using the correct size stripper, remove about
1
⁄2 inch of the insulation from both wires.
© Cengage Learning
P 14–5 Now remove about 1⁄2 inch of the insulation from P 14–6 Select the proper size splice clip to hold the
both ends of the replacement wire. The length of the splice.
replacement wire should be slightly longer than the length of
the wire removed.
465
PHOTO
SEQUENCE Soldering Two Copper Wires Together (continued)
14
P 14–7 Place the correct size and length of heat shrink P 14–8 Overlap the two splice ends and center the
tube over the two ends of the wire. splice clip around the wires, making sure that the wires
extend beyond the splice clip in both directions.
P 14–9 Crimp the splice clip firmly in place. P 14–10 Apply the tip flat of the soldering iron against the
splice to hear it. At the same time, apply solder to the opening
of the clip. Do not apply solder to the iron. The iron should be
180 degrees away from the opening of the clip. As the splice
and wires heat, the solder will flow through the splice.
© Cengage Learning
P 14–11 Place the hot soldering iron in its stand and P 14–12 Heat the tube with the hot air gun until it
unplug it. After the solder cools, slide the heat shrink tube shrinks around the splice. Do not overheat the heat shrink
over the splice. tube.
466
There are several ways of connecting the original wire
to a replacement wire. Butt connectors can provide a good SHOP TALK
joint between the wires. However, the preferred way to
Rather than use a splice, some technicians twist
connect wires or to install a connector is by soldering. Sol-
the wire ends tightly together before soldering the
dering joins two pieces of metal together by melting a lead
joint. When doing this, it is important to realize
and tin alloy and allowing it to flow into the joint. A sol-
dering iron or gun is used to heat the solder. There are dif- that the solder does not provide for a mechanical
ferent types of solder, but only rosin-type or resin-type joint. Therefore, it is important that the twisting
flux core solder should be used for electrical work. provides a secure joint before soldering.
Before using a soldering iron, make sure the tip is clean
and tinned. The tip is made of copper, which corrodes
through use. A corroded tip cannot transfer heat as it After a joint has been made, it must be insulated. This
should. Use a file to remove all residue from the tip. When can be done with heat shrink tubing or tape. When using
finished, the tip should be smooth and flat. Turn the iron tape, place one end of the tape about 1 inch from the joint.
on and allow it to heat. Then dip the hot tip into some sol- Tightly wrap the tape around the wire. As the tape is being
dering rosin flux. Remove the tip from the flux and imme- wrapped, about one-half of the previous wrap should be
diately apply rosin core solder to all surfaces. The solder covered by the tape as it completes one turn around the
should flow over the tip. The tip is now tinned. wire. Once the wrapping has reached 1 inch beyond the
Photo Sequence 14 shows the procedure for soldering joint, cut the tape. Firmly press on the tape at that end to
two copper wires together. Some manufacturers use alu- form a good seal.
minum in their wiring. Aluminum cannot be soldered. When using heat shrink tubing, make sure the tubing is
Follow the manufacturer’s guidelines when repairing alu- slightly larger than the diameter of the splice. Cut a length
minum wiring. of the tubing so that it is longer than the splice. Before join-
ing the wires together, slip the tubing over one of the wires.
Proceed to make the joint. After the wires are connected,
! WARNING!
Never use acid core solder. It creates corrosion
move the shrink tubing over the splice. Use a heat gun and
heat the tubing until it shrinks tightly around the splice.
The tubing will only shrink a certain amount; therefore, do
and can damage electronic components. not continue to heat it after it is in place. Doing this can
melt the tubing and/or the insulation of the wire.

REPAIR ORDER
Year: 2007 Make: Honda Model: Civic Mileage: 118,551 RO: 15875
Concern: Customer states windshield wipers do not work on any speed. When he replaced the
fuse, it blew as soon as the wipers were turned on.
The technician confirms that the fuse blows as soon as the wipers are turned on. The technician knows that these
symptoms indicate a short to ground and so substitutes a 12-volt testlight for the blown fuse. With the wiper motor
unplugged, the testlight remains on.
Cause: Checked each section of wiring between the fuse and the wiper motor. Found
testlight went out when connection under dash was unplugged.
Correction: Inspection of harness under dash revealed a wire that had rubbed through the
insulation against a bracket. Rerouted harness and repaired wire.
KEY TERMS SUMMARY

Average responding Root mean square ■ All electrical problems can be classified as an open,
Glitches Schematics short, or high-resistance problem. Identifying the
Induced voltage Short type of problem will allow for the identification of the
Radio frequency correct tests to conduct when diagnosing an electrical
interference (RFI) circuit.
■ Wiring diagrams show where wires are connected, the 4. Which of the following is not a typical cause of
circuit’s components, the color of the wires’ insulation, unwanted or high resistance in a circuit?
and sometimes the wire gauge size. a. Corrosion on terminal ends
■ Voltmeters, ohmmeters, ammeters, and volt/amp b. A power wire contacting the chassis
meters are used to test and diagnose electrical systems. c. Loose or poor connections
These are used with jumper wires, testlights, and vari-
able resistors. d. Frayed and damaged wires
5. Wiring harnesses are typically shielded by plastic
■ Multimeters are multifunctional and can test DC and
conduit. What color is normally used to shield SRS-
AC volts, ohms, and amperes. Some multimeters can
related wiring?
also be used to measure engine rpm, duty cycle, pulse
width, frequency, and temperature. a. Black
■ There are two ways that DMMs display AC voltage: b. Green
RMS and average responding. c. Yellow
■ Some DMMs also feature a MIN/MAX function, d. Orange
which displays the maximum, minimum, and aver- 6. True or False? The MIN/MAX function on some
age voltage the meter recorded during the time of DMMs can be used to check for electrical noise.
the test. 7. True or False? A zero reading on an ohmmeter means
■ On a lab scope, an upward movement of the trace indi- the circuit or component is open.
cates an increase in voltage, and a downward move- 8. True or False? The maximum allowable voltage loss
ment of this trace represents a decrease in voltage. As due to voltage drops across a single connector in a
the trace moves across the screen, it represents a spe- 12-volt circuit is 1.2 volts.
cific length of time. 9. What type of solder should be used to repair electrical
■ To troubleshoot a problem, begin by verifying the cus- wiring?
tomer’s complaint. Then operate the system and others 10. Which of the following lab scope controls must be set
to get a complete understanding of the problem. Use when trying to observe how long an event takes place?
the correct wiring diagram and identify testing points
a. Intensity
and probable problem areas. Test and use logic to iden-
tify the cause of the problem. b. Vertical
■ Wiring diagrams are invaluable for diagnostics. c. Horizontal
Tracing the diagram allows you to think about d. Trigger
how the circuit should work and where it should be 11. Which of the following statements is true?
tested. a. A short to ground causes decreased current flow.
■ Many automotive electrical problems can be traced b. An open causes unwanted voltage drops.
to faulty wiring, such as loose or corroded termi-
c. High-resistance problems can cause damage to
nals; frayed, broken, or oil-soaked wires; and faulty
wiring and connections.
insulation.
d. High-resistance problems may cause a fuse to blow.
■ The preferred way to connect wires or to install a
connector is by soldering. Never use acid core solder. 12. True or False? When tracing a circuit in a wiring dia-
It creates corrosion and can damage electronic gram, remember that all circuits have a power source,
components. a load, and a path to ground and they need to be
identified.
13. What is indicated by a reading of battery voltage on
the ground side of a component?
14. Which of the following information is not given in a
REVIEW QUESTIONS wiring diagram?
1. How will an electrical circuit behave if there is a short a. Wire-by-wire color coding
in the circuit? b. Location of wire harness travel
2. What happens to an electrical circuit when there is c. Terminal designation
unwanted resistance in it? d. Component designations
3. An ammeter is always connected in ___ with the cir- 15. While troubleshooting a problem, the key to identifying
cuit, whereas a voltmeter is connected in ___ with the the exact cause of the problem is testing all of the vehi-
circuit. cle’s components and circuits until the problem is found.
6. Technician A uses a testlight to test circuit protection
ASE-STYLE devices. Technician B uses a voltmeter to test circuit
REVIEW QUESTIONS protection devices. Who is correct?
a. Technician A
1. While discussing electricity: Technician A says that
an open causes unwanted voltage drops. Technician B b. Technician B
says that high-resistance problems cause increased c. Both A and B
current flow. Who is correct? d. Neither A nor B
a. Technician A 7. Technician A uses a testlight to detect resistance.
b. Technician B Technician B uses a jumper wire to test circuit break-
c. Both A and B ers, relays, and lights. Who is correct?
d. Neither A nor B a. Technician A
2. While discussing NTC thermistors: Technician A b. Technician B
says that some systems use this type of thermistor as c. Both A and B
a protection device. Technician B says that when d. Neither A nor B
there is high current in a circuit, the resistance of the
8. While diagnosing the location of a wire-to-wire
thermistor increases and causes a decrease in current
short: Technician A checks the wiring of the affected
flow. Who is correct?
circuits for signs of burned insulation and melted
a. Technician A conductors. Technician B checks common connec-
b. Technician B tors shared by the two affected circuits. Who is
c. Both A and B correct?
d. Neither A nor B a. Technician A
3. While measuring the resistance of a wire with an b. Technician B
ohmmeter: Technician A says that if low resistance is c. Both A and B
shown on the meter, the wire is shorted. Technician B d. Neither A nor B
says that if no resistance is measured, the wire is
9. While measuring resistance: Technician A uses an
shorted. Who is correct?
ohmmeter to measure resistance of a component
a. Technician A before disconnecting it from the circuit. Technician B
b. Technician B uses a voltmeter to measure voltage drop. A circuit
c. Both A and B with very low resistance will drop zero or very little
voltage. Who is correct?
d. Neither A nor B
a. Technician A
4. While testing variable resistors: Technician A says
that while checking a rheostat with a voltmeter, the b. Technician B
voltage should change smoothly with a change in the c. Both A and B
control. Technician B says that a potentiometer can d. Neither A nor B
be checked with a scope. Who is correct?
10. While discussing how to test a switch: Technician A
a. Technician A says that the action of the switch can be monitored by
b. Technician B a voltmeter. Technician B says that continuity across
c. Both A and B the switch can be checked by measuring the resis-
tance across the switch is in its different positions.
d. Neither A nor B
Who is correct?
5. While using an ohmmeter to measure the resistance
a. Technician A
values of a component: Technician A says that if the
component has the specified resistance, the part is b. Technician B
good. Technician B says that having resistance does c. Both A and B
not guarantee a part is good. Who is correct? d. Neither A nor B
a. Technician A
b. Technician B
c. Both A and B
d. Neither A nor B
CHAPTER
28 GASOLINE, DIESEL, AND

OTHER FUELS
OBJECTIVES
■ Describe the basic composition of ■ Describe how the quality of a fuel ■ Describe the common types of fuel
gasoline. can be tested. injection used on today’s diesel
■ Explain why materials are added to ■ Explain the advantages and engines.
gasoline to make it more efficient. disadvantages of the various ■ Describe the various techniques
■ Name the common substances alternative fuels. used to allow current diesel engines
used as oxygenates in gasoline and ■ Explain the differences between to meet emission standards.
explain what they do. diesel fuel and gasoline.

REPAIR ORDER
Year: 2005 Make: Ford Model: F250 Mileage: 98,588 RO: 18825
Super Duty Diesel
Concern: Customer just bought truck at auction, no history. States on cold mornings, engine
is hard to start, runs rough, and emits white smoke. Runs normal once warmed up.
T his chapter takes a look at the fuels used to propel a vehi-

cle. Although there are several types of fuels for automo-
tive use, gasoline is the most commonly used and most readily
extracted from the earth is called crude because it has yet
to be processed or refined. Crude oil is commonly
referred to as a fossil fuel because it is naturally produced
available. However, there is much interest in finding suitable by the decaying of plants and animals that lived a long
alternatives to gasoline; these are discussed in this chapter. time ago and were covered by dirt for many years. Crude
Regardless of the type of fuel used for combustion, effi- oil is a liquid that varies in appearance. Normally, it has a
ciency depends on having the correct amount of air mixed dark brown or black color, but it can also be yellow or
with the correct amount of fuel. The ideal air-fuel or stoi- greenish.
chiometric ratio for a gasoline engine is approximately 14.7 Although the composition of crude oil varies, it typi-
pounds of air mixed with 1 pound of gasoline. This pro- cally is:
vides a ratio of 14.7:1. Different fuels have different stoi-
■ 84 percent carbon
chiometric ratios. Because air is so much lighter than
gasoline, it takes nearly 10,000 gallons of air mixed with ■ 14 percent hydrogen
1 gallon of gasoline to achieve this air-fuel ratio. Lean ratios ■ 1 percent to 3 percent sulfur, in the form of hydrogen
of 15 to 16:1 provide the best fuel economy. Rich mixtures sulfide, sulfides, disulfides, and elemental sulfur
have a ratio below 14.7:1 and provide more power from the ■ Less than 1 percent nitrogen
engine but greater fuel consumption (Figure 28–1).
■ Less than 1 percent oxygen
CRUDE OIL ■ Less than 1 percent metals, normally nickel, iron, vana-
Crude oil is also called petroleum, which means oil from dium, copper, and arsenic
the earth. The name fits; crude oil is drawn out of oil res- ■ Less than 1 percent salts, in the form of sodium chlo-
ervoirs and sands below the earth’s surface. The oil ride, magnesium chloride, and calcium chloride
808
CHAPTER 28 • Gasoline, Diesel, and Other Fuels 809
gas, and natural gas. About 16 percent of the crude oil is
processed to make a variety of products, such as polymers,
plastics, detergents, deodorants, and medicines.
Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons (HCs) in crude oil have

many different lengths and structures. Therefore, the
Fuel
only thing the different hydrocarbons have in common
consumption is that they contain carbon and hydrogen. The number
Fuel of carbon atoms in an HC molecule defines its length.
consumption
Sometimes that number, when combined with the
8 10 12 14 1516 18 20
Economical number of hydrogen atoms, is called a chain. The HC
Air-fuel ratio with the shortest chain is methane (CH4), which is a very
ratio Theoretical light gas. Longer chains with five or more carbons are
ratio liquids or solids. Asphalt has thirty-five or more carbon
With constant power atoms. HCs contain a great amount of energy, which
is why they have been used as a source of energy for
many years.
Power performance
Each of the different HCs must be separated from
crude oil in order to be useful. This separation process is
called refining. After refining, one barrel (42 gallons or
159 liters) of crude oil will produce 20 gallons (75.7 L) of
gasoline, 7 gallons (26.5 L) of diesel fuel, and smaller
Power
performance amounts of various other petroleum products.
Refining
8 10 12 14 1516 18 20
A refinery is the place where the separation occurs. The
Air-fuel Power Theoretical easiest and most common way to separate the various
ratio ratio ratio HCs (called fractions) is through a process called
With constant rpm
fractional distillation (Figure 28–2). The basis of this
method is simply that the different HC compounds have
progressively higher boiling points. Here are some
Figure 28–1 Fuel consumption and examples:
performance at various air-fuel ratios.
■ Propane will boil at less than 104°F (40°C).
■ Gasoline will boil at 104° to 401°F (40° to 205°C).
The high concentration of carbon and hydrogen is why ■ Jet fuel will boil at 350° to 617°F (175° to 325°C).
products produced from crude oil are called hydrocarbon ■ Diesel fuel will boil at 482° to 662°F (250° to 350°C).
fuels or compounds. ■ Lubricating oil will boil at 572° to 700°F (300° to
370°C).
■ Asphalt will boil at temperatures greater than 1,112°F
SHOP TALK (600°C).
You may hear crude oil being called sweet or sour. During fractional distillation, crude oil is heated with
These terms describe the sulfur content of the oil. high-pressure steam to about 1,112°F (600°C). This causes
Crude oil that has a high content of sulfur is called all of the crude oil to boil, forming vapor. The vapor
“sour” oil, whereas oil with low sulfur content is moves into the fractional distillation column which has
called “sweet.” many trays or plates. As the vapor moves up the column,
it cools. The vapor condenses or becomes a liquid when it
reaches the point in the column where the temperature is
equal to the fractions’ boiling temperature. Therefore, the
Petroleum Products fractions with the lowest boiling point will condense at
Most of the petroleum extracted from the earth is pro- the highest level within the column and those with high
cessed into hydrocarbon products, such as asphalt, wax, boiling points will condense at lower levels. The various
gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene jet fuel, heating and other trays collect the condensation and pass the liquid out of
fuel oils, lubricating oils and greases, liquefied petroleum the column.
810 SECTION 4 • Engine Performance
Gas for fuel

and chemicals
Vapor
recovery Gasoline
processing
Jet fuel and
Alkylation kerosene
Additional
Fractionating
tower Heating and
diesel fuels
Ultraforming Industrial fuel oil
Catalytic cracking
Waxes
Treating and
Courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute

blending
Lubricating oils
Crude Extraction Dewaxing
oil
Grease Greases
Cooking manufacturing
Petroleum coke
Asphalts
Figure 28–2 The refining process for crude oil.
Very few of the fractions that leave the column are Also, the structure of HC molecules can be rearranged
ready to be used. They must be treated and cleaned to to provide a different HC. This is commonly used to pro-
remove impurities. Also, refineries combine the various duce octane boosters for gasoline.
fractions to make a desired product. For example, different
octane ratings of gasoline are possible by mixing different Cleaning and Blending The fractions captured from frac-
fractions. Some fractions are chemically altered so they tional distillation and chemical processing are treated in a
can be used for their specific application, and others are variety of ways to remove all impurities. Some of the tech-
chemically processed to produce other fractions. The niques used by refineries include passing the fractions
finished products are stored until they can be delivered to through sulfuric acid to remove unsaturated HCs, a drying
their markets. column to remove water, and hydrogen-sulfide scrubbers
to remove sulfur.
Chemical Processing Some fractions are processed After they are cleaned, the base fraction is blended
chemically to produce a different type of HC. Doing this with small amounts of other fractions to make various
allows the refineries to alter some HCs to meet market products, such as various grades of gasoline and lubricat-
demands. Through processing, if the demand for ing oil and greases.
gasoline is high, diesel fuel can be altered to become
gasoline. Concerns
The process of breaking down HCs with a higher boil- Fossil fuels are the world’s most important energy source.
ing point into an HC with a lower boiling point is called However, their use comes with costs. Although it appears
cracking. During cracking, the HCs are introduced to high that there is plenty of oil available today, we may run out in
temperature and sometimes high-pressure conditions, the future.
forcing the HCs to break apart. Catalysts are often used to It is estimated that there is approximately 3.74 trillion
speed up the cracking process. barrels (440 km³) of oil reserves, including oil sands,
available. This seems like a lot; however, the current level
Purpose Additive
of oil consumption is about 84 million barrels (3.6 km³)
per year. This means the oil from known oil reserves will Octane enhancer Methyl t-butyl ether (MTBE)
be gone by 2039. t-butyl alcohol (TBA)
Another concern is that when HCs are burned, they Ethanol
release CO2. This is a growing concern because CO2 has
Methanol
been linked to climate change. Although there is much
emphasis on reducing CO2 emissions, it is important to Antioxidant Butylated methyl, ethyl and
realize that of the total amount of CO2 emissions world- dimethyl phenols
wide, less than 4 percent is man-made. The rest is from Various other phenols and
nature; things like breathing and plant and animal decay amines
contribute greatly to the buildup of CO2 in the atmo- Metal deactivator Disalicylidene-N-
sphere. Burning fossil fuels for transportation contributes methyldipropylene- triamine
to about one-quarter of the man-made CO2 emissions. N,N'-disalicylidene-1,2-
Reducing this has been the goal of manufacturers and Ethanediamine
governments. Other related amines
The declining amount of oil in reserves and the con-
Ignition controller Tri-o-cresylphosphate (TOCP)
cern for the environment are the leading factors in the

development and use of alternate fuels and energy sources. Icing inhibitor Isopropyl alcohol
Detergent/dispersant Various phosphates, amines,
GASOLINE phenols, alcohols, and
carboxylic acids
Gasoline is a complex mixture of approximately 300 vari-
ous ingredients, mainly HCs. The chemical symbol for this Corrosion inhibitor Carboxylic, phosphoric, and
sulfonic acids
liquid is C8H15, which indicates that each molecule of gas-
oline contains eight carbon atoms and fifteen hydrogen Figure 28–3 The various additives blended
atoms. Gasoline is a colorless liquid with excellent vapor- with gasoline for today’s vehicles.
ization capabilities.
Oil refiners must meet gasoline standards set by the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the in an engine. Isooctane has an octane number of 100. Hep-
EPA, some state requirements, and their own company tane has an octane number of zero.
standards. Many of the performance characteristics of gas- A fuel of unknown octane value is run in the test engine
oline can be controlled during refining and blending. equipped with a variable compression cylinder head and a
Many additives are blended into gasoline before it is avail- knock meter. The severity of knock is measured. Various
able to the public (Figure 28–3). The major factors affect- proportions of isooctane and heptane are run in the engine
ing fuel performance are antiknock quality, volatility, to duplicate the severity of the engine knock when the test
sulfur content, and deposit control. fuel was run. When the knock caused by the isooctane and
heptane mixture matches that caused by the fuel being
Antiknock Quality tested, the octane number is established by the percentage
An octane number or rating was developed by the petro- of isooctane in the mixture. For example, if 85 percent iso-
leum industry so the antiknock quality of a gasoline could octane and 15 percent heptane produced the same knock
be rated. The octane number is a measure of the fuel’s ten- severity as the tested fuel, that fuel would be rated as hav-
dency not to experience detonation in the engine. The ing an octane rating of 85.
higher the octane rating, the less the engine will have a ten- The octane rating required by law and the one dis-
dency to knock. played on gasoline pumps is the Antiknock Index (AKI).
Two methods are used for determining the octane It is the average of RON and MON. The AKI is stated as
number of gasoline: the motor octane number (MON) (R+M)/2.
method and the research octane number (RON) method. Most modern engines are designed to operate effi-
Both use a laboratory single-cylinder engine equipped ciently with regular grade gasoline and do not require
with a variable head and knock meter to measure knock high-octane gasoline. One of the things to remember
intensity. A test sample of the fuel is used in the engine as about high-octane fuel is that it burns slower than low-
the engine’s compression ratio and air-fuel mixture are octane gasoline. This is why it is less likely to cause deto-
adjusted to develop specific knock intensity. There are two nation. Most engine control systems have a sensor to
primary standard reference fuels: isooctane and heptane. detect if a knock is occurring so the PCM can retard the
Isooctane does not knock in an engine but is not used in ignition timing to prevent detonation. Higher-octane
gasoline because of its expense. Heptane knocks severely gasoline is used in high-performance engines because
they have high compression ratios, which provide greater When the sulfur in the fuel is burned, it combines with
power output. oxygen to form sulfur dioxide. This compound can com-
bine with water to form sulfuric acid, which is a highly cor-
Volatility rosive compound. This acid is the leading cause of exhaust
Gasoline is very volatile. It readily evaporates, so it readily valve pitting and exhaust system deterioration. Sulfuric
mixes with air for combustion. The volatility of gasoline acid also attacks the linings of the main and rod bearings.
affects the following performance characteristics or driv- This is one reason engine oil needs to be changed regularly.
ing conditions: With catalytic converters, the sulfur dioxide can cause the
obnoxious odor of rotten eggs during engine warm-up. To
■ Cold Starting and Warm-up: A fuel can cause hard reduce corrosion caused by sulfuric acid, the sulfur con-
starting, hesitation, and stumbling during warm-up if tent in gasoline is limited to less than 0.01 percent.
it does not readily vaporize. A fuel that vaporizes too
easily in hot weather can form vapor in the fuel deliv- Deposit Control Several additives are added to gasoline
ery system, causing vapor lock or a loss of perfor- to control harmful deposits; these include gum or
mance. If gasoline vaporizes while it is in a fuel line, it oxidation inhibitors, detergents, metal deactivators, and
can stop the flow of gasoline. Rather than flow through rust inhibitors.
the line, the pressurized fuel will compress the vapor,
not move it. Vapor lock can cause a variety of drive-
ability problems. Gasoline blended for summer (hot BASIC GASOLINE ADDITIVES
weather) use is less volatile (does not evaporate as eas- At one time, all a gasoline-producing company needed to
ily) than winter gasoline. do to provide its product was to pump the crude from the
ground, run it through the refinery to separate it, dump in
■ Altitude: Gasoline vaporizes more easily at high alti-
a couple of grams of lead per gallon, and deliver the fin-
tudes, so volatility is controlled in blending accord-
ished product to a service station. Of course, automobiles
ing to the elevation of the location where the fuel
were much simpler then and what they burned did not
is sold.
seem critical. As long as the gasoline vaporized easily and
■ Crankcase Oil Dilution: A fuel must vaporize to prevent did not cause engine knock, everything was fine.
diluting the crankcase oil with liquid fuel or break Back then, lead compounds, such as tetraethyl lead
down the oil film on the cylinder walls, causing scuff- (TEL) and tetramethyl lead (TML), were added to gaso-
ing or scoring. The liquid eventually enters the oil in line to increase its octane rating. However, since the mid-
the crankcase, forming an accumulation of sludge, 1970s, vehicles have been designed to run on unleaded
gum, and varnish as well as affecting the lubrication gasoline only. Leaded fuels are no longer available as
properties of the oil. automotive fuels. Because of the poisoning effect lead
There are three methods of measuring the volatility of has on humans and on catalytic converters; today’s gaso-
a fuel. The most common is the Reid vapor pressure line is limited to a lead content of 0.06 gram per gallon.
(RVP) test. The RVP test is performed by placing a sample Now, to achieve the desired octane rating, methylcyclo-
of gasoline into a sealed metal container that has a pres- pentienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT) is normally
sure measuring device attached to it. The container is sub- added to gasoline.
merged in heated (100°F or 38°C) water. As the fuel is
heated, it vaporizes. Remember, the more volatile a fuel is, Anti-Icing or Deicer
the easier it will vaporize. As fuel vaporizes, it creates Isopropyl alcohol is added seasonally to gasoline as an
vapor pressure within the container. Vapor pressure is anti-icing agent to prevent fuel line freeze-up in cold
measured in psi. weather.
Sulfur Content Metal Deactivators and Rust Inhibitors

Some of the sulfur in the original crude oil may be found These additives are used to inhibit reactions between the
in refined gasoline. Sulfur content is reduced at the refin- fuel and the metals in the fuel system that can form abra-
ery to limit the amount of corrosion it can cause in the sive and filter-plugging substances.
engine and exhaust system. When the hydrogen in the fuel
is burned, one of the by-products of combustion is water. Gum or Oxidation Inhibitors
Water leaves the combustion chamber as steam but can Some gasoline contains aromatic amines and phenols to
condense back to water when passing through a cool prevent the formation of gum and varnish. During storage,
exhaust system. When the engine is shut off and cools, harmful gum deposits can form due to the reaction
steam condenses back to a liquid and forms water between some gasoline molecules with each other and
droplets. with oxygen. Oxidation inhibitors are added to promote
gasoline stability. They help control gum, deposit forma- It should be noted that the use of oxygenated gasoline
tion, and staleness. may cause a slight decrease in fuel economy in late-
Gum content is influenced by the age of the gasoline model vehicles. This is due to the HO2S detecting extra
and its exposure to oxygen and certain metals such as cop- oxygen and the PCM responding to this by richening the
per. If gasoline is allowed to evaporate, its residue can form mixture.
gum and varnish. Oxygenates added to gasoline produce what is referred
to as reformulated gasoline (RFG). RFG is also called
Detergents “cleaner-burning” gasoline and costs slightly more than
Detergent additives are designed to do only what their normal gasoline. RFG can be used in most engines with no
name implies—clean certain critical parts inside the modifications. RFG was formulated to reduce exhaust
engine. They do not affect octane. emissions.
Ethanol
Adding nitrous oxide to the By far the most widely used gasoline oxygenate additive is
air-fuel mixture is not some- ethanol (ethyl alcohol), or grain alcohol. Ethanol is a non-
thing done by oil refineries. corrosive and relatively nontoxic alcohol made from
Rather, it is commonly done by renewable biological sources. Blending 10 percent ethanol
those seeking more instantaneous power from into gasoline results in an increase of 2.5 to 3 octane points.
their engines. Nitrous oxide is injected as a dense With ethanol-blended gasoline, air toxics are about 50 per-
liquid. When nitrous oxide is heated, it breaks cent less. Ethanol decreases CO emissions due to the
down into nitrogen and oxygen. This provides higher oxygen content of the fuel.
more oxygen inside the cylinder when the fuel Ethanol can also loosen contaminants and residues
ignites. Because there is more oxygen, more fuel that may have gathered in the vehicle’s fuel system. All
can be injected into the cylinder. The engine alcohols have the ability to absorb the water in the fuel sys-
therefore produces more power. Nitrous oxide tem that results from condensation. This reduces the
also improves engine performance by cooling the chances of fuel line freeze-up during cold weather.
gases in the cylinder, thereby making the air
denser. Nitrous oxide is injected into the engine’s Methanol
intake when the driver pushes a button to activate Methanol is the lightest and simplest of the alcohols and is
the system. Nitrous kits, which include nearly all also known as wood alcohol. It can be distilled from coal
that is needed to add the system to an engine, are or other sources, but most of what is used today is derived
available for many engines. The nitrous tanks typi- from natural gas.
cally store enough nitrous for 3 to 5 minutes of
Many automakers continue to warn motorists about
using a fuel that contains more than 10 percent methanol
operation.
and CO solvents by volume. It is far more corrosive to fuel
system components than ethanol, and it is this corrosion
that has automakers concerned. Methanol is also highly
OXYGENATES toxic and there are safety concerns with ingestion, eye or
Oxygenates are compounds, such as alcohols and ethers, skin contact, and inhalation.
that contain oxygen. By carrying oxygen, the fuel tends to Methanol can be used directly as an automotive fuel
lean the mixture. Oxygenates improve combustion effi- but the engine must be modified for its use. It can also be
ciency, thereby reducing emissions. Many oxygenates also used in flexible fuel vehicles as M85, which is 85 percent
serve as excellent octane enhancers when blended in gaso- methanol. However, this is not very common. In the future,
line (Figure 28–4). Oxygenated fuels tend to have lower methanol could be the fuel of choice for providing hydro-
CO emissions. gen to power fuel cell vehicles.
Ethanol MTBE ETBE TAME

Chemical formula CH3CH2OH CH3OC(CH3)3 CH3CH2OC(CH3)3 (CH)3CCH2OCH3
Octane, (R+M)/2 115 110 111 105
Oxygen content, % by weight 34.73 18.15 15.66 15.66

Blending vapor pressure, RVP 18 8 4 1.5
Figure 28–4 The typical properties of the common oxygenates.

MTBE
In the past, methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) was used
as an octane enhancer because of its excellent compati- PROCEDURE
bility with gasoline. Methanol can be used to make
MTBE. However, MTBE production and its use have To check the amount of alcohol in a
declined because it was found to contaminate groundwa- sample of gasoline:
ter. As of 2004, MTBE is no longer used in gasoline and STEP 1 Obtain a 100-milliliter (mL) cylinder graduated in
has been replaced by ethanol and other oxygenates such 1 mL divisions.
as tertiary amyl methyl ether (TAME) and ethyl tertiary STEP 2 Fill the cylinder to the 90 mL mark with gasoline.
butyl ether (ETBE). STEP 3 Add 10 mL of water to the cylinder so it is filled
to the 100 mL mark.
Aromatic Hydrocarbons STEP 4 Install a stopper in the cylinder, and shake it
These are petroleum-derived compounds, including ben- vigorously for 10 to 15 seconds.
zene, xylene, and toluene, that are being used as octane STEP 5 Carefully loosen the stopper to relieve any
boosters. pressure.
STEP 6 Install the stopper and shake vigorously for
another 10 to 15 seconds.
GASOLINE QUALITY TESTING
STEP 7 Carefully loosen the stopper to relieve any
Two tests can be done to test the quality of gasoline: the pressure.
Reid vapor pressure test and the alcohol content test. STEP 8 Place the cylinder on a level surface for 5 minutes
to allow liquid separation.
Testing the RVP of Gasoline STEP 9 Observe the liquid. Any alcohol in the fuel is
RVP is a measure of the volatility of gasoline. Fuels that absorbed by the water and settles to the bot-
are more volatile vaporize more easily, creating more pres- tom. If the water content in the bottom of the
sure. Increasing the RVP of a gasoline permits the engine cylinder exceeds 10 mL, there is alcohol in the
to start easier in cold weather. The RVP of winter blend fuel. For example, if the water content is now
gasoline is about 9.0 psi. Summer grade is typically around 15 mL, there was 5 percent alcohol in the fuel.
NOTE: Because this procedure does not extract
7.0 psi.
100 percent of the alcohol from the fuel, the per-
A special fuel vapor pressure tester is needed to test centage of alcohol in the fuel may be higher than
the RVP of gasoline. Make sure the gasoline that is being indicated.
tested is cool. Then put a sample in the tester’s container
and secure the seal in the container as soon as the gaso-
line is in it. Put hot water in another container and put
the container holding the fuel into it. Make sure that
most of the container holding the fuel is covered by water. ALTERNATIVES TO GASOLINE
Connect the pressure gauge assembly to the container
The actual cost of using gasoline in engines is not limited
holding the gasoline. Put a thermometer in the water.
to the price per gallon or liter. There are other factors, or
When the water temperature is 105°F (40°C) for at least
costs, that need to be considered: our environment, our
2 minutes, take your pressure reading and compare it to
dependence on foreign oil supplies, and the depletion of
specifications.
future oil supplies. Any reduction in the use of fossil fuels
will have benefits for generations to come. Let us look at
Alcohol in Fuel Test
some simple facts:
Pump gasoline may contain a small amount of alcohol,
normally up to 10 percent. If the amount is greater than ■ The number of household vehicles in the U.S. is
that, problems may result, such as fuel system corrosion, growing and nearly tripled from 1969 to 2001. Last
fuel filter plugging, deterioration of rubber fuel system year, in North America nearly 20 million new cars
components, and a lean air-fuel ratio. These fuel system and light trucks were sold. These numbers do not
problems caused by excessive alcohol in the fuel may cause include the automobiles on the road that were not
driveability complaints such as lack of power, acceleration bought that year. There are well over 225 million
stumbles, engine stalling, and no-start. If the correct vehicles on the road.
amount of fuel is being delivered to the engine and there is ■ It is estimated that the total miles covered by those
evidence of a lean mixture, check for air leaks in the intake automobiles, in one year, is well over 2,000 billion. To
and then check the gasoline’s alcohol content. put this in perspective, let us assume the average fuel
There are many different ways to check the percentage mileage of all those vehicles is 20 miles per gallon. This
of alcohol in gasoline. Some are more exact than others means over 100 billion gallons of oil are burned by
and some require complex instruments. automobiles each year.
wastes (biomass). Biomass fuels, such as biodiesel and eth-
anol, can be burned in internal combustion engines. Bio-
Evaporated fuel (HC) 20% mass fuels tend to be carbon neutral, which means that
during combustion, they release the same amount of CO2
that was absorbed from the atmosphere when the plant or
animal was living. Combustion does not cause an increase
in CO2 emissions. Ethanol and methanol are used as oxy-
genates for blending with gasoline. They can also be used
as the primary energy source for internal combustion
engines. However, because ethanol is made from renew-

able sources it is the most commonly used.
Exhaust gas
Blowby gas (HC)
(CO, HC, NOx) Energy Density Each of these alternative fuels can be
20% 60% looked at in terms of energy density. This is the amount of
energy provided by a standard weight of each. Energy den-
sity is typically rated as joules per kilogram. A joule can be
Figure 28–5 Gasoline-powered vehicles emit defined as the energy required to produce 1 watt of power
a wide assortment of pollutants.
for 1 second. Refer to Table 28–1 to review the energy den-
sities of common energy sources.
■ By 2020, oil consumption is expected to grow by nearly
40 percent and our dependence on foreign oil sources Ethanol
is projected to rise to more than 60 percent. Ethanol is a high-quality, low-cost, high-octane fuel (rated
at 115) that burns cleaner than gasoline. The use of ethanol
■ A 10 percent reduction in fossil fuel consumption by
as a fuel is not new. Ford’s Model T was designed to run on
cars and light trucks would result in using 24 million
ethyl alcohol (ethanol). Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), commonly
less gallons of oil each day.
called grain alcohol, is a renewable fuel made from nearly
■ Americans spend close to $100,000 per minute to buy anything that contains carbon (Figure 28–6). It is most
foreign oil, and oil purchases are a major contributor to commonly produced by fermenting and distilling corn,
the national trade deficit. cornstalks, wheat, sugar cane, other grains, or biomass
■ Automobiles and gasoline contribute to environmental
damage. Not only do automobiles emit pollutants
(Figure 28–5), but the extraction, production, and TABLE 28–1 THE ENERGY DENSITIES OF
marketing of gasoline also leads to air pollution, water COMMON ENERGY SOURCES
pollution, and oil spills.
Approximate energy
■ Because of the heavy reliance on fossil fuels, the trans-
Material per kilogram
portation industry is one of the sources of carbon diox-
ide and other heat-trapping gases that cause global
Uranium 238 20 terajoules
climate change.
Hydrogen 143 megajoules
Alternative Fuels Natural gas 53.6 megajoules
The concerns of burning fossil fuels and the decline of LPG propane 49.6 megajoules
their reserves have led to a comprehensive search for alter-
Gasoline 47.2 megajoules
native fuels. While looking at the viability of an alternative
fuel, many things are considered, including emissions, Diesel fuel 46.2 megajoules
cost, availability, energy density, safety, engine life, fueling Gasohol E10 43.54 megajoules
facilities, weight and space requirements for fuel tanks,
Biodiesel 42.20 megajoules
and the range of a fully-fueled vehicle. By using alternative
fuels, we not only can reduce our reliance on petroleum, Gasohol E85 33.1 megajoules
but we can reduce emissions and the effects an automo- Coal 32.5 megajoules
bile’s exhaust has on global warming. Many of these fuels

Methanol 19.7 megajoules
are also being considered as the fuel of choice for fuel cell
electric vehicles. Supercapacitor 100 kilojoules
Much attention has been paid to renewable fuel Lead-acid battery 100 kilojoules
sources. Renewable fuels are those derived from nonfossil
Capacitor 360 joules
sources and produced from plant or animal products or
Crops are finely ground and separated into

like corn their component sugars.
that is reabsorbed
by the original crop.

CO2
which releases which can be used as The sugars are distilled
carbon dioxide an alternate fuel, to make ethanol,
Figure 28–6 The carbon cycle of ethanol.
waste. Ethanol can be used as a high-octane fuel in vehicles

and is often mixed with gasoline to boost its octane
rating.
Because ethanol is an alcohol, it can absorb moisture
that may be present in a fuel system. The absorbed water is
simply passed with the fuel and burned by the engine.
However, if the moisture content in the fuel becomes too
high, the water will separate from the fuel and drop to the
bottom of the fuel tank. If this is suspected, remove all fuel

and water from the tank and refill it with clean ethanol-
blended fuel.
For automotive use, ethanol is blended with gasoline.
The common blends are an E10 blend, which is 10 percent
ethanol and 90 percent gasoline, E15, and E85, which is
85 percent ethanol. Most gasoline-powered vehicles in
North America can run on blends of up to 10 percent Figure 28–7 An Indy ethanol-fueled race
ethanol, and some are equipped to run on E85. engine.
The use of E85 has many advantages over the use of
traditional gasoline:
■ It is produced in the United States and can reduce our
SHOP TALK
reliance on foreign oil. After 40 years of running on methanol, a
■ Vehicles do not need many modifications to use it. non-renewable fuel made from natural gas, the
Indy Racing League (IRL) in 2007 switched to
■ Its emissions are cleaner than those of a gasoline
ethanol to power the engines (Figure 28–7) in
engine.
their race series. Also, in 2011 NASCAR
■ CO2 emissions are much lower. mandated the use of E15 in all of their racing.
■ Ethanol-blended fuel keeps the fuel system clean According to NASCAR, E15 is good for racing,
because it does not leave varnish or gummy deposits. good for the environment, and good for America.
However, the infrastructure for E85 is weak. There are
few fuel filling stations that offer E85. The amount of
energy it takes to produce E85 is more than the energy it Methanol
provides. E85 also has about 25 percent less energy than Methanol (CH3OH) is a clean-burning alcohol fuel that is
gasoline; therefore, fuel economy will decrease by about often made from natural gas but can also be produced
that much in a typical vehicle. from coal and biomass. Because North America has an
abundance of these materials, the use of methanol can Compressed Natural Gas
decrease the dependence on foreign oils. Methanol is very Natural gas, compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied
corrosive and an engine designed to run on it must be natural gas (LNG), is a very clean-burning fuel. There is an
equipped with special plastic and rubber components, as abundant supply of natural gas. It burns cleaner and it is
well as a stainless steel fuel system. Methanol use as a fuel less expensive than gasoline. Combustion with CNG also
has declined through the years but may become the fuel for results in 25 percent less CO2 emissions because natural
fuel cell vehicles. Currently, these alcohols are mixed with gas has lower carbon content. In addition, natural gas is
15 percent gasoline, creating M85. The small amount of nontoxic, so it isn’t harmful to soil or water. These factors
gasoline improves the cold-starting ability of the alcohols. make the use of natural gas an attractive alternative fuel,
especially for high-mileage, centrally-fueled fleets that do
Propane/LP Gas not travel far from their central location.
Propane, also referred to as liquefied petroleum gas or LP The main substance in natural gas is methane. Natural
gas, is used by many fleets around the world in taxis, police gas is a highly flammable colorless gas and is commonly
cars, school buses, and trucks. LP gas is similar to gasoline used in homes for heaters, stoves, and water heaters. CNG
chemically. It is called liquid petroleum because it is stored and LNG are considered alternative fuels under the Energy
as a liquid in a pressurized bottle. The pressure increases Policy Act of 1992. CNG is used in light- and medium-
the boiling point of the liquid and prevents it from vapor- duty vehicles, whereas LNG is used in transit buses, train
izing. LP gas burns clean because it vaporizes at atmo- locomotives, and long-haul semi-trucks.
spheric temperatures and pressures. This means it emits CNG must be safely stored in cylinders at pressures of
less HCs, CO2, and CO. Propane is a clean-burning fuel 2,400, 3,000, or 3,600 pounds per square inch (Figure 28–9).
that provides a driving range closer to gasoline than other This is the biggest disadvantage of using CNG as a fuel.
alternative fuels.
Propane allows for quick starting, even in the coldest of
climates. It also has a higher octane rating than gasoline.
However, there is a reduction of engine power output
(about 5 percent) because it is difficult to fill the cylinders
with the gas. Propane is a dry fuel that enters the engine as
vapor. Gasoline, on the other hand, enters the engine as
tiny droplets of liquid. LP gas is a good alternative to gaso-
line but it is a fossil fuel and therefore is not a favored alter-
native fuel for the future.
LP gas vehicles have designated engine fuel controls and

special tanks or cylinders to store the gas (Figure 28–8).
However, the gas is stored at about 200 pounds per square
inch. Under this pressure, the gas turns into a liquid and is
stored as a liquid. When the liquid propane is drawn from
the tank, it warms and changes back to a gas before it is
burned in the engine. The propane fuel system is a com-
pletely closed system. Figure 28–9 The storage tanks for CNG.
Shutoff
valve Solenoid
Propane fill valve
valve Throttle
body
Propane
cylinder
Figure 28–8 The layout of a propane-fueled car.
The space occupied by these cylinders takes away luggage There are three basic types of natural gas vehicles:
and, sometimes, passenger space. As a result, CNG vehicles ■ Dedicated, which are designed to run only on natural
have a shorter driving range than comparable gasoline vehi- gas. These can be light or heavy-duty vehicles.
cles. Bi-fuel vehicles are equipped to store both CNG and
gasoline and will run on either. ■ Bi-fuel vehicles have two separate fuel systems that
Natural gas turns into a liquid when it is cooled to allow them to run on either natural gas or gasoline and
–263.2°F (−164°C). Because it is a liquid, a supply of LNG they are typically light-duty vehicles.
takes up less room in the vehicle than does CNG. There- ■ Dual-fuel, which are normally used only with heavy-
fore, the driving range of an LNG vehicle is longer than a duty applications. These have natural gas and diesel
comparable CNG vehicle. For vehicles needing to travel fuel systems.
long distances, LNG is a good choice. However, the fuel
must be dispensed and stored at extremely cold tempera- Honda Civic Natural Gas Vehicle The Honda Civic con-
tures. This requires refrigeration units that also take up verted to use CNG is based on a typical Civic sedan (Figure
space. This is why LNG is not a practical fuel for personal 28–11): the same engine, transmission, accessories, and
use and is only used in heavy-duty applications. body. The major differences reflect the modifications to
The use of natural gas as a fuel has advantages due to the engine. In a normal Civic the 1.8 liter engine is rated at
its domestic availability, vast distribution infrastructure, 140 hp @ 6,500 rpm and 128 lb-ft. @ 4,300 rpm. The
low cost, and clean-burning qualities. However, the engine in the CNG car is rated lower at 110 hp @ 6,500 rpm
space taken by the CNG cylinders and their weight, and 106 lb-ft. @ 4,300 rpm. The CNG engine also has a
about 300 pounds, can be considered a disadvantage in higher compression ration; 12.7:1 compared to 10.6:1.
most applications. Both have the same EPA emissions rating and about the
The basic components of a natural gas vehicle (NGV) same fuel mileage estimates.
are shown in Figure 28–10. The CNG fuel system moves The natural gas system is comprised of the fuel tank,
high-pressure natural gas from the storage cylinder to the fuel receptacle, manual shut-off valve, high-pressure fuel
engine. It also reduces the pressure of the gas so it is com- filter, fuel lines, fuel pressure regulator, low-pressure fuel
patible with the engine’s fuel-management system. The filter, and injectors; the entire system is in compliance with
natural gas is injected into the engine intake air the same the National Fire Protection Association’s Vehicular Gas-
way gasoline is injected into a gasoline-fueled engine, the eous Fuel Systems (NFPA-52) code.
high temperatures and pressures in the combustion cham- To make sure only quality and well-filtered gas enters
ber quickly ignite the gas. the storage tank in a Civic; Honda highly recommends
Fuel shutoff Electrical Fuel cylinder

relays connections Brackets
Metering
valve Label
Mixer Vapor bag
Fuel filter
(optional)
Regulator Courtesy of Teleflex GFI Control Systems Inc.
Cylinder
shutoff
Fuel
valve
Coolant Manual Line lockoff
hoses shutoff clamps Vent tube
from Vent Fuel fill Union valve Manual
Gauge
heater tube receptacle bulkhead shutoff valve
Vibration label
Check Quarter-turn
shutoff valve loop
valve
(optional)
Figure 28–10 NGV system components.
SHOP TALK
The fill nozzle on the gas dispenser may vary with
the dispenser’s location. The different nozzles are
designed for different refueling pressures. If the
wrong nozzle is used, the storage tank may be
under- or over-filled. The common nozzle designa-
tions and their rated pressures are:
■ P24—2,400 psi (16,500 kPa)
■ P30—3,000 psi (20,700 kPa)
■ P36—3,600 psi (24,800 kPa)
The fuel gauge displays the amount of gas that remains in

Figure 28–11 A CNG Honda Civic. the tank; this is determined by the system looking at the
pressure and temperature of the gas in the tank. A ‘low”
reading on the gauge means the fuel pressure has dropped to
that the vehicle be refueled at a public commercial-grade
about 3,000 psi and a “full” reading indicates a tank pressure
CNG refueling station. They further recommend not
of 3,600 psi. The low fuel indicator will come on whenever
installing a home refueling station because of the wide
the fuel level is low. It may also come on during very cold
variation of natural gas quality delivered to homes. The
weather, although there may be ample gas in the tank. This is
major worry is moisture, which can cause damage and
because the pressure in the tank will decrease when it is cold.
result in expensive repairs.
P-Series Fuels P-series is a new fuel classified as an alter-
native fuel. It is a blend of natural gas liquids, ethanol, and
! WARNING!
Natural gas is a highly flammable and
biomass-derived CO solvents. P-series fuels are clear, col-
orless, 89–93 octane, and liquid blends that are formulated
to be used alone or freely mixed, in any proportion, with
explosive gas. Serious injury, or death, can gasoline. Like gasoline, low vapor pressure formulations
result from the ignition of leaking gas. If a leak are produced to prevent excessive evaporation during
is suspected, the car must be shut down and summer, and high vapor pressure formulations are used
the leak identified and fixed. for easy starting in cold weather.
Each gallon of P-series fuel emits approximately 50
percent less CO2, 35 percent less HCs, and 15 percent less
The storage system is designed to hold CNG at the CO than gasoline. It also has 40 percent less ozone-form-
maximum of 3,600 psi/24,800 kPa. The only time a gas ing potential.
smell or a hiss should be heard is during refueling. Any
other time may indicate there is a gas leak. If a leak is sus- Hydrogen
pected, the system should be shut down immediately and Hydrogen is cited by some as the fuel of the future because it
the car pushed outdoors in a well-ventilated area. Turn the is full of energy due to its atomic structure and abundance. It
ignition switch to the lock position. Make sure to keep the is the simplest and lightest of all elements and has one proton
car away from heat, sparks, and flame. Then open the car’s and one electron (Figure 28–12). Hydrogen is a colorless and
windows and trunk to allow any trapped gas to escape.
Close the manual shut-off valve by turning it one-quarter − Electron
turn clockwise (to the right).
Refueling is done by opening the fuel receptacle door
and removing the dust cap from the receptacle. The fill
nozzle from the dispenser is then inserted into the fuel
+ Proton
receptacle. Now turn the lever until the arrows on the noz-
zle point to each other. This begins the refueling process,
which will end automatically once the tank is full. Once
refueling is complete, disconnect the fill nozzle from the
fuel receptacle by slowly turning the lever on the nozzle
180 degrees. Then securely fasten the receptacle dust cap
onto the fuel receptacle. Then close the fuel receptacle door. Figure 28–12 A hydrogen atom.
odorless gas. It is one of the most abundant elements on earth.

The combination of hydrogen and oxygen forms water. Fossil
fuels are combinations of carbon and hydrogen, or HCs.
Hydrogen is extracted from various substances through
a process that pulls hydrogen out of its bond with another
element or elements. Hydrogen is commonly extracted from
water, fossil fuels, coal, and biomass. The two most common
ways that hydrogen is produced are steam reforming and
Courtesy of BMW of North America, LLC

electrolysis. Currently it costs much more to produce hydro-
gen than it does to produce other fuels such as gasoline.
This, again, is an obstacle and the focus of much research.
Hydrogen Fuel To demonstrate the energy in hydrogen,

there are hydrogen bombs. Some manufacturers are exper-
imenting with burning hydrogen in internal combustion
engines. Three major auto manufacturers have developed
and tested hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engines;
actually these vehicles have bi-fuel capabilities. BMW’s bi-
fueled V12 engine uses liquefied hydrogen or gasoline as Figure 28–13 A hydrogen-powered internal
its fuel (Figure 28–13). When running on hydrogen, the combustion engine.
engine emits zero CO2 emissions. To store the liquefied
hydrogen, the storage tank is kept at a constant tempera- Infrastructure and Storage Other than manufacturing
ture of −423°F (−253°C). At this temperature, the liquid costs, the biggest challenge for hydrogen-powered vehicles
hydrogen has the highest possible energy density. is the lack of an infrastructure. Vehicles need to be able to
Ford and Mazda have also developed internal combus- be refueled quickly and conveniently.
tion engined vehicles with hydrogen power. Mazda is using Hydrogen is normally stored as a liquid or as a com-
its rotary engine, which it claims is ideal for using hydrogen pressed gas. When stored as a liquid, it must be kept very
fuel. The concept vehicles from both manufacturers are cold. Keeping it that cold adds weight and complexity to
also bi-fuel vehicles. Ford has converted a V10 and a the storage system. The tanks required for compressed
2.3-liter, I-4engine to run on hydrogen. Engine modifications hydrogen need to be very strong, and that translates to
include a higher compression ratio, special fuel injectors, and weight. Also, higher pressures mean more hydrogen can be
a modified electronic control system. When running on packed into the tank but the tank must be made stronger
hydrogen, the engine is more than 10 percent more efficient before the pressure can be increased.
than when it runs on gasoline and emissions levels are very
close to zero. Because the fuel contains no carbon, there are Flex Fuel Vehicles
no carbon-related emissions (CO, HC, or CO2). Flexible fuel vehicles (FFV) can run on ethanol or gaso-
Typically, an engine running on hydrogen produces line, or a mixture of the two (Figure 28–14). The alcohol
less power than a same-sized gasoline-powered engine. fuel and gasoline are stored in the same tank. This gives the
Ford added a supercharger with an intercooler to the driver flexibility and convenience when refilling the fuel
engines to compensate for the loss of power. tank. Many vehicles are fitted with systems that allow the
Gasoline- and alcohol-compatible

fuel injectors and engine components
plastic fuel tank
Flex fuel
sensor

fuel lines
Figure 28–14 A flexible fuel vehicle.
Cetane Ratings
Diesel fuel should ignite almost instantaneously when it is
injected into a cylinder. The fuel’s ignition quality is

expressed by a cetane rating (CN). The cetane rating of
diesel fuel is a measure of the ease with which the fuel can
be ignited (Figure 28–17). Because diesel fuel ignites with
compression instead of a spark, it is most efficient when it
ignites as quickly as possible.
Figure 28–15 A common flex fuel label on The cetane rating of the fuel is based on a test that uses
the outside of the vehicle. a single-cylinder test engine with a variable compression
ratio. As a result of the test, the fuel is assigned a cetane
use of multiple fuels. These include vehicles from Chrysler, number. Cetane is a colorless, liquid hydrocarbon that
Ford Motor Co., General Motors, and Nissan. Flex fuel ignites immediately when introduced to compression heat
vehicles may have a clover leaf symbol (internally or exter- and pressures. Pure cetane has a numerical rating of 100
nally) that shows they can use multiple fuels, in addition and diesel fuels are compared to cetane and rated accord-
label at the fuel receptacle clearly states that up to E85 or ing to its performance relative to pure cetane.
gasoline can be used (Figure 28–15). Actually, the cetane number represents the amount of
Most of these have a virtual fuel sensor that relies on time the fuel delays ignition after it has been introduced
inputs from the HO2S for oxygen readings. These systems into the combustion chamber. Obviously, if the fuel ignites
adjust the air-fuel mixture according to the oxygen readings instantaneously (no delay), it will have a rating of 100. A
of the different fuel compositions that may be in the fuel tank. short delay period allows the fuel to burn more completely,
and the engine will run more smoothly with more power
DIESEL FUEL while producing low emissions. Fuel that takes a longer
time to ignite does not allow the engine to work as effi-
Diesel fuel is designed to be used by diesel engines and is
ciently. Generally speaking, the cetane number expresses
therefore not an alternative fuel for gasoline engines. Diesel
the fuel’s ability to start the engine at low temperatures and
fuel is a fossil fuel but it has different properties and charac-
warm up quickly, without misfires.
teristics than gasoline. Diesel fuel is heavier and has more
Today’s diesel engines run best with a fuel rated between
carbon atoms, and it has about 15 percent more energy
45 and 55 CN. The typical ignition temperature of CN 45
density. Diesel fuel also evaporates much more slowly than
fuel is around 482°F (250°C). The ignition temperature for a
gasoline—its boiling point is actually higher than the boil-
CN 40 fuel would be higher, about 550°F (290°C). The cetane
ing point of water. The downside of diesel fuel is that it
number can be improved by adding compounds such as
costs more per gallon than gasoline (Figure 28–16).
ethyl nitrate, acetone peroxide, and amyl nitrate. The
Diesel fuel is used to power a wide variety of vehicles and
required cetane rating for an engine depends on many fac-
other equipment. It fuels the diesel trucks you see moving
tors including its engine design, size, speed of operation, and
down the highway moving heavy loads. It also is used in
atmospheric conditions. Running a diesel engine with a fuel
trains, boats, buses, farm equipment, emergency response
vehicles, electric generators, and many other applications.
Slow burning
100
90
Octane 80
70
Cetane 30
40
50 Fast burning
Figure 28–16 Diesel fuel traditionally costs Figure 28–17 A comparison of cetane and
more than gasoline. octane ratings.
with a lower than recommended CN may cause abnormal Other than these emission-related advantages and disad-
noise and vibration, lower power output, excessive deposits vantages, biodiesel fuel can also help reduce our dependency
and wear, and hard starting. The following is a list of com- on imported oil. In addition, its use allows diesel engines to
monly available diesel fuels with their cetane ratings: last longer, run quieter and smoother because of the lubri-
■ Regular diesel—CN 48 cant qualities of the fuel. The downside is simply cost; it costs
more to produce biodiesel than petroleum-based fuel.
■ Biodiesel blend (B20)—CN 50 Most late-model diesel engines can use biodiesel fuel
■ Premium diesel—CN 55 without modifying the engine or fuel system. However,
■ Biodiesel (B100)—CN 55 diesel engines produced prior to 1992 need modifications,
■ Synthetic diesel—CN 55 those are dependent on the manufacturer of the engine.
Even the manufacturers of newer “clean” diesel engines
carefully define how biodiesel should be used in their
Grades of Diesel Fuel engines, For example, Volkswagen (VW) recommended
The minimum quality standards for diesel fuel grades are that only mixtures up to 5 percent biodiesel (B5) should be
established by the American Society for Testing Materials. used in their early automotive diesel engines. To show how
They have defined two basic grades of diesel fuels; Number 1 things change regarding this fuel, recently VW has allowed
and Number 2. Number 2 fuel is the most popular and dis- the use of fuel blends with 20 percent biodiesel and recom-
tributed. However it contains a significant amount of paraf- mends the use of B5, at all times, because of its better lubri-
fin wax. Wax, however, does contain a great amount of cating properties. The manufacturer’s recommendations
energy and adds to the fuel’s viscosity and ability to lubri- are very important since vehicle warranties may become
cate, but paraffin wax may cause cold weather problems. As invalid if the wrong fuel is used.
the fuel gets colder, wax crystals in the fuel lines can grow
and inhibit the flow of the fuel, causing fuel starvation. Ultra-Low Sulfur Diesel Fuel
Number 1 diesel fuel is designed for extremely cold As of 2007, nearly all diesel fuel available in the United States,
temperatures. It is less dense than #2 and has a different Canada, and Europe is Ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuel.
boiling point and less paraffin wax. Most often #1 is This has become the standard diesel fuel with low sulfur
blended with #2 to improve cold weather starting. In mod- content (Figure 28–18). The previous standards allowed
erately cold climates, the blend may be nine parts #2 mixed
with one part #1. In very cold climates, the ratio may be as
high as 50:50. Fuel economy can be expected to decrease
during cold weather because of the use of #1 fuel in the
diesel fuel blend.
Biodiesel Fuels
Biodiesel is an alternative fuel for diesel engines. Biodiesel
fuel is not made from petroleum, rather it is made from
renewable biological sources. Most commercially available
biodiesel fuel is made from soybean oil. However, it is also
produced from animal fats, recycled cooking oil, canola
oil, corn, and sunflowers. The use of biodiesel fuel is not
new; the first diesel engine ran on peanut oil. Biodiesel is
considered a renewable fuel. To produce more fuel, more
crops need to be planted.
Biodiesel can be used in diesel engines with little or no
modifications to the engine. Pure biodiesel is biodegradable,
nontoxic, and free of sulfur and aromatics. It can be used by
itself or blended with petroleum-based diesel fuel. The two
most common blends are B5, which is 95 percent petroleum-
based fuel and 5 percent biodiesel fuel, and B20, which con-
tains 20 percent biodiesel blended into regular diesel fuel.

An engine running on pure biodiesel (B100) emits
much lower amounts of hydrocarbons, sulfur, carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, and particulates when com-
pared to running on petroleum-based fuel. However, EPA
tests have shown that the use of pure biodiesel increases an
engine’s NOx emissions by 10 percent. Figure 28–18 A ULSD fuel dispenser.
2007 final rule
1.1 g/HP-h NOx (ave)
Steady- 0.01 g/HP-h particulate
state
20 test 20
Pull ahead
Oxides of nitrogen (g/HP-h)
Particulate matter (g/HP-h)

NOx + HC NOx + NMHC
Transient
15 test 15
NOx
(unregulated) NOx Transient and
NOx
10 new steady- 10
PM (unregulated) state test

NOx
5 PM 5
PM
0 0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Model year
Figure 28–19 Current EPA NOX emission standards for diesel engines.
diesel fuel to contain up to 500 ppm of sulfur (S500). S15 or ULSD fuel with a biodiesel fuel will increase its lubricity,
ULSD is a much cleaner fuel that has a maximum sulfur con- and in the correct proportions, may allow the disadvan-
tent of 15 ppm. Engines running on this fuel emit less NOx, tages of using ULSD to be dismissed.
soot, and other unwanted sulfur compounds. It is important
to note that the use of this new fuel plus the new emissions
devices for diesel engines has resulted in more than a 90 per- DIESEL ENGINES
cent reduction in soot and NOx (Figure 28–19). Diesel engines in cars and light trucks will become more
However, in the refining process necessary to reduce common soon. There are many reasons for this, one of
the amount of sulfur, the amount of paraffin is also which is that low sulfur diesel fuel is now available in the
reduced. Paraffin is vital to the lubrication of a diesel United States. This has eliminated some of the concerns
engine. Therefore to offset the loss of paraffin, and to about a diesel engine’s high emission levels. Diesel engines
protect the engine, injection pump, and the injectors, addi- provide more torque (Figure 28–20) than a gasoline
tives are blended into the fuel to increase lubricity. Blending engine of the same size and consume less fuel per mile.
800
735 lb-ft.
700 400
390 hp
600
300
500
Torque (lb-ft.)
Power (bhp)
400
200
300
200
100
100
1,000 1,400 1,800 2,200 2,600 3,000 3,400 3,800

Engine speed (rpm)
Figure 28–20 The power and torque curves for a late-model Ford Power Stroke
diesel engine.
The fuel injected into a diesel engine is ignited by the strokes of a gasoline engine and a diesel engine takes place
heat of compression. A diesel engine needs a compression during the power stroke. Since the fuel in a diesel is not
ratio of at least 16:1. Intake air is compressed until its tem- delivered until the piston on the compression stroke is
perature reaches about 1,000°F (540°C). This high com- near TDC and the heat formed during that stroke is what
pression ratio and the resulting high compression ignites the fuel, the actual combustion process can take
pressures make a diesel engine more fuel efficient than a three separate steps (Figure 28–22).
gasoline engine. Because a diesel engine has very high Near the end of the compression stroke, fuel is injected
compression pressures and produces high amounts of but ignition does not immediately begin. In other words,
torque, a diesel engine is made stronger and heavier than there is a delay in ignition and this is determined by the
the same size gasoline engine. Because of their basic con- cetane rating of the fuel. Once the fuel begins to burn,
struction, diesel engines tend to last longer and therefore pressure in the cylinder greatly increases. After this, the
have higher resale values. remaining fuel in the combustion chamber begins to burn
The fuel efficiency of a diesel also results from the fact and this process continues until all of the fuel that is mixed
the engines do not suffer from throttle losses since intake with air burns.
air is not controlled by a throttle. Engine speed and power
output is controlled by the amount of fuel injected into the
cylinders. It is important to note that many newer diesels
TDC
have a throttle valve, but it is only used by the emission Ignition
control system and is not designed to control engine speed. (+3° BTDC)
15° ATDC-optimum
Typically the cited reasons against owning a diesel- Beginning of
point for peak
powered automobile or light truck include: injection
cylinder pressure
(+10° BTDC)
■ Diesel vehicles are usually more expensive.
90° ATDC-
■ Noise maximum
Po
ion crank throw
we
■ Diesel fuel is more expensive than gasoline.
Compress
r
leverage
■ Diesel fuel is available at about half of all service
stations.

■ Fuel smell
■ Exhaust emissions
■ Cold weather starting Exhaust valves
open
Intake valves
Diesel Combustion close
Nearly all available diesel engines for cars and light and Figure 28–22 The events (“steps”) that
medium duty trucks are based on the four-stroke cycle occur during the compression and power strokes
(Figure 28–21). The primary difference between the of a diesel engine.
Injection
of
fuel
Intake Compression Power Exhaust

Figure 28–21 The four-stroke cycle of a diesel engine.
Engine Control Systems
Since 2007, all diesel-powered vehicles sold in the U.S. that
Heater
have a gross vehicle weight of 14,000 pounds (6,350 kg) coil
or less are equipped with OBD II. This is basically the same
system as used in gasoline vehicles. Like those systems, a
scan tool can be used to retrieve DTCs and other data. The
MIL is illuminated when certain DTCs are set. The DTCs
are set by the PCM based on input from a variety of sen- Sensor Pressure
sors and by the various monitors in the system. diaphragm passage
Diesel OBD II monitors all systems that may affect the
emissions from the engine. These monitors check the elec-
trical status of the inputs and outputs of each circuit. They
also look at the data being sent to determine if it makes
sense and is in line with other data. The monitors also
watch how the actuators respond to the commands from
the PCM. The mandatory monitors include:
■ Comprehensive Component Monitor—This performs
functional and rationality tests on emission-related
circuits.
■ Misfire Monitor—This monitor will set the MIL when a
misfire occurs, when the engine is at idle, if the vehicle
has an automatic transmission. The MIL will not be set
if the vehicle has a manual transmission.
■ Glow Plug Monitor—If a problem with the glow
plugs is detected, the MIL will be set. This only
occurs on vehicles that weigh less than 8,500 pounds Silicone
(3,856 kg). encapsulant
Although many of the monitors for a diesel engine are
similar to those for a gasoline engine, some are unique to
the diesel. Examples are the EGR cooler monitor and Die-
sel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC) efficiency monitor. The
EGR cooler monitor checks the efficiency of the cooler by
monitoring the temperature difference between the inlet Sensor
and outlet sensors with the EGR valve open. The DOC

contacts
monitor relies on exhaust gas temperature sensors and the
monitor runs during active regeneration of the Diesel Par-
ticulate Filter (DPF). If the temperature of the exhaust gas
does not increase to the desired minimum, a DTC is set High-
and the MIL is illuminated. current
The control system monitors the engine while it is run- terminal
ning and makes adjustments to ensure overall efficiency. Figure 28–23 A piezo-resistive cylinder
Inputs that are critical to efficient operation are those pressure sensor integrated into a glow plug.
related to cylinder pressures. By monitoring the pressures
inside the cylinders, the PCM can make accurate decisions DIESEL FUEL INJECTION
about the combustion process. The A/F mixture of a diesel can vary from as rich as 8.5:1
Most engines equipped with cylinder pressure sensors at idle to as lean as 20:1 at full load. Ideally, engine fueling
are fitted with glow plugs that have an integrated pressure should be managed to produce peak cylinder pressures at
sensor (Figure 28–23). These sensors are basically a nor- somewhere around 10 to 20 degrees ATDC.
mal glow plug and have been modified to allow the center Most of today’s diesel engines use direct fuel injection,
electrode to move up and down. The movement of the in which fuel is injected directly into the cylinder. In an
electrode is in response to cylinder pressure. The move- indirect injection (IDI) diesel engine, fuel is injected into a
ment changes the position and pressure the electrode has small prechamber, which is connected to the combustion
on a sensing element. Depending on these factors, the chamber by a small opening. Initial combustion takes
sensing element sends a voltage signal to the PCM. place in this chamber. This slows the rate of combustion,
which tends to reduce engine noise. Many IDI systems rail. The injectors are connected to the rail and fuel can be
were mechanically operated and the fuel pump not only delivered to the cylinders whenever the engine is
supplied fuel system pressure, but also controlled the tim- running.
ing of the injectors. The individual injectors are normally controlled by the
With direct injection (DI), the pistons have a depres- PCM. Electronic controls allow the engines to run more
sion where initial combustion takes place (Figure 28–24). efficiently, smoother, and cleaner.
DI engines are typically more efficient than indirect injec-
tion engines but tend to have more engine noise. Many of Injector Nozzles
today’s engines are equipped with a common rail system. An injector nozzle is the part that delivers the fuel into the
These systems have a high pressure fuel pump that deliv- engine’s cylinders. The nozzles are threaded into or
ers fuel under a constant pressure to fuel passage, pipe, or clamped onto the cylinder head; there is one for each cyl-
inder. Many nozzles are spring loaded valves that, when
the injector is activated, spray fuel into the combustion
chamber or a precombustion chamber. Nearly all of today’s
diesel engines have multiple-orifice hydraulic or electro-
hydraulic nozzles.
The exact type of nozzle used, mainly depends on the
type of injection system. However, the tip of all nozzles has
many orifices or holes from which atomized fuel is sprayed
into the cylinders. The pressure of the fuel determines how
much the fuel will be broken down into droplets. It is
important to note that a change in pressure regulates the

amount of fuel delivered. The time an injector is turned on
also determines fuel quantity.
Electronic Unit Injection (EUI)

Electronic unit injector (EUI) systems have been used since
Figure 28–24 Notice the depression at the the 1980s but primarily in heavy-duty trucks. Volkswagen
top of the pistons of this GM Duramax diesel. used EUIs in their TDI engines until 2010 (Figure 28–25).
Fuel return
Fuel rail
pressure limiter
Injector
Fuel
temperature
sensor EUI
charging
gallery
Fuel
cooler
Fuel
filter
Fuel tank
Electric Fuel pump
pump (high pressure)
(transfer
pump)
Figure 28–25 A pre-2010 VW TDI EUI fuel system.
Since then they use a common rail injection system which ■ Passages in the cylinder head for fuel flow to the
will be discussed later. injectors
In these systems, the injector’s pressure is the result of ■ HEUI Injectors
a camshaft-driven high pressure pump. However, the
■ Electronic Control Module (ECM)
engine’s PCM controls the amount of fuel sprayed into the
cylinders and the timing of the spray. Although effective,
Operation Fuel is drawn out of the tank by a fuel pump.
EUIs did not allow for the precise control of injection
The fuel, under low pressure, passes through fuel lines
needed to meet today’s driving needs and emission
and the fuel filter, water separator, and fuel heater. The
standards.
fuel is then delivered to the fuel passages in the cylinder
head or rail. Oil from the engine’s lubrication system is
Hydraulic Electronic Unit Injection
pumped into a high-pressure pump. This pump increases
(HEUI)
the engine oil’s pressure to a precisely controlled amount.
Hydraulic Electronic Unit Injection (HEUI) relies on The engine oil’s path includes a return to the engine’s oil
engine oil pressure to control the operation of the indi- reservoir. The pressurized oil is then sent to the injectors.
vidual injectors (Figure 28–26). The engine oil opens The presence of the pressurized oil actuates the injectors.
the injector by pressing down on a diaphragm inside The PCM controls the pressure buildup and the actual
each injector. In turn, the diaphragm pushes on the fuel actuation pressures are between 485 psi (33 bar) and
inside the injector and pressurizes it from 3,000 to 4,000 psi (275 bar). The PCM therefore controls the
21,000 psi. Fuel under that pressure is directly injected amount of fuel injected into the cylinders.
into the cylinders. Since the injectors in this system pres-
surize the fuel for delivery into the cylinders there is no
Importance of Maintenance It is very important that the
need for an expensive and difficult to control high-
correct type of oil be used in a HEUI-equipped engine. It is
pressure fuel pump.
also very important to adhere to a strict oil change interval.
These systems were widely used until 2010. The system
Since the engine’s oil is what activates the fuel injectors, the
as used in Ford’s 6.0, 6.4, and 7.3 Power Stroke diesels is
wrong or contaminated oil can cause HEUI injector
comprised of:
problems.
■ A high pressure engine oil pump and reservoir
■ Engine oil pressure regulator Common Rail Injection
■ High-pressure (stepper) pump A common rail (CR) fuel system is one that has a fuel rail
that carries high-pressure fuel to the individual injectors
■ Actuation oil pressure sensor
(Figure 28–27). Since the injectors are electronically con-
trolled, the pressurized fuel is immediately available at
each injector. Each electro-hydraulic injector (EHI) is
Drilled
HEUIs supply 1 2 3
passage
Injection
control Oil
pressure manifold
sensor
Image Courtesy of Robert Bosch GmbH
Oil line
From main
Navistar International Corp.
gallery
4 5 6 7 8 9
Injection 1. MAF sensor 6. Crankshaft-speed sensor
pressure regulator 2. PCM 7. Coolant-temperature
High-pressure oil pump 3. High-pressure pump sensor
4. Common rail 8. Fuel filter
Oil reservoir 5. Injectors 9. Accelerator-pedal sensor
Figure 28–26 The oil system that forces the Figure 28–27 A common rail system for a
HEUI injector open when the PCM allows it. four-cylinder engine.
switched open and closed by the PCM. Some late-model ignites and causes a large pressure increase in the combustion
CR systems have an intensifier in the injector that allows chamber. This results in the common knock of a diesel engine.
for an increase in fuel pressure. Each fuel injector is posi- In a CR system, the injection cycle begins with one or two
tioned directly above the piston and is connected to the very small sprays of fuel—this is called pilot injection. This
fuel rail by steel lines. The amount and pressure of the fuel pilot injection warms the air in the combustion chamber.
injected into the cylinders is controlled by the PCM. When the rest of the fuel is injected, it is able to ignite quickly.
Since 2010, nearly all “on the highway” diesel engines
use CR fuel injection systems. The use of CR allows the Processing The PCM controls fuel pressure and the tim-
engines to meet diesel emissions standards and fuel econ- ing of the injectors based on inputs of various sensors. This
omy expectations. They also provide for: is called fuel mapping and the PCM looks at the inputs,
■ Lower engine noise levels compares them to the instructions stored in its memory,
■ Balanced engine cylinder pressures and then commands the appropriate outputs to provide
the best injection events for emissions and efficiency.
■ High injection pressures independent of engine speed
The PCM and its inputs and outputs are connected
■ The injectors can be switched on and off at high speeds through a multiplexed system. CAN-C (Figure 28–28) is a
and allow for as many as seven injection ‘‘events’’ dur- serial bus and can handle up to 15 different control modules
ing a single power stroke. and can communicate with others through a gateway. CAN-C
is a two-wire serial bus that can handle only one message at
High Pressure Pump Normally the high-pressure pump one time. However, since that message travels to the bus at
that feeds fuel to the common rail is a three-piston assem- nearly the speed of light, a great number of messages can be
bly. The pump is driven by the camshaft. The high pressure sent and received within one second (Figure 28–29).
to the injectors is necessary to allow the injectors to spray
very atomized fuel. Fuel from a CR system can be injected Inputs Many different inputs provide the current status of
at pressures up to 30,000 psi (2,068 bar). the engine to the PCM. Many of these are the same as used
on other diesel and gasoline engines and are tied into the
Injector Control Typical of all late-model computer-con- powertrain bus. Different from other engine control sys-
trolled systems, a CR setup has a processor that monitors tems, a CR system also monitors ambient air temperature
conditions according to inputs received and then com- and retards the engine’s timing of the engine in cold weather
mands certain outputs to react in a commanded way and and retards injection timing to allow for easier starting.
to ensure efficient operation. The communication between The system also includes a Fuel Rail Pressure (FRP)
the processor and the inputs and outputs may be digital or sensor. The FRP sends the actual fuel pressure to the PCM.
analog signals. It is important to note that when the CR The FRP is threaded into the fuel rail. The FRP is a 3-wire
system is working properly, the engine will run much qui- variable capacitance sensor. The PCM supplies a 5-volt ref-
eter than a typical diesel engine. erence signal and the FRP sensor sends a portion of that to
In a typical non-CR engine, fuel is injected once per the PCM to indicate fuel pressure. The FRP sensor moni-
power stroke. When it is injected, it takes a while for it to mix tors fuel rail pressure continuously to provide a feedback
well enough to ignite. Once this happens, the fuel quickly to the PCM.
Gateway
to other buses
EBCM TCM BCM PCM

120Ω 120Ω
J 1962 Pin 6
connector Pin 14
Figure 28–28 A typical serial data bus.
5.0
Stop bits
4.0
3.0
2.0

1.0
V-DC
0 µs 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Figure 28–29 A scope pattern of a properly functioning CAN-C bus
showing a 2.0V differential throughout. The two 3.0V differentials between
the CAN high and low voltages indicate the end of a message.
There is also a Fuel Rail Temperature (FRT) sensor systems because they can respond very quickly to the
mounted in the fuel line between the secondary fuel filter commands from the PCM.
and the high-pressure fuel pump. The PCM monitors the Most late-model diesel engines have electronic con-
fuel’s temperature before the fuel enters the high-pressure trols that allow for easier starting in cold weather and
pump. Since fuel temperature affects fuel viscosity, the smooth operation when things are cold. However, some
PCM uses this input to control fuel pressure regardless of diesel engines have a glow plug (Figure 28–30) to warm
the actual fuel temperature. the intake air to help cold weather starting and running.
Some light-duty diesel engines have an electronic throt- When a diesel engine is very cold, its compression stroke
tle assembly that controls the amount of fuel injected into may not raise the intake air to a high enough temperature
the engine. Because a diesel engine does not have a throttle to ignite the fuel. A glow plug is used to heat the air. A glow
plate, the only way to control engine speed is by controlling plug is a 12-volt heating element used to help to start a cold
the amount of fuel injected into the engine. Rather than diesel engine by providing heat to help the fuel ignite.
using a mechanical link from the accelerator pedal to the Most glow plugs are controlled by the PCM, which
injection pump, the throttle-by-wire system uses an accel- monitors engine and intake air temperatures. Glow plugs
erator pedal position (APP) sensor. The sensor is actually are cycled on and off depending on the temperature of the
three separate sensors in a single assembly that changes
input voltage according to the position of the accelerator
pedal. The PCM looks at the voltage signals from each of
the three sensors and compares them to what they should
be if there are no faults. If an error is detected, engine and
vehicle speed are often reduced to allow the system to oper-
ate in spite of the discrepancies from the sensors.
Outputs The primary outputs to control fuel delivery in a

CR system are the rail pressure control valve, the injectors,
and glow plugs. Fuel pressure in the rail is controlled by

the PCM according to the input from the rail pressure con-
trol valve. This valve is a linear proportioning solenoid that
controls a spool valve to send pressurized fuel to the rail or
to the return circuit.
The injectors may be activated by a solenoid or piezo
electronics. Piezo injectors are used in late-model CR Figure 28–30 A glow plug.
engine. The PCM also keeps the glow plugs energized after needle valve (pintle). The needle opens the injector when
the engine starts to improve the engine’s idle after starting. it is raised, but does so by moving an auxiliary valve that
causes an imbalance in the pressure exerted at each end
Solenoid Injectors of the pintle. The high fuel pressure in the chamber
In a CR system, pressurized diesel fuel is applied to the forces the valve upward, compressing the valve’s return
injectors, which are controlled by a PCM via a solenoid. spring and forcing the valve open. When the valve opens,
Since the injectors are controlled by the computer, com- fuel sprays into the combustion chamber as a hollow
bustion can be controlled to provide maximum engine cone spray.
efficiency with the lowest possible noise and low exhaust The solenoid is pulsed by the PCM, therefore some fuel
emissions. moves to the top of the valve and helps to close the valve
The solenoid is attached to the injector nozzle and when the solenoid is turned off. The instant the solenoid is
opens to allow fuel to flow through a fuel passage in energized, the valve opens and fuel again flows through
the injector body and into the combustion chamber the nozzle. The fuel that moves to the top of the valve can
(Figure 28–31). The solenoid does not directly move the return to the fuel tank. The continuous supply of pressur-
ized fuel at the injector ensures there is fuel available each
time the valve opens.
1 2
Piezoelectric Injectors
Piezoelectric injectors operate in much the same way as
solenoid injectors, except they do not rely on an electrical
3
4 winding or coil. The injectors have no moving parts. Rather
4
a piezo injector relies on many, very thin layers of piezo-
electric crystal material stacked on each other at the orifice
of the injector’s nozzle (Figure 28–32). When electricity is
applied to the stack, it expands slightly (approximately
5 0.004 inches). The expansion, however, is enough to allow
6
7
8
The fuel inlet is

10 connected to the
12 engine’s fuel rail.
11 This passage directs

fuel to the injector pintle.
A B The long stack of
piezoelectric slices
Injector (schematic)
Image Courtesy of Robert Bosch GmbH
activates the injector.

A. Injector closed 5. Valve ball When the
(at-rest status) 6. Bleed orifice electricity
B. Injector opened 7. Feed orifice The pintle is the valve that applied
(injection) 8. Valve control chamber to the piezo

opens and closes to control
1. Fuel return upper pressure field stack cuts
2. Electrical connection 9. Valve control plunger fuel delivery.
off, a spring
3. Triggering element 10. Feed passage
The nozzle-determines the closes the
(solenoid valve) to the nozzle
4. Fuel inlet (high 11. Nozzle needle direction and quality of pintle.
pressure) from the rail 12. Lower pressure field the fuel spray.
Figure 28–31 A solenoid injector. Figure 28–32 A piezoelectric injector.

De-energized Energized
Piezo
actuator

Figure 28–33 The action of a piezoelectric injector.
fuel to spray out of the nozzle (Figure 28–33). When no The advantages of piezo over solenoid injectors are:
electricity is applied to the stack, fuel cannot leave the noz- ■ They offer improved fuel economy.
zle because the piezo layers are tightly jammed against each
other and the pintle closes by the force of a return spring. ■ Since there are moving parts, they have a longer life.
Current applied to the injector, as well as the operation of ■ They reduce combustion noise.
the injectors, is controlled by the PCM. ■ They allow for more precise and rapid control of
A crystal is a clear, transparent mineral, such as quartz. injection intervals.
Other piezoelectric crystals include table sugar and tour- ■ They offer improved combustion.
maline. Quartz is one of the most common piezoelectric
■ They reduce exhaust emissions.
minerals; it is used in many devices such as radios and
watches. ■ They can allow seven or more smaller and staggered
Piezo material is a type of crystal that rapidly expands sprays of fuel during a single power stroke.
when it is exposed to electrical current. They also retract
just as quickly when current to them is stopped. However, Fuel Delivery
the amount the crystals expand and retract is very small. The fuel tank for a diesel engine has a larger filler neck
The slight change in shape forms small gaps between the than those found on gasoline vehicles. This is one reason
layers of the piezo material. This allows for a precisely con- some consumers make the mistake of putting gasoline in
trolled flow of fuel out of the injector. their diesel tank. Also since diesel fuel is not as volatile as
Each injector has at least 400 separate layers of piezo gasoline; the fuel tank is not fitted with evaporative emis-
material and the total expansion of that stack is only sion control devices.
0.004 inches (0.102 mm). The fuel in the tank is drawn out by an in-tank trans-
Piezoelectric materials can also emit a small amount of fer pump (Figure 28–34). This pump is normally an
voltage when they are struck, squeezed, or exposed to electrically driven, low pressure, high volume pump. The
vibration. Piezoelectric materials are often used in pres- pump may run continuously or cycled by the PCM. The
sure sensors. purpose of the pump is to supply fuel to the injection
Pressure
control
valve
Injectors
Fuel
F
pressure
High- sensor
pressure
pump
Fuel
temperature
Fuel delivery sensor
pressure sensor
Fuel
filter
Engine compartment
Vehicle components
Fuel
cooler
High pressure
Electric
Low pressure pump
Fuel tank
(transfer
pump)
Thermal
recirculation
High-pressure fuel system operating mode: valve
1. High-pressure fuel system runs in PCV mode at start-up until a

calibrated time and temperature have been met.
2. Thermal recirculation valve is fully open up to between 24–27˚C
(75–80˚F) and fully closed at 38˚C (100˚F) when all fuel goes back
to the tank.
Figure 28–34 A fuel supply system for a V8 diesel engine with
common rails.
pump. The injection pump is used to increase the pressure fuel filter. Because water is heavier than fuel, it sinks to
of the fuel so it can be injected. the bottom of the separator. Draining the water out of
Somewhere between the transfer pump and the injec- the separator is part of a normal preventative mainte-
tors is a water/fuel separator, which may be part of the nance service for diesel engines. Typically there is a float
inside the separator. The float completes the circuit for a
water-warning lamp when the level of water in the sepa-
rator reaches a point where it should be drained. It is
important to drain the water; it can cause premature
High-pressure
wear because it is not a good lubricant. It can also dam-
fuel pump gear
age the injector nozzles because water is not easily
atomized.
High-pressure fuel lines connect the high-pressure fuel
pump to the fuel rails and injectors. Often the high-
pressure pump is driven by a gear on the front of the
camshaft.
Timing the Pumps The high-pressure pumps used in

common rail systems may need to be timed to the engine. Camshaft
Timing the pumps not only creates a starting point for any gear
timing changes made by the engine controls, but it also
keeps the engine balanced. Always check the specifications
for the proper procedure for adjusting the timing of an

injector pump.
The gear for the pumps is driven by a gear on the Crankshaft gear
camshaft (Figure 28–35). The camshaft gear is driven
by a gear on the end of the crankshaft (Figure 28–36).
All three gears must be properly timed to each other.
Turbochargers Figure 28–36 The crankshaft, camshaft,

and fuel pump gears must be perfectly aligned.
Nearly all current diesel engines are equipped with a
turbocharger (Figure 28–37). With a turbocharger,
smaller engines can deliver as much power as larger
ones while providing improved fuel mileage. Most new
diesels have a variable geometry turbocharger, which
has an adjustable nozzle that varies the velocity of the
exhaust gases as they push on the blades of the turbine
wheel.
Figure 28–37 A late-model automotive

diesel engine with a turbocharger.
DIESEL EMISSION CONTROLS

Emissions have always been an obstacle with diesel
cars. However, with new technologies (such as CR sys-
tems) and cleaner fuels, their emissions levels can be
Figure 28–35 The high-pressure pump is comparable to the best of gasoline engines. In fact,
driven by the camshaft via gears. today’s diesel engines must meet the same emissions
“Clean” exhaust gas
Muffler
Ambient air
Precleaner SCR DEF
Diesel
Air filter particulate
filter
PCM
Air
Catalytic
management
module converters
Turbocharger
Impeller Turbine
Exhaust manifold
Intake manifold
after cooler
Charge air
EGR mixer
EGR cooler
Figure 28–38 The flow of the intake and gases for a typical diesel
engine.
standards as a gasoline engine. Even without these Diesel Oxidation Catalysts

technologies, diesel engines emit small amounts of car- Diesel oxidation catalysts (DOC) have been used on all
bon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and carbon dioxide. light-duty diesel vehicles since 2007. They are a flow-
However, diesel engines naturally emit high amounts of through honeycomb-style substrate assembly placed in the
(PM) particulate matter (soot) and NOx emissions. exhaust stream (Figure 28–39). Similar to the catalytic
To decrease these emissions, many new diesel vehicles converters used on gasoline engines, the substrate is wash
have an assortment of catalysts and an EGR system coated with a layer of catalyst materials, such as platinum,
to clean the exhaust before it leaves the tailpipe; others palladium, and other base metal catalysts.
use Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) systems The main purpose of a DOC is to convert fuel-rich
(Figure 28–38). gases in the exhaust to heat, which reduces the amount of
Several factors can trigger the PCM to perform regen-
eration: distance since last regeneration, fuel used since
last regeneration, engine run time since last regeneration,
and exhaust differential pressure across the DPF. Differen-
tial pressure sensors (DPS) are placed at the entrance and
Courtesy of BMW of North America, LLC
exit points of the filter. By monitoring the exhaust pressure

at two points, the PCM can determine the differential in
exhaust pressure and determine how freely the exhaust is
flowing through the filter.
To determine when and how much fuel should enter
the exhaust, the PCM relies on the inputs from two exhaust
gas temperature sensors. One of the sensors is placed at the
entry point of the filter and the other is placed at the exit.
It is important that the PCM has complete control over the
fuel entering the exhaust because that determines the tem-
Figure 28–39 A catalytic converter and perature of the filter. If the temperature does not increase
particulate trap for a diesel engine. enough, the soot will not be completely burned away.
However, if the temperature reaches too high of a level, the
substrate in the filter can be damaged.
In addition to the delivery of fuel, the PCM also con-
CO, HC, and other compounds that cause obnoxious trols the intake air valve. This can serve as a restriction to
exhaust odors. air flow which will increase the temperature of the engine.
In some cases, the intake air heater may be activated to
Diesel Exhaust Particulate Filter increase the engine’s temperature.
Particulate matter refers to the tiny particles of solid or
semisolid material present in the exhaust of a diesel Ash Loading Regeneration of the catalyst will not burn off
engine. Soot is a natural byproduct of the combustion of ash. Only soot is burned off during regeneration. Ash is a
diesel fuel. non-combustible by-product from normal oil consump-
Diesel particulate filters have been used in all light- tion. Ash accumulation in the PDF can cause a restriction
duty diesel vehicles since 2007. A DPF works with the oxi- in the DPF. To service a DPF, it is removed and cleaned or
dation catalyst and an EGR valve to remove a majority of replaced. Low ash engine oil (API CJ4) is required for all
theNOx, soot, and unburned hydrocarbons in the exhaust diesel vehicles with a DPF system. CJ-4 oil is limited to
of a diesel engine. The DPF reduces the soot in the exhaust 1 percent ash.
stream by about 90 percent.
The exhaust gas flowing from the DOC moves into the
DPF. The DPF then captures the particulates before they Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)
are released into the atmosphere. The exhaust passes Systems
through a silicon carbide filter that has honeycomb-cell- An EGR system injects a sample of an engine’s exhaust
channels to trap the soot. Because every other channel into the cylinders. By doing this, combustion tempera-
through the filter is blocked at one end, exhaust is forced tures are reduced and this reduces the amount of NOx
through the porous walls of the blocked channels. The produced during combustion. The system includes lines
porous channels trap the soot as the exhaust passes over that carry some exhaust gas from the exhaust to the intake
them. The cleaned exhaust then flows out through the ports, an EGR control valve, and a cooling element used
open channels. to cool the exhaust gases. The action of the EGR valve is
The trapped soot particles can eventually clog the controlled by the PCM and may use a DC stepper motor
filter, which will increase exhaust backpressure and to move the valve stem open. The valve stem returns to
eventually cause an increase in fuel consumption, the closed position by a return spring after the stepper
decrease power output, and possibly cause engine dam- motor relaxes.
age. Therefore, the filter needs to be periodically purged EGR systems have a cooler in which engine coolant
of the particulates; this purging is referred to as regener- passes through it (Figure 28–40). By cooling the exhaust
ating the filter. To do this, the PCM allows a measured gas before it enters the engine through the EGR valve, the
amount of raw fuel to enter the filter. This causes the gas becomes denser and keeps combustion chamber tem-
temperature of the filter to greatly increase. The heat peratures low. The amount of EGR gases that flow through
then burns the trapped soot and the filter is regenerated the cooler is determined by the PCM which receives input
or renewed. from an EGR temperature sensor.
Powertrain secondary cooling system
Thermostat
Degas
bottle
EGR
cooler
Radiator
CAC
Water pump
Thermostat

Transmission
oil cooler
Fuel
cooler
Figure 28–40 The various heat exchangers, including an EGR
cooler, used on Ford Power Stroke engines.
Selective Catalytic Reduction Systems reductant removes oxygen from a substance and combines
The selective catalytic reduction (SCR) unit fits in the with the oxygen to form another compound. In the case of
exhaust between the DOC and DFE (Figure 28–41). It an SCR system, oxygen is separated from the NOx and is
reduces NOx emissions when a reductant is injected over combined with hydrogen to form water. It is claimed that
the SCR catalyst. The use of a SCR breaks down NOx into the use of an SCR system reduces NOx emissions by
water vapor and nitrogen (N2), thereby reducing the approximately 80 percent.
amount of EGR needed to greatly decrease NOx. In some The common reductants used in SCR systems are
cases, an SCR equipped engine does not need an EGR ammonia and urea water solutions. Urea is commonly
valve to meet emission standards. used as a nitrogen-rich fertilizer. In North America, urea
A reductant, also called a reducing agent, is a material (Figure 28–42) is referred to as diesel exhaust fluid
that donates an electron to another material during the (DEF) and is called AdBlue in Europe. It should be noted
redox process. As explained in an earlier chapter, when a that the catalytic converters are only effective when the
reductant gives up an electron it becomes oxidized. Oxida- reductant is injected into them when they are within a
tion and reduction always occur simultaneously: One sub- particular temperature range. The vehicle’s PCM is pro-
stance is oxidized by the other, which is reduced. During grammed to keep the temperature of the exhaust within
oxidation, a molecule provides electrons. Basically, a that range.
Pickup/wide frame exhaust
DOC SCR DPF

Figure 28–41 The main parts of an exhaust after treatment system
on a diesel engine.
In the system there is a mixer that mixes the reductant
with the exhaust. The mixer has an atomizer and a twist
mixer. The reductant is evenly distributed in the exhaust
stream by the twist mixer. The atomizer breaks down the
reductant into fine droplets so it can easily mix with the
exhaust.
The reductant is stored in a separate designated tank.
The size of the tank varies with the manufacturer but rep-
resents the amount of urea used during a typical mainte-
nance or required oil change cycle. Light-duty trucks
typically have about a five gallon DEF tank. SCR systems
are equipped with a warning lamp that signals to the driver
that the reductant tank needs to be refilled. If the warning
lamp is ignored and the tank is not refilled, engine opera-
tion will be affected and the engine may not start until the
tank is refilled.
SHOP TALK
Normally the reductant is refilled through the filler

neck located next to the diesel fuel filler neck. The
cap for the reductant is much smaller than the one
for diesel fuel. The cap must be loosened and
tightened with a wrench. The reductant’s
container is screwed into the filler neck and once
it is tightened, the reductant will begin to flow into
Figure 28–42 A container of urea (DEF).
the reservoir.
The PCM also controls when and how much DEF is

injected into the exhaust stream just ahead of the SCR con-
verter (Figure 28–43). The amount of reductant sprayed Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV)
into the exhaust is proportional to the amount of NOx in Systems
the exhaust. To determine this, the system uses inputs To meet the current emissions standards, diesel engines
from a NOx sensor. Normally, the reductant is injected at a since 2007 are fitted with PCV systems. These systems
rate of 2 to 4 ounces (57 to 113 grams) to a gallon of ultra have been standard on gasoline engines for sixty years. The
low sulfur diesel fuel (ULSD). PCV systems in a diesel may be referred to as closed
Heated
line
DEF closing Twist Ceramic
module mixer catalyst
DEF
diffuser
DEF
tank
Figure 28–43 A SCR system and related parts.

crankcase ventilation (CCV) systems. The purpose of

these systems is the same as for a gasoline engine, that
being preventing crankcase gases from entering the atmo-
sphere. Crankcase gases are composed of blowby gases
from the engine’s cylinders and boil-off gases from the
engine’s oil. The latter results from the heating of the
engine oil as it evaporates. Engine blowby gases are those
gases that escape past the piston rings and valves and end
up in the engine’s crankcase. Both of these gases need to be

removed or limited, as they can affect the operation and
endurance of an engine.
TDI Engines
Perhaps the most common “clean” diesels are the TDI
engines made by Audi and Volkswagen. There are cer-
tainly other manufacturers, but Audi and VW seem to be Figure 28–45 The common rail system on a
the current dominant ones in North America. Both manu- VW TDI engine.
facturers (although they really are from the same corpora-
tion) use the same technologies. Because their efforts
encompass many vehicle models, it should not be surpris-
ing that the technology is also used in Bentley and Porsche
vehicles. BMW uses similar technology in their vehicles
for North America and Europe.
Volkswagen has sold more diesel cars in the U.S. than
any other manufacturer. TDI (Turbocharged Direct Injec-
tion) is a design of diesel engines, which features turbo-
charging and direct fuel injection (Figure 28–44).
Currently, there are several models in the VW TDI family:

Passat, Golf, Jetta, Beetle, and Touareg. All of these are fit-
ted with the same four-cylinder 2.0L engine that produces
140 hp at 4,000 rpm and 236 lb-ft. of torque at only
1,750 rpm. The two models that do not use this engine are
the Beetle Convertible and the Touareg which use a 3.0L
V-6 rated at 225 hp and 406 lb-ft. of torque.
The engines are fitted with piezoelectric injectors on a Figure 28–46 An electric motor controls the
common rail (Figure 28–45). They also have a variable geometry of the vanes inside the turbocharger.
geometry turbocharger. This turbocharger has an electric

motor (Figure 28–46) that controls the vanes inside the
unit to change the speed and angle of the exhaust gases
moving against the turbocharger’s turbine. This not only
reduces the amount of lag when the throttle is opened, but
it also maximizes engine output.
These are called clean diesels because they do not emit
the soot or high NOx that characterizes many diesels. Some
VW diesels rely on the urea technology to treat the exhaust.
Others have a particulate filter in the exhaust system.
Most TDI engines also have an intercooler to lower the

temperature (and therefore increase the density) of the
“charged” or compressed air from the turbo, thereby
increasing the amount of fuel that can be injected and
combusted. The use of the intercooler, turbocharger, and
common rail direct fuel injection system allow for greater
Figure 28–44 © A VW TDI engine. engine efficiency, and therefore greater power outputs
while also decreasing emissions and providing more
torque than the non-turbo and non-direct injection
gasoline engines of the same size. The fuels recommended
for TDI engines include pure diesel fuel, or B5, B20, or B90
biodiesel.
The engines have relatively low displacement and
therefore can be quite compact. This means they have a

low surface area. Because of this they experience reduced
heat loss during the combustion process. This is one of the
reasons they are so efficient, however they also do not pro-
vide as much heat as a gasoline engine to warm the pas-
senger compartment, so there is a penalty there.
Audi TDI R10/15 Vehicles Audi is one of the manufactur-

Figure 28–47 An Audi race car equipped
ers under the VW umbrella, so they offer many competing
with a TDI engine.
products with VW, as does Bentley and Porsche. However,
Audi has done more to market their TDI engines. Some of
their showcase efforts have been the R10 and R15 race cars DIAGNOSTICS
(Figure 28–47). These cars are diesel powered and have In most cases, diesel engines can be diagnosed with a scan
won many notable races, including the 24 hours at LeMans tool, as well as with the same logic used to diagnose a gaso-
and other endurance races. The race cars are fitted with line engine. This is because the two engines have many of
V-12 diesel engines, and some of the later competition the same inputs and outputs; therefore the data a scan tool
models have hybrid drivetrains. The technology has shown retrieves is similar for both types of engines. The scan tool
that diesel engines can compete well with the world’s most will also display the DTCs recorded by the system (Figure
powerful cars and engines. 28–48). Diagnostics for diesel control systems vary with
Fault Code Condition Description Probable Causes
P0122 Accelerator pedal sensor circuit low input Grounded circuit, biased sensor, PCM
P0123 Accelerator pedal sensor circuit high input Open circuit, biased sensor, PCM, short to 5v
P0220 Throttle switch B circuit malfunction Short/open circuit, switch failure, operator, PCM
P0221 Throttle switch B circuit performance Failed pedal assembly
P0230 Fuel pump relay driver failure Open FP relay, blown fuse, open/grounded circuit
P0231 Fuel pump circuit failure Fuse, relay, inertia switch, fuel pump, open/
short circuit
P0232 Fuel pump circuit failure Relay failure, short circuit, pump failure
P0236 Turbo boost sensor A circuit performance Restricted inlet/exhaust/supply hose, missing hose
P0237 Turbo boost sensor A circuit low input Circuit open, short to ground, MAP sensor
P0238 Turbo boost sensor A circuit low high Circuit short to power, MAP sensor
P026_ Injector circuit low Cylinder X Harness short to ground
P026_ Injector circuit high Cylinder X High resistant connector or harness
P026_ Cylinder X contribution/balance fault Power cylinder, valve train or injector problem,
circuit
P030_ Fault cylinder X Misfire detected Mechanical engine failure
P0380 Glow plug circuit malfunction Open/grounded circuit., solenoid open/shorted,
failed PCM
P0381 Glow plug indicator circuit malfunction Open/grounded circuit, lamp open, failed PCM
Figure 28–48 Examples of diesel engine related DTCs. (continued)

Fault Code Condition Description Probable Causes
P0471 Exhaust back pressure sensor circuit Plugged, stuck or leaking hose
performance
P0476 Exhaust pressure control valve performance Failed/stuck EPR control, EBP fault, EPR circuit
P0606 PCM processor fault Internal PCM failure
P0670 Glow plug control circuit malfunction Open/grounded circuit, failed GPCM, failed PCM
P0683 Glow plug diagnostic signal communication Circuit/connector failure, failed GPCM, PCM
fault
P1000 OBDII monitor status OBDII monitors/drive cycle incomplete
P1139 Water in fuel lamp circuit malfunction WIF lamp, circuit failure, fuse, PCM
P1140 Water in fuel condition Water in fuel, grounded circuit, shorted sensor, PCM
P1247 Turbo boost pressure low MAP hose, sensor, EBP sys, intake leaks, turbo
P1248 Turbo boost pressure not detected MAP hose, sensor, EBP sys, intake leaks, turbo
P1249 Waste gate steady state failure GND short, plugged hose/port, solenoid, actuator
P1261–P1268 High to low side short cylinder # 1– 8 Short circuit, shorted injector, failed IDM
P1271–P1278 High to low side open cylinder # 1– 8 Open circuit, open injector, failed IDM
P1391 Glow plug circuit low input, bank #1 (right) Open/short/High resistant circuit, faulty relay,
glow plugs
P1393 Glow plug circuit low input, bank #2 (left) Open/short/ High resistant circuit, faulty relay,
glow plugs
P1395 Glow plug monitor fault, bank # 1 One or more glow plugs failed or circuit fault
P1396 Glow plug monitor fault, bank # 2 One or more glow plugs failed or circuit fault
P1397 System voltage out of self test range Voltage too high or low for glow plug monitor test
Figure 28–48 (continued)
the manufacturer. However, certain checks are universal Gaseous Emissions From the outside, a gaseous emission
regardless of the manufacturer. These include checks of: cannot be seen. However, it may contain many different
■ The action of the solenoid and injectors undesirable elements, such as NOx, CO, and HC.
■ The injection actuation pressure
Liquid Emissions Again, according to the eye, liquid emis-
■ Active faults in the system sions may only appear as a white to gray smoke. White
■ Previous faults held in memory smoke normally occurs during cold engine starts and the
Common faults include hard starting, no-start, result of condensed fuel droplets. White smoke is also indic-
extended cranking before starting, and low power. Using a ative of a cylinder misfire in a warm engine. The most com-
scan tool, check the sensor values to help pin down the mon causes of white exhaust smoke are: inoperative glow
source of the problem. To do so, a diagnostic tool must be plugs, low engine compression, incorrect injector spray pat-
connected to the computer system and/or a computer- terns, and coolant leaks into the combustion chamber.
based, diagnostic machine must be connected to the main Gray or blue smoke is normally due to oil burning
data bus that controls the systems. caused by worn piston rings, scored cylinder walls, or bad
valve stem seals. Gray or blue smoke can also be caused by
Diesel Exhaust Smoke Diagnosis defective injectors or injector O-rings.
Although some exhaust smoke is considered normal oper-
ation for most diesel engines, especially older ones, the Solid Emissions Normally solid emissions appear as black
cause of high emissions, visible emissions, and excessive soot, which is caused by incomplete combustion due to a
smoke should be diagnosed and repaired. Basically, the lack of air or a fault in the injection system. When there is
exhaust emissions from a diesel engine can be described as an excessive amount of soot, check the specific gravity
a gas, liquid, or solid. Keep in mind that not all exhaust of the fuel, the balance of the injectors, operation of the
emissions can be seen by your eye. ECT and/or FRP sensor, restrictions in the intake or
turbocharger. Begin your checks by looking for restric- ■ With the electrical connectors removed from the glow
tions in the air intake. To do so, connect a vacuum/pres- plugs, start the engine.
sure gauge to the intake air track. ■ Allow the engine to run for several minutes to allow
the engine to warm the glow plugs.
Compression Testing
■ Turn the engine off and measure the resistance of the
To test the compression on a diesel engine, remove the glow
glow plugs.
plugs or injector for the cylinder being tested. Then use a
diesel compression gauge and crank the engine. A diesel ■ The resistance of the glow plugs should be higher than
engine should produce at least 300 psi (2,068 kPa) at cylin- the resistance measured at the beginning of the test. A
ders and should be within 50 psi (345 kPa) of each other. glow plug with a different resistance is not firing cor-
rectly and that cylinder should be checked for a loss of
Cylinder Balance Test compression.
One way to conduct a cylinder balance test on early (non- Another way to check cylinder balance includes the
computer-controlled) diesel engines is to measure the use of an infrared thermometer or pyrometer to measure
resistance of the glow plugs after the engine has run for a exhaust temperature at each exhaust port. Misfiring cylin-
while. Remember that the heating element of the glow ders will run colder than the others.
plugs increases in resistance as their temperature increases.
Therefore, all glow plugs should have about the same Injector Opening Testing
amount of resistance when checked with an ohmmeter An injector opening (pop) tester is used to check the spray
before the engine has been started and after the engine has pattern of an injector nozzle. The handle of the tester is
been started and ran. By looking at the resistance of the depressed and the pop-off pressure is displayed on the
glow plugs, you may be able to identify a weak cylinder. gauge. The spray pattern should be a hollow cone, but may
To test for even cylinder balance using glow plug resis- vary on design. The nozzle should also be tested for leak-
tance, do the following on a warm engine: age (dripping of the nozzle) while under pressure. If the
■ Unplug, remove, measure, and record the resistance of spray pattern is not correct, cleaning, repairing, or replac-
the glow plug in each cylinder. ing the injector nozzle will correct the problem.

REPAIR ORDER
Year: 2005 Make: Ford Model: F250 Mileage: 98,588 RO: 18825
Super Duty Diesel
Concern: Customer just bought truck at auction, no history. States on cold mornings, engine
is hard to start, runs rough, and emits white smoke. Runs normal once warmed up.
The technician confirms the cold start concerns the next morning. He initially suspects a problem with the fuel
injectors but testing the system does not provide any answers. After several mornings and further tests do not
provide an answer, he checks online for possible causes. He discovers a TSB regarding cold starting problems.
Cause: Found TSB about cold starting concerns. Determined truck came from warmer part
of the country and had not had cold start issues prior.
Correction: Performed PCM reflash to improve injector performance on cold starts. Engine now
starts and runs normally at cold temperatures.
Hydrogen Reformulated gasoline

KEY TERMS Isooctane (RFG)
Liquefied petroleum gas Reid vapor pressure
Antiknock Index Energy density
(LP gas) (RVP)
(AKI) Ethanol
Methanol Renewable fuels
Biodiesel fuels Flexible fuel vehicles
Octane Selective catalytic
Cetane rating (CN) (FFV)
Oxygenates reduction (SCR)
Common rail (CR) Fractional distillation
Petroleum Sulfur dioxide
Compressed natural gas Glow plug
Piezoelectric injector TDI
(CNG) Heptane
Reductant Vapor lock
■ Piezoelectric injectors use many very thin layers of

SUMMARY piezoelectric crystal material stacked on top of each
other at the orifice of the injector’s nozzle. When elec-
■ Crude oil is also called petroleum. It is drawn out of oil tricity is applied to the stack, it expands slightly and
reservoirs and sands below the earth’s surface. fuel is sprayed into the cylinder.
■ The easiest and most common way to separate the vari- ■ Diesel oxidation catalysts (DOC) are flow-through
ous hydrocarbons (called fractions) in crude oil is honeycomb-style substrate assemblies placed in the
through a process called fractional distillation. exhaust stream to reduce the amount of CO, HC, and
■ Gasoline is a complex mixture of approximately 300 other compounds in the exhaust.
various ingredients, mainly hydrocarbons. ■ Diesel particulate filters (DPFs) work with the oxida-
■ Gasoline’s octane number or rating gives the antiknock tion catalyst and an EGR valve to remove a majority of
quality of a gasoline. the NOx, soot, and unburned hydrocarbons in the
■ Octane ratings are measured by the motor octane exhaust of a diesel engine. Selective catalytic reduction
number (MON) method and the research octane num- (SCR) reduces NOx emissions by injecting a reductant
ber (RON) method. The typical octane rating is the into the exhaust stream over the SCR catalyst.
Antiknock Index (AKI). It is stated as (R+M)/2. ■ A reductant, also called a reducing agent, is a material
■ The most common method for measuring the volatility that donates an electron to another material during the
of a fuel is the Reid vapor pressure (RVP) test. redox process.
■ Several additives are put into gasoline to control harm- ■ Diesel engines can be diagnosed with a scan tool and
ful deposits, including gum or oxidation inhibitors, with the same logic used to diagnose a gasoline engine.
detergents, metal deactivators, and rust inhibitors.
■ Oxygenates are compounds such as alcohols and ethers
that are added to fuel to improve combustion efficiency
and enhance octane ratings.
■ The most widely used gasoline oxygenate additive is
REVIEW QUESTIONS
ethanol. 1. Pump gasoline may contain a small amount of alco-
■ Renewable fuels are those derived from nonfossil hol. Name three problems that can occur if there is an
sources and produced from plant or animal products excessive amount of alcohol in gasoline.
or wastes (biomass). 2. True or False? The diesel fuel’s antiknock quality is
■ Flexible fuel vehicles (FFV) can run on ethanol or gas- measured by the cetane rating.
oline or a mixture of the two. The alcohol fuel and gas- 3. What percentage of ethanol does E85 contain?
oline are stored in the same tank.
4. List five advantages the use of piezoelectric injectors
■ Diesel fuel is heavier and has more carbon atoms; it has has over solenoid-based injectors.
about 15 percent more energy density than gasoline.
5. What does the Reid vapor pressure (RVP) test
■ Diesel fuel’s ignition quality is measured by a cetane measure?
rating.
6. List three alternative fuels for an internal combustion
■ Animal fats, recycled restaurant grease, and vegetable engine and briefly explain where they come from.
oils derived from crops such as soybeans, canola, corn,
and sunflowers are used in the production of biodiesel 7. Why is the sulfur content in gasoline limited?
fuel. 8. True or False? The higher the octane rating of gaso-
■ Ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuel has a maximum line, the more the engine will have a tendency to
sulfur content of 15 ppm. Engines running on this fuel knock.
emit less NOx soot, and other unwanted sulfur 9. What is particulate matter and when is it produced?
compounds. 10. What are oxygenates and why are they added to
■ Diesel engines provide more torque than a gasoline refined gasoline?
engine of the same size and consume less fuel per mile. 11. How does SCR lower the NOx content in a diesel’s
■ Hydraulic Electronic Unit Injection (HEUI) relies on exhaust?
engine oil pressure to control the operation of the indi- 12. True or False? Piezoelectric materials can emit a small
vidual fuel injectors. amount of voltage when they are struck, squeezed, or
■ A common rail (CR) fuel system has a fuel rail that car- exposed to vibration.
ries high-pressure fuel to electronically controlled 13. Name three driveability factors that are affected by
injectors. the volatility of gasoline.
14. Which of the following statements about hydrogen is 4. Technician A says white smoke in the exhaust of a
not true? diesel engine can be the result of a cylinder misfire in
a. Hydrogen displaces air, so any release in an a warm engine. Technician B says blue smoke in the
enclosed space could cause asphyxiation. exhaust of a diesel engine can be caused by scored
cylinder walls. Who is correct?
b. Hydrogen must be stored as a compressed gas.
a. Technician A
c. Hydrogen is nontoxic.
b. Technician B
d. Hydrogen is highly flammable and there is risk for
an explosion. c. Both A and B
15. Which of the following chemicals is commonly added d. Neither A nor B
to gasoline to increase its octane rating? 5. Technician A says piezo material is a type of crystal
a. Isooctane that rapidly shrinks when it is exposed to electrical
current. Technician B says piezo material shrinks
b. Heptane
very slowly when current to it is stopped. Who is
c. Sulfur correct?
d. Ethanol a. Technician A
b. Technician B
c. Both A and B
d. Neither A nor B
6. While diagnosing a diesel engine driveability prob-
ASE-STYLE lem: Technician A says that while the scan tool data is
REVIEW QUESTIONS similar to that available for a gasoline engine, all die-
sel engine troubleshooting procedures are unique.
1. Technician A says that the use of methanol in inter- Technician B says a cylinder power balance check can
nal combustion engines has declined over the years. be made by checking the resistance of the engine’s
Technician B says that the use of MTBE as a gasoline glow plugs. Who is correct?
additive has declined over the years. Who is a. Technician A
correct?
b. Technician B
a. Technician A
c. Both A and B
b. Technician B
d. Neither A nor B
c. Both A and B
7. While discussing chemicals that are currently added
d. Neither A nor B to refined gasoline in order to boost its octane: Tech-
2. Technician A says that reformulated gasoline pro- nician A says methylcyclopentienyl manganese tri-
duces a leaner air-fuel mixture. Technician B says that carbonyl (MMT) is normally added to gasoline.
RFG generates more carbon dioxide. Who is correct? Technician B says ethanol can be added to boost the
a. Technician A octane rating of gasoline. Who is correct?
b. Technician B a. Technician A
c. Both A and B b. Technician B
d. Neither A nor B c. Both A and B
3. Technician A says that dedicated vehicles are those d. Neither A nor B
designed to use one particular type of fuel. Techni- 8. While discussing common rail fuel injection systems:
cian B says that bi-fuel vehicles can operate solely on Technician A says the individual injectors are acti-
an alcohol-based fuel or unleaded gasoline, or a mix- vated by the high pressure present in the fuel rail.
ture of the two, which gives the driver flexibility and Technician B says some late-model CR systems have
convenience when refilling the fuel tank. Who is an intensifier in the injector that allows for an increase
correct? in fuel pressure. Who is correct?
a. Technician A a. Technician A
b. Technician B b. Technician B
c. Both A and B c. Both A and B
d. Neither A nor B d. Neither A nor B
9. Technician A says diesel engines consume less fuel per 10. While discussing the reasons why the use of E85
mile than a gasoline engine of the same size. Techni- gasoline is good for consumers: Technician A says it
cian B says diesel engines provide more torque than a is produced in the United States and can reduce our
gasoline engine of the same size. Who is correct? reliance on foreign oil. Technician B says an engine’s
a. Technician A fuel consumption is greatly reduced. Who is correct?
b. Technician B a. Technician A
c. Both A and B b. Technician B
d. Neither A nor B c. Both A and B
d. Neither A nor B
CHAPTER
35 HYBRID VEHICLES
OBJECTIVES
■ Explain the differences between the ■ Describe the operation of a ■ List the tools and equipment
different platforms for hybrid vehicles. flywheel alternator starter hybrid that are needed to safely diagnose,
■ List and explain the purpose of the system. service, and repair hybrid
basic components used in a ■ Explain how a belt alternator starter vehicles.
power-split hybrid system. system works. ■ Describe how the high-
■ Explain how manufacturers provide ■ Describe the basic operation of the voltage battery pack should
four-wheel drive in hybrid SUVs. hybrid system used in Honda’s IMA be serviced.
■ Describe the purpose of an inverter. system. ■ Describe what preventative
■ Describe the operation of the maintenance procedures are
■ Explain how the stop-start feature
two-mode hybrid system. unique to a hybrid vehicle.
operates.
■ List and describe the common ■ Explain the proper steps to
■ Explain how regenerative brakes
sense precautions that should be take when diagnosing a
work.
adhered to while working around problem in a typical hybrid
■ Describe the primary advantage of vehicle.
or on a hybrid vehicle.
plug-in hybrid vehicles.

REPAIR ORDER
Year: 2005 Make: Toyota Model: Prius Mileage: 101,054 RO: 16412
Concern: Customer recently had tires rotated and brakes checked. She was told there is a
problem with the brakes due to rust buildup on the brake rotors.
H ybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) are or will soon be avail-

able from all of the major automobile manufacturers.
Any vehicle that combines two or more sources of power is
can produce more than 150 horsepower, however only 20
to 40 horsepower are normally needed to maintain a
cruising speed. The rest of the power is used only for accel-
called a hybrid. Current HEVs have an internal combus- eration and overcoming loads, such as climbing a hill.
tion engine and one or more electric motors. Toyota intro- Hybrid vehicles use a smaller engine and the output from
duced the first mass-produced hybrid vehicle in 1997. That an electric motor to provide power for acceleration and
hybrid, the Prius, was only available in Japan until 2000, overcoming loads. Since the electric motor does not use
when it was brought to North America. Since then many gasoline, there is a savings in fuel costs.
different hybrid models have been available (Figure 35–1). The power from the electric motor supplements the
engine’s power. As a result, HEVs use much less fuel in city
driving than comparable gasoline vehicles because the
HYBRID VEHICLES engine does not need to supply all of the power required
The logic for using two power sources is simple. A vehicle for stop and go traffic. HEVs also use less gasoline when
with an internal combustion engine has more power avail- traveling on the highway because highway speeds can be
able than it needs for most driving situations. Most engines maintained with smaller and highly efficient engines. Also,
1004
CHAPTER 35 • Hybrid Vehicles 1005

Combustion
Fuel
engine
tank
Electrical
storage Electric motor
/generator
Figure 35–2 The basic layout for a parallel

hybrid.
Combustion

Fuel
tank engine
Figure 35–1 The main hybrid powertrain Electric motor
/generator Electrical
components for GM’s hybrid pickups and SUVs.
storage
Generator
hybrids can have more than 90 percent fewer emissions
than the cleanest conventional vehicles. Figure 35–3 The basic layout for a series
The overall efficiency of a hybrid can be, and in most hybrid.
cases is, enhanced by a number of other features. One of
these is the stop-start system. When a hybrid vehicle is
stopped in traffic, the engine is temporarily shut off. It restarts few series hybrids available to the public. These vehicles
automatically when the driver presses the accelerator pedal, are widely marketed as extended range electric vehicles.
releases the brake pedal, or shifts the vehicle into a gear. In
addition, to reduce the required energy to drive the genera-
tor, hybrids have regenerative braking. Rotated by the vehi- SHOP TALK
cle’s wheels, the motor acts as a generator to charge the
batteries when the vehicle is slowing down or braking. This Do not get confused between the motor and the
feature recaptures part of the vehicle’s kinetic energy that engine in a hybrid vehicle. A vehicle’s engine has
would otherwise be lost as heat in a conventional vehicle. been, and still is, often called a motor. It is not a
Most hybrids use transmissions specifically designed motor in spite of the fact that we put motor oil in it.
to keep the engine operating at its most efficient speed. The real name for motor oil should be engine oil.
Efficiency can also be increased by the use of low-rolling By definition, a motor is a machine that converts
resistance (LLR) tires, which are stiff and narrow to mini- electrical energy into mechanical energy. An engine
mize the amount of energy required to turn them. Hybrids converts chemical energy into mechanical energy.
may also be designed to minimize aerodynamic drag and
made lighter.
Types Most current hybrids are classified as series-parallel

Often hybrids are categorized as series or parallel designs. designs. With this design, the vehicle can be powered by the
Many hybrid vehicles are parallel types and rely on power electric motor, the engine, or both. The engine also drives
from an electric motor and the engine. When necessary, the motor/generator to charge the high-voltage battery
the motor and engine work together (in parallel) to drive pack. During deceleration, the motor works as a generator
the vehicle (Figure 35–2). to charge the batteries and to help slow down the vehicle.
In a series hybrid (Figure 35–3), the engine never Some hybrids are capable of shutting down the engine
directly powers the vehicle. An electric motor powers the when the vehicle is traveling at highway speeds with
vehicle. The gasoline or diesel engine drives a generator, light loads. The decision to power the vehicle by electricity,
and the generator either charges the batteries or directly gasoline, or both is made by an electronic control system.
powers the electric motor that drives the wheels. A com-
puter controls the operation of the engine depending on Other Hybrid Classifications
the power needs of the battery and/or motor. When the Hybrid configurations are further defined by the role of
computer senses that system voltage is low, the engine the electric motor. Keep in mind that whenever the gaso-
quickly starts and drives the generator. Currently, there are line engine does not run, there will be a savings in fuel and
TABLE 35–1 ESTIMATED FUEL ECONOMY POTENTIAL FOR VARIOUS

HYBRID CLASSIFICATIONS
90
80
Plug-in
50+ mile electric only range
Estimated mid-sized car fuel economy
hybrid
70
Electric drive Full hybrid

60
50 Engine assist
Mild hybrid
(mpg)
Idle off
40 Advanced
Advanced engine
conventional
technologies gasoline
30
20

Conventional Conventional
vehicle gasoline
10
lower emissions will result. Although there are many varia- When the batteries run low, the engine starts and powers
tions in designs, hybrids can be classified as mild or full. the vehicle and the generator to charge the batteries.
Also, keep in mind, non-hybrid vehicles may be equipped The biggest advantage of plug-in hybrids is they can be
with some of the features of a hybrid vehicle, such as stop- driven in an electric-only mode for a much greater distance.
start and regenerative braking. These are designed to min- During that time, the vehicle consumes no fuel. Under nor-
imize fuel consumption. mal conditions, a plug-in hybrid can be twice as fuel-
A mild (micro) hybrid has stop-start, regenerative efficient as a regular hybrid. A fully charged PHEV will
braking, and electric motor assist available when the produce half the exhaust emissions of a normal HEV. This is
engine needs added power to overcome the load. An elec- simply due to the fact there are no exhaust emissions when
tric motor helps or assists the engine to overcome increased the engine is not running. Table 35–1 compares the various
load, but the vehicle is never powered by only the electric hybrid configurations and the resultant fuel economy.
motor. A full hybrid can run on just the engine, just the The manufacturing costs of a PHEV are about 20 per-
batteries, or a combination of the two. A full hybrid has cent higher than a regular HEV. The increase in cost is
stop-start, regenerative braking, electric motor assist, and mainly due to the price of the larger batteries. Of course, as
can be driven by only electricity. battery technology advances and more “high-tech” batter-
There are two additional classifications: the perfor- ies are produced, the cost will decrease.
mance hybrid (some call this “muscle hybrid”) which is a
full hybrid designed for improved acceleration without
using more fuel, and a plug-in hybrid—a full hybrid which HYBRID TECHNOLOGY
uses an external electrical source to charge the batteries Hybrids are rolling examples of modern technology. The
thereby extending the electric-only driving range by fully control systems attempt to precisely control the engine and
charging the battery pack when the vehicle is not in use. electric motor. To do this, they need very complex elec-
tronics that are capable of controlling and synchronizing
Plug-In Hybrids the operation of the engine and the motors.
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are full hybrids
with larger batteries. The battery charger can be plugged Batteries
into a normal 110-volt outlet. Charged overnight, PHEVs The available voltage of a hybrid’s battery pack (Figure 35–4)
can drive up to 60 miles without the engine ever turning on. depends on the system and the manufacturer. The voltage

Figure 35–4 The battery pack in a Toyota Figure 35–5 The unit at the top is called a
Camry hybrid. Belt Alternator Starter (BAS) unit.
range is from 42 to 330 volts. Most battery packs are basi- wires are moved through the field. Using electronics to
cally several small batteries connected together to provide control the current to and from the battery, a motor that
the required voltage. Most hybrids also have an additional also works as a generator is used in hybrids; these are
12-volt battery to power conventional electrical items, such commonly referred to as motor/generators. A motor/
as lighting, wipers, sound systems, etc. generator may be based on two sets of windings and
brushes, a brushless design with a permanent magnet, or
Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Nickel-metal hydride bat- switched reluctance. It (Figure 35–5) may be mounted
teries are more environmentally friendly than some other externally to the engine and connected to the crankshaft
designs and are more capable of receiving a full recharge. with a drive belt. They may also be mounted directly on
The cells have electrodes made of a metal hydride and the crankshaft between the engine and the transmission
nickel hydroxide. The electrolyte is potassium hydroxide. or integrated into the flywheel. Many hybrids place the
motor/generators within the transmission or transaxle
Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) The electrodes in lithium-ion cells assembly.
are made of a carbon compound (graphite) and a metal
oxide. The electrodes are submersed in lithium salt. Over- Internal Combustion Engine
heating these cells may produce pure lithium in the cells. The engine used in most hybrids is a four-stroke cycle
This metal is very reactive and can explode when hot. To engine that burns gasoline. These engines are very similar
prevent overheating, Li-Ion cells have built-in protective to those used in conventional vehicles. The engine relies
electronics and/or fuses to prevent reverse polarity and on advanced technologies to reduce emissions and increase
overcharging. Li-Ion batteries have very good power-to- overall efficiency. Many of the engines are Atkinson
weight ratios and are making their way into hybrid vehicles. cycle engines.
In other countries where diesel fuel is commonly used,
Motor/Generators diesel hybrids are being tested. Diesel engines have the
The main difference between a generator and a motor is highest thermal efficiency of any internal combustion
that a motor has two magnetic fields that oppose each engine. Because of this efficiency, diesel hybrids can
other, whereas a generator has one magnetic field and achieve outstanding fuel economy.
continue to run using battery power. The engine is restarted

automatically the moment the driver releases the brake
pedal, or when the control system senses the need.
Normally, stop-start systems rely on new software for
the engine control system, a more powerful battery, a pow-
erful starter, various sensors, and an electric water pump.
Regenerative Brakes
Regenerative braking is the process that allows a vehicle to
recapture and store part of the kinetic energy that would

ordinarily be lost during braking. A vehicle has more
kinetic energy when it is moving fast; therefore, regenerative
braking is more efficient at higher speeds (Figure 35–7).
When the brakes are applied in a conventional vehicle,
friction at the wheel brakes converts the vehicle’s kinetic
Figure 35–6 A CVT uses a belt and adjustable
energy into heat. With regenerative braking, that energy is
pulleys to change gear ratios according to used to recharge the batteries.
conditions. In a regenerative braking system, the rotor of the gen-
erator is turned by the wheels as the vehicle is slowing
down. The activation of the generator applies resistance to
Transmissions the drivetrain causing the wheels to slow down. The kinetic
The transmission used in an HEV can be a normal trans- energy of the vehicle is changed to electrical energy until
mission or one especially designed for the vehicle. Often a the vehicle is stopped. At that point, there is no kinetic
continuously variable transmission (CVT) is used, whose energy. Regenerative braking can capture approximately
gear ratios change according to load (Figure 35–6). In 30 percent of the energy normally lost during braking in
either case, the gear ratios are designed to allow the engine conventional vehicles.
to run at its most efficient speed according to its current In most hybrids, the control system changes the cir-
operating condition. cuitry at the motor making it act as a generator. The motor
now converts motion into electricity rather than convert-
Stop-Start Feature ing electricity into motion. The captured energy is sent to
All hybrids have some sort of stop-start system, as do some the batteries.
non-hybrid vehicles. These automatically turn off the Regenerative braking is not used to completely stop the
engine when the driver applies the brakes and brings the vehicle. A combination of conventional hydraulic brakes
vehicle to a complete stop. This prevents wasting energy and regenerative braking is used. Hydraulic, friction-based
while the engine is idling and can increase fuel economy by brakes must be used when sudden and hard braking
more than 5 percent, although that varies with the vehicle. is needed.
Although the engine is off, the heating and air- The amount of energy captured by a regenerative brak-
conditioning systems and basic electrical systems may ing system depends on many things, such as the state of
MG2 driven by wheels Deceleration or braking

Inverter and acts as generator Speed
assembly
MG2
0
Time
Drive
axle
HV battery
0
MG1
Combustion MG1 Engine MG2
engine
Figure 35–7 The power flow for a hybrid with two motor/generators during
regenerative braking.
charge of the battery, the speed at which the generator’s electric motor. A sensor located by or connected to the
rotor is spinning, and how many wheels are part of the throttle pedal sends input regarding the pedal’s position to
regenerative braking system. Most current HEVs are front- the controller. The controller then sends the appropriate
wheel drive; therefore, energy can only be reclaimed at the amount of voltage to the motor. The controller also looks
front wheels. The rear brakes still produce heat that is wasted. at inputs from various other sensors to determine the cur-
rent operating conditions of the vehicle. To provide precise
Control System control of the motor, the controller duty cycles the voltage
The switching between the electric motor and gasoline to the motor, most controllers pulse the voltage more than
engine is controlled by computers, as are other features of 15,000 times per second.
vehicle. The control systems are extremely complex. They Most of the electronics for a hybrid system are con-
have very fast processing speeds and real-time operating sys- tained in a single, water- or air-cooled assembly. This unit
tems. The individual computers are linked together and may contain an inverter, DC-DC converter, boost con-
communicate with each other through CAN communica- verter, and air-conditioning inverter. During operation,
tions (Figure 35–8). The various computers include the elec- these components generate a great amount of heat. This
tric motor controller, engine controller, battery management heat must be controlled to protect the circuits, especially
system, brake system controller, transmission controller, and the transistors.
electrical grid controller, and some systems also have 12- or An inverter may be part of the controller assembly or
42-volt components. be a separate unit. The inverter (Figure 35–9) is a power
A controller is used to manage the flow of electricity converter that changes the high DC voltage of the battery
from the batteries and thereby controls the speed of the to a 3-phase AC voltage for the electric motors. DC voltage
Battery
ECM
ECU
HV control
ECU
Skid control Power-steering

ECU ECU
Gateway
ECU
Multi CAN
display
BEAN
AVC-LAN
Air-conditioning Transponder
Body ECU
amplifier key ECU
Power source Entry key

control ECU ECU

60 80
40 100
200 F
20 120
100
0 140 H
E
CHECK P
0 HYBRID SYSTEM R
N
ODO 241 MILES
READY
D C
L
Combination
meter
Figure 35–8 The individual computers in the control system are linked together and
communicate with each other by high-speed “communication buses” known as the
controller area network (CAN).
A converter changes the amount of voltage from a power

source. There are two types of converters, one that
increases voltage, called a step up converter and one that
decreases the voltage, called a step down converter. The
latter is common in electric drive vehicles to drop some
of the high DC voltage to the low voltage required to
power accessories such as sound systems, lights, blower
fans, and the controller and to charge the 12-volt auxil-
iary battery.
Also, the available voltage may be increased (boosted)
before it is sent to the motor. A boost converter can supply
up to 500 volts to the motor. This increased voltage
increases the power output of the motor.
Basic Systems
Many different layouts and systems are used in today’s
hybrid vehicles. Hybrids can be further defined by the
location and purpose of the electric motor(s) in the
system.
Belt Alternator Starter The least complex, but a com-

monly used system, is the Belt Alternator Starter (BAS)
system. The BAS replaces the traditional starter and gen-
erator in a conventional vehicle. The motor/generator is
located where the generator would normally be and is con-
nected to the engine’s crankshaft by a drive belt. When the
Figure 35–9 A cutaway view of an inverter. engine is running, the drive belt spins the motor’s rotor
and the motor acts as a generator to charge the batteries.
To start, or restart, the engine, the rotor spins and cranks
from the battery is fed to the primary winding of a trans- the engine. Some BAS units also offer a small amount of
former in the inverter (Figure 35–10). The direction of engine assist.
the current is controlled by an electronic switch (generally BAS systems are typically connected to a 42-volt power
a set of isolated gate bipolar transistors or IGBTs). Current source (Figure 35–11), though newer systems operate at
flows through the primary winding and then is quickly 115 volts. A belt tensioner is mechanically or electrically
stopped and its direction reversed. This change of direc- controlled to allow the motor/generator to drive or be
tion induces an AC voltage in the transformer’s secondary driven by the belt. Some systems have an electromagnetic
winding. The inverter may also rectify the AC generated clutch fitted to the crankshaft pulley. When the engine is
by the motor/generators so it can recharge the DC battery running, the clutch is engaged and the motor acts as a gen-
pack. erator. When the vehicle stops, the clutch disengages, and
Most housings for the electronics also contain a the unit is ready to act as the starting motor when the vehi-
converter, although it may be in a separate housing. cle is ready to move again.
Drive IGBTs
3 phase motor
Figure 35–10 An electrical diagram of the connections to
the motor through the IGBTs inside an inverter.
Engine
Drive belt
Electronic control

module
BAS
36/42V battery 12/14V battery
Figure 35–11 The layout for a typical BAS system.
Integrated Starter Alternator Damper (ISAD) The Ring gear

integrated starter alternator damper (ISAD) system
replaces the conventional starter, generator, and flywheel Transaxle Sun gear
with an electronically controlled compact electric motor. damper MG1
MG1
Also called integrated motor assist or IMA, the unit is typ-
ically housed in the transmission’s bell housing between
the engine and the transmission (Figure 35–12). The elec-
tricity generated by the unit is used to recharge the 12 volt
and high-voltage battery; both of these are used to power Engine
the various vehicle systems. Transmission

Counter oil pump
Power-Split System Currently, many full hybrid vehicles gears Carrier
Drive chain
use a power-split system (Figure 35–13). They are the
foundation for series-parallel hybrids and are capable of Final gears
instantaneously switching from one power source to
another or combining the two. The power-split device
functions as a continuously variable transaxle, although it Figure 35–13 The layout of the main
components connected to Toyota’s
power-splitting device.
does not use the belts and pulleys normally associated

with CVTs. Also, the transmission does not have a torque
converter or clutch. Rather, a damper is used to cushion
engine vibration and the power surges that result from the
sudden engagement of power to the transaxle. The unit is
basically comprised of a planetary gearset and two electric
motors. When used with high-output engines, the
power-split unit also has an additional reduction planetary

gearset.
Chapter 41 for a detailed discussion on

power-split units and other hybrid
Figure 35–12 The red unit is an ISAD transmissions.
assembly sandwiched between the engine and
transaxle.

Figure 35–14 An automatic transmission Figure 35–15 An electric A/C compressor
fitted with two electric motors. They are located for a hybrid vehicle.
inside the two large drums.
HVAC
Motors in Transmission This system relies on electric The engine can be used to supply the heat so heating and
motors built into the transmission housing and con- defrosting systems are similar to those used in conven-
nected to the transmission’s planetary gearsets. Most of tional vehicles. Some hybrids however have additional
these systems are based on simple planetary gearsets electrical heaters. These keep the passenger compartment
coupled to two electronically controlled AC motors warm when the engine is off.
(Figure 35–14). The gears work to increase the torque HEV air-conditioning systems are identical to those
output of the motors and the engine. The result is a used in a conventional vehicle, except a high-voltage motor
continuously variable transmission that responds to the may be used to rotate the compressor (Figure 35–15). This
needs of the vehicle. Some hybrids have a single motor increases the efficiency of the engine and allows for condi-
within the transmission, while others have a motor at tioned air when the engine is off. Compressors driven off the
the transmission’s input shaft and another on the out- HV system require special servicing and refrigerant oils.
put shaft.
Electric 4WD Some 4WD hybrids use an electric motor,

Chapter 55 for a detailed discussion on
differential, and rear transaxle housing to drive the rear
high-voltage A/C systems.
wheels. This unit is not mechanically tied to the front drive
axles; rather, its action is controlled by electronics. This
allows the system to be capable of responding to operating
conditions by varying the distribution of torque between
the front and rear axles. Power Brakes
Many power brake systems use engine vacuum and atmo-
ACCESSORIES spheric pressure to multiply the effort applied to the brake
In an HEV, the accessories are powered by either the bat- pedal during braking. Because there is an engine in an
tery or engine, depending on the model. Some systems, HEV, there is a natural vacuum source. However, there is
such as the radio, lights, and horn, operate the same way no vacuum when the engine is not running. Therefore
as they do in a conventional vehicle. Other systems, such some HEVs have an electrically powered vacuum pump
as the power steering and power brakes, may be operated fitted to the vacuum assist power brake system. Other
by small electric motors. It must be remembered that hybrids have an electro-hydraulic brake system. An elec-
when working on HEVs, these auxiliaries and accessories tric pump provides the necessary hydraulic pressure for a
may be powered by high voltage. Never attempt to work hydraulic brake booster.
on these components (or the main propulsion system
components) without thorough training that includes all Power Steering
safety procedures. Normally, most of the high-voltage Power-steering systems in HEVs are normally pure electri-
components are clearly identified and the high-voltage cal and mechanical systems (Figure 35–16). An electric
cables are orange. motor directly moves the steering linkage. These systems
Motor ECM

Steering Steering Steering
gear column wheel
Figure 35–16 The command circuit for an

electronically controlled power-steering system.
Figure 35–18 A Cadillac ELR.
are also very programmable and the energy consumed by
the motor depends on the amount the steering wheel is
turned. While driving straight, the motor may not run.
However, when the steering wheel is fully turned, the
motor is drawing its maximum current.
GM’S SERIES HYBRIDS

The Chevrolet Volt (Figure 35–17) and Cadillac ELR
(Figure 35–18) are hatchbacks called extended range
EVs. According to the SAE, they should be classified as
Courtesy US E.P.A.
series or plug-in hybrids. Most of the time, the Volt acts as
an EV or series hybrid. By combining the features of a bat-
tery operated electric vehicle and a series hybrid, you have
an extended range EV.
The Volt is powered by a Li-Ion battery and uses an
engine to run a generator, when necessary. The generator’s Figure 35–19 An EPA sticker for a
Chevrolet Volt.
output powers the motors when the battery’s charge is low.
The Volt can use the energy in the battery to power the
drive wheels during the first 25 to 50 miles of operation.
The Volt’s fuel efficiency (Figure 35–19) is rated by the
Once battery power is depleted, the engine turns on to
EPA as 93 mpg-e all electric /37 mpg gasoline only/60 mpg-e
provide the power to extend the driving range by up to
combined (electric + gasoline). The car is classified as an
300 miles. Rather than rely on a generator to recharge the
Ultra Low Emission Vehicle (ULEV) by the CARB. The
battery, the Volt uses the electrical grid to serve as the pri-
only true exhaust emissions released occur when it is oper-
mary source for recharging.
ating in the extended-range mode.
Powertrain
The powertrain has two AC permanent magnet electric
motors—a 111 kW (149 hp) main traction motor and a
55 kW (74 hp) motor/generator plus a 1.4L 4-cylinder
gasoline engine rated at 84 hp and 90 lb-ft. of torque. The
motors are powered by the energy stored in the battery pack
or by the energy produced by the generator. The engine is

primarily used to spin the generator. A planetary gearset
and three clutches manage and distribute power from the
motors and engine to power the wheels (Figure 35–20).
Battery
Figure 35–17 A Chevrolet Volt, an extended The Volt has a six-foot long 435 lbs (197 kg) 16 kWh Li-
range electric vehicle. Ion battery pack. The pack has 288 cells (Figure 35–21)
Inverter Battery pack
Traction C1
Sun gear
motor
Generator/
motor
C2
Carrier gears
C3

Carrier Ring gear
Differential/output Engine
Figure 35–20 The main components of a Volt’s powertrain.
The Volt has a thermal management system to monitor

and maintain the battery’s temperature. The battery can be
warmed or cooled by a liquid cooling circuit that is similar
to the engine’s cooling system. The system can preheat the
pack during cold weather and cool it in hot weather.
Because the energy in the pack is never completely
depleted and therefore never receives a full charge, the life
of the pack is extended. The management system allows
the battery to only operate within a predetermined level
SOC; once that level is reached, the engine starts to main-
tain a charge or provide power for the motors. It is impor-
tant to note that the car has a normal 12‐volt battery, in
addition to the high-voltage battery pack.
Basic Operation
The drivetrain (called the Voltec platform) allows the
Volt to operate as a pure electric vehicle. The distance it
can travel on electricity alone is affected by many things
including: the battery’s SOC, road conditions, driving
Courtesy of LG Chem Power Inc. (LGCPI)
style, driver comfort settings (e.g., HVAC), and weather.

Once the battery is mostly depleted, the engine starts
and powers the generator and the car operates as a series
hybrid.
While operating in the series mode at higher speeds
and loads (normally above 30 miles per hour and/or under
acceleration), the generator functions as a motor to aid the
traction motor (MG-B). Also under particular conditions,
the engine can be mechanically linked to the output of the
gearset and assist both electric motors to drive the wheels;
Figure 35–21 The Volt’s battery pack therefore, the Volt can operate as a series-parallel hybrid
consists of 288 of these Li-Ion cells. when additional power is required.
The Volt’s drive train includes the engine, motor/
wired in series and parallel. The rectangular cells are sepa- generator (MG-A), planetary gearset, three clutches (C1,
rated into 9 modules of 32 cells. The cells and modules are C2, and C3), the traction motor (MG-B), and the power
arranged around aluminum cooling fins to prevent hot or electronics unit. This unit has three IGBT inverters: one
cool spots on the cells. for each motor and one for an electric oil pump. MG-A,
Power Mode Charge Status Operating Mode Power Source

All-electric Charge depleting Low-speed, 1 motor Battery
(MG-B)
All-electric Charge depleting High-speed, 2 motors Battery
(MG-B + MG-A)

Extended range Charge sustaining Low-speed, 1 motor Battery + engine driven
(MG-B) generator
Extended range Charge sustaining High-speed, 2 motors Battery + engine driven
(MG-B + MG-A) generator; + supplemental
torque from MG-A and engine
Figure 35–22 An overview of the different operating modes for a Volt and ELR.
MG-B, and the engine are connected to the planetary stop-start mode. A third pump is used to keep transmission
gearset, this allows the unit to function as a variable speed fluid circulating in the transmission when the engine is off
transmission. during stop-start.
MG-B is always connected to the sun gear and the
final drive gears are always connected to the planetary General Motors eAssist
carrier. The ring gear is either held stationary by a clutch eAssist is available on late-model GM cars. The system is
or driven by MG-A or the engine. Two of the clutches are based on the previously used BAS systems. However, the
used to lock the ring gear or connect it to MG-A. The new system is more powerful and provides additional
engine and MG-A are only connected to the gearset when torque to the driveline during heavy loads and improved
the appropriate clutches are applied. The third clutch regenerative braking. As a result, the new system provides
connects the engine to MG-A to provide an extended close to a 25 percent increase in fuel economy over previ-
driving range. ously used systems.
The Volt has four basic power modes: all battery- The BAS unit is connected by a drive belt to the engine's
electric (charge depleting), low and high speed, in which crankshaft. The BAS is a three-phase AC induction motor
the battery is the only source of power for the electric powered by a 115 volt Li-Ion battery (Figure 35–23). The
motors; and extended-range (charge sustaining) low and air-cooled battery and its electronic controllers, along with
high speed, in which the battery and engine work together a conventional 12-volt battery are housed in a single unit
to power the traction motor and to improve overall effi- behind the rear seat. The motor can provide an 11 kW
ciency (Figure 35–22). (15 hp and 79 lb-ft.) boost during acceleration. It can also
recover 15 kW of electricity through regenerative braking
GM’S PARALLEL HYBRIDS to charge the battery.
GM used a BAS hybrid system in 2006 through 2008 on
some Saturn models, 2009 through 2010 on Chevrolet
Malibus, and recently in many Chevrolet and Buick mod-
els. Early systems were based on the dual-voltage of a
12V/42V battery pack.
The system’s electronics monitor many operating con-
ditions, and controls the operation of the motor/generator
and the engine. The motor/generator can serve as the
starter, assist motor, and generator. When working as a
generator, it provides more than twice the output of a typi-
cal generator and is capable of providing 3,000 watts of
continuous power.
During operation, the generator’s control module can
get very hot and excessive heat can destroy it. So there is a
coolant pump to keep engine coolant circulating through
the module when the engine is off during stop-start. That
pump shares an electrical circuit with a second electric
pump that keeps coolant circulating through the heater Figure 35–23 The main components for
core when the engine is off and the vehicle is in the GM’s BAS system.
GM Two-Mode Hybrid System This combination results in a continuously variable

GM, BMW, and DaimlerChrysler (this company no longer transmission and motor/generators for hybrid operation.
exists) co-developed a two-mode full hybrid system that Multi-disc clutches are used to transition the transmission
can be used with gasoline or diesel engines. It is claimed from one gear ratio to another (Figure 35–25).
that the fuel consumption of a full-sized truck or SUV is The control of the motors’ speed relies on a relatively
decreased by at least 25 percent when it is equipped with low voltage and current, which in turn means the inverter,
this parallel hybrid system. converter, and controller can be made lighter and smaller.
GM offers this technology in many of their vehicles, The NiMH battery pack has a nominal voltage of 300 volts
such as the Chevrolet Silverado, Chevrolet Tahoe, GMC and is contained in a housing equipped with a cooling cir-
Yukon, and Cadillac Escalade. The system works with a cuit. The system’s power electronics are located under the
300-volt NiMH battery pack and a two-mode transmis- hood and have a unique temperature control unit.
sion, called an electrically variable transmission (EVT).
The transmission has four fixed gear ratios but the Operation
motors can alter the gear ratios between each of those The two-mode hybrid system has two distinct modes of
ratios. The system fits into a standard transmission hous- operation. It can operate solely on electric or engine power
ing and has three planetary gearsets coupled to two AC or by a combination of the two. Electronic controls are used
synchronous 60 kW motor/generators (Figure 35–24). to control the output of the motors and the engine. Typi-
The gears work to increase the torque output of the motors. cally, when one of the motors is not providing propulsion
power, it is working as a generator driven by the engine or
by the drive wheels for regenerative braking.
The first operational mode is called the input split and
the second is the compound split (Figure 35–26). During
the input split, the vehicle can be propelled by battery
power, engine power, or both. This mode of operation
occurs when the vehicle is slowly accelerating and when
cruising at slow speeds. When the control unit determines
battery power is sufficient for the current driving condi-
tions, the engine shuts off or some of its cylinders are deac-
tivated. During this time, one motor is working to move
the vehicle, while the other may be working as a generator

to supply power for the traction motor or to recharge the
battery. If the engine is commanded to start, the traction
motor may shut down and the second motor can continue
to operate as a generator if needed.
Mode two comes into play when pulling heavy loads,
Figure 35–24 The motors and clutches running at highway speeds, or during heavy acceleration.
inside a two-mode transmission. The electric motor(s) assist the engine to overcome the
Battery ECM
Output
Planetary gearset A
Planetary gearset B
shaft Output
shaft
2 friction
clutches
Clutch
Engine MG-A MG-B

Input
shaft
Dual-mode electronically variable transmission (EVT)

Figure 35–25 The two-mode system relies on two electric motors connected
to planetary gearsets to move the vehicle or assist the engine during propulsion.
Engine
Engine
Gearing
Gearing
Electric motor
Electric motor
Battery
Battery
Electric motor
Electric motor

Gearing
Input split Compound
split
Final drive
Final drive
Figure 35–26 The flow of energy during the two

operating modes.
loads and the engine is set to provide full power. Current is With this design, Honda is able to use a small efficient
no longer being generated and the vehicle is powered by engine in a vehicle. The power deficiencies of the engine
gasoline and the battery. are overcome by a small, efficient electric motor. Through
the years, this platform has been improved to allow the
HONDA’S IMA SYSTEM vehicle to be powered by the engine, electric motor, or
Most Honda hybrids use an ISAD system, called the Inte- both. Early Honda hybrids were assist only hybrids.
grated Motor Assist (IMA) system (Figure 35–27). Honda As time passed, Honda was able to use larger gasoline
introduced their Insight in December 1999 and became the engines and more powerful electric motors, while continu-
first manufacturer to offer hybrid vehicles in North Amer- ing to decrease fuel consumption and exhaust emissions.
ica. With this introduction came a new technology, placing Most current Honda hybrids are rated by CARB as an AT-
an electric motor between the engine and transmission. PZEV and offer some of the best fuel economy numbers of
Since then, Honda has released many variations of this all cars. The gains made in both areas are due to the use of
design and has offered many different hybrid models. improved aerodynamics, lighter construction materials,
and other fuel saving technologies.
Currently, Honda has some hybrids of particular inter-
est; a new Insight, the CR-Z, and a PHEV Accord. The new
Insight (Figure 35–28) and the CR-Z are full hybrids,
although they seldom operate in an all-electric mode. They
both use the same IMA system, but because they are
intended for different markets, they have some differences.
The current Insight is not a remake of Honda’s original
hybrid. Rather it is now totally redesigned with a 1.3-liter,
4-cylinder gasoline engine and a 13 hp (10 kW) Permanent
Magnet AC Synchronous electric motor. These power
sources are connected to a CVT.

The CR-Z (Compact Renaissance Zero) is a two-
passenger “sporty” hybrid. The CR-Z (Figure 35–29) offers
a six-speed manual transmission, in addition to a CVT. It
has a 1.5-liter, 4-cylinder and the Insight’s IMA system that
delivers a combined output of 122 hp and 128 lb-ft. of torque
Figure 35–27 An underhood look at with the manual transmission and 123 lb-ft. with the CVT.
Honda’s IMA system. This version of IMA is identical to that used in the Insight.
IMA
The IMA is positioned between the engine and the trans-
axle (Figure 35–31). The synchronous AC motor has a
three-phase stator and a permanent magnet rotor that is
directly connected to the engine’s crankshaft. There are
three commutation sensors mounted inside the motor/
generator that give the control module information about

the rotor’s position.
The IMA in late-model Hondas is used to start the
engine, both during initial start-up and during stop/start.
Most have an additional 12-volt starter motor and 12-volt
battery. These are used when the SOC of the high-voltage
battery is low. The auxiliary starter is also used when the
Figure 35–28 A Honda Insight. outside temperature is extremely low or if there is a prob-
lem with the IMA system.
In the basic system, when the driver depresses the accel-
erator, the IMA provides power assist to the engine (Figure
35–32). As the engine overcomes the load, the motor is turned
off and the car is powered only by the engine. While the car is
cruising at a steady speed, the IMA can work as a generator to
charge the battery and power the 12-volt system. The engine
will not drive the generator unless there is need for charging.
Some late-model hybrids have an electric motor inside

the transaxle in addition to the IMA. This motor serves to
provide electrical boost to the engine’s output and trans-
forms the transaxle into an electronic continuously vari-
able transmission (E-CVT). The motor(s) are powered by
a NiMH or Li-Ion battery pack.
Figure 35–29 Honda’s CR-Z.
CAUTION!
Because the IMA motor/generator has
a permanent magnet rotor, it ALWAYS
generates electricity when the engine is
rotating. Therefore, any time that the engine is
spinning, the orange high-voltage cables could
have high voltage. Keep away from them.
Figure 35–30 A Honda plug-in hybrid Accord.
Recently, Honda released the Accord Plug-In Hybrid

(PHEV). This model (Figure 35–30) represents a signifi-
cant change in Honda’s hybrid approach. An Atkinson-

cycle 2.0-liter I-4 is used with two electric motors and a
Li-Ion battery pack. The latter allows for plug-in charges to
enable the car to travel up to 15 miles on battery power
alone. This PHEV is rated at a combined rating of
115 MPGe by the EPA and the battery can be charged in
about 3 hours when using a 120-volt outlet or less than Figure 35–31 The IMA unit fits between the
1 hour when using a 240-volt charger. engine and the transaxle.
To 12V
electrical
DC-DC load
converter
Battery
Engine
(12V)
Battery
IMA motor MDM
module

Transmission
Electrical energy
Power
Figure 35–32 When the driver depresses the accelerator, the output of
the motor supplements the engine’s output to help acceleration.
Electronic Controls for the motor, motor power inverter, battery module, and a
The PCM is like the one used in a non-hybrid but it has cooling system.
been programmed to interact with the IMA system. The The PCU controls the flow of electricity between the
entire powertrain is monitored and controlled by the PCM IMA and battery pack. The Motor Control Module (MCM)
through various CAN communication lines and sensors to controls the IMA, through the motor power inverter. The
provide the best efficiency and driveability. MCM monitors the state-of-charge of the battery pack and
Power to and from the motor/generator(s) are con- controls the IPU module fan. The MCM uses inputs of the
trolled by the Intelligent Power Unit (IPU), that is con- batteries’ voltage, temperature, and input and output cur-
nected to the motor/generator by high-voltage cables. The rent readings to determine the batteries’ state of charge
IPU contains the Power Control Unit (PCU), control unit (Figure 35–33).
Fan control
IPU fan
Assist/regenerative control
IMA MPI
Current data
High-
12V control voltage
DC-DC circuit
MCM Data converter
Current data
Current data
Contractor
Manual
Data switch
Data
Battery
12V supply
BCM module
Figure 35–33 The basic control circuit for an IMA system.


Figure 35–34 The battery box of a Figure 35–35 An Acura NSX hybrid.
Honda HEV.
The IPU is equipped with a cooling system mounted in Acura Hybrids Acura, the high-end brand of vehicles
the battery pack box (Figure 35–34). Air is pulled into the from Honda offers a line of hybrid vehicles. Most of their
battery module through the top of the tray behind the rear hybrids follow the same recipe as Honda hybrids; however,
seats. The air passes over the heat sinks of the inverter, some are designed primarily for increased performance as
DC-DC converter, and A/C compressor driver before it is well as fuel economy. These vehicles are all-wheel drive,
exhausted to the outside. full hybrids. The engine in these hybrids power the front
A revised battery box was required with the introduc- or rear wheels with electric motors driving the additional
tion of Li-Ion batteries. The module is fitted with tempera- front or rear drive axle. In some cases there is an additional
ture sensors and a cooling system run by the A/C system, electric motor in the transmission to assist the engine.
outside air and a cooling fan. This system also cools the When the rear axle is equipped with the electric motors,
inverter, motor control module, DC-DC converter, and differential action is accomplished by electronically con-
the heat sink for the air-conditioning compressor. trolling the speed of the individual motors.
The A/C compressor is powered by the HV battery and The new NSX Acura Hybrid (Figure 35–35) uses
controlled by the PCM. Honda’s Sports Hybrid Super Handling All Wheel Drive
(SH-AWD) technology. This system is fitted with a gaso-
Engine line engine and two electric motors at the front wheels that
The engines used with the IMA system have varied from a operate independently to provide positive or negative
small three-cylinder engine to much larger V6s. The torque to the wheels during cornering to improve vehicle
engines have incorporated many of Honda’s fuel savings handling. The system also has an additional motor between
technologies, such as Variable Valve Timing and Lift Elec- a dual clutch transmission and a mid mounted V6 engine.
tronic Control (VTEC), intelligent Dual & Sequential Igni-
tion (i-DSI), Variable Cylinder Management (VCM), and
electronic throttle systems. TOYOTA’S POWER-SPLIT HYBRIDS
In addition to these, the construction of the engines Since its introduction of a hybrid vehicle in 2000, Toyota
includes many technologies to reduce internal friction (and Lexus) has offered many different hybrid models.
such as low-friction pistons and roller rocker arms. Toyota’s approach to hybridization is a combination of
series and parallel hybrid platforms. The system relies on
Transmission two electric motor/generators, a power-split transaxle, and
Most of Honda’s hybrids are equipped with either a manual a high-voltage battery. The power-split device mechani-
transmission or a continuously variable transmission cally blends the output from the motors and an Atkinson
(CVT). The manual transmissions are designed to be light, cycle engine. This system (Figure 35–36) was called the
reduce power loss through friction, and make shifting Toyota Hybrid System (THS) when it was released, and the
easy. The CVT (Honda Multimatic) uses computer con- newer designs of the THS are called the Hybrid Synergy
trolled drive and driven pulleys and a metal “push” belt Drive (HSD) system. In all cases, the engine can power the
running between the variable-width pulleys. The CVT vehicle or a motor/generator.
constantly adjusts to provide the most efficient drive ratio One motor/generator is primarily used to start the
possible depending on torque load. engine and recharge the battery pack after the engine is
MG1
HV
Inverter
Planetary gear unit battery
Engine
MG2

Differential
gear unit Hybrid transaxle
Mechanical power path

Electrical power path
Figure 35–36 The THS uses a combination Figure 35–38 A Prius V.
of two motive forces: an engine and electric
motors.
systems ranges from 56 to 438 hp. The power split devices
in the cars and Lexus SUVs equipped with larger engines
running. The other motor/generator assists the engine have an additional planetary gearset to keep the speed of
while moving the vehicle or powers the vehicle for a short the electric motors low.
distance by itself. This is the traction motor and it can also
work as a generator to provide for regenerative braking. Battery
Recently Toyota has released different size variants of Most Toyota hybrids rely on a NiMH battery pack; they
the original Prius (Figure 35–37). Basically these versions also have an auxiliary 12-volt battery that is the power
are smaller or larger versions of the base model. As an source for the ECM, lights, and other systems. The battery
example, the Prius V (Figure 35–38) has 50 percent more module (Figure 35–39) contains the hybrid (HV) battery
cargo space than the base model. The wheelbase of the V is pack, battery ECU, and the System Main Relay (SMR). The
longer and the overall length has been increased, it is also module is positioned behind the rear seat, in the trunk. A
taller and wider. However, the powertrain in the Prius V is service plug and main high-voltage fuse is inserted in the
identical to that found in the base model. high-voltage circuit. The fuse protects the circuit by open-
ing if there is excessive current in the circuit. The service
Other Hybrids from Toyota Several hybrid cars are avail- plug is used to disconnect or isolate the high-voltage cir-
able from Toyota and Lexus. Lexus has the CT200h, cuit so that service can be performed on the circuit. The
HS250h, GS450h, and the LS750hL. All of these are based service plug is positioned in the middle of the battery
on the same architecture as the Prius. However the base modules. When removed, the circuit is open.
engine, traction motor, and battery have been made more The nominal battery voltage varies with model and
powerful to offset the increased weight of these cars over application. Late-model systems use a lower voltage battery
the Prius. The total power output from these hybrid

Figure 35–39 The main components inside

Figure 35–37 A late-model Prius. a Toyota battery pack.
■ When the system determines the engine should power

the vehicle, the engine will start if it is not already run-
ning. Engine power is split according to the needs of
the system. The amount of power sent to MG1 and the
drive wheels is controlled by the system.
■ When the vehicle is at a cruising speed, both the engine
and MG2 may power the vehicle. If engine power is not
needed to maintain the speed, the engine will shut
down and the vehicle is powered by electricity alone. If

the battery’s SOC gets low during this time, the engine
restarts to drive MG1.
■ To overcome a heavy load, hard acceleration, climbing
a hill, or passing another vehicle, both the engine and
MG2 powers the car. MG2 receives energy from MG1
and the battery pack. This allows MG2 to work with
Figure 35–40 Individual high-voltage cables
connect the inverter to the battery pack. full power. Once the vehicle returns to a normal cruis-
ing speed, battery power for MG2 is shut off and the
battery is recharged by MG1.
than early vehicles, but these systems can boost the voltage
up to 650 volts. This additional voltage reduces the ■ When the vehicle is decelerating, the engine shuts
required amount of current to power the motor(s). If down. MG2 then becomes a generator driven by the
the motors’ power output in watts is held constant, the vehicle’s drive wheels, and regenerative braking begins.
amount of current drawn by the motor is inversely The vehicle’s kinetic energy is used to charge the bat-
increased or decreased with a decrease or increase in volt- tery pack. Most of the initial braking force is the force
age. Therefore, if the voltage is doubled, the current will be required to turn MG2. The hydraulic brake system
reduced by half. Also, if the current to the motor is held supplies the rest of the braking force and brings the car
constant and the voltage is increased, the motor’s power to a halt.
will be increased. ■ When reverse gear is selected, MG2 rotates in a reverse
Individual high-voltage cables (Figure 35–40) connect direction. The engine remains off, as does MG1.
the battery pack to the inverter, the inverter to the motors,
and the inverter to the air-conditioning compressor. Electronic Controls
Needless to say, the coordination of the motors and engine
Operation requires very complex electronic control systems; these
The basic operation of all generations of the HSD system is need to monitor operating and driving conditions and
much the same. The HSD relies on an engine, a motor/ control current flow to and from the motor/generators.
generator that serves as the starter motor and a generator The ultimate control of the system is the responsibility of
(referred to as MG1, Motor Generator 1), and a traction the Hybrid Vehicle Control Unit (HV ECU). This module
motor and generator (called the MG2, Motor Generator 2). receives information from sensors and other processors
The engine, MG1, and MG2 are connected to different and in turn sends commands to a variety of actuators and
members of a planetary gearset inside the power-split unit. controllers (Figure 35–41). The ECU coordinates the
MG1, MG2, and the engine control the output of that plan- engine’s activity with the hybrid system. It starts and stops
etary gearset. This is how those respond to operating the engine as needed, as well as controls the operation of
conditions: the engine. The HV ECU also makes sure there is proper
phasing of AC to the motors. This circuit is connected
■ During initial acceleration, power from the battery between the motor/generator and the battery pack.
pack to MG2 provides the energy to drive the wheels. CAN communications are used to link various micro-
While MG2 is powering the vehicle, the engine is off processors together. The system runs continuous self-
and MG1 rotates freely and does not operate as a diagnostic routines. If a fault is detected, the unit stores a
generator. diagnostic code and controls the system according to data
■ This continues until the battery’s voltage drops, when stored in its memory rather than current conditions (fail-
the driver calls for rapid acceleration, or when battery’s safe mode) or it may shut down the entire system, depend-
state of charge, battery temperature, engine coolant ing on the malfunction.
temperature, and the electrical load suggest a need for The entire system is monitored by the ECU and the
more battery energy, the engine will start. To charge ECU memorizes all conditions and operating perimeters
the battery pack, MG1 is rotated by the engine through that are outside a specified range. Depending on the type
the planetary gears. and severity of the problem, the ECU will illuminate or
Inverter assembly
Boost
converter Inverter
IGBTs
HV
battery Reactor MG1
Current sensors
DC/DC
converter Power
transistor MG2
A/C
inverter

HV ECU
Figure 35–41 An electrical schematic for a THS vehicle.
blink the MIL, master warning light, or the HV battery charging and discharging amperage required to allow
warning light. MG2 to power the car. This information is also sent to the
The MG ECU has final control of the inverter, boost HV ECU, which sends commands to the ECM to control
converter, and DC-DC converter based on commands the engine’s output. This continuous loop of information is
from the ECU. If the ECU detects a problem in the high- done to maintain at least a 60 percent SOC at the battery.
voltage circuit or if the transmission is placed in neutral, The ECU also monitors the temperature of the batter-
the inverter is turned off to stop the operation of the ies during the charge and discharge cycles, via three tem-
motor/generators. perature sensors housed in the battery module and a
Depending on the model and generation of the HSD temperature sensor in the air intake for the module. It also
system, the electronic controls may be located in a variety estimates the temperature change that will result from the
of places and the individual parts may have additional cycling. Based on this information, it can adjust the bat-
unique functions. Everything possible is done to keep the tery’s cooling fan or, if a malfunction is present, it can slow
inverter assembly, MG1, and MG2 within a specified tem- down or stop charging and discharging to protect the
perature by a cooling and heating system. In SUVs, the battery.
radiator for the inverter and motors is part of the engine’s
radiator, but is totally isolated from it. Regenerative Braking The skid control or “brake” ECU
Most late-model hybrids have a boost converter to pro- calculates the total amount of braking force needed to stop
vide up to 650 volts to MG2. This converter has an Inte- or slow down the car based on the pressure exerted on the
grated Power Module (IPM) that contains two Insulated brake pedal. This in turn determines how much regenera-
Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT), a reactor to store the tive braking should take place and how much pressure
energy, and a signal processor. should be sent to the brakes through the hydraulic system.
This information is sent to the HV ECU, which controls
Battery ECU The battery’s ECU receives information the regenerative braking of MG2.
about the battery’s SOC, temperature, and voltage from The brake ECU also controls the hydraulic brake actu-
various sensors. This information is then sent to the HV ator solenoids and generates pressure at the individual
ECU, which controls MG1 to keep the battery pack at the wheel cylinders. The total amount of force applied to the
proper charge. The battery ECU also calculates the hydraulic brake system is the total required brake force
minus the force supplied through regenerative braking.

The skid control ECU also controls the operation of the
antilock brake system.
Motor/Generators
MG1 and MG2 are permanent magnet AC synchronous
motors that can also function as generators (Figure 35–42).
The electric 4WD-i system used in SUVs has a permanent
magnet AC synchronous motor/generator, called MGR,
built into the rear drive axle assembly. Unlike conventional
4WD vehicles, there is no physical connection between
the front and rear axles (Figure 35–43). The aluminum
housing of the rear transaxle contains the MGR, a counter
drive gear, counter driven gear, and a differential. The final
drive ratio in the rear drive axle is very low. This provides a
large amount of torque to the rear wheels. The SUVs also
have a stronger MG2 that is capable of higher rotational
speeds. The power-split unit in these vehicles has been
modified to include an additional planetary gearset (the

Motor Speed Reduction unit). This gearset reduces the
speed of MG2 and, thereby, increases the torque available
at the front wheels.
AC synchronous motors require a sensor to monitor
the position of the rotor within the stator. It is necessary to
time, or phase, the three-phase AC so it attracts the rotor’s
magnets and keeps it rotating and producing torque. AC Figure 35–42 MG1 and MG2 are separated
creates a rotating magnetic field in the stator and the rotor by a planetary gearset.
Hybrid
transaxle
MG2 MG1
Engine
MG
Inverter
ECU
Electrical energy
Mechanical energy
Hybrid vehicle High voltage
control ECU battery
MGR
Rear transaxle
Figure 35–43 The rear axle is driven by an electric motor
(MGR) and is not mechanically linked to the front drive axles.
chases that field. The control system monitors the position pack allows the Prius to operate as a pure EV for longer
and speed of the rotor and controls the frequency of the distances and at higher speeds. The estimated all-electric
stator’s voltage, which controls the torque and speed of the range is 13 miles, which results in an expected total range
motor. Toyota uses a sensor, called a resolver, to monitor of 475 miles. The car is also capable of driving up to
the position of the rotor. The motors are also fitted with a 62 mph while in the electric mode. The estimated fuel
temperature sensor. The ECU monitors the temperature of economy while operating as a gasoline-electric hybrid is
the motors and alters the power to them if there is evi- 72 mpge.
dence of overheating. The battery pack sits under the rear cargo floor and
includes a battery charger with 24-foot long cables. The
Power-Split Unit charger is designed for household current and can be
The power-split device is also called the hybrid transaxle plugged into any wall outlet. A full charge using a 120-volt
assembly. It functions as a continuously variable transaxle, AC outlet takes approximately 2.5 to 3.0 hours. The charg-
although it does not use the belts and pulleys normally ing cables connect to the charging port located behind a
associated with CVTs. The variability of this transaxle door on the right-rear fender (Figure 35–45). The port has
depends on the action of MG1 and the torque supplied by LED lighting to allow for safe nighttime charging. The bat-
MG2 and/or the engine. tery pack (Figure 35–46) has internal and external cooling
Conventional final drive and differential units are used fans to control heat. The inverter has also been reworked
to allow for good handling and ample torque to drive the to be compatible with the new battery. Plus, the hybrid
wheels. The transaxle does not have a torque converter or cooling system has a larger heat exchanger and higher
clutch. Rather a damper is used to cushion engine vibra- capacity electric fans.
tion and the power surges that result from the sudden
engagement of power to the transaxle.
In the planetary gearset, the sun gear is attached to
MG1. The ring gear is connected to MG2 and the final drive
unit in the transaxle. The planetary carrier is connected to
the engine’s output shaft. The key to understanding how
this system splits power is to realize that when there are two
sources of input power, they rotate in the same direction but
not at the same speed. Therefore, one can assist the rotation

of the other, slow down the rotation of the other, or work
together. Also, keep in mind the rotational speed of MG2
largely depends on the power generated by MG1. There-
fore, MG1 basically controls the continuously variable
transmission function of the transaxle.
Prius Plug-In Figure 35–45 A charge nozzle into a Prius

In 2012, Toyota released a plug-in version of the Prius PHEV.
(Figure 35–44). The Prius PHEV is based on the base
Prius but is fitted with a 4.4 kWh Li-Ion battery pack. The
Figure 35–44 Under the hood of a Prius Figure 35–46 The battery pack for a Prius
plug-in hybrid. PHEV.
FORD HYBRIDS Like the Fusion, hybrid and Energi models are available.
In 2004, Ford released the Escape Hybrid. This was the Mechanically, Fusion and C-Max hybrids are identical.
first hybrid SUV and the first hybrid vehicle built in North They are rated as Advanced Technology Partial Zero Emis-
America. The standard Escape Hybrid was front-wheel sions Vehicle (AT-PZEV) by CARB. They are also equipped
drive and an Intelligent 4WD system was optional. This with a high-output electric motor powered by a lithium-
option made the Escape the first 4WD hybrid. In 2006, ion battery and an Atkinson-cycle gasoline engine. Both
Ford released a hybrid version of the Escape’s cousin, the the Hybrid and Energi models have a projected 188 total
Mercury Mariner. These SUVs were full hybrids and fea- system horsepower. With the introduction of these new
tured a CVT transmission and stop-start technology, as hybrids, Ford discontinued the Escape Hybrid.
well as the ability to be powered solely by battery power.
In 2010, Ford released a hybrid edition of its mid-sized Lincoln MKZ This Lincoln hybrid is based on the Fusion
car, the Fusion. Creating a hybrid system for the Fusion led to hybrid and most of the mechanicals are the same with
many changes in the system used in the Escape. These hybrid some upgrades. The hybrid is capable of all-electric driv-
systems were based on a four-cylinder engine and two elec- ing up to 47 mph for short periods. The car is also equipped
tric motors. The combined power output from the engine with Ford’s SmartGauge with an interactive technology,
and the traction motor is the equivalent of 191 hp (142 kW). called EcoGuide. This system provides real-time informa-
Since the introduction of the Fusion Hybrid, the car tion to help a driver achieve maximum fuel efficiency.
has been redesigned (Figure 35–47) and two distinct
hybrid models are available: the Fusion Hybrid and the Operation
Fusion Energi. The difference between the two models is The basic components and operation of Ford’s hybrid sys-
that the Energi is a PHEV. Ford also released two hybrid tem are very similar to what is found in Toyota hybrids. This
versions of a new compact car, the C-Max (Figure 35–48). has led many to conclude that Ford is simply buying the sys-
tem from Toyota. This is not true. Due to the similarities
and to avoid legal problems, Ford licensed some of the tech-
nology from Toyota and Toyota licensed some technology
from Ford. Toyota does not supply hybrid components to
Ford. Both Ford and Toyota state that Ford received no
technical assistance from Toyota during the development of
the hybrid system. Very simply, Aisin supplies the transmis-
sion used in the Ford hybrids and Toyota makes its own.
These are series-parallel hybrid vehicles (Figure 35–49).
Ford divides the operation of the hybrid system into three
different modes: positive split, negative split, and electric

modes. During the positive split (series) mode, the engine
is running and driving the generator to recharge the bat-
tery or directly power the traction motor. The system is in
this mode whenever the battery needs to be charged or
Figure 35–47 A late-model Fusion hybrid. © Cengage Learning 2015

Figure 35–49 The engine and transaxle for

Figure 35–48 A Ford C-max. a late-model Ford hybrid.
when the vehicle is operating under moderate loads and at Battery
low speeds. Both models have a Li-Ion battery pack. However, the
During the negative split (parallel) mode, the engine is Energi has a more powerful battery pack (4 kWh vs.
running, as is the traction motor. The output of the trac- 7.6 kWh). The batteries in both models are located in the
tion motor tends to reduce the speed of the engine through rear of the car (Figure 35–50). These cars can travel up to
the action of the planetary gearset. The engine’s output is, 62 miles per hour on electric power alone.
however, supplemented by the power from the traction The high-voltage lithium-ion battery pack in the
motor. During this mode, the traction motor can function Energi provides enough power to operate in all-electric
as a motor or a generator, depending on the current oper- mode for short commutes. Thanks to plug-in capability,
ating conditions and the demands of the driver. the battery can be charged overnight using a 120-volt out-
In the electric mode, the engine is off and the vehicle is let. Or in less than 3 hours using a 240-volt outlet. The
propelled solely by battery power. This is the mode of C-Max Energi has a range of more than 500 miles using
operation when the battery is fully charged and during the battery and engine.
slow acceleration and low speeds, as well as when reverse When the connector cord is plugged into the Energi’s
gear is selected by the driver. charge port, located between the driver’s door and front
A feature of the Energi models is called the EV mode. wheel, the port displays lights that indicate the battery’s
There is a button that allows the driver to switch the vehi- SOC. The port is surrounded by a light ring made up of
cle between EV Now, Auto EV, and EV Later. Basically this four parts. When all four lights are illuminated, the vehicle
switch allows the driver to select the power source for the has fully charged.
vehicle—electric only, gasoline only, or a combination of The hybrid and Energi’s battery has a temperature man-
gas and electric. agement system. This system has an electric heater and a
forced-air cooling system to keep the battery temperature
Motors within a specified range (Figure 35–51). There are also two
Two separate Permanent Magnet AC Synchronous motor/
generators are used. One of these is primarily used as a gen-
erator but also serves as the starter motor for the engine and
controls the activity of the transaxle. The other motor/
generator is used to propel the vehicle during low-speed and
low-load conditions and to assist the engine during hard
acceleration, heavy loads, and/or during high-speed driving.
The operation of the two motors is ultimately con-
trolled by the master control unit (the VSC), through inputs
concerning speed and rotor position. The non-traction

motor is powered by the battery pack, while the traction
motor can be powered by the battery pack and/or the other
motor/generator.
Controls
The vehicle system controller (VSC) is the primary control
unit. Based on information from several other control Figure 35–50 The battery pack in a Fusion
units and inputs, it controls the charging, drive assist, and hybrid.
engine starting functions of the system according to cur-
rent conditions. The VSC is part of the PCM.
The control system uses CAN communications and has
diagnostic capabilities. The PCM monitors the activity of the
system and has direct control of engine operation. The VSC
communicates with the other modules and receives inputs
from the gear selector sensor, the accelerator pedal position

sensor, the brake pedal position sensor, and many other
inputs. Based on this information, the VSC manages the
charging of the battery pack, controls the stop-start function,
and controls the operation of the Transmission Control Mod-
ule (TCM) that directly controls the operation of the motor/
generators, and therefore controls the operation of the trans- Figure 35–51 The cooling system for the
axle. This module is housed inside the transmission case. battery in a C-max hybrid.
inertia-type switches, one in the front and the other in the The effective gear ratios are determined by the speed of
rear, which can disconnect the high-voltage system if the the members in the planetary gearset. They are controlled
vehicle is in an accident. by the VSC through the TCM, which calculates the
The Battery Energy Control Module (BECM) is housed required ratio according to the information it receives
in the battery pack and controls the activity of the battery. from information from a variety of inputs.
It receives commands from the VSC and sends feedback to The timing of the phased AC is critical to the operation
the VSC to verify that the hybrid components are operat- of the motors, as is the amount of voltage applied to each
ing within the parameters set for the current condition of stator winding. Angle sensors (resolvers) at the motors’
the battery. The battery is divided into modules. The volt- stator track the position of the rotor within the stator. The
age of each of the modules is constantly monitored, as is signals from the resolvers also are used for the calculation
the current flow to and from them. There are eight tem- of rotor speed. These calculations are shared with other
perature senses in each unit to help the BECM keep the control modules. The TCM monitors the activity of the
battery pack within a specified temperature range. If the inverter and constantly checks for open circuit, excessive
temperature is outside that range or if the voltage and cur- current, and out-of-phase cycling. The TCM also monitors
rent flow is outside their range, the BECM will order the the temperature of the inverter and transaxle fluid.
PCM to set a fault code and the system will move to a
default setting or shut down. Cooling System
There is also a lead-acid 12-volt battery, located under The A/C system has two parallel refrigerant loops, one for
the hood, to provide power for the various 12-volt systems the passenger compartment and the other for the HV bat-
of the vehicle. This battery is recharged by the DC-DC tery. Both loops are connected to the same compressor and
converter, also located under the hood. have their own shutoff valve. The system can cool the two
zones independently.
Engine/Transmission The motor electronics (M/E) cooling system is com-
Current Ford hybrids are equipped with a 2.0-liter, four- pletely separate from the engine’s cooling system. The M/E
cylinder, DOHC, Atkinson cycle engine. The early hybrids cooling system cools the transaxle, motors, and the DC-DC
were equipped with a 2.5-liter, four-cylinder, DOHC, converter. The system uses a PCM-controlled 12-volt cool-
Atkinson cycle engine. The engine is coupled to an elec- ant pump mounted near the bottom of the radiator to
tronically controlled continuously variable transmission move the coolant through the system. The M/E system has
(eCVT). a separate degas bottle that is part of an assembly that also
The eCVT is based on a simple planetary gearset, like includes the engine cooling system’s degas bottle.
the Toyota’s, the overall gear ratios are determined by the These vehicles have a PCM-controlled helper heater
motor/generator. Ford’s transaxle is different in construc- pump. This pump is located in series with the heater hose
tion from that found in the Prius. In a Ford transaxle, the leading to the heater core. The pump is activated when the
traction motor is not directly connected to the ring gear of engine is off, such as during stop-start. This allows for
the gearset. Rather it is connected to the transfer gear some heat when the engine is not running.
assembly (Figure 35–52). The transfer gear assembly is Older models relied on an engine driven compressor.
composed of three gears, one connected to the ring gear of Since cooling the battery always has precedence over
the planetary set, a counter gear, and the drive gear of the passenger comfort, the engine may turn on just to run
traction motor. the A/C. It is important to note that the A/C unit will not
Transfer
Carrier gears
Ring
Generator/
Engine
motor
Sun Final
drive
Clutch Clutch
Ring
Output
Generator/
motor
Figure 35–52 In a Ford hybrid transaxle, the traction motor is

connected to the transfer gear assembly.
run unless the engine is running. When the driver selects If the vehicle is equipped with AWD, the “VW’s 4 Motion,”
the MAX A/C or defrost modes, the engine will run con- or similar, drive system with a Torsen center differential,
tinuously and not shut down during normal stop-start front driveshaft and drive axle, and adaptive torque distribu-
conditions. Late-model vehicles have a high-voltage tion capabilities is used.
electric compressor. The use of an electric compressor Power for the electric motor comes from a 288V,
allows the A/C to run anytime it is necessary, with the 1.7 kWh NiMH battery pack. In electric only mode, the
engine on or off. vehicles can be driven up to 30 mph and for about 1.2 miles.
An engine management system monitors the driving con-
4WD ditions and SOC of the battery. Based on these inputs, it
Unlike the Toyotas with 4WD, the Escape and Mariner controls the engine and the motor.
hybrids did not have a separate motor to drive the rear The vehicles have a clutch between the motor and the
wheels. Rather, these wheels were driven in a conventional engine. This clutch provides a coasting feature that disen-
way with a transfer case, rear driveshaft, and a rear axle gages the engine and motor from the driveline when the
assembly. The 4WD system was fully automatic and had a vehicle is operating with no-load and at speeds below
computer-controlled clutch that engaged the rear axle 99 mph. This saves fuel by removing the engine’s drag on
when traction and power at the rear are needed. The sys- the driveline while coasting, such as when going down hills.
tem relies on inputs from sensors located at each wheel The driver can manually disengage the clutch by press-
and the accelerator pedal, the system calculates how much ing the “E Power” button. This disconnects the engine
torque should be sent to the rear wheels. By monitoring from the rest of the powertrain and allows the motor to
these inputs, the control unit can predict and react to wheel power the vehicle by itself. This feature only works when
slippage. It can also make adjustments to torque distribu- the vehicle is moving at less than 53 mph and for only
tion when the vehicle is making a tight turn; this elimi- about one mile. After that, the battery’s charge is too low to
nates any driveline shutter that can occur when a 4WD maintain the speed and the engine starts to propel the
vehicle is making a turn. vehicle.
When the motor functions as a generator, it will charge
the battery when the engine is in part-throttle mode and
PORSCHE AND VOLKSWAGEN through regenerative braking. A battery management and
HYBRIDS cooling system monitors the battery’s temperature to pro-
The same basic hybrid system is used in the Porsche Cay- tect it from overheating. It also monitors the charge/
enne, Porsche Panamera (Figure 35–53), and Volkswagen discharge processes.
Touareg. The main difference between the various models Systems that are usually driven by the engine, such as
is defined by the vehicle’s intended purpose and the body the A/C, power steering, and power brake, operate solely
style. All are equipped with an Audi supercharged 3.0L V6 on electricity. Since they do not rely on the engine, they
engine. An electric motor is placed between the engine remain active when the car is running in electric mode or
and an eight-speed automatic transmission. The engine when it is coasting with the engine turned off.
and motor offer a maximum combined output of 380 hp
and 428 lb-ft. of torque at 1,100 rpm. They are rated as VW Jetta Hybrid
super-low ULEVII vehicles by CARB. The Jetta takes a similar approach to other VW hybrids in
that it connects the engine to the transmission with an
electric motor. The engine, in this case, is a turbocharged
engine connected to a 7-speed DSG automatic transmis-
sion. The use of a dual-clutch transmission is a first for a
hybrid. The DSG uses a dry clutch pack, which reduces
weight and improves efficiency by eliminating the power
losses that come from the constant need to lubricate a wet-
clutch or fill a torque converter.
The water-cooled 20 kW motor is rated at 27 hp with
114 lb-ft. torque and when combined with the engine,
170 hp and 184 lb-ft. of torque are available. Power for the
electric motor is supplied by a 60-cell, 1.1-kWh Li-Ion bat-

tery pack located behind the rear seat. Like other VW
Group hybrids, this system uses a clutch to decouple the
engine from the drivetrain. This allows the engine to shut
off and the car to coast on electricity at speeds up to
84 mph. Also, the driver can select an electric-only mode
Figure 35–53 A Porsche Panamera hybrid. to provide for gasoline- and emission-free operation for

Figure 35–54 A VW diesel powered plug-in Figure 35–56 The ISAD assembly used in
hybrid. Hyundai and Kia hybrids.
up to 1.2 miles and a maximum of 44 mph. VW is also drive motor also serves as a generator for regenerative
using this system in a diesel powered plug-in hybrid braking.
(Figure 35–54). The system also has an 8.5 kW BAS motor driven by
the engine's crankshaft. This unit does not assist the
HYUNDAI AND KIA HYBRIDS engine, rather it only provides for the stop-start operation
The Hyundai Sonata Hybrid (Figure 35–55) can go up to of the engine. The engine is an Atkinson cycle 2.4-liter
75 mph propelled only by its electric motor. It has an EPA four-cylinder. The electric motor is powered by a 270V,
estimated fuel economy of 36 mpg in the city and 40 mpg 1.4-kilowatt, 72-cell Li-Poly battery pack. There is also a
on the highway. The combined power of the engine and conventional 12-volt battery for 12-volt systems.
electric motor for this parallel hybrid is 206 hp and
195 lb-ft. of torque. KIA Optima Hybrid The Optima Hybrid uses the same
The electric motor (Figure 35–56) is sandwiched 2.4 liter four-cylinder Atkinson cycle engine and electric
between the engine and a six-speed automatic transmis- motor found in the Sonata hybrid. The ISAD-type motor
sion. The motor, called a transmission-mounted electrical is connected to the engine and the six-speed automatic
device (TMED), replaces a conventional torque converter. transmission by a wet clutch. The motor can provide up to
The TMED is composed of two main assemblies: a 40 hp 40 hp and 151 lb-ft. of torque. Electrical power is supplied
electric drive motor and a solenoid-activated clutch pack. by an air-cooled 270V Li-Poly battery. The car is capable of
The clutch allows the power from the engine, the electric reaching about 62 mph in its full-electric mode. The EPA
motor, or both to pass through the transmission. The has rated the Kia’s fuel economy at 35 mpg in the city and
40 mpg on the highway.
NISSAN/INFINITI HYBRIDS
In an Infiniti M hybrid, (Figure 35–57) the electric motor
is sandwiched between the engine and a 7-speed automatic
transmission. The engine can power the car with or with-
out electrical assist. The 67 hp, 346V motor can power the
car, assist the engine, start the engine, and serve as a gen-
erator. The engine and electric motor combine to produce
about 360 hp. The car is EPA rated at 27 mpg in the city
and 32 mpg on the highway.

The hybrid system, called “Infiniti Direct Response
Hybrid,” uses technologies developed for the Nissan Leaf
electric vehicle, including the lithium-ion battery and elec-
tric motor. A 1.4-kilowatt Li-Ion battery pack is located
under the trunk’s floorboard. The battery pack is com-
Figure 35–55 A Hyundai Sonata hybrid. posed of laminated-cells to improve battery cooling.

Figure 35–57 An Infiniti M-series hybrid.
Infiniti uses a single motor/generator, two clutches, Figure 35–58 A look under the hood of a
and a standard seven-speed automatic transmission with BMW Active Hybrid.
no torque converter. The system is also called a parallel 37 mph. Electrical power is also available to assist the engine
two-clutch (P2) system. The first of the two clutches is a during heavy acceleration and heavy loads. The hybrid has
dry clutch located between the engine and the motor. This both brake regeneration and auto start-stop systems.
clutch can couple and decouple the engine from the motor. The BMW X6 and 7 Series ActiveHybrids combines an
This allows the engine to shut down anytime the accelera- engine with two electric motors inside a transmission.
tor pedal is released, such as during deceleration and This transmission was co-developed with General Motors
coasting. The clutch eliminates the need for a torque con- and the old DaimlerChrysler and is commonly referred to
verter and allows the full decoupling and shutting down as a two-mode transmission. The transmission used in this
the engine when there is adequate battery energy to power hybrid is a seven- or eight-speed automatic that operates as
the vehicle solely by electricity. an electronic continuously variable transmission.
The second clutch is a wet clutch at the rear of the trans- The transmission has two synchronous AC motors,
mission that allows the engine to turn the motor/generator three planetary gearsets and four sets of multi-disc
to charge the batteries with the vehicle stationary. clutches. The two electric motors serve as either a genera-
Nissan's last hybrid was the Altima, which used the tor to charge the HV battery pack or power the hybrid with
Toyota hybrid system and was only available in very lim- up to 91 hp. In all-electric driving, the hybrid can reach up
ited markets. The Altima Hybrid was ultimately discontin- to 37 mph and travel about 1.6 miles.
ued. Future Altima Hybrids will use a system similar to The transmission has two primary modes of operation:
that used in the Infiniti M. low and high speed. In each of these modes, one motor
powers the hybrid while the other works as a generator.
BMW HYBRIDS This is called the power split drive mode and allows the
Several different BMW models are currently available as powertrain to run at continuously variable speeds to
hybrids. The technology used in the models varies. BMW’s 3 achieve maximum efficiency regardless of load or speed.
and 5 Series ActiveHybrids are full hybrids (Figure 35–58). To operate the transmission, the hybrid uses an HV battery
A 54 hp (40 kW) electric motor is sandwiched between the pack, a power electronics unit with an integrated inverter,
engine and an eight-speed transmission. The electric motor and high-voltage cables.
replaces the conventional starter and a belt-driven generator. The intelligent energy management system consists of
When the motor is a generator, it recharges the battery the Li-Ion battery, a 12-volt battery, and two on-board net-
mounted below the floor in the trunk. works. There is a separate network for each of the power
The engine in the 3 and 5 Series hybrids is BMW’s sources, but they are wired in parallel to each other. The
TwinPower Turbo, inline six-cylinder engine. The engine’s 12-volt network contains all of the necessary components
efficiency (fuel economy and performance) is enhanced by to operate and control the 12-volt systems in the car. The
the incorporation of the twin scroll turbocharger with Val- high-voltage network not only delivers to and receives
vetronic, double-VANOS, and high-precision fuel injec- high voltage from the motors, it also is used to operate
tion. The engine and motor can provide a combined power and control other high-voltage systems, such as the air-
output of 340 hp and 295 lb-ft. of torque. conditioning compressor.
A 120-volt Li-Ion battery is used and the car can move A 312V NiMH battery pack with a capacity of 2.4 kWh
in the all-electric mode for up to a maximum speed of is installed in the rear of the vehicles. The battery pack is
liquid cooled and works with the A/C system or the power- drive hybrid. The electric motor powers the front drive
steering cooling system to control the battery’s tempera- axles and the engine powers the rear wheels. The com-
ture. If the battery’s temperature rises too much, the system bined power output of 349 hp should move the car from 0
will automatically turn on the A/C system. A control unit to 60 mph in less than 5 seconds while providing at least
is part of the battery pack and constantly monitors current 80 MPGe.
battery and power levels. The body sits on an aluminum structure called the
The engine is a 4.4-liter, V8 engine with TwinPower “DriveCell.” Through the center of which is a liquid-cooled
turbo technology, piezo direct fuel injection, and the 7.2 kWh Li-Ion battery. Having the battery in this central
Double-VANOS variable valve timing system. The total position allows the car to have a low center of gravity,
available power output is 480 hp with 575 lb-ft. of torque. which enhances its handling.
BMW i Concepts MERCEDES-BENZ HYBRIDS

BMW has developed a number of “i” concept cars. They The Mercedes-Benz M- and S-classes have, for years,
use the prefix “i” for all vehicles that use electricity for offered buyers a choice of hybrid and diesel-powered vehi-
mobility. Some of these concepts are series-type hybrids, cles. The ML450 relies on two electric motors and a 275 hp
others are pure electric vehicles. 3.5L V6 Atkinson cycle gasoline engine to achieve an esti-
mated 21 mpg around town and 24 mpg on the highway.
i3 Concept The BMW i3 (Figure 35–59) is an extended This vehicle is classified as a full hybrid. Each of the motors
range EV powered by a 125 kW (168 hp) electric motor is integrated into a two-mode transmission (Figure 35–60).
that offers an 80 to 100 mile electric driving range. The i3 The two-mode transmission was developed with other
body, based on the 1 Series BMW, sits on an aluminum manufacturers and is commonly referred to as a two-mode
structure and in the center of the structure is a liquid- transmission. Each electric motor has a specific purpose.
cooled 32 kWh lithium-ion battery pack. The traction The motor positioned on the output shaft of the trans-
motor is mounted to the front of the rear axle. To serve as mission has the primary purpose of moving the vehicle on
a range extended, there is a 2-cylinder 600-cc gasoline gen- electric power only. The second motor, located closer to the
erator that can recharge the battery pack while driving. engine, provides the needed assist to the engine when needed.
An intelligent liquid heating/cooling system keeps the During parking and low speeds, the SUV runs on the electric
battery at its optimal operating temperature at all times, drive only. The motors are powered by a liquid-cooled, 288-
which helps to significantly boost the performance and life volt NiMH battery pack located under the rear cargo floor.
expectancy of the cells. The battery can be fully recharged in The S400 is classified as a mild hybrid. It has the Atkin-
4 hours using an installed outlet. If a DC-fast charger is used, son cycle 3.5L V6 engine used in the ML450. This was the
an 80 percent charge can be achieved in around 30 minutes. first hybrid to use a Li-Ion battery. The battery powers a
20 hp electric motor. The motor/generator is contained
i8 Concept The i8 Concept is a plug-in hybrid that com- within the torque converter housing, between the engine
bines an electric drive system, fitted over the front axlewith and transmission. Other than assisting the engine during
a three-cylinder engine producing about 220 hp (164 kW) times of need, the motor also helps to dampen drivetrain
and 221 lb-ft. (300 Nm) at the rear. The i8 is an all-wheel noise and vibration.

Figure 35–60 A two-mode transmission

Figure 35–59 BMW’s i3 concept hybrid. connected to a Mercedes-Benz V6 engine.
The 120-volt Li-Ion battery is located in the engine drive a normal operating model. These vehicles offer a unique
compartment. The battery is housed in a high-strength driving experience, and it is difficult to say what is working
steel assembly with a separate cooling circuit, and its cells correctly if you do not have firsthand seat experience.
are separated by a gel that dampens jolts and vibrations.
The 120-volt motor is designed to provide a large amount Safety Issues
of torque during acceleration. Hybrid systems rely on very high voltages. Always follow
Since current flow to and from the battery can be as the correct procedures for disarming the high-voltage sys-
high as 150 amps, the battery has its own cooling circuit. In tem before performing any service on or near the high-
addition, a transformer in the right front wheel generates voltage circuits. This is important for all services, not just
power to recharge the traditional 12-volt battery located in electrical. Air-conditioning, engine, transmission, and
the vehicle’s trunk. body work can require services completed around and/or
It is important to note that since the oil pumps of most with high-voltage systems. If there is any doubt as to
transmissions are engine-driven, an electric auxiliary oil whether something has high voltage or not, or if the circuit
pump is used to ensure the transmission is properly pres- is sufficiently isolated, test it before touching anything.
surized and lubricated when the engine is off. High-voltage circuits are identifiable by size and color.
The cables have thicker insulation and are colored orange.
E400 Hybrid The connectors are also colored orange. On some vehi-
Mercedes recently released the E400 hybrid. The hybrid cles, the high-voltage cables are enclosed in an orange
system used in this car is similar to the one used in the shielding or casing; again the orange indicates high volt-
S-series. However, the E400 is considered a full hybrid and age. In addition, the high-voltage battery pack battery and
is capable of traveling over a half mile on electricity alone. other high-voltage components have “High Voltage” cau-
A 27 hp electric motor is placed between a 302 hp, direct- tion labels (Figure 35–61). It is important to remember
injection, 3.5-liter V6 and seven-speed automatic trans- that high voltage is also used to power some vehicle acces-
mission. The car also has its 0.8-kWh Li-Ion battery under sories. Avoid all orange colored cables, connectors, and
the hood, next to the engine. wires unless you have disconnected the high-voltage
power source and know what you are doing.
MAINTENANCE AND SERVICE
Hybrid vehicles are maintained and serviced in much the Precautions
same way as conventional vehicles, except for the hybrid ■ Always precisely follow the correct procedures. If a
components. The latter includes the high-voltage battery repair or service is done incorrectly, an electrical shock,
pack and circuits, which must be respected when doing fire, or explosion can result.
any service on the vehicles. Manufacturers list the recom- ■ Systems may have a high-voltage capacitor that must
mended service intervals in their service information discharge after the high-voltage system has been iso-
and owner’s manuals. Nearly all of the items are typical of lated. Make sure to wait the prescribed amount of time
a conventional vehicle. Care needs to be taken to avoid (about 10 minutes) before working on or around the
anything orange while carrying out the maintenance high-voltage system.
procedures.
Chapter 8 for guidelines on performing pre-

ventive maintenance on a hybrid vehicle.
For the most part, actual service to the hybrid system is

not something that is done by technicians unless they are
certified to do so by the automobile manufacturer. Diag-
nosing the systems varies with the manufacturer, although

certain procedures apply to all. Keep in mind that a hybrid
has nearly all of the basic systems as a conventional vehicle
and they are diagnosed and serviced in the same way.
Before performing any maintenance, diagnosis, or service
on a hybrid vehicle, make sure you understand the system
found on the vehicle and try to experience what it is like to Figure 35–61 A high-voltage warning label.
■ Move the key and/or key fob a good distance away

from the vehicle before starting any service.
■ After removing a high-voltage cable, cover the termi-
nal with vinyl electrical tape.
■ When working on or near the high-voltage system,
even when it is de-powered, always use insulated tools.
■ Never leave tools or loose parts under the hood or close
to the battery pack. These can easily cause a short.

■ Never wear anything metallic, such as rings, necklaces,
watches, and earrings, when working on a hybrid
vehicle.
■ Alert other technicians that you are working on the
high-voltage systems with a warning sign such as
“high-voltage work: do not touch.”
■ Keep in mind that the engine can start and stop on its Figure 35–62 Blow up an insulated glove
own if it is left in the idle stop mode. Make sure the and attempt to roll it up to check its integrity.
READY light in the instrument panel is OFF.
■ If the vehicle needs to be towed into the shop for be stored in their natural shape and protected from
repairs, make sure it is not towed on its drive wheels. physical damage, in a cool, dark, and dry location.
Doing this will drive the generator(s) to work, which Keep in mind; these insulating gloves are special gloves
can overcharge the batteries and cause them to explode. and not the thin surgical gloves you may be using for other
Always tow these vehicles with the drive wheels off the repairs. You should never expose these gloves to petroleum
ground or move them on a flat bed. products. Degreasers, detergents, and hand soaps may
■ In the case of a fire, use a Class ABC powder type contain petroleum and should not come in contact with
extinguisher or very large quantities of water. the gloves. Also, to protect the integrity of the insulating
gloves, as well as you, while doing a service, wear leather
■ When checking for trouble codes, if DTC P3009 or
gloves over the insulating gloves (Figure 35–63). However,
P0AA6 are present, make sure you use caution when
never use the leather gloves without the insulating gloves
working on the HV system. P0AA6 indicates there is
when working on HV systems.
decreased resistance in the HV insulation and DTC
P3009 suggests there is a short in the HV circuit.
Buffer Zone When working on a high-voltage system, it
is best to keep anyone who is not part of the service away
Gloves from you and the car. This can be accomplished by creat-
Always wear safety gloves during the process of de-powering a buffer zone around the car. The outside edges of the
ing and powering the system back up again. These gloves zone should be at least three feet away from the car.
must be class “0” rubber lineman’s gloves; rated at
1,000 volts. The condition of the gloves must be checked
before each use. Make sure there are no tears or signs of
wear. All gloves, new and old, should be checked before
they are used (Figure 35–62).
Chapter 6 for more information on hybrid

vehicle tools.
The insulated gloves must be sent out for testing and

recertified by an accredited laboratory every 6 months. If
recertification is not possible, new gloves should be pur-
chased. After recertification, the laboratory marks the date Figure 35–63 A pair of lineman’s gloves
of certification on each rubber glove. Used gloves should covered with leather work gloves.

Figure 35–65 Most hybrid engines require
the use of a very light engine oil.
Figure 35–64 A fiberglass safety

hook.

Orange cones should be placed to define the outer bound-
aries of the zone. If the vehicle is sitting unattended, it
should be marked off with “do not enter” tape, along with
the cones.
Safety Hook If a “hot” high-voltage cable is loose and you

cannot safely turn off the power to it, use a fiberglass reach Figure 35–66 A coolant reservoir for an
pole and hook (Figure 35–64) or a dry board to move or inverter.
remove the wire. The reach pole can also be used to push
or pull someone away from the wire. Special coolants are required in most hybrids because
the coolant not only cools the engine, but also cools the
Maintenance inverter assembly. Cooling the inverter is important, and
The engines used in hybrids are modified versions of checking its coolant condition and level is an additional
engines found in other models offered by the manufac- check during preventative maintenance (Figure 35–66).
turer. Other than fluid checks and changes, there is little The cooling systems used in some hybrids feature electric
maintenance required on these engines. However, there is pumps and storage tanks. The tanks store heated coolant
less freedom in deciding the types of fluids that can be and can cause injury if you are not aware of how to
used and the parts that can replace the original equip- carefully check them. The battery cooling system may
ment. Hybrids are not very forgiving. Always use the exact need to be serviced at regular intervals. There is a filter
replacement parts and the fluids specified by the in the ductwork from the outside of the vehicle to the
manufacturer. battery box. This filter needs to be periodically changed.
Typically, the weight of the engine oil used in a hybrid If the filter becomes plugged, the temperature of the
is very light (Figure 35–65). If the weight is increased, it is battery will rise to dangerous levels. In fact, if the com-
possible that the computer system will see this as a prob- puter senses high temperatures it may shut down the
lem. This is simply caused by the extra current needed to system.
turn over the engine. If the computer senses very high- A normal part of preventative maintenance is check-
current draw while attempting to crank the engine, it will ing the power steering and brake fluids. Some power-
open the circuit in response. steering systems have a belt-driven pump, some have an
electrically-driven pump, and others have a pure electric

and mechanical steering gear. Each variety requires
different care; therefore always check the service infor-
mation for specific information before doing anything to PROCEDURE
these systems. Also, keep in mind that some hybrids use
1. Remove the key from the ignition switch. If the
the power-steering pump as the power booster for the vehicle has a “smart” key, turn the smart key sys-
brake system. tem OFF. This may be done by applying pressure
to the brake pedal while depressing the start but-
Batteries ton for at least two seconds. If the READY lamp
Most hybrids have two separate battery packs. One is goes off, continue. If it does not, diagnose the
the high-voltage pack and the other is a 12-volt battery problem before continuing.
(Figure 35–67). The high-voltage battery pack supplies 2. Disconnect the negative (−) terminal cable from
the auxiliary 12-volt battery. This should turn the
the power to start the engine, assist the engine during
high-voltage system off, but does not complete
times of heavy load, and in full hybrid it supplies the the de-powering process.
energy to move the vehicle without the engine’s power. 3. Move the carpeting from the floor in the trunk or
The battery pack is the one that is most associated with the rear of the vehicle.
the hybrid system. The 12-volt battery is associated 4. Make sure you are wearing insulated gloves and
with the rest of the vehicle, such as the lights, accesso- reach in at the location of the disconnect plug at
ries, and power equipment. The 12-volt battery also the battery box.
supplies the power for the electronic controls that mon- 5. Unlatch the lever on the plug and pull the lever
itor and regulate the operation of the hybrid system. If down. Then remove the service plug from the bat-
this power source is not working correctly, the hybrid tery module.
system will not. Therefore, this low-voltage power 6. Put the service plug in your toolbox or elsewhere
source should never be ignored when working on a to prevent others from reinstalling it before the
hybrid or a conventional system. system is ready or while you are working on the
vehicle.
The procedure for de-powering and isolating the high-
7. Put electrical insulating tape over the service plug
voltage system is very important and not very difficult.
connector.
However, each manufacturer has its own procedure that
8. Wait at least 5 minutes before proceeding or
must be followed in the order presented. Make sure you doing any work on or around the high-voltage
are following the correct procedure for the specific vehicle system.
you are working on. With the correct information and fol- 9. Prior to handling any high-voltage cable or part,
lowing the procedures, you can safely work on a hybrid check the voltage at the terminals. There should
vehicle. The following procedure has steps common to be less than 12 volts.
many hybrid vehicles but is not specific to any manufac- 10. If a high-voltage cable must be disconnected for
turer or model and should not be used in place of the cor- service, wrap its terminal with insulating tape to
rect service procedures. prevent a possible short.
11. When the service plug is reinstalled, make sure its
handle is in the upright position; failure to do this
may result in a loose plug that may set DTCs.
Because of the advanced electronics in hybrids, steps

must be taken after reconnecting or installing a battery.
The regenerative braking system needs to relearn the ini-
tial position of the brake pedal. After the battery is recon-
nected, slowly depress and release the brake pedal one
time. The engine also needs to relearn its idle and fuel trim
strategy. If this is not done immediately after reconnecting

the battery, the engine will idle and run poorly until it sets
up its strategy. A typical procedure begins with turning off
all accessories and starting the engine. The engine is idled
until it reaches normal operating temperature, then it
should be allowed to run at idle for 1 minute. After that
Figure 35–67 This warning label states time, the air conditioning is turned on and the engine
there are two separate batteries. again is allowed to idle for at least 1 minute. Now the
vehicle should be driven for about ten miles. All manufac- household wall outlet; this allows the battery to receive a
turers have their own sequence for doing this, so be sure to full charge in 10 to 12 hours. The charger is located in the
follow their procedure. trunk along with the tire emergency repair kit. One end of
the charger’s cord has a fuel nozzle type plug that fits into a
Recharging Recharging the high-voltage battery pack is charge port located on the left side of the car.
best done by the vehicle itself; however, there are times When the charging plug is connected and all is well, the
when it may be necessary to recharge the battery in the green indicators on the charger will illuminate. If the red
shop. Doing this is not a typical procedure. Chances are indicators are flashing, the battery cannot be charged. A
your shop will not have the correct charger. For example, flashing red light can mean one of the following: the AC volt-
many hybrid batteries require a special charger that is not age is out of range, the AC outlet does not have a proper safety
sold to its dealerships. If there is a need for one, the dealer- ground, or there is a fault in the charge cord or charger.
ship must contact the regional office and have one delivered
and only someone from that office is allowed to operate it. Jump-Starting If the vehicle will not start, several things can
This charger has the normal connections plus a cable to be the cause. Like conventional vehicles, it must have fuel
power the battery’s cooling system. The charger is designed and there must be ignition, intake air, compression, and
to bring the battery pack to a 40 to 50 percent state-of- exhaust. Before proceeding with a no-start diagnosis, make
charge within 3 hours. This is enough to start the vehicle sure the immobilizing system is working properly. If the aux-
and allow the engine to bring the battery back to full charge. iliary or high-voltage battery is discharged, the engine will
not start nor will the vehicle be able to operate on electric
PHEV Charging Methods All plug-in hybrids have a spe- power only. Manufacturers have built in ways to jump-start
cific procedure for recharging the battery. Normally the these vehicles, if and when the batteries go dead. The basic
battery pack can be charged by a 120- or 240-volt outlet. connection from a booster battery to the dead battery is the
The required charger can be built into the battery pack or same but the connecting points may be different and there
connected externally. For example, a Volt is equipped with are certain precautions to consider when jump-starting.
a 120-volt charger (Figure 35–68) that plugs into a There are also separate procedures for jump-starting with
the low- and high-voltage systems. Some hybrids have a con-
trol that must be activated before attempting to jump-start it.
Battery Cooling System Filter Normally, the battery has

its own cooling system. The control module monitors the
temperature of the cells and activates fans and/or the rear
air-conditioning system when the temperature rises. The
cooling system draws in outside air. Within the ductwork
for that vent, there is an air filter that requires periodic
replacement. If the filter is dirty or restricts airflow, the
battery can overheat.
Diagnostics
It is important that you have good information when diag-
nosing driveability problems. The problem can be caused
by the hybrid system, engine, or transmission. Determining
which system is at fault can be difficult. On some hybrids, it
is possible to shut down the hybrid system and drive the
vehicle solely by engine power. On others, such as the Toy-
ota and Ford hybrids, this is not possible. If electric power
can be shut off and the vehicle still drives poorly, the prob-
lem is the engine or transmission. If it is not possible to shut
down either power source, your diagnosis must be based on
the symptom and information retrieved with a scan tool.

With hybrids, it is often difficult to control the opera-
tion of the hybrid system so certain tests can be conducted.
Ford has built into its control system, two scan tool con-
trollable modes for diagnostics. The engine cranking mode
allows the engine to crank without the engine starting.
Figure 35–68 The Chevrolet Volt has an During this mode, the TCM orders the starter/generator to
auxiliary 120V battery charger in its trunk. rotate the engine at 900 to 1,200 rpm.

Figure 35–69 An example of some of the
displays and warning lamps on a hybrid vehicle. Figure 35–70 A CAT III DMM is a must for
diagnosing the high-voltage systems.
Ford also offers a running diagnostic mode. In this

mode, the engine will run until it is ordered to stop by the
scan tool or the ignition is turned. In normal operation, the
engine will not idle for very long without being shut down
by the system. Therefore when diagnostics require that the
! WARNING!
When using a CAT III or CAT IV meter, make
engine is idling, the engine running mode allows for this. sure the meter’s leads are also rated for high
All warning lamps in the instrument panel should be voltage. Also, make sure the meters’ probes
checked (Figure 35–69). If any of these remain on after the have safety ridges or finger positioners. These
engine is started, the cause should be identified and cor- help prevent physical contact between your
rected before continuing with diagnosis. Lastly, a scan tool fingers and the probes.
should be used to retrieve any fault codes held in the com-
puter’s memory. In many cases, a manufacturer-specific
scan tool is required to test hybrids. Follow the prescribed Another valued tool during diagnosis is an insulation
sequence for retrieving and responding to all diagnostic resistance tester. This meter is not one commonly used by
trouble codes (DTCs). automotive technicians, but should be for anyone who
The scan tool also allows for some active tests that might service a damaged hybrid vehicle, such as doing
enable you to excite or disable certain outputs so their oper- body repair. These meters check for voltage leakage from
ation can be monitored. These “inspection modes” can the insulation of the high-voltage cables (Figure 35–71).
crank the engine to conduct a compression test, turn the Minor leakage can cause hybrid system-related driveabil-
traction control on and off, and turn the inverter on and ity problems. This meter should also be a CAT III meter.
off. The value of these modes is the ability to isolate sys- To check the insulation, the approximate system volt-
tems, which will definitely help in diagnosis. The scan tool age should be selected on the meter and the probes placed
is also used to reset or calibrate the electric motor’s rotor. at their test position. The meter is measuring the insula-
tion’s effectiveness and not its resistance. The meter will
Test Equipment
To test high-voltage systems you need a DMM (Figure
35–70) and, of course, a good pair of insulating gloves.
Although the high-voltage system can be isolated from
the rest of the vehicle, high voltage is still at and around the
battery pack and inverter.

The DMM used to diagnose a hybrid vehicle is not
the same meter you would use on a conventional vehicle.
The meter used on hybrids, electric vehicles, and fuel-cell
vehicles must be classified as a category 3 or 4 (CAT III
or CAT IV) meter. There are four categories for low-
voltage electrical meters, each built for specific purposes Figure 35–71 An insulation resistance tester
and to meet certain standards. Low voltage, in this case, (megger meter) is used to check the insulation of
means voltages less than 1,000 volts. high-voltage cables.
display the voltage it detects and any voltage is not good
and the cable should be carefully examined.
Air Conditioning
Most hybrids are equipped with air-conditioning systems
with either a belt-driven or an electrically powered A/C
compressor. The electrical units are powered by high volt-
age and all precautions should be taken to work safely with
these units. Always wear lineman’s gloves when inspecting

or servicing high-voltage air-conditioning systems.
The refrigerant oil used in all electrically operated
compressors must meet the specifications given by the
manufacturer. In nearly all cases, the oil is synthetic and
non-conductive and able to insulate the various electrical
parts of the compressor from each other. The most
common is Polyvinyl ether (PVE) oil. The use of the regu- Figure 35–72 This is what can happen to a
lar refrigerant oil (PAG) can cause the destruction of the compressor if the wrong refrigerant oil is used.
compressor (Figure 35–72).

REPAIR ORDER
Year: 2005 Make: Toyota Model: Prius Mileage: 101,054 RO: 16412
Concern: Customer recently had tires rotated and brakes checked. She was told there is a
problem with the brakes due to rust buildup on the brake rotors.
The technician confirms that there is rust buildup on the rotors and that the pads and brake shoes show minimal
wear. Knowing that the Prius uses regenerative braking, the brake pads and shoes experience less wear than other
vehicles.
Cause: Checked brakes, pad and shoe lining thicknesses near nominal. Brakes operating
normally.
Correction: Inspection of the brakes reveals no problems with the brake system. Talked to
customer about how the regenerative brake system operates and that it is normal for
surface rust to build up on the brake rotors until a hard stop occurs. Instructed
customer to perform a couple hard stops each week to make sure the rust is
removed from the rotor surfaces.
KEY TERMS SUMMARY

Belt alternator starter Lineman’s gloves ■ Any vehicle that combines two or more sources of
(BAS) Plug-in hybrid power is called a hybrid. Current HEVs have a gasoline
Category 3 or 4 (CAT III electric vehicles engine and one or more electric motors.
or CAT IV) (PHEVs) ■ In a series hybrid, the engine never directly powers the
Extended range EV Polyvinyl ether vehicle.
Full hybrid (PVE) oil
■ Many hybrid vehicles are parallel types and rely on
Insulation resistance tester Resolver
power from an electric motor and the engine.
Integrated starter Two-mode hybrid
alternator damper system ■ A series-parallel hybrid can run on just the engine, just
(ISAD) the batteries, or a combination of the two.
■ Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are full ■ The basic components and operation of Ford’s hybrid
hybrids with larger batteries. system are very similar to what is found in Toyota
■ Regenerative braking is the process that allows a vehi- hybrids; however, each manufacturer uses a unique
cle to recapture and store part of the kinetic energy that design to accomplish the same thing.
would ordinarily be lost during braking. ■ Porsche Cayenne, Porsche Panamera, Volkswagen
■ A controller looks at inputs from various sensors to Jetta, and Volkswagen Touareg hybrids are based on an
determine the operating conditions of the vehicle and ISAD system.
manages the flow of electricity to control the speed of ■ The Hyundai Sonata and Kia Optima hybrids have an
the motor. electric motor sandwiched between the engine and
■ An inverter is a power converter that changes the high transmission and a BAS unit for stop-start.
DC voltage of the battery to a three-phase AC voltage ■ The Infiniti M hybrid is also a basic ISAD system but
for the electric motors. has two clutches; one is a dry clutch located between
■ The Belt Alternator/Starter System (BAS) replaces the the engine and the motor and the other is a wet clutch
traditional starter and generator in a conventional located at the rear of the transmission.
vehicle and is connected to the engine’s crankshaft by a ■ BMW’s 3 and 5 Series ActiveHybrids are based on the
drive belt. ISAD system.
■ The integrated starter alternator damper (ISAD) sys- ■ The BMW X6 and 7 Series ActiveHybrids use the two-
tem replaces the conventional starter, generator, and mode hybrid system.
flywheel with an electronically controlled compact
■ The Mercedes-Benz M hybrid is based on a two-mode
electric motor housed in the transmission’s bell hous-
transmission.
ing between the engine and the transmission.
■ The Mercedes-Benz S hybrid is a mild hybrid with an
■ A power-split unit has a planetary gearset and two elec-
ISAD. The same platform is used in their E400 full hybrid.
tric motors and is capable of instantaneously switching
from one power source to another or combining the two, ■ Hybrid systems rely on very high voltages. Always fol-
while functioning as a continuously variable transaxle. low the correct procedures for disarming the high-
voltage system and pay strict attention to the stated
■ Some hybrid systems are based on the presence of one
precautions before performing any service on or near
or more motors inside a conventional transmission.
the high-voltage circuits.
■ Some 4WD hybrids use an electric motor, differential,
■ Always wear lineman’s gloves rated at 1,000 volts dur-
and rear transaxle housing to drive the rear wheels.
ing the process of de-powering and powering the sys-
■ HEV air-conditioning systems are identical to those tem back up again.
used in a conventional vehicle, except a high-voltage
■ The condition of the gloves must be checked before
motor may be used to rotate the compressor.
each use. Make sure there are no tears or signs of wear.
■ The Chevrolet Volt and Cadillac ELR are called
extended range EVs but can be also classified as series ■ When working on a high-voltage system, keep anyone
or plug-in hybrids. who is not part of the service away from you and the
car by creating a visual buffer zone around the car.
■ General Motors eAssist system is based on a BAS sys-
tem and can provide additional torque to the driveline ■ If a “hot” high-voltage cable is loose and you cannot
during heavy loads. safely turn off the power to it, use a fiberglass reach
pole and hook or a dry board to move or remove the
■ A two-mode full hybrid system fits into a standard wire. The reach pole can also be used to push or pull
transmission housing and has three planetary gearsets someone away from the wire.
coupled to two AC synchronous 60 kW motor/genera-
tors. This results in a continuously variable transmis- ■ The cooling system in many hybrids is comprised of
sion and motor/generators for hybrid operation. several independent cooling loops; each of these must
be maintained.
■ Most Honda hybrids use an ISAD system, called the
Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) system in which a small ■ Recharging the high-voltage battery pack is best done
efficient engine in a vehicle and the power deficiencies by the vehicle itself; however, there are times when it
of the engine are overcome by the electric motor. may be necessary to recharge the battery in the shop.
To do this, a special charger is required.
■ Toyota’s approach to hybridization is a combination of
series and parallel hybrid platforms. The system relies ■ To test high-voltage systems you need a CAT III DMM.
on two electric motor/generators, a power-split trans- ■ An insulation resistance tester should be used to check
axle, and a high-voltage battery. the effectiveness of all HV cables.
15. Which of the following is the least likely to decrease
REVIEW QUESTIONS fuel consumption of a hybrid vehicle?
1. What are the basic components of a belt alternator a. Low-rolling resistance tires
starter hybrid system? b. Increased aerodynamic drag
2. What are the main reasons that a mild hybrid con- c. Stop-start systems
sumes less fuel than a conventional vehicle? d. Lighter and less powerful engines
3. Which of the following statements about the high-
voltage circuits in a Honda Hybrid is NOT true?
a. All of the high-voltage cables are covered in
orange sleeves for easy identification.
b. You should always follow the disarming of the
ASE-STYLE
high-voltage systems before performing any ser- REVIEW QUESTIONS
vice work on or near the high-voltage circuits.
1. Technician A says an insulation resistance tester mea-
c. There is a main switch on the instrument panel sures voltage. Technician B says an insulation resis-
that is used to disconnect the battery module from tance tester measures the effectiveness of a wire’s
the rest of the car. insulation. Who is correct?
d. There are three large capacitors in the MDM that a. Technician A only
will take at least 5 minutes to discharge after the
b. Technician B only
switch is turned off.
c. Both A and B
4. The Prius PHEV offers many advantages over the
basic Prius, how is that possible? d. Neither A nor B
5. In a Toyota Prius, what members of the planetary 2. When working on a high-voltage system, it is best to
gearset are connected to the motor/generators and keep anyone who is not part of the service away from
the engine? you and the car by creating a buffer zone around the
car. Technician A makes sure the outside edges of the
6. True or False? All hybrids that have an electric motor
zone are at least one foot away from the car. Techni-
inside the transmission have at least two.
cian B places orange cones to define the outer bound-
7. True or False? The Hyundai Sonata Hybrid uses BAS aries of the zone. Who is correct?
and ISAD systems.
a. Technician A only
8. List five commonsense rules that should be followed
when working on a hybrid vehicle.
c. Both A and B
9. After isolating the high-voltage system, what is the
minimum time you should wait before beginning to d. Neither A nor B
work on or around the hybrid system? 3. Technician A says a mild hybrid has stop-start, regen-
a. 1 hour erative braking, and electric motor assist available
when the engine needs added power to overcome the
b. 30 minutes
load. Technician B says a full hybrid has stop-start,
c. 15 minutes regenerative braking, electric motor assist, and can be
d. 5 minutes driven by only electricity. Who is correct?
10. How often must insulated lineman’s gloves be tested a. Technician A only
and recertified? b. Technician B only
11. Nearly all hybrids have less powerful engines than c. Both A and B
typical non-hybrids. What feature of a hybrid pro-
d. Neither A nor B
vides power to allow the engine to overcome heavy
loads? 4. Technician A says diesel engines can be used in a hybrid
powertrain. Technician B says a gasoline engine is nor-
12. What is the purpose of a typical inverter?
mally used in hybrid powertrain. Who is correct?
13. On hybrids with a separate cooling system for the
inverter and other electronics, what needs to happen
if air is trapped in the cooling system? b. Technician B only
14. During diagnostics, the DTC P3009 is displayed, c. Both A and B
what does this indicate? d. Neither A nor B
5. While discussing working on hybrid vehicles: Techni- 8. Technician A says PVE refrigerant oil is commonly
cian A says to make sure that the high-voltage system recommended for electric A/C compressors. Techni-
is shut down and isolated from the vehicle before cian B says PAG refrigerant oil can be used in many
working near or with any high-voltage component. electric A/C compressors. Who is correct?
Technician B says that when working on or near the a. Technician A only
high-voltage system, even when it is de-powered,
always use insulated tools. Who is correct?
c. Both A and B
d. Neither A nor B
9. Technician A says Ford hybrid SUVs with 4WD have
c. Both A and B
an additional motor in the rear axle. Technician B
d. Neither A nor B says Ford’s Energi models are plug-in hybrids. Who is
6. While discussing the DC-DC converter used in most correct?
hybrids: Technician A says that it changes some of the a. Technician A only
DC voltage from the battery module to an AC voltage
for the electric motors. Technician B says that it pro-
vides the power to operate the car’s 12-volt electrical c. Both A and B
system and accessories. Who is correct? d. Neither A nor B
a. Technician A only 10. While discussing the other classifications for the
b. Technician B only extended EV, the Chevy Volt: Technician A says it can
be called a plug-in hybrid. Technician B says it can be
c. Both A and B
called a parallel hybrid. Who is correct?
d. Neither A nor B
7. While discussing regenerative braking: Technician A
says the regenerative system can completely stop the
vehicle in order to generate a maximum amount of c. Both A and B
electricity. Technician B says since most hybrids are d. Neither A nor B
FWD vehicles, the rear wheels are designed to claim
the most kinetic energy. Who is correct?
c. Both A and B
d. Neither A nor B
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Automotive Technology: A Systems Approach

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AUTOMOTIVE

Three Cs: Concern, Cause, Correction

D iagnosing nearly every system of a vehicle involves

© Cengage Learning 2015

© Cengage Learning 2015

Figure 16–3 A short to ground. + –

© Cengage Learning 2015

Total power used by the

nents of a circuit are connected.

Solid color been shown in earlier discussions. Other common sym-

given in a wiring diagram; a sample of these is shown in

Tan TAN T TN nector without the seal.

SYMBOLS USED IN WIRING DIAGRAMS

Positive T Temperature switch

© Cengage Learning 2015

Figure 16–10 Common electrical symbols used on wiring diagrams.

BLK BLK BLK BLK BLK BLK

The broken line means

Tells when there is

Figure 16–11 Examples of the information contained in a typical wiring diagram.

Scan Tools perform other diagnostic functions depending on the year

Amp connector Locking wedge connector

Blade connector Internal locking finger connector

Figure 16–12 Various multiple wire hard shell connectors.

© Cengage Learning 2015

or may not display a trouble code. However, a problem will

the computer be carefully looked at. This is done by

Other Test Equipment

Figure 16–16 An example of the data shown on a scan tool.

Jumper wire Switch

© Cengage Learning 2015

Figure 16–17 A testlight will illuminate when

Computer Memory Saver Whenever a vehicle’s battery

Memory savers that plug into the OBD II DLC connect

© Cengage Learning 2015

© Cengage Learning 2015

Figure 16–20 Backprobing tools. Figure 16–22 An analog multimeter.

SHOP TALK DIGITAL MULTIMETER Display

The DMM used on high-voltage systems in %

ries for electrical meters, each built for specific HZ

purposes and to meet certain standards. The cat- mV

egories define how safe a meter is when measur- V

categories are defined by the American National

© Cengage Learning 2015

© Cengage Learning 2015

© Cengage Learning 2015

© Cengage Learning 2015

WARNING! Volts Amps/

measurement with a decimal point. Make sure ∼

used by the meter (Figure 16–28). A reading

© Cengage Learning 2015

Figure 16–30 Correctly connected to a circuit, a DMM

12V 12V 12V 12V 12V

Figure 16–31 Checking available voltage at

© Cengage Learning 2015

P 13–3 To measure the voltage drop of the entire

P 13–5 Turn on the headlights (low beams) and observe

The total circuit resistance (including the unwanted

© Cengage Learning 2015