CHAPTER ONE

1.0. Introduction

A pavement is a structure consisting of super imposed layers of processed materials above the

natural soil subgrade whose primary function is distribute the applied vehicular loads to the

subgrade. The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface with acceptable riding

quality, adequate skid resistance, favorable light reflecting characteristics and low noise

pollution.

The ultimate aim of any pavement is to ensure that the transmitted stress due to wheel load is

sufficiently reduce, so that they will not exceed bearing capacity of the subgrade.

Pavement can be classified based on the structural performance into two; flexible pavement and

rigid pavement.

The flexible pavement having less flexural strength, act like flexible sheets (e.g. bituminous

road). On the contrary, in rigid pavement, wheel loads are transferred to subgrade by flexural

strength of the pavement and the pavement acts like a rigid plate (example is a concrete cement

road).

The selection of these pavement are strictly base on the function of which the pavement are

going to serve, the types of vehicle that are going to ply the pavement and lastly, the construction

and maintenance cost of the pavement are also likely to be considered.

Road pavement failure is the situation by which distress (defects) develop in the pavement under

the combined effect of traffic loading and environmental condition. This usually happens, when

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the applied load exceed the maximum allowable value. Therefore a road pavement failure is any

indication of poor or unfavorable pavement performance or sign f impending failure. Any

unsatisfactory performance of a pavement is termed failure.

Every vehicle which passes over a road, causes a momentary very small, but significant

deformation of the road pavement structure, the passage of many vehicle has a cumulative effect

which gradually leads to permanent deformation and road surface deterioration which is

technically term pavement failure, and this failure may include rutting, cracking, potholes,

bleeding, revering, stripping, corrugating water bleeding, pumping etc.

1.1 Background of Study

The Zungeru – Minna road is a two (2)-lane, two (2)-carriage way. A flexible pavement structure

that consist of asphalt surface constructed on stabilized subgrade. The section of the road under

which the investigation is being carried out begins from the Zungeru junction to kilometer fifty

seven (57km) of the highway section. The road was constructed in 1986 by Trapco Construction

Company (TCC) and further maintenance and repairs are carryout on the road by federal road

maintenance agency (FERMA)

1.2 Statement of Research Problem

Road failure has become a major problem in Nigeria as well as most other tropical and

subtropical countries. The most disturbing aspect is that even new roads constructed experience

failure at different points in less than six (6) months or about a year. Most of road constructed in

Nigeria within the last ten years or so attest to this. The government as well as the users of the

roads get disturbed about the rate of failure of these roads, especially when so much money was

2
spent on the construction of such roads. The replacement value of road network in Nigeria at

2001 price was estimated at between N3.5 billion to 4,5 billion the cost of constructing or

rehabilitating a kilometer of road (50mm thick asphalt overlay) will range between N35 million

(thirty five million naira) and N80 million (eighty million naira) depending on the condition of

the road. Several reasons have been attributed to these failure some of which include the use of

low quality materials and poor job quality. (Adams et, al: 2014)

This research is therefore aimed at investigation into the possible causes of pavement failure

along Zungeru-Minna road.

1.3.1 Aim And Objectives

1.3.1 Aim

The major goal of this thesis is to investigate into the causes leading to the deterioration (failure)

of Zungeru-Minna road and the remedial approach to ameliorate the current situation of this

road.

1.3.2 Objectives

1. Conduct a reconnaissance survey to determine the existing condition of the road.

2. Conduct soil and engineering survey to establish the design parameter for the road.

3. Carryout the geometric and structural design of the road based on the established design

parameters

4. Investigating the adequacy and inadequacy of the drainage system in the roadway.

5. Make recommendation method of alternating the problem by redesigning.

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1.4 Justification of the Research

The outcome of this research work shall help to determine the causes of failure along Zungeru-

Minna road and as well reduce the possibility of premature pavement failure, incorporating the

finding of the study to recommend the state of art procedure for the execution of road

construction in Zungeru local government area as a whole.

1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Project.

The Scope of this work shall be limited to investigation into the causes of pavement failure along

Zungeru-Minna road, therefore the research work shall involve carrying out the following:

 Soil sampling which include collection of sample from three different failure point of the

road

 Soil investigation which include carrying several test on the samples collected from the

failure point among which are; sieve analysis test, atterberg limit test, compaction test,

natural moisture content test and California bearing ratio test (CBR) test.

 Traffic volume count which was carried out for 12hours for 7days manually.

 Structural redesign of the pavement which shall not include geometry survey due to some

unavoidable circumstances.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature Review

2.1. Introduction

Pavement is an engineering structure placed on the natural soil and designed to withstand the

traffic loading and the action of the climate with minimal deterioration and the most economical

way (Hudson et al; 2003)

Highway pavement are divided into two main categories, rigid and flexible pavement. The

wearing surface of a rigid pavement usually is constructed of Portland cement concrete such that

it act like a beam over any irregularities in the underlying supporting material. The wearing

surface of flexible pavement on the other hand, usually constructed of bituminous surface

underlying materials such that they remain in contact with underlying material even when

irregularities occur. Flexible pavement usually consist of bituminous surface underlay with layer

of granular material and a layer of suitable mixture of coarse and fine materials. Traffic loads are

transferred by the wearing surface to the underlying supporting materials, through the

interlocking of aggregate, the frictional effect of granular materials, and cohesion of fine

materials.

Flexible pavement are further divided into three subgroups; high type, intermediate type, and low

type. High type pavement have wearing surface that adequately support the expected traffic load

without visible distress due to fatigue and are not susceptible to weather condition. Intermediate

type pavement have wearing surface that range from surface to those with qualities just below

5
that of high type pavements. Low type pavements are used mainly for low-cost roads and have

wearing surface that range from untreated to surface treated earth (Nicholas and Jester, 2009)

2.2 Structural Component of Flexible Pavement;

The performance of the pavement depends on the satisfactory performance of each component

separately.

 Subgrade (Prepared Road Base):

The subgrade is usually the natural material located along the horizontal alignment of the

pavement and serves as the foundation of the pavement structure. It also may consist of a layer of

selected borrow materials. Well compacted to prescribed specification. It may be necessary to

treat the subgrade materials to achieve certain strength properties required for the type of

pavement being constructed. (Nicholas and Jester, 2009)

 Sub-base Course:

Located immediately above the subgrade, the sub-base component consist of materials of a

superior quality to that which is generally used for subgrade construction. The requirement for

sub-base materials usually are given in terms of gradation, plastic characteristics, and strength.

When the quality of the subgrade materials meet the requirement of the sub-base, sub-base

components may be omitted. (Nicholas and Jester, 2009)

 Base Course

The base course lies immediately above the sub-base. It is placed immediately above the

subgrade if the sub-base is not used. This course usually consist of granular materials such as

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crushed gravel, stones, crushed or uncrushed slag, crushed or uncrushed gravel and sand. The

specification for the base course materials usually include more strict requirement than those for

sub base materials, particularly with respect to their plasticity, gradation and strength. Materials

that do not have the required properties can be used as a base material if they are properly

stabilized with Portland cement. (Nicholas and Jester 2009).

 Surface Course.

The surface course is the upper of the road pavement and is constructed immediately above the

base course. The surface course in flexible pavement usually consist of mixture of mineral

aggregate and asphalt. It should capable of withstanding high tire pressure, Resisting abrasive

due to traffic, providing a skid resistance driving surface and preventing the penetration of

surface water into the underlying layers. The thickness of the wearing surface can vary from 3in.

to more than 6in. depending on the expected traffic on the ;pavement

2.3 Flexible Pavement Design.

The pavement designer must develop the most economical combination of layer that will

guarantee adequate dispersion of the incident wheel stresses so that each layer in the pavement

does not become over stressed during the design life of the pavement.

The major variable in the design of highway pavement are;

 The thickness of each layer in the pavement.

 The material contained in each layer of the pavement.

 The volume of traffic predicted to use the highway over it design life.

 The strength of the underlying subgrade soil (Leornard, 1983)

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2.4 Traffic Count

Traffic volume studies are conducted to collect data on the number of vehicles and/or pedestrians

that pass a point on a highway facility during a specified time period. This time period varies

from as little as 15 minutes to as much as a year depending on the anticipated use of the data.

The data collected also may be put into subclasses which may include directional movement,

occupancy rates, vehicle classification, and pedestrian age. Traffic volume studies are usually

conducted when certain volume characteristics are needed, some of which follow:

2.4.1 Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT)

Is the average of 24-hour counts collected every day of the year, AADTs are used in several

traffic and transportation analyses for:

a. Estimation of highway user revenues

b. Computation of crash rates in terms of number of crashes per 100 million vehicle miles

c. Establishment of traffic volume trends

d. Evaluation of the economic feasibility of highway projects

e. Development of freeway and major arterial street systems

f. Development of improvement and maintenance programs

2.4.2 Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

Is the average of 24-hour counts collected over a number of days greater than one but less than a

year. ADTs may be used for:

a. Planning of highway activities

b. Measurement of current demand

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c. Evaluation of existing traffic flow

2.4.3 Peak Hour Volume (PHV)

Is the maximum number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway during a period of 60

consecutive minutes. PHVs are used for:

a. Functional classification of highways

b. Design of the geometric characteristics of a highway, for example, number of lanes,

intersection signalization, or channelization

c. Capacity analysis

d. Development of programs related to traffic operations, for example, one-way street systems or

traffic routing

e. Development of parking regulations

2.4.4. Vehicle Classification (VC)

Records volume with respect to the type of vehicles, for example, passenger cars, two-axle

trucks, or three-axle trucks. VC is used in:

a. Design of geometric characteristics, with particular reference to turning-radii requirements,

maximum grades, lane widths, and so forth

b. Capacity analyses, with respect to passenger-car equivalents of trucks

c. Adjustment of traffic counts obtained by machines

d. Structural design of highway pavements, bridges, and so forth

2.4.5. Methods of Conducting Volume Counts

Traffic volume counts are conducted using two basic methods: manual and automatic.

A description of each counting method follows.

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2.4.5.1 Manual Method

Manual counting involves one or more persons recording observed vehicles using a counter.

With this type of counter, both the turning movements at the intersection and the types of

vehicles can be recorded. Note that in general, the inclusion of pickups and light trucks with four

tires in the category of passenger cars does not create any significant deficiencies in the data

collected, since the performance characteristics of these vehicles are similar to those of passenger

cars. In some instances, however, a more detailed breakdown of commercial vehicles may be

required which would necessitate the collection of data according to number of axles and/or

weight. However, the degree of truck classification usually depends on the anticipated use of the

data collected.

2.6 Pavement Failure

Pavement failure (premature road pavement failure) occurs when it can no longer perform the

traditional functions of carrying vehicles and people from one location to another in safety and

comfort before the anticipated design life. Failure is therefore define as an unacceptable

difference between the expected life and observed performance (Leornard, 1982).

Usually premature failure of road pavement result in frequent road accidents with loss of life and

properties, high transportation cost for vehicles and discomfort to motorist.

Moreover, there is high government budgeting and spending on road construction, reconstruction

and maintenance.

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Premature failure of road pavement are generally attributed to the poor design, incorporating of

poor to marginal materials, poor workmanship and lack of quality control and assurance program

during construction.

Pavement failure are very common feature of Nigeria roads, after few years of performance and

often before altering the design age. These roads are continuously reconstructed or rehabilitated

without any effort made to identify factors responsible for their perpetual failure. Pavement

failure can either be functional (surface pavement failure) or structural (deep-seated pavement

failure)

Kumar and Ankit (1999), defines pavement failure in term of decreasing serviceability caused by

the development of cracks, and nuts. There are many factors that can influence the performance

of highway pavement structure and these include; geology, geomorphological, geotechnical

design, materials selection, construction practice and maintenance and use factor.

Many studies have been carried out on flexible pavement design in general and its failure in

particular.

Adewoye et al. (2004) used environmental observation in addition to geotechnical test to study

the causes of non-uniform occurrence of deformation features on highway pavement in

Ogbomosho Township. It was concluded that the observed localized failure is primarily due to

shallow ground water level.

Adeyemi and Oyeyemi (2000) examine the geotechnical basis for future of section of Lagos-

Ibadan express way South Western Nigeria. The authors concluded that the unstable zone are

more mechanically stable than those beneath the stable zone hence opined that mechanical

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properties cannot be used to precede the stability of road pavement and recommended that

further investigation of geotechnical properties of many subgrade soils as possible is undertaken

in order to elucidate the influence of geotechnical an d geological factors.

Oladeji et, al; (2001) appraise the cause of pavement failure along the Ilesa Akure highway south

western Nigeria using remotely sense and geotechnical data concluded that the geological future

may have acted as zone of weakness that enhance the accumulation of water leading to pavement

failure. Several authors have carried out different solution approach in ameliorating most of these

pavement failure.

2.6.1 Common Causes of Pavement Deterioration.

The main causes of deterioration resulting into failure of road pavement are as follows;

 The action of traffic with heavy goods vehicles having the greatest detrimental effect.

The predominant cause of deformation in due to vertical deformation in the wheel tracks.

Every vehicles that passes over a pavement induces transient strains in the pavement

layers and the subgrade, the magnitude of these transient strain will vary greatly

according to the magnitude of the wheel loads and the effect of the temperature and

moisture condition on the stress strain properties of the pavement materials and subgrade

at the time of application of the load. When a transient strain due to wheel load exceeds a

certain critical value in one or more of the pavement layers or subgrade, small non-

recoverable strains remains in that layer after the vehicle has passed. The accumulation of

these minute strains appears first as cracks and later as potholes and other surface

deficiencies include

 The action of weather (rain and heat)

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  Unstable ground condition and poor drainage

 Construction material methods

 Post construction activities like digging of trenches along the road, dumping of refuse and

building materials and other obstruction on the road. Uncontrolled Street trading.

 Poor workmanship

 Inadequate maintenance.

Accurate prediction rate of deterioration of roads is important in road management system to

ensure efficient prioritization and for setting budget levels (Adam and Adetoro 1985). Road

pavement deteriorate under the combine action of traffic loading and environmental thus

reducing the quality of ride (Kayali, 1989)Useful models should be able to quantify the

contribution of relevant variables such as strength of pavement materials, traffic and

environmental conditions to pavement deterioration (Komolafe, 2006).

2.6.2Common Major Flexible Pavement Distresses and Solutions.

2.6.2.1 Fatigue (Alligator) Cracking

These are series of interconnected cracks caused by fatigue failure of the asphalt under repeated

traffic loading. This failure is an indicator of structural failure and allow moisture infiltration. It

may further deteriorate to potholes. The structural support which can be caused by decrease in

pavement load supporting characteristics.

Characteristics that caused alligator of fatigue cracking include the following.

 Loss of base, sub-base or sub-grade support (e.g. poor drainage)

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  Increase in loading (e.g. heavier than anticipated in design life).

 Inadequate structural design.

 Poor construction (e.g. inadequate compaction)

Possible Solution for Fatigue (Alligator) Cracking.

The small localized fatigue can be repaired by removing the cracked pavement area then dig out

improved and replaced the area of poor subgrade and improve the drainage of that area if

necessary and patch over the repaired subgrade.

Similarly, large fatigue cracked area can be repaired by placing asphalt overlay over the entire

pavement surface. This overlay must be strong enough structurally to carry the anticipated

loading because the underlying fatigue cracked pavement most likely contributed little or no

strength (Adrox and Wood, 2002).

2.6.2.2 Potholes

Generally potholes are the end result of alligator cracking. As alligator cracking become severe,

the interconnected cracks create small chunks of pavement which can be dislodged as vehicles

drive over them. The remaining holes after the pavement chunks dislodged is called potholes.

2.6.2.3 Longitudinal Cracking

These are cracks parallel to the pavements centerline or laydown direction. They are usually type

to fatigue cracking so as for solution should be refer to the general solution to fatigue (alligator

cracking).

2.6.2.4 Depression

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These are localized pavement surface area with slightly lower elevation than the surrounding

pavement. Depression are very noticeable after rain when they are filled with water. Depression

are caused by subgrade settlement resulting from inadequate compaction during construction.

Possible Solution for Depression

They can be repaired by removing the affected area of the pavement then digging out and

replacing the area of poor subgrade.

2.6.2.5 Rutting

Rutting is caused by pavement deformation in any of a pavement layer or subgrade. Usually

caused by consolidation or lateral movement of the material due to traffic loading.

Specific causes of rutting can be;

1. Insufficient compaction of asphalt layer during construction.

2. Subgrade rutting (e.g. as a result of inadequate pavement structure.

3. Improper mixed design or manufacture (e.g. excessively high asphalt content, excessive

mineral filler, insufficient amount of angular aggregate particles

Possible Solution for Rutting

A heavily rutted pavement should be leveled and overlaid with asphalt but a slight rutted

pavement can be generally be left untreated.

2.7. Effect of Traffic Load Estimation on Pavement.

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The intention of various design procedure is to provide a means to arrive at a suitable structural

configuration of pavement to last the expected traffic loading.

Traffic loading is the primary input for pavement design life by various methods. The reliability

of a pavement design and performance process is the probability that pavement section design

using the process will perform satisfactory over the environmental condition for the design

period (AASHTO 1962).

Traffic on a road pavement is characterized by a large number of different vehicles types and

these can be considered in pavement design by using trucks factors to transform the damage they

applied by a standard axle or the load equivalent factors to standard axles are defined by

considering the average loads for each axles. This process include the vehicles that travel with

axle load above maximum legal limit. There are also a substantial number of overloaded vehicles

in term of total vehicle weight (Mulei et, al; 2002).

2.8. Pavement Maintenance

Public facilities did not last longer due to lack of maintenance. This shoes that without a strong

maintenance culture infrastructural development will amount to nothing.

Oladeji (2001) is of view that understanding the importance of project sustainability will mean

incorporating long term facility management agreement in all major project. He went further that

Nigeria was lifted with laudable but failed project due to lack of maintenance culture.

The phrase maintenance could therefore be seen as an important one that should be define to

have a proper understanding of what it stands for in the process of pavement construction and

sustenance.

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Adrox and wood (2002) defined maintenance as “the work that is done regularly to keep a

machine, building or piece of equipment in good condition” he explained further that

maintenance is the combination of action carried out to an item in or to restore the item to an

acceptable condition. The word maintenance to Mulei et al; (2002) means preserving and

keeping in good order as near as possible in their original state.

By implication, maintenance means keeping in good order and shape all objects of development

that are of benefit to the people.

In order to ensure proper planning for maintenance, there is need to categorize the options

available for maintenance activities.

a. Routine maintenance: this consist of operations that normally need to be repeated

one or more time every year. E.g. crack sealing, seal coats and repairs to shoulders

b. Recurrent maintenance: these activities may be required at intervals throughout the

year, the frequency varies with traffic, topography and climate, they include repairing

potholes. Surface patching, edge repairs and road surface makings.

c. Periodic maintenance: as a pavement is subjected to significant traffic and ageing

process progress. Sufficient distress occurs. These activities are required to maintain

acceptable safety adequate drainage and adequate riding surface and retard the future of

gravel road resurfacing of bituminous surface dressing and paved road.

d. Urgent or special maintenance work: these include removal of debris, fallen trees,

broken down vehicles, erection of warning signs and construction of diversion. They

must be carried out with minimum delay to avoid danger to traffic (road maintenance

e. guide, 2004)

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2.9. Pavement Maintenance Techniques

2.9.1. Crack Treatment

a. Crack sealing- a localized treatment method used to prevent water and debris from entering

cracks. A crack sealing involve blowing out the debris in the crack or using saw or router to

create reservoir, then filling with a sealant. Cracks that are sealed are usually less than ¾

inches wide.

Many international highway maintenance agencies include crack sealing as part of their

preventive maintenance program. Sealing crack is asphalt surface road helps prevent

moisture from infiltrating the pavement structure. This moisture weakens the structural

subsurface layers and is primarily the cause of pavement deterioration.

b. Crack filling- crack filling differs from crack sealing, mainly in the preparation given to

crack prior to treatment and the type of sealant used. Crack filling is most often reserved for

more won pavement width wider than ¾ inches.

c. Full depth crack repair- is a localized treatment method to repair crack that are too

deteriorate to benefit from sealing. This procedure requires few materials among which are

asphalt emulsion for tack and hot mixed asphalt. It requires more equipment like the milling

machine, vacuum or skid loader, trucks with mixer, roller and truck with trailers. (Nicholas

and Jester, 2009).

Sequence- the process of full depth crack repairs include

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 1. Mill out the crack

2. If needed use skid loader to remove milling from the road way

3. Vacuum out the reservoir

4. Tack the reservoir with asphalt emulsion.

5. Place hot mix into the reservoir.

6. Compact the reservoir with roller.

2.9.2 Surface Treatment

Surface treatment include sealing the existing asphalt pavement surface with asphalt and in some

cases the following that application with an aggregate if additional friction is required.

a. Seal coat- a seal coat is an application of asphalt followed immediately with aggregate

cover. Application with two layers are referred to double chip seal. Rapid setting asphalt

emulsion are normally used when placing a seal coat. Seal coat can water-proof the surface

provide low severity crack sealing and restore surface friction.

Sequence- the following are steps involve in carrying out seal coat.

1. Sweep the exiting surface to clean and remove loss debris.

2. Apply the asphalt bind with distribution.

3. Apply covered aggregate using cheap propelled spreader.

4. Roll the chip sealed surface with pneumatic tyred roller. Five or more passes should be

a goal.

5. Sweep excess chips as soon as possible without damaging the seal.

b. Thin Hot-mix overlay- thin hot-mix asphalt (HMA) overlays are blends of aggregate

and asphalt cement.

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Three types of hot mix asphalt (HMA’s) have been used in road maintenance viz;

 Dense graded HMA

 Open graded HMA and

 Gap graded (stone matrix asphalt)

Dense graded mix- this hot asphalt mix is the most common mix used. Its great impermeability

characteristic allow water to run away from surface area. The name come from the aggregate

sizes used while mixing the raw material to produce the asphalt composition. It can also be sub-

divided as fine graded or coarse graded depending on the majority of the aggregate in the final

product.

Open graded mix- the difference from the dense grade is the permeability characteristics. This

hot mix asphalt is design only with crushed stones and small amount of sands in the mix. The

most common types are open graded friction coarse. This mix is only used for surface course. It

has a smoother surface finish than the dense graded.

Potholes patching and repairs

Patches are appropriate for repairing alligator cracks, potholes from failed patches and utility

cuts and rutting

2.9.3 The three types of potholes patches are

1. Permanent pothole patch-; this is used on pavement that is in good condition and has a

relatively long life expectancy and when agency resources ar available to do the work.

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2. Semi-permanent pothole patch-; used as pro –active measure to keep a small potholes from

turning into major failure.

The procedure for semi-permanent potholes is similar to permanent patching but the pavement is

not rectangular.

3. Temporary potholes patch-; used when there is a pothole that could damage vehicles. That

needs to patch immediately but is not realistic to close the roadway.

2.9.4 Application of patching.

a. Cold mixed asphalt-; a cold is mixed asphalt is a mixture of mineral aggregate and

emulsified or cutback asphalt and additive to repair fatigue pavement and potholes when hot

mix is not available. Also use for temporary patches. It is normally used on poor climatic

condition but it can be used at any time. The expected life of cold mix asphalt is one year

b. Hot mixed asphalt -; is heated mixture of mineral aggregate and asphalt cement produced in

a hot mix plant. It is appropriate for repairing isolated area of alligator cracking. Potholes,

failed patches or utility cut. This types of patches typically last from three to six years. If

done correctly with proper preparation hot mix patches can last for fifteen years and its

application is limited by availability of hot mix asphalt to complete the patching.

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.1 Methodology

3.2 Soil Sampling:

Disturb soil sample are collected from three (3) points of failure labelled as sample “A, B, and

C” the sample are collected and parts of the sample are collected in a polythene bag for the

purpose of determining the natural moisture content of the soil samples. And the remaining are

save and transported to the civil engineering soil laboratory for tests to be carried out on the

sample.

3.3 Natural Moisture Content Test

Aim- This test is performed to determine the water (moisture) content of soils. The water content

is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the mass of “pore” or “free” water in a given mass of

soil to the mass of the dry soil solids.

Apparatus: Drying oven, Balance, Moisture can, Gloves, Spatula.

Test Procedure:

(1) Record the moisture can and lid number. Determine and record the mass of an empty, clean,

and dry moisture can with its lid (MC)

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(2) Place the moist soil in the moisture can and secure the lid. Determine and record the mass of

the moisture can (now containing the moist soil) with the lid (MCMS).

(3) Remove the lid and place the moisture can (containing the moist soil) in the drying oven that

is set at 105 °C. Leave it in the oven overnight.

(4) Remove the moisture can. Carefully but securely, replace the lid on the moisture can using

gloves, and allow it to cool to room temperature. Determine and record the mass of the moisture

can and lid (containing the dry soil) (MCDS).

(5) Empty the moisture can and clean the can and lid.

Data Analysis:

(1) Determine the mass of soil solids.

MS = MCDS −MSC

(2) Determine the mass of pore water.

MW = MCMS −MCDS

Mw
(3) Determine the water content. w= ×100
Ms

3.3 Atterberg limit test

Aim- This test is performed to determine the plastic and liquid limits of a fine grained soil. The

liquid limit (LL) is arbitrarily defined as the water content, in percent, at which a part of soil in a

standard cup and cut by a groove of standard dimensions will flow together at the base of the

groove for a distance of 13 mm (1/2in.) when subjected to 25 shocks from the cup being dropped

10 mm in a standard liquid limit apparatus operated at a rate of two shocks per second. The

plastic limit (PL) is the water content, in percent, at which a soil can no longer be deformed by

rolling into 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) diameter threads without crumbling.

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Apparatus: Liquid limit device, Porcelain (evaporating) dish, Flat grooving tool with gage,

Eight moisture cans, Balance, Glass plate, Spatula, Wash bottle filled with distilled water, drying

oven set at 105°C.

Test Procedure:

Liquid Limit:

(1) Take roughly 3/4 of the soil and place it into the porcelain dish. Assume that the soil was

previously passed through a No. 40 sieve, air-dried, and then pulverized. Thoroughly mix the soil

with a small amount of distilled water until it appears as a smooth uniform paste.

(2) Weigh four of the empty moisture cans with their lids, and record the respective weights and

can numbers on the data sheet.

(3) Place a portion of the previously mixed soil into the cup of the liquid limit apparatus at the

point where the cup rests on the base. Squeeze the soil down to eliminate air pockets and spread

it into the cup to a depth of about 10 mm at its deepest point. The soil pat should form an

approximately horizontal surface

(5) Use the grooving tool carefully cut a clean straight groove down the center of the cup. The

tool should remain perpendicular to the surface of the cup as groove is being made.

24
(6) Make sure that the base of the apparatus below the cup and the underside of the cup is clean

of soil. Turn the crank of the apparatus at a rate of approximately two drops per second and

count the number of drops, N, it takes to make the two halves of the soil pat come into contact at

the bottom of the groove along a distance of 13 mm (1/2 in.)

(7) take a sample, using the spatula, from edge to edge of the soil part. The sample should

include the soil on both sides of where the groove came into contact. Place the soil into a

moisture can cover it. Immediately weigh the moisture can containing the soil, record it’s mass,

remove the lid, and place the can into the oven. Leave the moisture can in the oven for at least 16

hours. Place the soil remaining in the cup into the porcelain dish. Clean and dry the cup on the

apparatus and the grooving tool.

(8) Remix the entire soil specimen in the porcelain dish. Add a small amount of distilled water to

increase the water content so that the number of drops required to close the groove decrease.

(9) Repeat steps six, seven, and eight for at least two additional trials producing successively

lower numbers of drops to close the groove. One of the trials shall be for a closure requiring 25

to 35 drops, one for closure between 20 and 30 drops, and one trial for a closure requiring 15 to

25 drops. Determine the water content from each trial.

Plastic Limit:

(1) Weigh the remaining empty moisture cans with their lids, and record the respective weights

and can numbers on the data sheet.

(2) Take the remaining 1/4 of the original soil sample and add distilled water until the soil is at a

consistency where it can be rolled without sticking to the hands.

25
(3) Form the soil into an ellipsoidal mass. Roll the mass between the palm or the fingers and the

glass plate. Use sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter. The thread

shall be deformed so that its diameter reaches 3.2 mm (1/8in.), taking no more than two minutes.

(4) When the diameter of the thread reaches the correct diameter, break the thread into several

pieces. Knead and reform the pieces into ellipsoidal masses and re-roll them. Continue this

alternate rolling, gathering together, kneading and re-rolling until the thread crumbles under the

pressure required for rolling and can no longer be rolled into a 3.2 mm diameter thread.

(5) Gather the portions of the crumbled thread together and place the soil into a moisture can,

then cover it. Immediately weigh the moisture can containing the soil, record its mass, remove

the lid, and place the can into the oven. Leave the moisture can in the oven for at least 16 hours.

(6) Repeat steps three, four, and five at least two more times. Determine the water content from

each trial by using the same method used in the first laboratory. Remember to use the same

balance for all weighing.

Analysis:

Liquid Limit:

(1) Calculate the water content of each of the liquid limit moisture cans after they have been in

the oven for at least 16 hours.

(2) Plot the number of drops, N, (on the log scale) versus the water content (w). Draw the best-fit

straight line through the plotted points and determine the liquid limit (LL) as the water content at

25 drops.

26
Plastic Limit:

(1) Calculate the water content of each of the plastic limit moisture cans after they have been in

the oven for at least 16 hours.

(2) Compute the average of the water contents to determine the plastic limit, PL. Check to see if

the difference between the water contents is greater than the acceptable range of two results (2.6

%).

(3) Calculate the plasticity index, PI=LL-PL. Report the liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity

index to the nearest whole number, omitting the percent designation.

3.4. Compaction Test

Aim: This laboratory test is performed to determine the relationship between the moisture

content and the dry density of a soil for a specified compactive effort.

Apparatus: Molds, Manual rammer, Extruder, Balance, Drying oven, mixing pan,

Trowel, #4 sieve, Moisture cans, Graduated cylinder, Straight Edge.

Test Procedure:

(1) Obtain a sufficient quantity of air-dried soil in large mixing pan.

(2) Determine the weight of the soil sample as well as the weight of the compaction mold with its

base (without the collar) by using the balance and record the weights.

(3) Compute the amount of initial water to add by the following method:

27
(a) Assume water content for the first test to be 8 percent.

(b) Compute water to add from the following equation:

(soil mass∈gram)8
Water to add (in ml) =
100

(4) Measure out the water, add it to the soil, and then mix it thoroughly into the soil using the

trowel until the soil gets a uniform color.

(5) Assemble the compaction mold to the base, place some soil in the mold and compact with 25

blows per layer of exactly 4

(6) The soil should completely fill the cylinder and the last compacted layer must extend slightly

above the collar joint. If the soil is below the collar joint at the completion of the drops, the test

point must be repeated.

(7) Carefully remove the collar and trim off the compacted soil so that it is completely even with

the top of the mold using the trowel. Replace small bits of soil that may fall out during the

trimming process

(8) Weigh the compacted soil while it’s in the mold and to the base, and record the mass.

Determine the wet mass of the soil by subtracting the weight of the mold and base.

(9) Remove the soil from the mold using a mechanical extruder and take soil moisture content

samples from the top and bottom of the specimen. Fill the moisture cans with soil and determine

the water content.

28
(10) Place the soil specimen in the large tray and break up the soil until it appears visually as if it

will pass through the # 4 sieve, add 2 percent more water based on the original sample mass, and

re-mix as in step 4. Repeat steps 5 through 9 until, based on wet mass, a peak value is reached

followed by two slightly lesser compacted soil masses.

Analysis:

(1) Calculate the moisture content of each compacted soil specimen by using the average of the

two water contents.

(2) Compute the wet density in grams per cm3 of the compacted soil sample by dividing the wet

mass by the volume of the mold used.

(3) Compute the dry density using the wet density and the water content determined in step 1.

ρ
Use the following formula: Pd
i+ w

Where: w = moisture content in percent divided by 100, and ρ = wet density in grams per cm3.

(4) Plot the dry density values on the y-axis and the moisture contents on the x-axis. Draw a

smooth curve connecting the plotted points.

(5) On the same graph draw a curve of complete saturation or “zero air voids curve”. The values

of dry density and corresponding moisture contents for plotting the curve can be computed from

the following equation:

3.5 Sieve Analysis Test

29
Aim- This test is performed to determine the percentage of different grain sizes contained within

a soil

Apparatus- Balance, Set of sieves, Cleaning brush, Sieve shaker, Mixer (blender), 152H Timing

device.

Test procedure-

(1) Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be used in the analysis.

(2) Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.

(3) Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the ascending order of sieve

numbers (#4 sieve at top and #200 sieve at bottom). Place the pan below #200 sieve. Carefully

pour the soil sample into the top sieve and place the cap over it.

(4) Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10 minutes.

(5) Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and record the weight of each sieve

with its retained soil. In addition, remember to weigh and record the weight of the bottom pan

with its retained fine soil.

Data Analysis:

(1) Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve by subtracting the weight of the empty sieve

from the mass of the sieve + retained soil, and record this mass as the weight retained on the data

sheet. The sum of these retained masses should be approximately equals the initial mass of the

soil sample. A loss of more than two percent is unsatisfactory.

(2) Calculate the percent retained on each sieve by dividing the weight retained on each sieve by

the original sample mass.

30
(3) Calculate the percent passing (or percent finer) by starting with 100 percent and subtracting

the percent retained on each sieve as a cumulative procedure

(4) Make a semi logarithmic plot of grain size vs. percent finer.

(5) Compute Cc and Cu for the soil.

3.6 California Bearing Ratio Test

Aim- This test method is used for determining the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of soils

 Apparatus- Mould, Steel Cutting collar, Spacer Disc, Surcharge weight, Dial gauges, IS

Sieves, Penetration Plunger, Loading Machine, Miscellaneous Apparatus

Test Procedure:

 Normally 3 specimens each of about 7 kg must be compacted so that their compacted

densities range from 95% to 100% generally with 10, 30 and 65 blows.

 Weigh of empty mould

 Add water to the first specimen (compact it in five layer by giving 10 blows per layer)

 After compaction, remove the collar and level the surface.

 Take sample for determination of moisture content.

 Weight of mould + compacted specimen.

 Place the mold in the soaking tank for four days (ignore this step in case of unsoaked

CBR.)

 Take other samples and apply different blows and repeat the whole process.

 After four days, measure the swell reading and find %age swell.

31
 Remove the mould from the tank and allow water to drain.

 Then place the specimen under the penetration piston and place surcharge load of 10lb.

 Apply the load and note the penetration load values.

 Draw the graphs between the penetration (in) and penetration load (in) and find the value

of CBR.

 Draw the graph between the percentage CBR and Dry Density, and find CBR at required

degree of compaction.

3.7 Traffic Volume Survey

Theory: Traffic volume studies provide highway engineers with essential information on the

amount of usage of the road in the highway system, such information is needed for the

determination of design standard, the systematic classification of highway and the

development of program for improvement and maintenance. The fundamental measure for

traffic volume studies is annual average daily traffic (ADT) by using empirically based

relationship, ADT value can be converted to hour volume.

Aim: to provide information needed for the determination of design standards, the systematic

classification of highway and the development program for improvement and maintenance.

Apparatus: pen, paper, clock and ruler

Procedure: standing by the shoulder of the road, physical observation was carried out to

determine the volume of traffic that ply in and out of the road. The number of vehicles

including buses, car, motor cycle, pedal cycle, pickups topper etc was noted and recorded

separately in form of tally or frequency using paper and pen. The observation was carried out

for 12 hours starting from 6am to 6pm to determine the average daily traffic (ADT) of each

32
 vehicle. The observation was repeated for seven days to get the total passenger car equivalent

or unit (PCU) for the week and the result was computed in a tabular form with a standard

conversion of each passenger car equivalent.

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0: Result and Discussion

4.1: Soil Investigation Results

Table 4.1: Natural Moisture Content

Samples Sample A Sample B Sample C
No. Trials 1 2 1 2 1 2
Container No. Z26 Z25 Z18 Z10 Z13 Z12
Wt. of Container (g) 25.3 24.5 22.4 25.2 23.5 30.02
Wt. of Con + Wet soil sample (g) 78.8 78.1 73.6 70.9 71.9 74.92
Wt. of Con + Dry Soil Sample (g) 77.5 76.9 72.8 69.6 70.8 73.19
Wt. of Dry Soil (g) 52.2 52.4 50.4 44.4 47.3 43.17
Wt. of Wet Soil (g) 53.5 53.6 51.2 45.7 48.4 44.9
Wt. of Moisture (g) 1.3 1.2 0.8 1.3 1.1 1.73
Moisture Content (%) 2.43 2.24 1.56 2.84 2.27 3.85
Average Moisture Content (%) 2.34 2.20 3.06

Weight of Dry Soil = (Weight of Container + wet soil Sample) – Weight of Container

Weight of Dry soil = (Weigh of Container + Dry Soil Sample) – Weight of Container

Wet of Wet Soil

Moisture Content (%) = ×100
weight

33
Table 4.2: Sieve Analysis Test Result for Sample A (wet)

Total weight of Dry Sample: 500g

Total weight of Wet Sample: 425.2g
Sieve Size Mass Percentage Mass Passing Percentage
(mm) Retained (g) Retained (%) (g) passing (%)
4.75 8.80 1.96 491.2 98.04
2.36 14.20 2.84 477.0 95.20
1.18 42.60 8.52 434.4 86.68
0.60 88.30 17.66 346.1 69.02
0.30 133.20 26.64 212.9 42.38
0.15 120.80 24.00 92.1 18.38
0.075 16.20 3.24 75.9 15.14
Pan - - -
Total 424.1 84.86

sieve graph
100
90
80
Percentage Passing (%)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10 1 0.1 0.01
Particle size (mm)

Figure 4.1 Sieve Graph for Sample A (wet)

34
Table 4.3: Sieve Analysis Test Result Sample B (wet)

Total Weight of Dry Sample: 500g

Total Weight of Wet Sample: 340.4g
Sieve Size (mm) Mass Retained Percentage Mass Passing Percentage
(g) Retained (%) (g) passing (%)
4.75 9.5 1.9 490.5 98.10
2.36 12.7 2.54 477.8 95.56
1.18 16.1 3.22 461.7 92.34
0.60 46.2 9.24 415.5 83.10
0.30 123.1 24.62 292.4 58.48
0.15 88.3 17.66 204.1 40.82
0.075 43.6 8.72 160.5 32.1
Pan - - -
Total 339.5

Sieve Graph
120

100
Percentage Passing (%)

80

60 Sieve Graph
40

20

0
10 1 0.1 0.01
Particle Size (mm)

Figure 4.2 Sieve Graph for Sample B (wet)

35
Table 4.4: Sieve Analysis Test Result for Sample C (wet)

Total Weight of Dry Sample: 500g

Total Weight of Wet Sample: 371.2g
Sieve Size (mm) Mass Retained Percentage Mass Passing Percentage
(g) Retained (%) (g) passing (%)
4.75 9.1 1.82 490.9 98.18
2.36 16.2 3.24 474.7 94.94
1.18 21.3 4.26 453.4 90.68
0.60 49.2 9.84 404.2 80.84
0.30 113.1 22.62 291.1 58.22
0.15 97.0 19.40 194.1 38.82
0.075 64.4 12.88 129.7 25.94
Pan - - -
Total 370.3 50.26

Sieve Graph
100
90
80
Percentage Passing (%)

70
60
50 Sieve Graph
40
30
20
10
0
10 1 0.1 0.01
Particle Size (mm)

Figure 4.3 Sieve Graph for Sample C (wet)

36
Table 4.5: Liquid Limit Determination Record

Soil Sample: Sample A

Soil Type: Subgrade
Depth of Sample: 1.5m
Natural Moisture Content: 2.34%
Determination No. 1 2 3 4 5
No. of blows 16 31 37 42 47
Container No. Z26 Z25 Z18 Z10 Z13
Weight of Container W2 (g) 25.3 24.5 22.4 25.2 23.5
Weight of Container + Wet soil W1 (g) 41.8 42.1 39.8 49.8 43.6
Weight of container + Oven Dry soil W3 (g) 37.7 37.6 35.2 43.1 38.1
Weight Of Water (W1-W3) (g) 4.1 4.5 4.6 6.7 5.5
Weight of oven dry soil (W3-W2) (g) 12.4 13.1 12.8 17.9 14.6
Water content W 33.06 34.35 35.94 37.4 37.67

Liquid Limit Graph

39
38
Moisture Content (%)

37
36
35
Liquid Limit Graph
34
33
32
31
30
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Number of Blows

Fig 4.4 Liquid Limit Graph for Sample A

Table 4.6: Liquid Limit Determination Record

Soil Sample: Sample B

Soil Type: Subgrade
Depth of Sample: 1.5m
Natural Moisture Content: 2.20%

37
 Determination No. 1 2 3 4 5
No. of blows 18 28 39 41 45
Container No. Z02 Z25 Z18 Z10 Z13
Weight of Container W2 (g) 24.3 24.5 22.4 25.2 23.5
Weight of Container + Wet soil W1 (g) 44.7 42.1 39.8 59.8 43.6
Weight of container + Oven Dry soil W3 (g) 40.8 37.6 35.2 53.1 38.1
Weight Of Water (W1-W3) (g) 3.9 4.5 4.6 6.7 5.5
Weight of oven dry soil (W3-W2) (g) 16.5 14.0 16.3 27.9 16.2
Water content W 23.64 32.14 28.22 24.01 33.95

Liquid Limit Graph 2

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Figure 4.5 Liquid Limit Graph for Sample B

Table 4.7: Liquid Limit Determination Record

Soil Sample: Sample C
Soil Type: Subgrade
Depth of Sample: 1.5m
Natural Moisture Content: 2.34%

Determination No. 1 2 3 4 5

No. of blows 16 29 37 40 45

38
 Container No. Z35 Z17 Z11 Z39 Z18

Weight of Container W2 (g) 24.1 23.8 23.1 15.7 22.4

Weight of Container + Wet soil W1 (g) 52.3 49.2 45.6 47.4 50.2

Weight of container + oven dry sample W3 47.9 44.0 39.5 41.9 43.4
(g)

Weight Of Water (W1+W3) (g) 4.4 5.2 6.1 5.5 6.8

Weight of Oven Dry Soil (W3-W2) (g) 23.8 20.2 16.4 26.2 21.0

Water content W 18.48 25.74 37.20 20.99 32.38

Liquid Limit Graph

40
35
30
Water Content (%)

25
20
15
10
5
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Number of Blow

Figure 4.6 Liquid Limit Graph for Sample C

Table 4.8: Plastic Limit Determination

Samples Sample A Sample B Sample C

39
Determination No. 1 2 1 2 1 2

Container No. Z12 Z36 Z22 Z14 Z15 Z09

Weight of Container W2 (g) 26.8 23.9 23.2 23.5 24.8 24.9

Weight of Container + Wet soil W1 41.3 39.6 42.0 44.2 39.8 43.0
(g)

Weight of container + Oven Dry soil 39.4 38.3 40.3 42.1 37.2 41.7
W3 (g)

Weight Of Water (W1-W3) (g) 1.9 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.6 1.3

Water content W

40
Table 4.9 Compaction Test for Sample A

Mold weight: 3300g

Number of Blows: 27
Weight of Rammer: 2.5g
Density
No of Trial 1 2 3 4 5
Weight of wet soil + mold (g) M1 5200 5400 5500 5300 5250
Weight of wet soil (g) M2 1900 2100 2200 2000 1950
Wet Density (g/cm3) M2/103 1.90 2.10 2.20 2.00 1.95
Dry Density (g/cm3) 1.80 1.95 1.99 1.78 1.71
Moisture Content
Container No. Z25 Z31 Z20 Z24 Z40
Weight of Container (g) 24.60 21.70 23.20 19.75 17.30
Weight of wet soil + Container (g) 65.2 73.5 67.9 71.2 54.7
Weight of Dry Soil + Container (g) 63.1 69.9 63.7 63.4 50.1
Weight of Dry Soil (g) 38.5 48.2 40.0 47.65 32.8
Moisture weight (g) 2.1 3.6 4.2 7.8 4.6
Moisture Content W (%) 5.45 7.47 10.53 12.30 14.02

Compaction Graph
2.05
2.00
1.95
1.90
1.85
1.80
1.75
1.70
1.65
1.60
1.55
4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Figure 4.7 Compaction Graph for Sample A

Table 4.10 Compaction Test for Sample B

Mold weight: 3300g
Number of Blows: 27
Weight of Rammer: 2.5g
Density

41
 No of Trial 1 2 3 4 5
Weight of wet soil + mold (g) M1 5100 5300 5400 5400 5350
Weight of wet soil (g) M2 1800 2000 2100 2100 2050
Wet Density (g/cm3) M2/103 1.80 2.00 2.10 2.10 2.05
Dry Density (g/cm3) 1.69 1.86 1.93 1.90 1.82
Moisture Content
Container No. Z13 Z09 Z02 Z18 Z24
Weight of Container (g) 23.4 24.9 24.1 22.3 19.7
Weight of wet soil + Container (g) 76.2 77.5 78.0 78.2 78.9
Weight of Dry Soil + Container (g) 73.1 73.9 73.6 72.9 72.4
Weight of Dry Soil (g) 49.7 49.0 49.5 50.6 52.7
Moisture weight (g) 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.3 6.5
Moisture Content W (%) 6.24 7.35 8.89 10.47 12.33
Table 4.7 Compaction Test Result

Compaction Graph 2
1.95
1.90
1.85
Dry Density kg/m3

1.80
1.75
1.70
1.65
1.60
1.55
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Moisture Content (%)

Figure 4.8 Compaction Graph for Sample B

Table 4.11 Compaction Test for Sample C

Mold weight: 3300g
Number of Blows: 27
Weight of Rammer: 2.5g
Density
No of Trial 1 2 3 4 5
Weight of wet soil + mold (g) M1 5000 5100 5300 5450 5300

42
 Weight of wet soil (g) M2 1700 1900 2000 2150 2000
Wet Density (g/cm3) M2/103 1.70 1.90 2.00 2.05 2.00
Dry Density (g/cm3) 1.63 1.76 1.81 1.83 1.75
Moisture Content
Container No. Z27 Z26 Z12 Z38 Z36
Weight of Container (g) 24.90 25.5 26.8 24.3 23.9
Weight of wet soil + Container (g) 79.3 72.4 68.6 73.2 75.9
Weight of Dry Soil + Container (g) 77.2 69.0 64.7 68.0 69.6
Weight of Dry Soil (g) 52.3 43.5 37.9 43.7 45.7
Moisture weight (g) 2.1 3.4 3.9 5.2 6.3
Moisture Content W (%) 4.02 7.82 10.29 11.89 13.79

Table 4.7 Compaction Test Result

Compaction Graph 3
1.85

1.80

1.75

1.70

1.65

1.60
3 5 7 9 11 13 15

Figure 4.9 Compaction Test for Sample C

Table 4.12 CBR Test for Sample A (soaked)

Proving factor: 0.0255
Standar Penetratio Load on Plunger C.B.R (%)
d load n (mm) (KN)
(KN)
Top Bottom Top Bottom
0.00 0 0
0.25 2 3
0.50 5 6

43
 0.75 7 9
1.00 12 18
1.25 16 18
1.50 21 18
1.75 24 21
11.30 2.00 27 25
2.25 31 26
13.24 2.50 39 28 7.5 5.4
2.75 42 29
3.00 47 33
3.50 47 36
17.60 4.00 53 36
4.50 56 39
19.96 5.00 62 42 7.92 5.37
5.50 65 56
22.00 6.60 67 56

Average Top and Bottom penetration

CBR at 2.5mm penetration: 6.45%
CBR at 5.0mm penetration: 6.65% CBR VALUE: 7

80
70
Load on Plunger (KN)

60
50
40
30 Top
20 Bottom
10
0
0 0.250.50.75 1 1.251.51.75 2 2.252.52.75 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.56.6
Penetration (mm)

Figure 4.10 CBR Graph for Sample A (soaked)

Table 4.13 CBR Test for Sample B (Soaked)

Proving factor: 0.0255
Standar Penetratio Load on Plunger C.B.R (%)
d load n (mm) (KN)
(KN)
Top Bottom Top Bottom
0.00 0 0
0.25 6 11
0.50 12 16

44
 0.75 14 19
1.00 16 26
1.25 32 39
1.50 39 41
1.75 53 82
11.30 2.00 61 88
2.25 97 106
13.24 2.50 103 112 18.68 20.42
2.75 110 118
3.00 123 121
3.50 129 130
17.60 4.00 136 142
4.50 148 156
19.96 5.00 157 170 20.06 21.72
5.50 166 181
22.00 6.60 172 210

Average Top and Bottom penetration

CBR at 2.5mm penetration: 19.55%
CBR at 5.0mm penetration: 20.89% CBR VALUE: 21%
250

200
Load on Plunger (KN)

150

100
Top
50 Bottom
0

Penetration (mm)

Figure 4.11 CBR Graph for Sample B (soaked)

Table 4.14 CBR Test for Sample C (Soaked)

Proving factor: 0.0255
Standar Penetratio Load on Plunger C.B.R (%)
d load n (mm) (KN)
(KN)
Top Bottom Top Bottom
0.00 0 0
0.25 5 7
0.50 9 11

45
 0.75 12 20
1.00 16 29
1.25 24 36
1.50 33 36
1.75 45 58
11.30 2.00 51 73
2.25 67 82
13.24 2.50 103 91 19.84 17.53
2.75 112 120
3.00 120 139
3.50 141 158
17.60 4.00 150 174
4.50 167 186
19.96 5.00 184 195 23.51 24.91
5.50 192 210
22.00 6.60 204 224

Average Top and Bottom penetration

CBR at 2.5mm penetration: 18.69%
CBR at 5.0mm penetration: 24.21% CBR VALUE: 24%

250

200
Load on Plunger (KN)

150

100
Top
50 Bottom

Penetration (mm)

Figure 4.12 CBR Graph for Sample C (soaked)

Table 4.15 CBR Test for sample A (unsoaked)
Proving factor: 0.0255
Standar Penetratio Load on Plunger C.B.R (%)
d load n (mm) (KN)
(KN)
Top Bottom Top Bottom
0.00 11 .5
0.25 16 1
0.50 22 13

46
 0.75 27 18
1.00 31 24
1.25 35 33
1.50 40 45
1.75 44 59
11.30 2.00 55 68
2.25 62 74
13.24 2.50 71 89 13.67 17.14
2.75 76 101
3.00 82 109
3.50 97 129
17.60 4.00 102 135
4.50 109 143
19.96 5.00 116 156 14.82 19.93
5.50 121 162
22.00 6.60 133 184

Average Top and Bottom penetration

CBR at 2.5mm penetration: 15.41%
CBR at 5.0mm penetration: 17.38% CBR VALUE: 17%

200
180
160
140
Load on Plunger (KN)

120
100
80
60 Top
40 Bottom
20
0

Penetration (mm)

Figure 4.13 CBR graph for sample A (unsoaked)

Table 4.16 CBR Test for Sample B (Unsoaked)

Proving factor: 0.0255
Standar Penetratio Load on Plunger C.B.R (%)
d load n (mm) (KN)
(KN)
Top Bottom Top Bottom
0.00 9 1
0.25 15 8
0.50 17 16

47
 0.75 22 24
1.00 26 31
1.25 31 38
1.50 50 47
1.75 88 56
11.30 2.00 94 86
2.25 112 94
13.24 2.50 243 99 46.80 19.07
2.75 259 110
3.00 264 121
3.50 267 123
17.60 4.00 269 123
4.50 275 123
19.96 5.00 280 139 35.77 17.76
5.50 290 143
22.00 6.00 310 156

Average Top and Bottom penetration

CBR at 2.5mm penetration: 32.94%
CBR at 5.0mm penetration: 26.77% CBR VALUE: 32%
350
300
250
Load on Plunger (KN)

200
150
Top
100
Bottom
50
0

Penetration (mm)

Figure 4.14 CBR graph for Sample B (unsoaked)

Table 4.17 CBR Test for Sample C (unsoaked)

Proving factor: 0.0255
Standar Penetratio Load on Plunger C.B.R (%)
d load n (mm) (KN)
(KN)
Top Bottom Top Bottom
0.00 12 .5
0.25 16 .9
0.50 22 6

48
 0.75 25 12
1.00 36 22
1.25 67 29
1.50 112 38
1.75 118 42
11.30 2.00 129 49
2.25 146 53
13.24 2.50 189 66 36.40 12.71
2.75 210 95
3.00 223 121
3.50 251 138
17.60 4.00 267 144
4.50 269 149
19.96 5.00 276 186 35.26 23.76
5.50 288 193
22.00 6.60 292 212

Average Top and Bottom penetration

CBR at 2.5mm penetration: 24.56%
CBR at 5.0mm penetration: 29.51% CBR VALUE: 30%
350
300
Load on Plunger (KN)

250
200
150
100 Top
50 Bottom

Penetration (mm)

Figure 4.15 CBR Graph for Sample C (unsoaked)

Table 4.18 Summary of Soil Investigation Tests

Samples Natur Sieve Liquid Plastic CBR CBR Compactio Compactio
al Analysis Limit Limit Soaked Unsoake n Test n Test
Moist % (%) (%) (%) d (%) OMC (%) MDD (%)
ure passing
Conte µm
nt (%)
Sample A 2.34 15 33 10.69 7 17 10.30 1.99

49
 Sample B 2.20 32 30 10.13 21 32 8.40 1.94

Sample C 3.06 25 20 12.26 24 30 11.91 1.84

Table 4.19 Summary of Traffic Survey

Vehicle Day1 Day2 Day3 Day4 Day5 Day6 Day7
types
Motor 401 432 368 373 318 365 330
Cycle
Car & 199 343 257 389 259 307 229
Taxi
Buses 32 36 37 43 21 38 6
Medium 3 4 3 8 5 11 0
& heavy
vehicle
Pedal 89 69 79 123 93 95 26
Cycle

50
4.20 Discussion and Analysis of Result

Natural moisture Content: The natural moisture obtained from Sample A, Sample B and Sample C are

2.34%, 2.20% and 3.06%

Sieve Analysis: Inline of clause 6102 and 6122 of the general specification for road and bridges volume II

and in conformation to federal ministry of works and housing specification/reference for subgrade, sub-

base and base, proportion passing BS sieve No.200 (0.075mm) will be considered and the percentage

obtained are as follow for Sample A 15%, Sample B 32% and Sample C 25%.

Liquid And Plastic Limit: the liquid limit obtained for Sample A, B, and C are 33%, 30% and 20%

respectively and plastic limit for the sample are 10.6%, 10.13% and 12.26%.

CBR Test: the CBR Value for the soaked are 7% for sample A, 21% for Sample B and 24% for Sample C

and also for the Unsoaked, 17% for Sample A, 32% Sample B and 30% Sample C.

Compaction Test: The Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) obtained for Sample A is 10.30% Sample B is

8.40% and Sample C is 11.91% and on the Maximum Dry Density (MDD) 1.99g/cm 3, 1.94g/cm3 and

1.84g/cm3 for Sample A, Sample B and Sample C respectively

51
4.20 Conversion of Traffic Count to Passenger Car Equivalent Unit (PCU)

Day Private Car/ Medium/heav Bus Motorcycle Pedal

taxi y vehicle
Day1 199×1=199 3×2=6 32×3=96 401×0.75=300.75 89×0.33=29.37
Day2 343×1=343 4×2=8 36×3=108 432×0.75=324 69×0.33=22.77
Day3 257×1=257 3×2=6 37×3=111 368×0.75=276 79×0.33=26.09
Day4 389×1=389 8×2=16 43×3=129 373×0.75=279.75 123×0.33=40.59
Day5 259×1=259 5×2=10 21×3=63 318×0.75=238.5 93×0.33=30.69
Day6 307×1=307 11×2=22 38×3=114 365×0.75=273.95 95×0.33=31.35
Day7 227×1=227 0×2=0 6×3=18 330×0.75=249.5 26×0.33=8.85
Total 2011 68 639 1941 190

Total PCU = 4849

Determination of average daily traffic ADT

These total volume for the week is 4849 PCU

4849
Average Daily Traffic (ADT) = =693 vehicles per day
7

Determination of design hourly Volume

Design hourly volume is usually 10% of the average daily traffic (ADT)

10
Design hourly volume = ×693=69.3 vehs /day
100

Determination of Commercial Vehicle Volume: this can be defined as any good or public

service vehicle that will have weight of 1500kg (1.5tones). Such vehicle contribute enormously to the

structural damage of the road for design purpose, special consideration is given to the vehicular weight

Table 4.21 Volume of Commercial vehicles

Day Buses Medium/ heavy Vehicle

Day1 32×3=96 3×2=6
Day2 36×3=108 4×2=8
Day3 37×3=111 3×2=6
Day4 43×3=129 8×2=16
Day5 21×3=63 5×2=10

52
 Day6 38×3=114 11×2=22
Day7 6×3=18 0×2=0
Total 639 68

Total volume of commercial vehicle = 639 + 68 = 707

707
Average daily traffic for commercial vehicles (ADT) = =101 comm veh /day
7

Determination of Annual Growth Trend and Design life of the Improved Road.

The annual growth rate of commercial traffic used in most advance country is 3% and is assumed stable

over many years. Design life of 25 year will adopted in this thesis

101
ADT for lane = =50.5=51 vehicle per lane
2

Figure 1. Shows that for present traffic of 250 commercial vehicles per day in each direction and a growth

rate of 3% in each slow lane will carry 3×106 commercial vehicles during design life of 25years

Therefore:

If, 250 = 3

53
 51= X

3−0 3−x
=
250−0 250−51

250(3-x) = 3(250-51)

750-250x = 597

250x = 750 - 597=

153
X= =0.612× 106
250

Table 2 gives type of road conversion factor of 0.45 to obtain the cumulative number of standard axles

from the number of commercial vehicles carried by each slow lane. The number of standard axles carried

during the design life will therefore be:

0.612 ×0.45 × 106 = 0.28 ×106

33+30+20
Average liquid Limit = =27.67 %
3

10.69+ 10.13+12.26
Average Plastic Limit = =11.03 %
3

Plasticity Index = 27.67 – 11.03= 16.64 thus, indicates Sandy clay and the water table will be more than

600mm below final road level and Table 3 indicates design CBR of at least 5% but from tests carried out

7+21+24
Average CBR value = =17 %
3

The pavement structure:

Surface course = 55mm (Fig. 7)

Road base =70mm (fig. 7)

Subgrade =150mm (fig. 6)

54
Figure 4.16: Designed Pavement Structure

55
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 Conclusion and Recommendation

5.2 Conclusion

In line with general specification for road and bridges and federal ministry of works

and housing requirement for subgrade, sub-base and base shows that the test carried

out on the samples obtained from the three failure point of 57km along Zungeru-

Minna road revealed that the road did not fail due to its structural characteristic,

because all the results obtained from the tests carried out conform to the general

specification as required. From this, it can be deduced that the road must have been

design with lighter traffic volume but was later subjected to heavy traffic volume or

the construction materials used then must be of poor quality.

5.3 Recommendation

It recommended the design process and requirement as recommended by this research

work should be used in the reconstruction of this road and also any materials to be

used for the road rehabilitation must be in strict compliance with the specified values .

Adequate drainage system should also be provided to sustain the lifespan of the road

56
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Leornard Gerald A. (1983). “Investigation of failure the 16th Terzaghi’z lecture ASCE

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58
APPENDIX

59